Journal Pre-proof

Research on energy consumption of injection molding machine driven by five

different types of electro-hydraulic power units

He Liu, Xiaogang Zhang, Long Quan, Hongjuan Zhang

PII: S0959-6526(19)33225-1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118355
Article Number: 118355
Reference: JCLP 118355

To appear in: Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date: 18 May 2019

Accepted Date: 08 September 2019

Please cite this article as: He Liu, Xiaogang Zhang, Long Quan, Hongjuan Zhang, Research on
energy consumption of injection molding machine driven by five different types of electro-hydraulic
power units, Journal of Cleaner Production (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118355

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© 2019 Published by Elsevier.

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Research on energy consumption of injection molding machine driven by five

different types of electro-hydraulic power units

He Liu, Xiaogang Zhang*, Long Quan, Hongjuan Zhang

Key Lab of Advanced Transducers and Intelligent Control System of Ministry of

Education, Taiyuan University of Technology, 030024 Taiyuan, China

Abstract

Injection molding machines consume a large amount of energy in the production

process, during which the power units are the most significant factor. In order to

understand the energy consumption of injection molding machines driven by different

types of electro-hydraulic power units, the energy efficiencies of the asynchronous

motor, the servo motor and the hydraulic pump under different working conditions are

firstly analyzed. Then, the power consumptions of five different types of electro-

hydraulic power units during different injection molding stages are compared and

analyzed. Finally, the energy consumptions of the injection molding machine during a

working cycle driven by these five power units are tested and analyzed respectively.

The results indicate that the power unit using a fixed displacement pump driven by an

asynchronous motor has the largest energy consumption. Compared to this power unit,

the energy consumptions of other units, i.e. a fixed displacement pump driven by a

speed variable asynchronous motor, a variable displacement pump driven by an

asynchronous motor or driven by a speed variable asynchronous motor, and a fixed

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 0351-6014551. E-mail address: zxg4458@163.com

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displacement pump driven by a servo motor, can be reduced by 47%, 69%, 78% and

87% respectively.

Keywords: Electro-hydraulic power unit; Energy consumption; Injection molding

machine; Production cost.

1. Introduction

Plastic products are widely used in every aspect of our daily life, among which,

around 70-80% are manufactured by the injection molding process. With the increasing

demand for plastic products, the total amount of injection molding machines (IMMs) is

also increasing annually. According to a survey, the market size of IMMs in 2018 was

$8.63 billion globally. It is expected to reach $10.40 billion in 2025 (QYResearch,

2019). Significant energy waste can be expected during the production process due to

the low energy efficiency of IMMs. Statistics show that IMMs consume 6.68×108 GJ

energy every year globally (Thiriez and Gutowski, 2006; Iwko et al., 2018), which

equivalent to 1.86×1011 kW·h of electricity. Usually, 1 ton of coal can generate 3000

kW·h of electricity and emit 2.7 tons of CO2. Therefore, IMMs consume 6.18×107 tons

of coal and emit 1.67×108 tons of CO2 every year globally, which deviates from the

requirements of cleaner production seriously.

Cleaner production of IMMs can be achieved by reducing the cooling time (Fu and

Ma, 2018), optimizing control strategies (Quan and Liu, 2006; Cho et al., 2009),

changing process parameters (Mianehrow and Abbasian, 2017; Lucchetta et al., 2018)

and other approaches. However, the most significant environmental impact factor of the

injection molding process is electricity consumption (Elduque et al., 2015), which is

directly affected by the power unit. At present, there are five different types of electro-

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hydraulic power units commonly used in hydraulic equipment. The first one consists of

a fixed displacement pump driven by an asynchronous motor and a pressure-flow

proportional control valve (AM-FP). The output pressure of the pump always follows

the load pressure. Compared with the power unit which consists of an electric motor, a

fixed displacement pump, and a relief valve, 15-25% of electricity can be saved,

whereas there are still significant throttle and relief losses (Liu et al., 2007). The second

one consists of a fixed displacement pump driven by a speed variable asynchronous

motor and a pressure-flow proportional control valve (SVAM-FP). By changing the

motor speed, the output flow of the pump is slightly higher than the load demand, which

reduces the relief loss and the idling energy consumption (Englander and Remley,

1994). Ambs and Frerker (1998) compared the energy consumptions of an IMM driven

by the first and second power units, and 20-50% energy can be saved by adopting the

second one. The third power unit is a variable displacement pump driven by an

asynchronous motor (AM-VP). By adjusting the displacement of the hydraulic pump,

the output flow will match the load demand, so that the relief loss can be eliminated.

