Republic of the Philippines

PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Teacher Education
Puerto Princesa City

Ed 12: Integrating Course in Education

Subject Area: General Education-Environmental Science

Name of Lecturer/Reviewer: Phabe Y. Tabucalde

LET Competencies:
1. Demonstrate content knowledge and application of the basic concepts of environmental science
2. Demonstrate an understanding of research-based knowledge on the impact of human activities on the
environment; and
3. Show skills in using ICT positively in suggesting ways to utilize and conserve the environment.

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CONTENT
What is Environmental Science?
Environmental Science is the study of the environment, the processes it undergoes, and the problems that arise
generally from the interaction of humans with the environment. It integrates many disciplines, such as chemistry, biology,
physics, hydrology, geology, and meteorology, because a single discipline cannot fully explain the present environmental
conditions on Earth.
When Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) published his thoughts and studies in “An Essay on the Principle of
Population” in 1798, he made many people think about how the population affects the environment. Malthus described
population growth as exponential, and he expressed concern about it. His concern was not about the population itself, but
because it continues to grow, the food supply would not be enough.
Rachel Carson (1907-1964), an American scientist and writer, was disturbed by synthetic chemical pesticides. In
her book Silent Spring (1962), she gravely expressed fears about what the pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
(DDT) was doing to the environment.
Even before DDT and other chemicals were introduced and harmed many of the Earth’s species and the
environment, humankind was already facing other environmental problems. One of these was the scarcity of fuel
resources. History tells us that Earth has always been resilient, and humans have always found solutions. The scarcity of
wood in England in the 17th century led to the discovery of coal. Other energy resources were later discovered.
In 1968, an American ecologist, Garrett Hardin (1915-2003) published an essay called “Tragedy of the
Commons” in the journal Science. He wrote that common property resources belong to no one in particular but are used
and exploited by everyone.
On April 22, 1970, the first Earth Day was celebrated in the United States of America. Many other countries have
joined in celebrating Earth Day every April 22 nd since then. In the Philippines, activities such as tree planting, clean-up
drives, environmental awareness, and concerts that promote caring for the Earth are held.
Environmentalism, sometimes described as “green politics,” has spread worldwide. Environmentalism should be
presented objectively because it may pose unnecessary dangers, particularly when people get carried away by their
emotions.
An environmentalist is an individual who promotes environmental awareness and advocates for environmental
protection. An environmental scientist is a specialist who studies, collects, and analyzes data about environmental
conditions or problems. Ecology is a science that studies the relationships between humans and other organism and their
environment. Ecology is derived from the Greek word oikos, which means “house,” and logos, which means “study.”
Ecological Concepts
A basic ecological unit is an ecosystem, described as a community of organisms within an area where matter
cycles and energy flows. Its living component is known as the biotic component, while its nonliving or abiotic
component includes all the things that help living things survive. The abiotic component in an ecosystem determines the
kind of organisms that thrive in it. A species is made up of the same kind of organisms. A group of inhabitants or

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individuals of the same species in an ecosystem is called a population. Individuals in a population show genetic
diversity- they vary in size, shape, and some genetic makeup, so they do not look the same.
All ecosystems, when combined, make up the Earth’s biosphere or “sphere of life.” The hydrosphere, or the
sphere of the water, is not only present in the bodies of water but also in the other layers. The lithosphere is the layer of
the Earth where the soil is found. From the highest mountain to the deepest sea, different organisms live.
Some Ecological Principle
Individuals in a population have genetic diversity. A population will thrive in a given ecosystem if the level of
abiotic factors falls within the tolerance range applicable to its individuals. This is called the law of tolerance.
There are abiotic factors, physical or chemical, which could limit the growth of a population. The principle is
called the principle of limiting factor. Examples of limiting factors are temperature, sunshine, amount of oxygen, or
nutrients, which could increase or decrease the population in an ecosystem.
Scientific Principles
Three basic scientific laws are very important to understand environmental processes: the law of conservation of matter
and the first and second laws of energy.
The Law of Conservation of Matter
Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794), the Father of Modern Chemistry, did many experiments that proved that matter
could not be created nor destroyed. This is the law of conservation of matter. In his book Environmental Science, G.
Tyler Miller restated this law as “There is really no way.” The word away actually refers to “throw away.”
The Laws of Energy
1. The law of conservation of energy states that energy, like matter, cannot be created or destroyed. The total
amount of energy in the universe is constant. Like matter, energy can be transformed into another kind, but unlike
matter, it cannot be recycled.
2. The second law of energy states that its quality is always degraded when it changes.
The three major reasons why Earth continues to exist are as follows:
1. There is a constant supply of energy from the sun.
2. Matter cycling provides us with the nutrients necessary to live.
3. Gravity keeps these nutrients within our reach.
Matter and Energy Resource Problems
Earth has all the elements necessary for human survival. Fossil fuels and other mineral resources are the best
examples of nonrenewable resources. Earth’s vast crude oil deposits are becoming depleted because crude oil has
become a major energy resource. The effects of its depletion are being felt worldwide. Whenever crude oil prices increase,
the prices of commodities rise as well. People find it difficult to cope with these increases.
Renewable resources are those that could be renewed or whose supply could be replenished in a matter of days,
weeks, months, or years, within our lifetime or even our grandchildren’s lifetime.
1. sunlight
2. Forests, fresh air, freshwater, and many animal and plant species
Sustainable yield is the highest rate at which these renewable resources could be used while making them
available to the next generation.
We have converted many renewable resources into potentially renewable ones.
THE EARLY ATMOSPHERE
Outgassing the release of gases from the hot molten rocks released much water vapor, which later collected into clouds.
The Layers of the Atmosphere
Three key factors sustain life on Earth:

