Week 1: Introduction (Part 1) Continue from Topic 1.

1: (part 2)

• A lot more Difficult than we normally expect cause it’s a • When and where?
multicultural world • Does the location and the time matters
• Learn how to critically examine the various reasons that all of • Example: does the fact that this took place in the late
us may have, given our differences, to believe or act regarding 14th century in the kingdom of Singapura matter for
ethical issues whether or not the Raja should have done what he did?
• Learn how to engage in a reasoned discussion • Why
• Pay attention to the causes and conditions of the
Topic 1.1: What even are ‘Ethics’ and ‘Civics’?
scenario
• Ethics is the study of how one should live , study of (morality = • Example: does it matter whether the raja should have
(how one should live)) even though being ethical = being acted the way he did, if his decision was result of the
moral advice of local chiefs who were them feel threaten by
• Student of ethics DOES NOT MEAN being ethical hang Nadim intelligence
• Studying ethics allow you to communicate with others about • Ethics example: France invade Germany afterwar , Stay
ethical issues with mother = emphasizing sympathy and individual
• Theory-led = Normative Ethics devotion, Avenge brother’s death = emphasizing a
• Circumstances-led = Applied Ethics broader, more idealistic scope
• Ethics theory usually involves a set of principles that are meant • Ethics = We not only care about which act the student
to apply universally to anyone and what they should do in should perform, but the reasons behind why he should
general do it and whether these reasons themselves are gd or
• Encounter a particular ethical issue = apply a theory to see bad (Examining the reasons that support why it is the
what we should do right or wrong answer)
• UTILITARIANISM (The End justifies the means?) • Ethics example: Uniqlo = long history of employing
• Principle of Utility = Act in a way that maximizes overall factory workers in bad conditions, little financial stability
pleasure = production cost low, and product affordable? BUT
- The right thing to do is always to ensure that the action that should or should we not buy from these brands?
one takes has the consequence of increasing the total amount • Student of ethics pay attention to details of everyday
of pleasure in the universe scenarios and become sensitized to what might be
• Example of utilitarianism save 5 strangers over 1 friend ethical circumstances as we go about our lives.
• NO PICK AND MIX ETHICAL THEORIES OR DIFFERENT PART OF • Civics = study of How one should live as a citizen
ETHICAL THEORIES • Study of our right and duty to the state and to each
- Example: Like we cannot pick and choose theory about earth other as citizen of a state in relation to which we draw
shape according to our taste benefit and protection
• Pick what is reasonable and what makes the most sense of • NOT ABOUT BEOMING GOOD CITIZEN
our individual and collective lived experiences • What sort of state in question, in addition to how
• Make sure that whatever ethical theory you commit to is the citizens relate to it and each other
most justified and has the most explanatory power • State = Unique, Historical, Economic, Political, Social
• Theory-led + Circum-led (good), Theory-led (bad) why? • Characterized each state, and citizen rights = History,
- Scenarios in real life are not as straightforward People, Culture, Goods, Services, Forms, Values
• Circumstances-led Approach (5 Ws)( who, what, when..) • Example = Student in Sg school recite national pledge,
- Who pledge to build democratic society based on justice and
o Who exactly are the actors of given scenario equality
o Who exactly are the one who are acted upon • Democracy = means people of the states are the one
- Example: Malay annals fourth raja SG execute Hang Nadim, who have ultimate power
Hang Nadim gain respect by saving villagers from swordfish • Monarchy = ultimate power rest on monarch(king,queen)
with banana stem wall Actors (exe, raja) Acted upon (hang • Democratic society like SG is a collective project to be
Nadim) carried out by all its citizens, while taking also into
- What account others who might affected project
o Pays attention to the aspects of a given scenario • Rights and duties of a SG citizen relative to this collective
that are morally relevant project and set of values
- Example: Raja’s action motivated by jealously = Morally • Examples = duties to pay one taxes, and equal voting
Relevant, Number of banana stem used to build wall = Not right, speak corner at hong lim park
relevant
 Week 1 part 4:
Week 1 part 3:
• Example: we should people because it increases happiness
• Purpose of speak corner = to speak and express themselves to
• Kai should help Deanna because she is her friend
