6IMAN
DATABASE CONCEPTS
⤷ Businesses have records that are stored in a
database to be available for decision
makers.
⤷ Good Decision requires Good Information.
⤷ AT&T and Sprint Telecommunications are
two of the top ten largest databases in the
world.
Data
⤷ are classified as raw facts.
⤷ are facts that have not yet been
processed.
⤷ a list with values is called data.
⤷ if the data has been manipulated,
per se the sort function, it will be
called information.
⤷ building block of information.
⤷ Records/Rows are a collection of related
data items.
⤷ Tables are a collection of related
records/tuples.
⤷ Databases are a collection of related tables.
⤷ Entities are fields where the data is
to be extracted from.
Information
⤷ result of processing raw data for its purpose
⤷ it can be as simple as organizing
data.
⤷ information can be used as the foundation
for decision making
Database
⤷ is a computer structure that stores a
collection of:
⤷ End-user data - raw facts of interest
to the end-user.
⤷ Metadata, fields/attributes, or data
about data, the end-user’s data is
integrated and managed.
Database Management System (DBMS)
⤷ collection of programs that manages the
structure and controls access to data.
⤷ is the intermediary (interface) between the
user and the database.
⤷ similar to an operating system
CATEGORIES OF DBMS
Relational
⤷ usually referred to as SQL.
⤷ data is stored in a table structure which are
linked to each other using relationships.
⤷ collection of tables with relationships.
⤷ are single attributes that are being
shared across tables
⤷ are the primary key of one table to
another that would be called a
foreign key.
⤷ Are common columns in two or more
tables
⤷ Oracle, MySQL, SQL Server (Microsoft),
Microsoft Access are popular RDBMS.
⤷ MySQL
⤷ most commonly used RDBMS
⤷ used for warehousing,
e-commerce, and logging
applications.
⤷ most common used for it is
for the purpose of a web.
⤷ Oracle
⤷ an RDBMS that implements
OOP features.
⤷ it is called an
object-relational database
management system
(ORDBMS).
⤷ SQL Server
⤷ RDBMS made by Microsoft.
⤷ Microsoft Access
⤷ is an RDBMS made for
storing reference, reports
and analysis.
⤷ overcomes the limitations
found in Excel.
Non-Relational
⤷ usually referred to as NoSQL.
⤷ does NOT store data in a tabular structure,
no relationships.
⤷ NRDBMS have a specified language for its
use, they do not understand other langaues.
⤷ NoSQL
⤷ MongoDB is a popular NRDBMS.
SQL
⤷ Structured Query Language
⤷ Programming language that the DBMS
processes to manipulate the data.
MySQL
⤷ is a relational database management
system (RDBMS) that uses SQL as its query
language.
⤷ Open-source database system, widely used
for web applications.
Relational Model 1
⤷ Relational Databases
⤷ each entity in own table
⤷ Attributes are fields(columns) in
table
⤷ order of rows and columns are
immaterial (unimportant)
⤷ Repeating groups are not permitted
⤷ Entries with repeating groups are
unnormalized.
⤷ Repeating groups are PartNum,
NumOrdered and QuotedPrice
TYPES OF DATABASES
Number of Users
⤷ Single-user database supports only one
user at a time
⤷ Desktop database: single-user; runs
on PC
⤷ Multi User database supports multiple
users at the same time
⤷ Workgroup and enterprise
databases
Database Location(s)
⤷ Centralized database: data located at a
single site (Ex. HAU)
⤷ Distributed database: data distributed
across several different sites (Ex. Socmed)
Expected type and extent of use
⤷ Most popular way of classifying databases
⤷ Operational database: supports a
company’s day-to-day operations
⤷ Also called transactional or
production database
⤷ Critical day-to-day operations
⤷ Data warehouse: stores data used for
tactical or strategic decisions
EVOLUTION OF FILE SYSTEM DATA PROCESSING
Manual File System
Data Organization Organizes data using
physical documents, folders,
and filing cabinets.
Data Retrieval Manual searching and
retrieval; time-consuming.
Data Limited data independence;
Independence changes can be challenging.
Data Integrity Prone to errors and data
redundancy.
Scalability Limited scalability; physical
constraints.
Security Relies on physical measures
(locks, access control).
Complexity Simple and straightforward,
but limited in capabilities.
 Computerized File System (Flat File System)