Robeller (1995) studied a pressure-flow proportional control variable displacement

pump (P/Q pump) running at a constant speed, and the results show that the response

speed of this power unit is similar to that of the valve control system. However, the

research done by Tašner et al. (2014) shows that the power unit has idle energy

consumption owing to the motor’s constant speed, and the variable displacement pump

is also inefficient during the small displacement operation period. The research done by

Lux and Murrenhoff (2016) shows that the efficiency peak of the pump is just 60% at

25% displacement. The fourth power unit is a variable displacement pump driven by a

speed variable asynchronous motor (SVAM-VP). The output flow can be changed by

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adjusting the motor speed or the pump displacement. Variable displacement control

could eliminate the relief loss, variable speed control could reduce the energy

consumption of the idle cycle, and the combination of those two technologies could

make the motor working in the high-efficiency area as far as possible, and avoid the

pump working in small displacement scenario (Tašner and Lovrec, 2012; Lovrec,

2017). The research done by Willkomm et al. (2016) shows that 20% energy

consumption can be reduced by adopting the fourth power unit compared to the pure

speed control or the pure displacement control. Also, this power unit can satisfy

different users’ needs, such as the highest energy efficiency, the fastest dynamic

response or the lowest noise. Ge et al. (2017) proposed a control strategy to drive

excavators, which can achieve multi-speed regulation and continuous displacement

control. The energy efficiency of the system can be increased by as much as 20% at the

premise of guaranteeing the dynamic characteristics. The fifth one is a fixed

displacement pump driven by a servo motor (SM-FP). As the fixed displacement

pump’s energy efficiency is higher than that of the variable displacement pump, and the

servo motor’s energy efficiency is higher than that of the asynchronous motor, therefore

the efficiency of this power unit is higher than that of AM-VP under partial load

Helduser (1999). The research done by Takaku et al. (2008) also proves this point. The

research done by Imamura et al. (2008) shows that, compared with the IMM driven by

AM-VP, the energy consumption of the IMM driven by SM-FP can be reduced by

41.5% in a dry cycle. Chiang et al. (2009) proposed a closed-loop pump control system

driven by a servo motor to control the IMM, which could eliminate the throttle loss

completely, achieve high energy efficiency, and high response speed.

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From the above analysis it can be concluded that, although there are some available

research works concerning each of the five different electro-hydraulic power units

mentioned above, there is still a lack of comprehensive analysis and comparison among

them. The differences in energy consumptions and production costs among these

various power units are still not clear. Therefore, the energy consumptions and

production costs of the same IMM driven by the five different types of electro-hydraulic

power units mentioned above to produce the same plastic products are compared and

analyzed. The results provide a basis for researchers to optimize the electro-hydraulic

power unit design, and for users to choose the IMMs driving scheme reasonably from

the perspectives of cleaner production and cost recovery.

2. Theoretical analysis

In this section, firstly, the system structure and production process of the IMMs are

introduced. Secondly, the energy efficiency of the electric motor and the hydraulic

pump under different working conditions are theoretically analyzed. Finally, the power

consumptions of different types of electro-hydraulic power units at different injection

molding stages was compared and analyzed. The methodology flow chart is shown in

Fig. 1. Through theoretical analysis, the reasons for the high energy consumption of the

IMMs during the production process can be clarified, and which stages have energy

saving potential can be known. This can provide theoretical guidance for tests.

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Injection molding machine Electro-hydraulic power unit

System structure Energy efficiency of electric motor

Production process Energy efficiency of hydraulic pump

Power consumption of different power units at different workings stages

Provide theoretical guidance for tests

Fig. 1. Methodology flow chart.

2.1 System structure and production process

IMM is a common equipment used to produce plastic products in the industry. Its

system structure is shown in Fig. 2. The electro-hydraulic power unit mainly consists of

an electric motor and a hydraulic pump. The actuator mainly consists of a clamping

cylinder, an ejector cylinder, a carriage cylinder, an injection cylinder, and a hydraulic

motor. During the production process, the electric motor drives the hydraulic pump to

supply oil to the hydraulic system. The flow is distributed through the hydraulic valves

to the actuators to actuate the hydraulic cylinder and hydraulic pump. There are three

configurations in Fig. 2, which can achieve five different types of electro-hydraulic

power units: 1) AM-FP, 2) SVAM-FP, 3) AM-VP, 4) SVAM-VP, and 5) SM-FP. The

first configuration consists of an inverter, an asynchronous motor, and a fixed

displacement pump. And a pressure-flow proportional control valve (P/Q valve) is used

to control the pressure and flow of the system. When driving without the inverter, the

power unit is AM-FP, and when driving with the inverter, the power unit is SVAM-FP.

The second configuration consists of an inverter, an asynchronous motor, and a

pressure-flow proportional control variable displacement pump (P/Q pump). When

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driving without the inverter, the power unit is AM-VP, and when driving with the

inverter, the power unit is SVAM-VP. The third configuration consists of a driver, a

servo motor and a fixed displacement pump, and the power unit is SM-FP. In this study,

the above five different types of electro-hydraulic power units are used.

Fig. 2. System structure of injection molding machines.