 Solar energy
 Biogeochemical cycles
 Gravity

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Gravity holds most air molecules; they would escape into outer space.
Air pressure
Due to gravity, air molecules are densest at the bottom of the atmosphere. More air molecules mean greater pressure. The
higher the altitude or atmospheric height, the thinner the air becomes. Air pressure decreases with altitude.
The Troposphere

 From the Greek tropein, meaning “to turn” or “change”

 It contains most of the air molecules necessary to sustain life
 The lowest part of the troposphere has a higher temperature due to the greenhouse effect
 Temperature decreases at the higher troposphere. This is the reason why the atmospheric temperature in places at
high altitudes, such as Baguio City in the Northern Philippines, is relatively lower
 The boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere is called the tropopause
The Stratosphere

 above the tropopause is the stratosphere, where the temperature gradually increases
 it is still very cold in the stratosphere as temperature ranges from about -60 ⸰C to about -50 ⸰C
 average temperature is -45⸰C
 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is also more intense, and more ozone molecules are present to absorb the radiation
The region between 20 km and 30 km where ozone concentration is the highest is called the ozone layer. Ozone
absorbs harmful UV, particularly UV-b, which has a shorter wavelength and, thus, is more harmful than UV-a. Most
of the ultraviolet radiation that enters the troposphere is UV-a, while ozone molecules absorb most UV-b radiation.
The Upper Atmosphere

 Above 50 km, temperature initially becomes constant, then starts to decrease again with height as the mesosphere,
the third layer of the atmosphere is reached.
 The boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere is called stratopause.
 The coldest temperature in the atmosphere is at the top of the mesosphere. When the temperature starts to rise
again, the thermosphere is reached.
 The very few air molecules in the thermosphere absorb much solar energy and cause the temperature to rise. This
is the layer where space shuttles orbit and which shows the auroras.
 The upper boundary of the atmosphere is the exosphere, a very thin layer that merges into outer space.
THE AIR WE BREATHE
Oxygen (O2) is especially important to humans: we cannot survive without it. When we inhale, we breathe in oxygen and
other components of air, such as nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases, in small quantities.

Nitrogen ( N 2)
the most abundant gas in the air
it is stable or unreactive, so most of it also comes out as N 2 when we exhale
Nitrogen fixation occurs with the help of lightning, some environment-friendly bacteria in the soil, or the heat from the
combustion
Photosynthesis
It is a chemical reaction in which a plant uses sunlight to convert CO 2 molecule, and water into glucose and
oxygen.
Respiration
In respiration, glucose reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water, which are very important
greenhouse gases
Argon, an element of the noble gas family, makes up about one percent of air. It is a very stable gas- all the argon we
inhale also comes out as argon. Argon is valued for its total inertness or “unreactiveness”
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is a condition in which air quality is degraded due to the presence of a harmful substance, particulate
matter, and biological agents.

 It is a major problem in many densely populated places.

 Point sources of air pollution are readily identified and stationary, such as factory smokestacks. They directly
emit gases into the atmosphere, contributing to poor air quality.