Data Organization Organizes data into tables
with rows and columns.
Data Retrieval Basic querying; may involve
scanning entire files.
Data Some separation between
Independence physical and logical data.
Data Integrity Relatively better but still
susceptible to redundancy.
Scalability Faces challenges with larger
datasets.
Security Limited security features.
Complexity More complex than manual
systems but lacks relational
capabilities.
Modern Productivity Tools System
Data Organization Utilizes digital tools for
organization; structure may
vary.
Problems with File System Data Processing
Data Retrieval Improved retrieval using
digital tools; capabilities
vary.
Data Provides a degree of
Independence independence; varies by
tool.
Data Systems
Data Integrity Depends on the tool; may
have built-in checks.
Scalability Scalability depends on the
tool's architecture.
Security Varied security measures
depending on the tool.
Complexity Varies by tool; can range
from simple to moderately
complex.
Database Management System (DBMS)
Data Organization Organizes data into tables
with relationships between
Data Retrieval Advanced querying with
SQL; optimized for efficient
retrieval.
Data Offers significant data
Independence independence, both logical
and physical.
Data Integrity Enforces data integrity
through constraints.
Scalability Scalable to handle growing
data volumes and user
loads.
Security Offers robust security
features (user
authentication, encryption).
Complexity Complex with support for
relational structures,
transactions, and advanced
features.
⤷ Lengthy development times
⤷ Difficulty of getting quick answers
⤷ Complex system administration
⤷ Lack of security and limited data sharing
⤷ Extensive Programming
⤷ consists of logically related data stored in a
single logical data repository (single unit)
⤷ May be physically distributed among
multiple storage facilities
⤷ DBMS eliminates most of file system’s
problems
⤷ Current generation stores data structures,
relationships between structures, and
access paths
⤷ Also defines, stores, and manages all access
paths and components
Database System Environment
⤷ Database system defines and regulates the
collection, storage, management, use of
data
⤷ Five major parts of a database system:
⤷ Hardware: all the system’s physical
devices
⤷ Software: three types of software
required
⤷ Operating system software
⤷ DBMS software
⤷ Application programs and
utility software
⤷ People: all users of the database
system
⤷ System and database
administrators
⤷ Database designers
⤷ Systems analysts and
programmers
⤷ End users
⤷ Procedures: instructions and rules
that govern the design and use of
the database system
⤷ Data: the collection of facts stored in
the database
BUILDING A DATABASE
⤷ Database design determines the structure
of a database.
⤷ design entered into DBMS during
construction
⤷ Database
⤷ Tables
⤷ Data
⤷ design entered into DBMS during
construction
DATABASE STRUCTURE REPRESENTATION
⤷ Rep (RepNum, LastName, FirstName, Street,
City, State, PostalCode, Commission, Rate)
⤷ Customer (CustomerNum, CustomerName,
Street, City, State, PostalCode, Balance, Credit
Limit, RepNum)
⤷ Orders (OrderNum, OrderDate, CustomerNum)
⤷ OrderLine (OrderNum, ItemNum, NumOrdered,
QuotedPrice)
⤷ Item (ItemNum, Description, OnHand,
Category, Storehouse, Price)
Customer RepNum is a foreign key while Rep
RepNum is a primary key.
Primary key - the column or collection of columns
that uniquely identifies a given row in a table.
Structured Query Language (SQL)
Aspects of data management:
1.Data Definition - instructing the DBMS
software on what tables will be in the
database attributes will be in the tables
⤷ In simple words, DDL commands
are used to create or define what a
database, table, attribute and data
to be inputted is.
⤷ eg. CREATE database, CREATE
tables
2. Data Manipulation - refers to the four basic
operations that can and must be performed
on the data stored in any DBMS.
⤷ Data Retrieval
⤷ Data update
⤷ Insertion of New Records
⤷ Deletion of Existing Records
⤷ DML commands are used to
manipulate the tables, attribute, and
data that are already in the database
Syntaxes below
Table and Column Naming Conventions:
⤷ Names cannot exceed 18 characters.
⤷ Must start with a letter.
⤷ Can contain letters, numbers, and underscores.