As shown in Fig. 3, the production process of the IMM is as follows: ①: Mode

locking, ②: Frame forward, ③: Injection, ④: Pressure holding, ⑤: Plasticization,

⑥: Cooling, ⑦: Frame back, ⑧: Mold opening, and ⑨: Product removal (Ambs and

Frerker, 1998; Park and Nguyen, 2014; Madan et al., 2015; Fu and Ma, 2019). The

production process of an IMM generally begins when the mold is closed. The clamping

mechanism rapidly clamps the mold. When the movable mold approaches the fixed

mold, it switches to a gradual advance and then switches to the high-pressure state to

lock the mold (i.e., mold locking). After verifying whether the required degree of

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locking is achieved, the frame is moved forward to bring the nozzle in contact with the

mold (i.e., frame forward). Then, the injection cylinder is filled with pressure oil, and

the screw rapidly injects the melt into the mold cavity under the high-pressure drive

(i.e., the injection). When the melt fills the cavity, the screw continues to maintain a

certain pressure on the melt to prevent backflow of the melt (i.e., pressure holding).

When the melt in the cavity is no more likely to reflow from the gate, the pressure can

be relieved, and the product is cooled and shaped in the cavity (i.e., cooling).

Simultaneously, the screw begins to rotate under the drive of the transmission, and the

plastic falling from the hopper into the barrel is transported forward along the screw.

During this process, the material is gradually compacted, melted and plasticized by the

heating device to prepare for the next injection (i.e., plasticization). Product cooling and

plasticization are carried out simultaneously to improve the operational efficiency. To

form the cold material so that the nozzle does not come in contact with the cold mold

for a long time, it is necessary to evacuate the nozzle (i.e., frame back). After the

product in the cavity is cooled and shaped, the mold can be opened, and the product can

be ejected. The pressure and flow required for each stage vary substantially. For

example, the pressure and flow requirements are high during the injection stage,

whereas the cooling and product removal stages have negligible demand for pressure

and flow. Therefore, the demand for power by IMMs during the production process

varies drastically and frequently. The IMMs use a single power unit to drive multiple

actuators. How to achieve high energy efficiency and low energy consumption is a key

research work.

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1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9

Pressure holding

Product removal
Frame forward

Mold opening
Mode locking Plasticization

Frame back
Injection
6
Cooling

Fig. 3. Production process of injection molding machines.

The energy consumption of the IMM’s electro-hydraulic power unit is related to

three aspects: the energy efficiency of the electric motor, the energy efficiency of the

hydraulic pump and the power consumption of the electro-hydraulic power unit

composed of electric motor and hydraulic pump. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze

these three aspects separately.

2.2 Energy efficiency of electric motor

Regarding the commonly used electro-hydraulic power units, the operating mode

of the electric motor can be divided into two types: speed constant and speed variable.

When the motor is not driven by an inverter, the rotational speed remains constant.

When the motor is driven by an inverter, the rotational speed varies with the frequency,

and this is the variable frequency drive technology. The energy efficiency of the

asynchronous motor can be expressed as Equation (1):

Ploss
m =1  (1)
Ploss  Pout

where Ploss is the power loss of motor, and Pout is the power output of motor.

The energy loss of the motor includes iron loss, copper loss, mechanical loss, and

additional loss. According to the thesis of Liu (2015), the power loss of the motor can

be calculated using Equation (2):

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2
Pout
Ploss =a +b rd2 +cPout (2)
m2  rd2

where ωm is the rotational speed of motor, Ψrd is the rotor flux d-axis component for

induction machine, and a, b and c are constants which can be expressed as Equation (3):

  Rr Rm   Rr  Rm 
2

a =  Rs  
  Rr  Rm  pm2 Rm2

 2  Rr Rm  2 Rs
b =pm  Rs   m  2 (3)
  Rr  Rm  Lm
 2 R R 
c =  r m
 Rs 
Rr +Rm 

 Rm2  Rr Rm 

where Rs is the equivalent resistance of stator winding, Rr is the equivalent resistance of

rotor winding, Rm is the equivalent resistance of stator core loss, pm is the number of

pole pairs, and Lm is the mutual inductance between stator winding and rotor winding.

Taking a 37 kW speed variable asynchronous motor as an example, Rs = 0.2 Ω, Rr=

0.228 Ω, pm = 2, Rm = 20 Ω, and Lm = 0.74 mH. According to Equations (1)–(3) and the

above parameters, the energy efficiency of the asynchronous motor at different load

powers and rotational speeds can be obtained, as shown in Fig. 4. The rated speed of

this asynchronous motor is 1500 rpm, so the curve of 1500rpm can be regarded as the

curve of speed constant asynchronous motor, and the curves of other rotational speeds

(1200, 900 and 600 rpm) are the curves of speed variable asynchronous motor. It can be

seen that the energy efficiency of the motor increases first and then decreases with the

increase of load. Therefore, the speed of the motor can be adjusted according to the

change of external load to make it work as efficiently as possible.