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  Nonpoint sources of air pollution are not easily identified as they are diffused and may not constantly emit
pollutants.
The extent and degree of air pollution in an area depend on several factors, such as:
o Source of pollution
o Rate of emission
o Wind and
o Topography or location

Thermal invasion
If mountains or tall buildings surround the factory, the smoke it releases cannot diffuse or disperse quickly. Cool air
cannot rise because it is trapped by warmer air. It settles in the place and holds more pollutants from industries and other
sources. This process is called thermal invasion.
TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Air pollutants

 are substances whose concentrations in air are high enough to be considered hazardous to human health
 They may be solids, liquids, or gases dissolved in air or dispersed in minute forms.
 They may come from natural or manmade sources.
Primary Air Pollutants
-substances that are released directly into the air by point and nonpoint sources
Secondary Air Pollutants
-are those formed from the chemical reactions of primary pollutants and other substances
-they may be more harmful than primary pollutants

OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS

Combustion of Fuels
Complete combustion means there is enough oxygen gas that reacts with the fuel. If there is insufficient oxygen gas, the
combustion is incomplete; thus, undesirable substances would also be produced.
An allotrope is a form of carbon; other allotropes of carbon are graphite and diamond.
Asphyxiation is a condition in which oxygen does not circulate in our system.
Airborne Pathogens
Airborne pathogens or disease-causing agents are also very harmful air pollutants. Viruses that cause infectious diseases
such as the common cold, influenza, chicken pox, and measles spread into the air through sneezing, coughing, and
physical contact.
Particulate Matter

 is a group of pollutants comprising very small solid or liquid droplets that remain suspended in the air. This
includes soot, pollen, smoke particulates, and dust.
Photochemical Smog
-is formed from chemical reactions which are triggered by sunlight.
-Smog is coined from the words smoke and fog.
-the main component of photochemical smog is ozone, which is a very important gas in the stratosphere but a pollutant in
the troposphere
Ozone Depletion
Ozone depletion or destruction may be most welcome in the troposphere. The depletion of the ozone layer is mainly
caused by certain synthetic substances collectively known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Acid Deposition

-used to be simply called acid rain

-acids are formed when NO and SO gases (oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, respectively) dissolve in water
-When the pH of rain becomes lower than 5.6, it is called acid rain

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-acid in the rain and other forms of precipitation form wet deposition as they remove the oxides of nitrogen and sulfur
from the air by combining with water.
-when NO and SO fall directly into the soil without mixing with atmospheric water, this is called dry deposition

-dry and wet depositions are called acid deposition

Indoor Air Pollution

Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS)
-is a prevalent indoor air pollutant.
-It is a combination of two kinds of smoke
the mainstream smoke, which is exhaled directly by the smoker
The sidestream smoke is emitted between puffs of a burning cigarette or tobacco.

Common Household Chemicals

Other sources of indoor air pollution are common household chemicals like insect sprays, toilet cleaners, moth repellants,
dog sprays and shampoos, air fresheners, colognes, and perfumes.
Global Climate Change
Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are called GHGs because they cause the greenhouse effect: they
allow all the heat to get in but do not let all emitted energy come out, much like the gardener’s greenhouse with its glass
roof and wall.
More GHGs cause the enhanced greenhouse effect in the atmosphere, known as global warming.
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
An international agreement on ozone-depleting substances known as the Montreal Protocol was signed in September
1987. This has significantly diminished the use of CFCs.
The environmental impacts of rising temperatures should be taken seriously. These include the following:
melting of ice caps, as evidenced by the browning of what used to be alpine-capped mountains such as Mt. Kilimanjaro,
the highest mountain in Africa, Mt. Everest, the world’s highest mountain in Tibet; the melting of Greenland and
Antarctica’s huge ice sheet (Glaciers cover about 10% of the Earth’s land surface) which could contribute more to the
rising of sea levels;
Thermal expansion of the seas, resulting in the rise in sea levels;
Bleaching of coral reefs, which could remove nutrients for fish and other marine species and cause loss of biodiversity
and
Climate change has so many dire consequences.
Incoming Solar Radiation
THE SIGNS OF GLOBAL WARMING
 Historical accounts are based on the recorded accounts by people who described environmental situations in the
past.
 Tree ring analysis uses the annual growth rings of trees that may be thicker or thinner, depending on the past
climate.
 Ice core analysis uses ice extracted from the glacier’s depth. The composition of ancient air is analyzed from the
bubbles of ancient air trapped inside.
 Ocean sediment analysis uses remnants of organisms that once lived on land and indicates past temperatures.
 Phenology studies the time of recurring natural phenomena, especially climate. Scientists associate plant stages or
events in the past with their required temperatures.
YOUR ROLE IN GLOBAL WARMING
How can we help stop global warming or at least minimize its effects? Consider the following:
1. Use energy-efficient electrical appliances
2. Use electrical appliances efficiently
3. Do not let any electrical appliance “sleep”
4. Campaign for the use of renewable energy resources
5. Do not throw away garbage
The “Ozone Hole”
- The ozone hole is not exactly a hole but a much thinner ozone layer.