⤷ Should not contain spaces.
MySQL DataTypes:
⤷ Each column in a table is required to have a
name and data type.
Common Data Types:
⤷ STRING datatypes:
⤷ able to store up to 8,000 characters long
⤷ CHAR(n)
⤷ uses static memory allocation
⤷ Example: CHAR(20)
⤷ It consumes 20 bytes of storage,
regardless of whether the value
is only 10 bytes.
⤷ VARCHAR(n)
⤷ uses dynamic memory allocation
⤷ Example: VARCHAR(20)
 ⤷ The byte value is configured to
be 20, but when the actual value
is only 10 bytes, it utilizes only
the specified 10 bytes.
⤷ DATE and TIME datatypes:
⤷ Default value will be 0?
⤷ DATE
⤷ stores date in the format
YYYY-MM-DD.
⤷ TIME
⤷ stores in the format HH-MI-SS
⤷ DATETIME
⤷ stores in the format
YYYY-MM-DD-HH-MI-SS
⤷ YEAR
⤷ stores year in 2 digits or 4 digit
format, Range 1901 to 2155 in
4-digit format. Range 70 to 69
representing 1970 to 2069.
⤷ NUMERIC datatypes:
⤷ DECIMAL(p, q)
⤷ “p” - Total number of digits
(precision) in the number.
⤷ “q” - Number of digits to the
right of the decimal point
(scale).
⤷ INT
⤷ INT(p)
⤷ NULLS:
⤷ a special value to represent when actual
value is unknown for a column
⤷ should not allow nulls for primary key
columns.
⤷ NOT NULL constraint, the system will
reject any attempt to store a null value
there.
Note: Data Types may have different names in different
databases. And even if the name is the same, the size and
other details may be different.
SQL Constraints:
>NOT NULL constraint
⤷ A special value to represent situation when
actual value is not known for a column
⤷ Ensures that column does not accept nulls
⤷ NULL is the default.
>UNIQUE constraint
⤷ Ensures that all values in column are unique
>DEFAULT constraint
⤷ Assigns value to attribute when a new row is
added to table
>PRIMARY KEY
⤷ A primary key is a field or a combination of fields
in a database table that uniquely identifies each
record in the table.
⤷ Primary key attributes contain both a NOT NULL
and a UNIQUE specification
>FOREIGN KEY
⤷ A foreign key is a field in a database table that is
a reference to the primary key in another table.
⤷ It establishes a link between the data in two
tables, creating a relationship between them.
⤷ The foreign key ensures referential integrity,
meaning that values in the foreign key column
must match values in the primary key of the
referenced table.
Listing Table Rows
SELECT - is used to list contents of table
⤷ Columnlist represents one or more attributes,
separated by commas
⤷ Asterisk can be used as wildcard character to list
all attributes
Saving Table Changes
⤷ Changes made to table contents are not
physically saved on disk until:
⤷ Database is closed
⤷ Program is closed
⤷ COMMIT command is used
Will permanently save any changes made to any table in the
database
Edit/update records
⤷ Used to modify the existing records in a table.
Restoring Table Contents
⤷ ROLLBACK
⤷ Undoes changes since last COMMIT
⤷ Brings data back to pre change values
⤷ COMMIT and ROLLBACK only work with
commands to add, modify, or delete table rows
Deleting table rows
⤷ Deletes table row
⤷ WHERE condition is optional
⤷ If WHERE condition is not specified, all rows
from specified table will be deleted
Syntaxes:
Syntax for LOGGING to a server:
# mysql -u root
Welcome to the database_name monitor… etc etc
To confirm if you have connected:
Server_name [(none)]>
Syntax for CREATING databases: Syntax for FOREIGN KEY:
Server_name [(none)]> CREATE DATABASE Format:
database_name; Server_name [(Student)]> CREATE TABLE table_name2
>(
Example: > column_name data_type(size) constraints,
Server_name [(none)]> CREATE DATABASE Student; > FOREIGN KEY(column_name) REFERENCES
table_name2(column_name)
To confirm if the database has been created: > );
Server_name [(none)]> SHOW DATABASES;
*Displays list of databases* Server_name [(Student)]> CREATE TABLE table_name2
>(
> StudentNum varchar(5),
Syntax for SELECTING a database: > Lastname varchar(50) NOT NULL,
> FirstName varchar(50) NOT NULL,
Server_name [(none)]> USE Student; > Address varchar(50),
Server_name [(Student)]> > City varchar(20),
> Birthday date,
> StudentID varchar(5),
Syntax for DELETING a database: > FOREIGN KEY(StudentID) REFERENCES
table_name2(StudentID)
Note: When deleting a database, have a backup of it.
>);
Server_name [(Student)]> DROP DATABASE;