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Fig. 4. Energy efficiency of asynchronous motor at different speeds and load powers.

In the past, the electro-hydraulic power units of IMMs did not include the inverter.

The asynchronous motor was used to drive the hydraulic pump, and the throttle valve

and relief valve were installed at the outlet of the pump to regulate the output flow and

pressure. During the production process of the IMMs, the demand for power varies

frequently, whereas the motor maintains the rated speed. When the load is lower than

50% of the rated load, its efficiency exhibits a significant declining trend. The variable

frequency drive technology can solve this problem. The principle is to drive the

hydraulic pump with a speed variable asynchronous motor and control the output flow

by varying the speed of the motor. If the variable frequency drive technology is applied

to the IMMs, the relief loss can be reduced and the energy efficiency of the electric

motor can be improved by reducing the rotation speed of the motor in some low flow

stages (pressure holding and cooling stages), so that the motor can work in the high-

efficiency area, greatly improving the energy saving effect.

Compared with asynchronous motors, the servo motor does not require reactive

excitation current and the stator resistance loss is small, which has better control

performance and higher energy efficiency. The use of a servo motor rather than an

asynchronous motor results in faster response, higher accuracy, higher efficiency and

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lower energy consumption. It is difficult to describe the efficiency of servo motor

through the formula, so a 15 kW servo motor available in the laboratory was tested. The

energy efficiency of the servo motor at different rotational speeds and load powers can

be obtained, as shown in Fig. 5. It can be seen that the efficiency curve of the servo

motor is similar to that of the asynchronous motor, but the average efficiency is higher.

And as the load power changes, the efficiency of servo motor changes less.

Fig. 5. Energy efficiency of servo motor at different speeds and load powers.

2.3 Energy efficiency of hydraulic pump

The function of the hydraulic pump is to convert mechanical energy into hydraulic

energy. Presently, the common hydraulic pumps are of two types: fixed displacement

pump and variable displacement pump.

The energy loss of a hydraulic pump consists of volumetric loss and hydraulic-

mechanical loss. Therefore, the energy efficiency of the pump can be expressed as

Equation (4):

p = v t (4)

where ηv is the volume efficiency of hydraulic pump, and ηt is the mechanical efficiency

of hydraulic pump. And the ηv and ηt are empirically calculated by Equations (5) and (6),

respectively (Yao, 2006):

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60p 1
 v =1  CS   (5)
n 

1
t = (6)
n 1 2 Tc 1
1
1  Cv   Cf  + 
60p   pVmax 

where Cs is the laminar leakage coefficient, Δp is the pressure difference of hydraulic

pump, μ is the kinematic viscosity of oil, n is the rotational speed of hydraulic pump, β

is the displacement factor and can be expressed as V/Vmax, Vmax is the maximum

displacement of pump, Cv is the laminar drag coefficient, Cf is the coefficient of

mechanical resistance, and Tc is the torque loss independent of speed and pressure

difference.

According to Equation (5), the volumetric efficiency of the pump increases with

the increase of the speed or the displacement when the pressure is constant. According

to Equation (6), the mechanical efficiency of the pump increases with the increase of the

displacement or the decrease of the speed when the pressure is constant. According to

Equations (5) and (6), the energy efficiency of the variable displacement pump at

different displacements and rotational speeds can be obtained, as shown in Fig. 6. When

β =1, the hydraulic pump operates at a maximum displacement and can be regarded as a

curve of the fixed displacement pump. The other three curves (β =0.8, 0.6, and 0.4) are

the curves of the variable displacement pump. It can be seen that when the displacement

is constant, the efficiency of the hydraulic pump increases with the increase of rotational

speed. Moreover, the efficiency of the hydraulic pump increases with the increase of the

displacement when the rotational speed is constant.

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Fig. 6. Energy efficiency of variable displacement pump at different displacements and

speeds.

Therefore, the task is to coordinate the relationship between the speed and the

displacement of the hydraulic pump to ensure it can be operated at the maximum

efficiency. When the IMM is partially loaded or unloaded and the flow demand is small

(such as cooling stage), the speed of the pump can be reduced, and the displacement of

the pump can be increased. Thereby, both the motor and the hydraulic pump operate in

the high-efficiency range. When the flow is small, the displacement of the pump can be

controlled to vary the output flow. Moreover, the motor speed can be controlled to vary

the output flow when the flow is larger than a certain set value.

2.4 Power consumption of electro-hydraulic power unit

The electro-hydraulic power unit provides pressure and flow to the hydraulic

system. If the output pressure and flow are greater than that required by the load, the

throttle loss and relief loss will occur, resulting in energy waste. The relief loss power

and throttle loss power can be expressed as Equations (7) and (8), respectively:

Pr  pp  qp  qv  (7)

Pt   pp  pv  qv (8)

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where Pr is the relief loss power, Pt is the throttle loss power, pp is the outlet pressure of

hydraulic pump, qp is the output flow of hydraulic pump, qv is the flow required by

actuator, and pv is the pressure required by actuator.