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 - It is made up of ozone molecules that are gaseous and are spread out over the stratosphere approximately 20 km
to 30 km from the Earth’s surface. On average, ozone concentration is highest near the poles and lowest over the
equator.
Consequences of Ozone Layer Depletion
Since the 1980s, when stratospheric ozone depletion was monitored, increased environmental and health problems linked
to UV radiation exposure have been observed. Some of these are:
1. Increased incidence of skin cancer cases, particularly in Caucasians;
2. Increased incidence of cataracts, which destroy the lens of the eye and could lead to blindness;
3. Increased immune system deficiency;
4. More frequent recurrence of photochemical smog in urban and industrialized areas, which exacerbates air
pollution and
5. Enhancement of the effects of global warming.
The Montreal Protocol
In 1985, a group of scientists and government representatives from different countries met in Vienna, Austria, to discuss
the development of an international treaty that would address ozone layer depletion. That meeting resulted in the Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. Seeing the damaging nature of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) in
the stratosphere, 24 countries signed what came to be known as the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer on September 17, 1987, in Montreal, Canada. Twenty years later, 191 countries, including the Philippines,
have signed the Protocol. These countries agreed to limit if not completely stop, the release of ODS to very low levels that
would eventually allow the ozone layer to recover. The Protocol includes, among others, the total ban on producing CFCs
by 2010 and HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons) by 2050.
Promoting Safety Against UV
1) Wear sunglasses, hats, and protective clothing during midday.
2) Stay under the shade whenever possible.
3) Apply sunblock lotion. Those with high SPF (sun protection factor)
4) Plan outdoor activities. Avoid going out in the sun from 10:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m., when UV radiation is higher.
5) Hel protect the ozone layer by not using ODS consumer products. Be an ozone layer advocate.
THE EARTH’S WATER BUDGET
About 97% of the water on earth is saltwater, while freshwater makes up the remaining 3%. About 2.59% of the
freshwater is in the form of ice caps and glaciers and in the deep groundwater, which is difficult, if not impossible, to
access. Less than 0.5% of freshwater is readily available as soil moisture, surface water in lakes and streams, and water
vapor.
PROPERTIES OF WATER
1. Water has hydrogen bonds
2. Water boils at 100C and freezes at 0C at sea level
3. Water has a high heat capacity
4. Water is polar
5. Water is transparent
6. The density of ice is lower than the density of liquid water

THE WATER CYCLE

Water molecules that evaporate from oceans, land, plants, and other sources through evaporation and transpiration for
plants) accumulate in the atmosphere and condense to form different types of clouds. Nimbus clouds deliver rainwater to
the Earth’s surface through precipitation.
Rainwater is distributed in different ways, such as infiltration, percolation, absorption, and runoff.
Infiltration is the process by which water enters the soil.
In Percolation, water moves further into the soil and permeable rocks until it reaches the aquifer or the groundwater
storage areas.
Rainwater may also be absorbed by plants from their roots and distributed to stems and leaves through capillary action.
Water evaporates from the leaves of plants through transpiration. Much water from precipitation ends up as runoff:
water flows in downslope surface movement, bringing it back to the rivers, lakes, or seas.