Syntax for ADDING VALUES:

Syntax for CREATING tables:
Server_name [(Student)]> INSERT INTO table_name
Format: > VALUES(value1, value2, value3);
Server_name [(Student)]> CREATE TABLE table_name
>( Server_name [(Student)]> INSERT INTO table_name
> column_name data_type(size) constraints, (column1, column2, column3)
> ); > VALUES(value1, value2, value3);

Server_name [(Student)]> CREATE TABLE table_name

>( Syntax for SHOWING tables:
> StudentID varchar(5) primary key,
> Lastname varchar(50) NOT NULL, Server_name [(Student)]> SHOW TABLES;
> FirstName varchar(50) NOT NULL,
> Address varchar(50),
> City varchar(20), Syntax for SHOWING columns:
> Birthday date
Server_name [(Student)]> DESC table_name;
>);
Server_name [(Student)]> DESCRIBE table_name;

Syntax for PRIMARY KEY:

Syntax for DROPPING tables:
Format:
Server_name [(Student)]> DROP TABLE table_name;
Server_name [(Student)]> CREATE TABLE table_name
>(
> column_name data_type(size) constraints,
> PRIMARY KEY(column_name) Syntax for ALTERING tables:
> );
Server_name [(Student)]> ALTER table_name;
Server_name [(Student)]> CREATE TABLE table_name
>(
> StudentID varchar(5),
Syntax for ALTERING (adding) columns:
> Lastname varchar(50) NOT NULL, Server_name [(Student)]> ALTER table_name
> FirstName varchar(50) NOT NULL, > ADD column_name datatype constraints;
> Address varchar(50),
> City varchar(20),
> Birthday date, Syntax for ALTERING (modifying) columns:
> PRIMARY KEY(StudentID)
>); Server_name [(Student)]> ALTER table_name
> MODIFY COLUMN
> column_name
>new_datatype constraints;
Syntax for ALTERING (renaming) columns:
Server_name [(Student)]> ALTER table_name
> CHANGE COLUMN old_name to new_name;
Syntax for LISTING table rows:
Server_name [(Student)]> SELECT columnlist
> FROM tablename;
Syntax for SAVING table changes:
> COMMIT[WORK];
Syntax for UPDATING records in a table:
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value 2, …
WHERE condition;
Syntax for RESTORING records in a table:
ROLLBACK;
Syntax for DELETING table Rows:
DELETE FROM table_name
[WHERE conditionlist];
DATA MODELLING AND DATA MODELS
Data Modelling
⤷ process of creating a representation of the
structure and relationships within a
database.
⤷ reduces complexities of database design
Data Models
⤷ specific representation or specification of
how data is organized and related within a
database.
⤷ result of the data modeling process.
Types of data models:
⤷ Conceptual Data Model
⤷ Describes high-level concepts and
relationships, focusing on what needs to
be represented without specifying
implementation details.
⤷ Logical Data Model
⤷ Defines the structure of the data at a
more detailed level, including tables,
fields, and relationships, without
considering specific database
management system details.
⤷ Physical Data Model
⤷ Represents the actual implementation of
the database, including details about
storage, indexing, and other aspects
specific to the chosen database
management system.
Importance of Data Models:
⤷ Data models provide a clear and visual
representation of the structure,
relationships, and constraints within a
database.
⤷ Facilitate interaction among the designer,
the applications programmer, and the end
user
⤷ Data models guide the design process.
DATA MODEL BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS
⤷ Entity: anything about which data are to be
collected and stored
⤷ Attribute: a characteristic of an entity
⤷ Relationship: describes an association
among entities
⤷ One-to-many (1:M) relationship
⤷ Many-to-many (M:N or M:M)
relationship
⤷ One-to-one (1:1) relationship
ONE-TO-MANY RELATIONSHIP
⤷ Let's consider a scenario with two entities:
Department and Employee.
⤷ Business Rule: Each department can have
multiple employees, but each employee
belongs to only one department.
○ A business rule is a brief, precise,
and unambiguous description of a
policy, procedure, or principle within
a specific organization.
Relational Model
 Entity Relationship Diagram
CONSTRUCTING A ONE-TO-MANY RELATIONSHIP
1. Create a table for the "one" side of the
relationship. In this example, it's the Department
table:
2. Create a table for the "many" side of the
relationship. In this example, it's the Employee
table. Include a foreign key that references the
primary key of the "one" table:
Query:
SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE DepartmentID = 1;
Example 2:
MANY-TO-MANY RELATIONSHIP
⤷ Let's consider a scenario with two entities:
Student and Course.
⤷ Business Rule: Each student can enroll in
multiple courses, and each course can have
multiple students.
⤷ Database designers label the relationship
“STUDENT learns COURSE” as M:N
Relational Model:
Entity-Relationship Diagram:
CONSTRUCTING A M-TO-M RELATIONSHIP
1. Create the first table for one side of the
relationship. Student.
2. Create the second table for the other side of
the relationship. Courses.

3. Create the Associative Table

a. Create the third table to manage the
many-to-many relationship. This
table typically includes foreign keys
referencing the primary keys of both
the Student and Course tables.