The energy consumption of IMMs can be reduced by reducing the throttle loss and

the relief loss. Taking three typical working stages for example, Table 1 presents the

power consumptions of the electro-hydraulic power unit mentioned above. When AM-

FP is used to drive the IMM, a P/Q valve should be installed at the outlet of the

hydraulic pump to adjust the pressure and flow. In the injection stage, the system

requires high pressure and large flow. Therefore, the relief loss and throttle loss of the

system are marginal. During the pressure holding stage, the required flow of the system

is marginal, and most of the flow supplied by the pump flows back to the tank through

the relief valve so that the system has a large relief loss. During the cooling stage, the

system requires approximately zero flow, and the pressure is low. In this stage, there is

only relief loss and almost no throttle loss. Therefore, the efficiency of the IMM driven

by this power unit is very low during the production process, particularly in the pressure

holding and cooling stages. When SVAM-FP is used to drive the IMM, the output flow

of the hydraulic pump is adjusted by varying the speed. Thereby, the outlet flow of the

hydraulic pump is consistent with the load flow as far as feasible, and the relief loss of

the system is reduced. The power consumption of the power unit during the cooling and

pressure holding stages is significantly reduced, and the energy efficiency of the

hydraulic circuit is improved. When AM-VP is used to drive the IMM, the mechanism

of the variable displacement pump is adjusted to make the output flow of the hydraulic

pump consistent with that required by the load. During the production process, the oil

supply pressure of the hydraulic pump varies with the load. Only throttle loss caused by

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the valve pressure drop in the hydraulic circuit occurs. This substantially improves the

energy efficiency. When SVAM-VP is used to drive the IMM, the speed of the

hydraulic pump can be reduced. Moreover, the displacement of the hydraulic pump can

be increased in the partial load and no-load stages so that the electric motor and

hydraulic pump can operate at high efficiency. When SM-FP is used to drive the IMM,

the pressure and flow are closed-loop controlled by varying the speed of the servo

motor. Compared with the previous four types of power units, the relief loss and throttle

loss are eliminated. Thereby, the power consumption of the system is substantially

reduced.

Table 1
Power consumptions of electro-hydraulic power unit at different stages.
Stages
Injection Pressure holding Cooling
Units

qp qp qp
qv
Flow q

Flow q

Flow q

AM-FP
qv
0 pv pp 0 pv pp 0 pp
Pressure p Pressure p Pressure p

qp qp
qv
Flow q
Flow q

Flow q

SVAM-FP qp
qv
0 pv pp 0 pv pp 0 pp
Pressure p Pressure p Pressure p

qp qp
qv
Flow q

Flow q
Flow q

AM-VP &
SVAM-VP
qv
qp
0 pv pp 0 pv pp 0 pp
Pressure p Pressure p Pressure p

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qp

Flow q

Flow q

Flow q
SM-FP
qp
qp
0 pp 0 pp 0 pp
Pressure p Pressure p Pressure p

Legend Useful work Relief loss Throttle loss Leakage loss

According to the above analysis, the energy efficiency of the electric motor and the

hydraulic pump and the power consumption of the electro-hydraulic power unit vary

greatly at different stages. In theory, the energy consumption of the IMM driven by

AM-FP is the highest, and the last four power units are the optimization of the first one.

But the optimization method for each power unit is also extremely important. For AM-

FP, the optimization method is to reduce the relief loss by changing the pressure of the

valve according to the load. Alternatively, multiple electro-hydraulic power units can be

used to drive the machine to reduce energy losses, but this method will increase system

costs. For SVAM-FP, the optimization method is to add the equipment for improving

the dynamic response. For example, an accumulator can be added for auxiliary driving,

which shortens the starting and braking time of the hydraulic pump. For AM-VP, the

optimization method is to use multiple electric motors and variable displacement pumps

to drive the machine, which complicates the system structure and increases the system

costs. For SVAM-VP, this power unit has multiple combinations of rotational speed and

displacement in certain flow demand. The optimization method is to find a working

state with a high energy efficiency of both electric motor and variable pump. For SM-

FP, the energy-saving effect has been very significant, and this power unit can be

further optimized. The energy efficiency and control precision can be further improved

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from the control strategy, such as position-pressure parallel closed-loop control, non-

linear adaptive control, fuzzy closed-loop control and other control strategies.

3. Test results of power consumption during production process

The IMM in the laboratory is tested, and the same mold and raw material (PVC)

are used to produce the identical product. The power consumptions of the IMM driven

by the five different types of electro-hydraulic power units was tested. The test device is

shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7. Test device of injection molding machine.