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SOURCES OF WATER
Water in rivers, lakes, seas, and reservoirs is considered surface water.
The water below the ground through voids and permeable rocks makes up groundwater. Groundwater flows through
permeable rock materials called aquifers.
Impermeable rock materials found underground are called aquitards, as these retard or prevent water flow.
Strictly speaking, only the underground water that fills the saturated (filled with water) area is called groundwater. The
upper limit of this saturated area is called the water table. Above this is the unsaturated area called the vadose zone,
whose water is known as vadose water. The depth of the water table varies from area to area.
Groundwater from fissures or cracks in the aquifer’s solid impermeable base naturally surfaces out of the ground is called
spring.
WHAT MAKES SEAWATER SALTY
Water in the seas and oceans is called saltwater because it contains more dissolved solids than fresh water. The region
where freshwater mixes with seawater is called an estuary.
WATER AND ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
Evapotranspiration is coined from the word evaporation and transpiration.
EL NIÑO – LA NIÑA PHENOMENA
There is a major El Niño event in the Philippines when the summer months are extended from March to July. El Niño
causes decreased precipitation, or none, resulting in critical water levels in dams or reservoirs. It also results in parched
farmlands and water rationing for consumers. These have dire economic and environmental consequences.
In meteorology- the science of climate and weather, this condition is known as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
While there is an ENSO event in South America, long rainy days are experienced on the other side of the world, including
the Philippines. We call this condition La Niña, whose characteristics contrast with ENSO. An ENSO event normally lasts
from a few weeks to months. Longer and stronger ENSO events have many adverse economic and environmental
consequences.
WATER PROBLEMS
Sea water intrusion is the contamination of freshwater with saltwater.
Land subsidence is the depression of the land above an area where massive water extraction leaves voids underground.
Water scarcity occurs in places surrounded by the seas.
A floodplain is a flat land beside rivers and streams that get submerged when surging water breaks through river banks.
INDICATOR OF WATER QUALITY
Dissolved oxygen is the amount of diatomic oxygen dissolved in water.
Biological oxygen demand is different from DO. It refers to the number of oxygen microorganisms in water need to
survive.
Total suspended solids indicate the turbidity of water. High TSS means high turbidity, which results in lower sunlight
penetration in the water body, reducing the ability of underwater plants to photosynthesize. It results in a decrease in DO.
Total dissolved solids measure the amount of dissolved contaminants in the water. Some chemicals are harmful to
species.
Coliform bacteria are microorganisms that come from animal dung or human feces. These species indicate that the water
is contaminated with fecal matter, usually the source of pathogens or disease-carrying organisms. A high fecal coliform
count indicates very poor water quality.
WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is when water becomes unfit for its intended use.
The water that became polluted with these organic remains went through self-purification, a natural process of cleaning
up the water through the action of microorganisms and other natural processes.
More Water Pollutants
Lead and Mercury
Lead (Pb) is a heavy metal that is a neurotoxin, a poison that damages the central nervous system.
The lead concentration in household water is higher in areas that use lead in water pipes. In the old plumbing system, lead
is used in pipes to prevent corrosion.
Oil

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Oil is one of the most common problems the industrialized world encounters involving its bodies of water. The oil
prevents the entry of oxygen, which is important for the respiration of many aquatic species into the water. It coats the
gills of fish, which could lead to suffocation. Oil on land can also affect other species, such as birds whose feathers
become sticky and heavy. Cleaning oil-covered surfaces in soil and water is a major challenge for scientists,
environmentalists, and others.
Nitrates and Phosphates
Too much nitrates and phosphates in water could lead to a condition called eutrophication. Nitrates and phosphates are
used in fertilizers and become part of agricultural runoff. Phosphates may also be found in detergents used by households
for cleaning.
Acids
Another condition that leads to massive fish kill is the high concentration of acids in water due to acid rain or the
discharge of acidic wastewater from industries. Many aquatic species have a low tolerance for acidic water.
Persistent Organic Pollutants
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are stable compounds that persist or stay in the environment long. They are found not
only in water but also in soil and air. POPs are very toxic to humans and animals. Dioxins are considered the most
carcinogenic compounds.
Dead Rivers
A biologically dead river refers to that which can no longer support important aquatic species due to the depletion of
oxygen and the deterioration of its natural conditions.
Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution, or heat pollution, happens when hot wastewater, usually from industrial or power plants, is released in
rivers or lakes. It does not make the water dirty, but it has harmful effects. With high temperatures, dissolved gases such
as oxygen leave the water. Consequently, fish and other organisms would lack oxygen and suffocate.
Mine Spills
Spills from mine tailings also pollute our bodies of water. tailings are from the wastewater produced from mineral ore
processing and collected in a large catchment basin. When the basin is full, it spills and pollutes the rivers in the area.
These have affected people’s health and damaged aquatic ecosystems.
MANAGING THE EARTH’S WATER
Protecting Watersheds
A watershed is a region where every drop of surface runoff drains towards a common stream, river, or water. it is a
drainage basin that usually becomes a source of domestic water.
Water Treatment
Water treatment facilities are built to ensure the quality of drinking water. physical and chemical methods make water
potable and safe for consumption.
Is Bottled Water Safer?
When buying bottled water, consider the different qualities necessary for drinking water. Clean, potable water usually
tastes sweet, but its sweetness is associated with clean, fresh water and not sugar. Distilled water tastes flat. Spring water
from groundwater tastes different because of its compassion- it has more minerals depending on its source.
The water treatment facility also uses additional physical and chemical processes, which require additional instruments
and equipment to clean the water.
Wastewater Treatment
Consider the following list to know how you can contribute to solving these problems.
1) Practice good sanitation
2) Campaign for clean, safe water
3) Help conserve water
4) Protect our water resources