be heard, and act as a mean to exchange of reasons and an
invitation to collectively steer democratic society in certain • increase happiness, friendship = morally relevant reasons
directions (ONLY SINGAPOREAN CITIZEN. OTHERS CAN ONLY • Example: Having anti-discrimination laws because it
PRATICIPATE NO ORGANISE) ensures that there is justice for those experience
discrimination, or such laws ensure minorities are treated
• Duties of citizens might have to non-citizens example below
equally, in these cases, bolded words (mortally relevant)
• Meet person sessions regardless citizen or non with elected
representatives in parliament = ways of citizens relating to the • Normality claims = are at the heart of ethics and civics, and
state particular to the form of government SG has, = what we care about is studies are the relevant reasons that
representative democracy with parliamentary system support such claims
o Elects politicians to represent them , power • not simple enough that you have set of normative claims
ultimately meant to lie with citizen (democratic) by which you live, or by which you think citizens ought to
live even if they are supported by some morally relevant
• Study of how one should live as a citizen, does not only
concern vote and taxes, nor does it only concern • Topic 1.2: Why ethics and Civics Matters for Everyone
demonstrations and rallies. BUT also concern everyday lives • Everyone of us live in societies with other individuals. And
and how the right and duties of citizens might be found in the each individual has very different idea and conceptions of
structures we encounter daily how they should live
• Doing ethics and civics does not mean merely sharing opinions • Example = make money, help people,vote,pay taxes,
or beliefs without rational support advocacy for those who do not have a voice
• Nobody in ethics and civics CARES that you have a particular • Often belong to different societies that also overlap, may
belief or opinion, but only whether you SHOULD have the not only belong to Singapore society, but internet, global
belief and schools
• We only care about opinions and beliefs that have undergone • Reflect on kind of actions would or would not contribute to
a process of an exchange of reasons with others how we think should live, find that this includes wide range
• Nobody in ethics and civics care that there is a fancy phrase or of concerns
word for something, or that you found an -ism that sounds • Example = whether walk or drive to hawker, people might
cool and resonates with you think ability to travel risk spreading pandemic, taking a
• Word cool to use = just sport-fan mentality does nothing to walk may affect how soon you reach, driving may increase
help to advance ethical or civic discourse-or even keep you carbon footprint and so on
open to it • Our decision not only affect others but affect others in a
• Knowing a lot of concepts and technical only IMPORTANT different way and to various extents
when these allow common ground for discussion or allow you • Therefore, when convincing others to live like them, we
to be more precise and accurate in saying something must therefore give them reasons to justify or explain why
• Wrong thinking = ethics and civics at university level is we think what we think and sometimes these reasons are
primarily about pithy sayings or which person say what simply bad. Sometimes these reasons are good
• Correct thinking = counts against your ability to reason • Are always already engaged in ethics and civics
independently as an individual, if using quotable quotes • Example = Reasons why we should talk to people, Reasons
• What it means to do ethics and civics? why we should to work to maximize shareholder earning,
o Ethics and Civics is about an exchange of reasons reasons we should upsize our meal, read and reflect
o Currency of any discussions whether comment are reasonable, considering reason to
o Quality – not quantity – of your reasons (morally vote, reasons to turn in public assemblies
relevant reasons) means? • Ethics and Civics necessarily multicultural because
• Normative claims (supported by mortally relevant reason) constantly engaging in an exchange of reasons due to
o What we ought to , or should do culturally difference, we constantly must adapt our
o ‘Kai should help Deanna’ beliefs and actions. (Collectively change, same for others)
o Anti-discrimination laws • Topic 1.3 Course Expectations
• Descriptive claims • Identify morally relevant , explain moral responsibilities,
o Particular state of affairs Critically assess, Make well-informed arguments, Apply
o ‘Kai helps Deanna’ ethics and civics concept
o Observing that’ most members of a given society do • Standard of Conduct = Be respectful, Be sensitive, Include
not discriminate’ only appropriate content
Week 2: Reasoning in Ethics and Civics (Part 1) Week 2 (Part 2)