3.1 Test results of IMM separately driven by AM-FP and SVAM-FP

First, the power consumption of the IMM driven by AM-FP is tested. The fixed

displacement pump is a vane pump of Japan Oil Research Co., Ltd., with a

displacement of 64.7 cm3/r and a rated pressure of 21 MPa. The variation in the motor

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speed nA and hydraulic pump outlet pressure pA during production process of the IMM

is shown in Fig. 8. The speed curve nA is maintained at 1500 rpm and only slightly

fluctuates when the external load changes. The pressure curve pA varies with the change

of external load, reaches a maximum value at 15-22 s (injection stage), and also

maintains a large value at 26-56 s (cooling and plasticization stages).

Fig. 8. Test curve of the motor speed and hydraulic pump outlet pressure driven by

AM-FP and SVAM-FP.

To reduce the power consumption of the IMM during partial load and no load, the

inverter is used to vary the motor speed according to the control signal of the pressure-

flow proportional control valve (P/Q valve). Thereby, the output flow of the hydraulic

pump varies. The flow volume qV required by the hydraulic system is obtained through

the control signal of the proportional speed regulating valve. Then, the operating

frequency of the inverter is fV = 50 qV / qmax. Here, qmax is the volume flow of the

hydraulic pump underrated operation. The fixed displacement pump has the minimum

stable speed limit, and hence, overcurrent or overload protection and pulsation are easy

to occur. Considering these factors, the speed curve needs to be enveloped according to

the calculated speed value. Then, the power consumption of the IMM driven by SVAM-

FP is tested. The variation in the motor speed nB and hydraulic pump outlet pressure pB

during production process of the IMM is shown in Fig 8. The speed curve nB maintains

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the rated speed of 1500 rpm only in the injection stage. In other stages with lower load

and less flow demand, the energy efficiency can be improved by reducing the motor

speed, and the relief loss of the system can be reduced. The pressure curve pB also

decreases in some stages. Theoretically, the variation in speed is adjusted according to

the required flow, and there is no relief loss in the system. However, relief loss

continues to occur when the system operates according to the envelope curve.

The two power consumptions curves of the IMM driven by AM-FP and SVAM-FP

are shown in Fig. 9. The power consumption in each stage in one working cycle of the

IMM is presented in Table 2. Fig. 9 and Table 2 reveal that the injection and

plasticization stages in the process require a high pressure and consume a large amount

of power. The injection stage accounts for 10% of a cycle, and the plasticization stage is

relatively long, accounting for 25% of a cycle. Other stages such as mold locking, mold

opening, pressure holding and cooling consume low power. The test results reveal that

the power remains largely unchanged during the injection stage, which is 17 kW.

However, during the plasticization stage, the power is reduced from 13 kW to 5 kW.

The power consumptions during the pressure holding and cooling stages is also reduced

accordingly.

Fig. 9. Power consumptions of IMM driven by AM-FP and SVAM-FP.

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Table 2
Power consumptions of IMM driven by AM-FP and SVAM-FP
Mode Frame Pressure Plasticization Mold
Stage Injection
locking forward holding and Cooling opening
Time t/s 0–7 s 7–15 s 15–22 s 22–26 s 26–56 s 56–61 s
Power consumption
6.0 5.2 17.4 10 13/13 4.5
of AM-FP P/kW
Power consumption
4.8 4.6 17.4 4 5/2.5 4.0
of SVAM-FP P/kW

Both of the above power units use a low-cost fixed displacement pump. Speed

variable technology reduces the energy consumption of the IMM. To further reduce the

relief loss, the variable displacement pump is used to replace the fixed displacement

pump for driving.

3.2 Test results of IMM separately driven by AM-VP and SVAM-VP

Next, the power consumption of the IMM driven by AM-VP is tested. The

pressure-flow proportional control variable displacement pump (P/Q pump) is a piston

pump of Japan Oil Research Co., Ltd., with a displacement of 56.2 cm3/r and a rated

pressure of 25 MPa. The variation in the motor speed nC and hydraulic pump outlet

pressure pC during production process of the IMM is shown in Fig. 10. The speed curve

nC is maintained at 1500 rpm and only slightly fluctuates when the external load

changes. The pressure curve pC varies with the change of external load, and reaches a

maximum value at 15-22 s (injection stage), but is lower than the pressure in the

corresponding stage shown in Fig. 8.

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Fig. 10. Test curve of the motor speed and hydraulic pump outlet pressure driven by

AM-VP and SVAM-VP.

According to the flow calculation formula qp = Vn, the displacement V of the pump

is inversely proportional to the speed n when the flow qp remains unchanged. When the

motor is operated at rated speed, the displacement is marginal. According to the

relationship between hydraulic pump displacement and efficiency, the marginal

displacement corresponds to a relatively low efficiency of the pump. Although the

system eliminates the relief loss and reduces the throttle loss, the motor exhibits a large

output power. Therefore, the whole system continues to exhibit a large power loss.