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Mineral Resources
Minerals -are elements or compounds which are solid, inorganic, and naturally occurring.
-They are often found combined with other substances like ores.
Mineral resources include all those useful materials which could be derived from the rock cycle. These include the solid,
inorganic minerals and the liquid and gaseous resources extracted from the Earth’s crust.
There are various ways by which mineral resources are extracted from the crust. Those that are deeply buried are dug out
through subsurface mining, while the shallow deposits are removed through surface mining.
Surface mining is used for mineral deposits, which are easier to extract from the crust. There are different types of surface
mining:
 Open-pit mining or quarrying – is the method by which limestone, sandstone, granite, and marble are removed
from the resource site.
 Dredging –using chain buckets or draglines to scoop out underwater minerals from the ocean or sea bed.
 Strip mining – large machines such as bulldozers or power shovels are used to remove the layer of rocks and soil
that cover the mineral deposits in strips.
Mining in the Philippines
The mining industry helps uplift the country’s economy. However, it also causes environmental degradation, which
includes the large-scale disruption of the ecosystems within the mine site due to the following:
 Displacement of indigenous species due to habitat destruction;
 Increased soil erosion;
 Increased sedimentation of lakes and streams;
 Contamination of the water supply;
 Toxic emissions in the atmosphere due to ore processing and
 Loss of lives- aquatic, wildlife, and humans.
Land
The word land has many definitions.
Sovereignty refers to the independence of a country to rule over its people and manage its sources.
Problems Concerning Soil and Land
Erosion transfers soil particles and their other components into another place. Wind and water are two major agents that
bring about these transfers. Surface water is a very good agent of soil erosion.
Sedimentation is one of the leading causes of pollution of bodies of water. As rivers and lakes accumulate sediments,
their depth decreases. This affects the survival of aquatic species.
Overgrazing occurs when the livestock grazing in grassland is beyond the carrying capacity. It is a primary cause of
desertification.
Salinization results when the concentration of salt ions builds up in the soil.
This may help prevent salinization but could also lead to another condition called waterlogging. In this case, the soil
becomes oversaturated with water. The plant roots are submerged in water in water, and the plants eventually die.
Leaching is the process of removing or extracting the components of a soluble material with the help of a solvent, which,
in soil, is usually water.
A protected area is classified as in a critical condition that, if left alone, will become ecologically or environmentally
degraded.
A watershed area where water collects and drains towards a reservoir is usually protected.
Encroachment refers to the intrusion of individuals into private or government lands. We call this squatting.
SOURCES OF ENERGY
Water, wind, solar, and geothermal are renewable energy resources.