Thus, this system still has the potential for energy-saving. To enable both the hydraulic

pump and the motor to operate efficiently, the variable frequency drive technology is

introduced. Then, the power consumption of the IMM driven by SVAM-VP is tested.

The variation in the motor speed nD and hydraulic pump outlet pressure pD during

production process of the IMM is shown in Fig. 10. The speed curve nD maintains a

maximum value in the injection stage, but is still lower than the rated speed. In other

stages, the speed can be reduced to lower values. The pressure curve pD also decreases

at some stages.

The two power consumptions curves of the IMM driven by AM-VP and SVAM-

VP are shown in Fig. 11. The power consumption in each stage in one working cycle of

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the IMM is presented in Table 3. It can be known that compared with AM-VP, the

energy consumption of SVAM-VP in the small flow stages such as pressure holding and

cooling can be further reduced because the pump displacement is increased and the

motor speed is reduced. A comparison with Table 2 reveals that the power consumption

of the variable displacement pump system is significantly lower than that of the fixed

displacement pump system. It is also evident that speed variable technology can reduce

the input and output power of the motor, reduce system energy consumption, and realize

energy-saving.

Fig. 11. Power consumptions of IMM driven by AM-VP and SVAM-VP.

Table 3
Power consumptions of IMM driven by AM-VP and SVAM-VP
Mode Frame Pressure Plasticization Mold
Stage Injection
locking forward holding and Cooling opening
Time t/s 0–7 s 7–15 s 15–22 s 22–26 s 26–56 s 56–61 s
Power consumption
3.2 1.7 6 2 3.6/3.6 1.6
of AM-VP P/kW
Power consumption
2.1 0.5 6 0.9 3.6/0.6 0.5
of SVAM-VP P/kW

3.3 Test results of IMM driven by SM-FP

Finally, the power consumption of the IMM driven by SM-VP is tested. During the

production process, the pressure control or flow control is set according to the load

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characteristics and operating characteristics of each stage. When the actual pressure

value is less than the specified value, the flow is adjusted, and the actual flow is equal to

the given flow. When the actual flow is less than the specified flow, the system is

switched to pressure regulation so that the output pressure is equal to the specified

value. The variation in the motor speed nE and hydraulic pump outlet pressure pE during

the production process of the IMM is shown in Fig. 12. The speed curve nE reaches a

maximum of only 1,000 rpm at the injection stage, and is below 500rpm at other stages.

The pressure curve pE at cooling, pressure holding, mold opening and mold locking

stages are relatively marginal.

Fig. 12. Test curve of the motor speed and hydraulic pump outlet pressure driven by

AM-VP

The power consumption of the system is shown in Fig. 13. The power consumption

of the IMM at each stage, according to the power curve, is presented in Table 4.

Comparing Table 4 with Tables 2 and 3, it is evident that the power consumption of the

IMM is substantially reduced when a servo motor is used to drive the fixed

displacement pump.

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Fig. 13. Power consumption of IMM driven by SM-FP.

Table 4
Power consumption of IMM driven by SM-FP
Mode Frame Pressure Plasticization Mold
Stage Injection
locking forward holding and Cooling opening
Time t/s 0–7 s 7–15 s 15–22 s 22–26 s 26–56 s 56–61 s
Power consumption
0.4 1.1 6 0.35 1.6/0.1 0.7
of SM-FP P/kW

4. Energy consumption and cost analysis during production process

The power consumptions of the above five different types of electro-hydraulic

power units are different, and the cost differences are also large. The test results are

analyzed and described below.

4.1 Energy consumption

The above five different types of electro-hydraulic power units are tested by

driving the IMM under a similar condition. During the test, the power of the motor is

directly recorded by the power meter. After integration, the energy consumption curves

of the various power units are obtained, as shown in Fig. 14. The energy consumptions

of IMM driven by AM-FP, SVAM-FP, AM-VP, SVAM-VP and SM-FP are 543.70,

287.71, 168.35, 121.56 and 69.96 kJ, respectively. It can be seen that AM-FP consumes

the highest energy in one working cycle. Compared with this power unit, SVAM-FP,

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AM-VP, SVAM-VP and SM-FP can reduce energy consumption by 47%, 69%, 78%

and 87% respectively.

Fig. 14. Energy consumptions of IMM driven by five different types of electro-

hydraulic power units

4.2 Production cost

In order to clarify the production costs of various electro-hydraulic power units, the

costs analysis is conducted. The energy consumptions of the five different types of

power units in one working cycle of the IMM are presented in Table 5, Column 2. If the

machine operates 12 h a day, 300 days a year, the annual energy consumption of an

IMM can be calculated out, as shown in Table 5, Column 3. As the electricity price for

industry is 0.15 $/(kW·h) in China, the annual electricity bill of the IMM driven by five

different types of power units can be obtained, as shown in Table 5, Column 4.