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The first law of energy, or energy conservation, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. When energy is used,
such as electricity, it is only transformed into different forms of energy, such as light, sound, or heat. The total amount of
energy in the process is constant; only the form of energy changes.
The second law of energy tells us about the degradation of energy quality. As energy changes from one form to another,
its quality is degraded.
PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY
The electrical energy produced by the generator is transmitted through strong metallic wires made of good conductors of
electricity and covered with good insulating materials. We call these wires electric cables or transmission lines.
However, before electricity gets transmitted through the cables, it has to pass through a “ step-up” transformer, which
boosts the electrical voltage to about 400 000 volts (v). This large voltage is necessary because the electricity must travel a
long distance.
A transformer can be attached to an electric post or pole near the houses. We call this a “ step-down” transformer
because it reduces the electric voltage to 220 V, used in our homes.
Electricity from the power plant enters our homes through the power distribution grid.
The meters measure the electricity consumption in watts (W). This is a very small quantity, so we use kilowatts (kW)
instead. One kilowatt is equal to 1000 watts. The watt or kilowatt rating is usually indicated on electrical devices such as
light bulbs and other appliances. It tells us how much electricity is needed to make the device run. A 50-watt bulb gives
dimmer light than a 100-watt bulb. When a MERALCO employee reads our meter, he reads the kilowatt hours of our
electrical consumption. The kilowatt-hour or kW-h equals the number of kilowatts used times the hours used. Electric
meters are read monthly.
In the Philippines, the electric power industry is made up of three major sectors:
 Generation
 Transmission
 Distribution
CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES
COAL
Coal was the first fossil fuel to be discovered. It formed over geologic time (millions of years) from buried plant and
animal remains. The four stages in the formation of coal are:
 Peat contains much moisture and is not classified as coal yet
 Lignite is a sedimentary rock that is also called brown coal
 Bituminous is another sedimentary rock and is a soft type of coal
 Anthracite is a very good type of coal because it gives off a good amount of heat
CRUDE OIL
Crude oil or petroleum is produced from the fossils of plants and animals buried over millions of years under high
temperatures and intense pressure.
- It comprises hydrocarbons (compounds that contain only hydrogen and carbon atoms) and some amounts of
sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen.
- It is buried deep underground and may even be found underneath ocean floors.
- It is a very thick, dark liquid that undergoes a complex refining process to produce different important substances
Refining crude oil produces some important substances called petrochemicals. Two of these are diesel and gasoline,
used in many industries. The transport industry relies heavily on these fuels.
NATURAL GAS
- is a mixture of light hydrocarbons whose carbon atoms range from 1 to 4, namely, methane, ethane, propane, and
butane.
- It contains 85% to 90% methane and some hydrogen sulfide, a common impurity in fossil fuel.
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY RESOURCES
Alternative or nonconventional energy resources are usually renewable resources with less environmental impact.
1. SOLAR ENERGY

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 Photovoltaic or solar cells have been invented to absorb sunlight and convert it into electricity.
2. WIND POWER
3. Wind is moving air. The kinetic energy produced by moving air can be harnessed to produce electricity. Humans
have used the wind to make work easier. Windmills were used to mill grains. “Windmills” are now called wind
turbine generators, or wind turbines, as the blades or rotors are attached to a turbine and generator that convert
mechanical energy into electricity.
4. Geothermal energy is heat from the Earth. It originates from the mantle and slowly moves toward the surface. A
thermal gradient (difference in temperatures) between the surface and the deeper layers of rock and soil can be
tapped to provide heat and electricity in many countries.
5. HYDROPOWER-is the energy derived from water. Using hydropower over conventional types of energy
resources has several advantages. The efficiency and lifespan of hydroelectric power plants are so high.
6. Nuclear fission is the reaction that happens in atomic bomb explosions. The energy released from the fission
reaction is tremendous. Much of this energy is a form of high-temperature heat.
7. Biomass comes from plant and animal resources. Unlike fossil, however, it does not have to go through millions
of years of biological and chemical changes to be used as an energy resource. Energy biomass is harnessed from
wood, biological waste, and plant-derived alcohol fuels.
8. Biodiesel, a petroleum-biofuel blend, could provide a cheaper alternative to a pure petroleum fuel resource. Fewer
air pollutants are released into the environment when the fuel blend is burned.
SOLID WASTES
The term garbage is often used synonymously with the word “trash,” which is defined in the dictionary as any material
which has no value or use
Based on DENR Administrative Order 2001-34 or the Implementing Rules and Regulations of R.A. 9003, or The
Ecological Solid Waste Management Act, solid wastes refer to “all household, commercial waste, nonhazardous
institutional, ports/harbor and industrial waste, street sweepings construction debris, agricultural waste, and other
nonhazardous/ nontoxic waste.”
Biodegradable wastes are those that bacteria and other organisms can decay, while those that cannot undergo bacterial
decay are considered non-biodegradable.
INTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT
“Reduce, Reuse, Recycle,” or the 3Rs, is synonymous with the zero-waste approach.
Aside from the zero-waste approach, environmentalists promote integrated waste management (IWM). In IWM, several
methods of handling are followed by waste segregation, separating trash into biodegradable and nonbiodegradables.
Organic wastes are often made into compost, a natural fertilizer mixed with soil materials and rich in nutrients ideal for
plant growth. The process of composting can be made faster by using cultured bacteria.
Vermicomposting, which uses earthworms, can also improve soil quality. Earthworms digest organic waste faster.
However, not all biodegradable wastes should be composted.
INCINERATION OF GARBAGE
Under Republic Act 9003, or The Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of the Philippines, open burning of
garbage is prohibited to ensure the elimination of toxic emissions in the atmosphere.
Incineration uses high-temperature furnaces or ovens, which are strictly controlled, monitored, and maintained. When
garbage is incinerated, its volume is reduced by as much as 75%.
SANITARY LANDFILL
R.A. 9003 mandates using sanitary landfills as final disposal sites for solid waste.
HAZARDOUS WASTES
Hazardous wastes present a threat to human health and the environment.
Hospital and mining wastes, whether solid or liquid, are classified as hazardous. They are considered health hazards
because they contain toxic or disease-causing components, which may also be:
o Carcinogenic –substances that can cause cancer.
o Teratogenic/ teratogens – are those which can cause birth defects, such as radiation and the German measles virus.

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 o Mutagenic/mutagens - substances or ionizing radiation that can cause mutation or changes in cellular DNA. Exposure to
mutagens could genetically change the sperm or egg cells and cause conditions, for example, Down Syndrome, that could be
passed on to future offspring.

Hazardous products permeate most households. Common hazardous household products can be classified as follows:
1) Flammable or combustible – those that can be easily set on fire, such as acetone, paint solvents, and kerosene.
2) Explosive – those which can explode or detonate due to shock (accidental fall), such as pressurized containers of
insecticides and compressed gas and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) tanks.
3) Corrosive – those that can damage skin tissues or other materials. Toilet bowl cleaners like muriatic acid and drain
cleaners like caustic soda are very harmful when in direct skin contact.
4) Toxic – those that can cause injury or death through ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact. Insecticidal sprays and
bleaching agents are two common examples.

HANDLING HAZARDOUS WASTES

Hospital wastes are usually segregated according to type:
 Infectious – are those used in medical treatment like cotton swabs, gauzes, or bandages.
 Sharps – include used syringes, needles, or blades. These are chemically treated or disinfected before being disposed of or, if
possible, incinerated in the hospital itself.
 Radioactive wastes –materials used in X-rays and cancer treatment are stored securely in a hospital facility until enough time
has lapsed and the radiation, they give off is not as harmful as initially, after which it is disposed of in a landfill.
 Biodegradable and non-biodegradable hospital wastes are non-infectious wastes. Thus, they could be mixed with ordinary
garbage.

To protect developing countries from such hazardous activity, 170 countries ratified an international agreement known as
the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal in
Basel, Switzerland, in 1992. Its main objectives are:
1) To control and minimize hazardous waste generation,
2) To ensure the environmentally safe disposal of hazardous wastes and
3) To ensure disposal of such wastes is near the generation source.

The Basel Convention requires exporters of hazardous wastes to get a permit from the receiving country. However,
despite this agreement, the illegal export and import of hazardous wastes continue.
References:
Ahrens, C. Daniel. Essentials of Meteorology, 2nd ed. Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1998.
American Chemical Society. Chemistry in Context, 5th ed. McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2006.
Baarschers, William H. Eco-facts, and Eco-fiction. Rutledge, London, 1996.
Botkin, Daniel B., and Edward A. Keller. Environmental Science 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.
Convention on Biological Diversity, Biodiversity and Climate Change. United Nations Environment
Programme, Canada, 2007.
DOE Portal. Official website of the Philippine Department of Energy. www.doe.gov.ph.
Environment Canada. “Ozone Science 2007, a Canadian Contribution to the 20th Anniversary of the Montreal Protocol.”
Environmental Center of the Philippines Foundation. Environment and Natural Resources Atlas of the Philippines, 1998.
Environmental Management Bureau. “National Air Quality Status Report (2003-2004).” DENR, Quezon City.
Environmental Management Bureau. “National Water Quality Status Report 2001-2005.” DENR, Quezon City.
Hirschhorn, Joel S., and Kirsten U. Oldenburg. Prosperity without pollution. Van Norstrand Reinhold, New York, 1991.
McKinney, Michael L., and Robert M. Schoch. Environmental Science: Systems and Solutions. Jones and Bartlett Publisher, 1998.
Miller, G. Tyler Jr. Environmental Science, 9th ed. Brooks/Cole Thomas Learning Canada, 2003.
Tillery, Bill W., and Eldon D. Enger. Integrated Science, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2004.
UN Ozone Secretariat. “Achievements in Stratospheric Ozone Protection, Progress Report 1987-2007.” United Nations Environment Programme.
Villarin, Jose T., SJ (editor). “Disturbing Climate.” Manila Observatory, 2001.
Watts, Richard J. Hazardous Wastes: Sources, Pathways, and Receptors. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998.
www.ozzyozone.org. United Nations Environment Programme, 2005.
WWF-Philippines. www.wwf.org.ph

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