Table 5
Energy consumptions and annual electricity bill of the five different types of electro-
hydraulic power unit.
Power Energy consumption during Annual electricity Annual electricity
unit one working cycle W1/(kW·h) consumption W2/(kW·h) bill C1/ $
AM-FP 0.151 32616 4,892.4
SVAM-FP 0.080 17280 2,592.0
AM-VP 0.047 10152 1,522.8
SVAM-VP 0.034 7344 1,101.6
SM-FP 0.019 4104 615.6

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According to the Table 5, Column 4, the column diagram of annual electricity bill

of the IMM under five different types of power units is drawn, as shown in Fig. 15,

which can intuitively reflect the economy of each one. The annual electricity bill of

AM-FP is the highest. If this is the benchmark, the bill of SVAM-FP, AM-VP, SVAM-

VP and SM-FP are 52.98%, 31.13%, 22.52% and 12.58%, respectively. In particular,

SM-FP saves more than $4,000 in electricity bill per year compared to AM-FP.

Fig. 15. Annual electricity bill of IMM driven by five different types of electro-

hydraulic power units.

As the equipment cost of the five different types of power units are different, this

factor needs to be taken into account in the production cost analysis. Among the electro-

hydraulic power units used in this study, the prices of the asynchronous motor, inverter,

fixed displacement pump, variable displacement pump and servo motor + driver are

$494.30, $1,744.62, $331.48, $697.84 and $4,361.55, respectively. Table 6 presents the

equipment and costs of the various power units.

Table 6
Equipment and costs of the five different types of electro-hydraulic power unit.
Equipment AM-FP SVAM-FP AM-VP SVAM-VP SM-FP
Asynchronous motor    
Inverter  
Fixed displacement pump   
Variable displacement pump  
Servo motor + driver 
Equipment costs C2/$ 825.78 2,570.40 1,192.14 2,936.76 4,693.03

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In combination with Tables 5 and 6, the production costs of the IMM driven by the

five different types of power units can be expressed as Equation (9):

Ct  C1 x +C2 (9)

where Ct is the production cost, x is the working years, C1 is the annual electricity bill,

and C2 is the equipment cost.

According to Equation (11), The relationship between the operating time and cost

of IMM can be obtained as shown in Fig. 16. The life of the general IMMs is

approximately 10 years. The costs of the IMM working for ten years driven by AM-FP,

SVAM-FP, AM-VP, SVAM-VP and SM-FP are $49,750, $28,490, $16,420, $13,953

and $10,849, respectively. It is evident that although SM-FP incurs the highest

equipment cost, it yields higher economic benefits with an increase in the operating

time. The equipment cost of power unit can be recovered in approximately one year

compared with AM-FP. If SM-FP is used to drive the IMM for ten years, its operating

cost is 21.81% of that driven by AM-FP, which can save about $39,000.

Fig. 16. Operating time and production cost of IMM driven by five different types of

electro-hydraulic power unit.

5. Conclusions

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This paper focuses on the energy consumptions of IMMs driven by five different

types of electro-hydraulic power units (i.e., AM-FP, SVAM-FP, AM-VP, SVAM-VP,

and SM-FP), and the equipment costs and production costs of each unit are also

analyzed, which provides a reference for the selection of the power units for IMMs and

other hydraulic equipment. The results indicate that the energy consumptions of an

IMM in a working cycle driven by the various power units mentioned previously are

543.70, 287.71, 168.35, 121.56 and 69.96 kJ, respectively, and the costs in ten years are

$49,750, $28,490, $16,420, $13,953 and $10,849, respectively. In particular, when the

IMM is driven by SM-CP, the driving power will match the load power adaptively,

which could eliminate the relief loss and the throttle loss, and remarkable energy

efficiency can be achieved.

Moreover, the electro-hydraulic power units of AM-FP and SVAM-FP consume

significant energy in the production process, which deviates from the requirements of

cleaner production severely. It is not recommended to use these two electro-hydraulic

power units in IMMs and other hydraulic equipment. On the other hand, all the electro-

hydraulic power units of AM-VP, SVAM-VP, and SM-FP have outstanding energy-

saving performances. Energy consumptions and production costs can be reduced by

using these three types. The equipment cost of AM-VP is the lowest among these three.

If the production process idle time is short, this power unit can be adopted. The SM-FP

has the highest equipment cost and is suitable for low power machines, and SVAM-VP

is suitable for high power machines.

Acknowledgements

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Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of

China [grant numbers 51775363].

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Highlights:

1. Compare different power units of injection molding machines and analyze the

differences in terms of energy consumptions and production costs.

2. Provide a basis for researchers to optimize the electro-hydraulic power unit

design

3. Significant energy-saving effect of the injection molding machine after

modification.