• Topic 2.1: Clarity of Reasons

o Have the belief, one that has undergone a process of
an exchange of reasons with others
o What matters is reasonable belief. Dispute in ethics
and civics is always at the level of reasons, not
beliefs or opinions
• Concept are important to serve purpose of rationally
supporting your belief
• 1. Allows common grounds for discussion
• 2. Allows you to be more precise and accurate in saying smth
• Mean by ‘exchange’ of reasons?
o Simply denying or negating belief or opinion = mere
disagreement (wrong)
o Deny or negate the reasons hat someone has for
their belief to show their belief are rationally
unsupported and their position is unreasonable
(correct)
o Simply offering reasons before you show how
someone else’s reasons are unsupported = they still
have reasons to believe what they believe (wrong)
o Remember: the underlying question is always’ Why
should someone else take your reasons seriously,
especially when they already have their own
reasons?’ (correct)
• When providing supporting reasons:
o Ensure you help others understand how you
rationally arrive at a certain position
o Have in mind a fellow student who is unfamiliar with
Example: X being a triangle being a sufficient condition for X to
the content when presenting or writing
be a polygon is a constitutive condition: having three sides (at
o Never ever assume that they should make the
least partially) makes up a triangle
argumentative connection themselves
o Provide an argument for your belief with as much or • Relationship between Sufficiency and Necessity
as little contextual information as required • Notice crucially that here and often, stating the necessary
• How can anyone be convinced, there be clarity in where and sufficient conditions of a concept like triangle or
disagreements lie, to ensure that others understand your bachelor just is to define the concept
reasons? • Condition Example: Plant growth depends on genes,
o Concept allow a common ground for discussion and hormones, water, nutrients, sunlight and so on
be more precise and accurate in saying smth • Regression Analysis = Establish a conditional relation
o Concept are only important when they serve the between dependent variable and independent variables
purpose of rationally supporting your beliefs in an • Actions of a person depend on condition under which they
exchange of reasons had to act (plant growth, recessions, and criminal motives)
o Concepts are understood in terms of their conditions • Ethical and Political Concepts
• Good reason is conceptually clear • Concept of happiness = life that involves rational activity in
• Conditions are the elements by which we define and accordance with virtue
understand concepts precisely and accurately • Happiness is only about a life virtue, rational activity not
• General relationship between necessary and sufficient necessary (dispute with the concept on top)
conditions: when p is a sufficient condition for q, q is a • A simplistic utilitarian understands that what is necessary
necessary condition for p. That is, if p,q is the same only if and sufficient for any action to be morally right is for it to
q,p (IMAGE ON THE RIGHT) maximize overall pleasure. This would opposed, an ethical
• Example: It is raining being a sufficient condition for my shoe theory where the morally right action is, for example, to
to be wet may be a causal condition, in other words, rain minimize the most vulnerable illness
makes my shoes wet
Week 2: (Part 3) Week 2: (Part 4)

• By defining the concepts clearly and by providing the • Utilitarian theory is embarrassed by the possibility of
necessary and sufficient conditions, our reasons can be utility monsters who get greater sum of utility from any
clearly understood by others. Only then can we have any sacrifice of others then these others lose. These theories
productive discussion in ethics and civics seem to require that we all be sacrificed by the monster
• Topic 2.2: Cogency of Reasons maw to increase total utility
• When providing reasons, structure of your argument should • Arguments:
be explicit. Merely listing a number of reasons is not an o If moral theory is true, not recommend us to
argument sacrifice for greater good
• Logical structure = (Logic then Logical and finally Valid) o Would recommend sacrificing other utility instead
o Therefore, theory is false
• When our belief are rationally supported by our reasons, we
have a cogent argument for them • Criticisms must themselves meet the standards of cogency
if they are to be convincing
• Relations between premises + Conclusion conform to a
• Topic 2.3: Two Types of Reasons
logically valid structure = Soundness
• Cogent Argument = Soundness + Premises are True • Individual Reason = Reason that makes reference to
properties as sufficient conditions
• Structural Reason = Reason that makes reference to
position in a structure as sufficient conditions
• Is action good or bad? ( we tend to use individual reason)
o Fix the necessary and sufficient conditions of what
a morally good/bad action is
o Ask whether the properties of the action satisfy
these conditions
• Do general properties of agents qualify as necessary and
sufficient conditions for the agents themselves to be
morally good or bad? (They are obvious areas where we
need more than just individual reasons and thus need to
turn to B – that is, structural reasons.
• Clarity should aim at: True/false to Propositions • Structure = elements that are systematically related to
• Truth-aptness should aim at: propositions to state of affairs each other according to principles particular to that
• Validity should aim at: Propositions to Logical form structure
• A pros-and-cons presentation of reasons is Never an • Argument is a structure because:
argument because it does not give us any sense of the logical o It has premises and a conclusion – (elements)
relations of the reason to each other- without any sense of o It has a set of grammatical sentences – (systematic
their relative weightage. It provides zero support for any relation)
claim or position. We care NOT ABOUT THE QUANTITY BUT o It conforms to logical laws – (Its principles)
THE QUALITY. • Example: Shopping Mall, Element (buyers, sellers, goods,
• More than Soundness: eg: ‘missing the point’ fallacy services) Sys relation (exchange between the elements)
• Start clearly with a definition, Give the necessary and Principles (economics law)
sufficient conditions • Pay attention to the various types of reasons
• ARGUMENT SHOULD: Involve true premises, Have a valid o Helps to answer questions precisely and clearly
logical structure, Not commit any informal fallacies o Helps to understand and appreciate the various
• Three approaches to establish if someone reason are possible approaches
inadequate • Summary (clarify concept, construct arg, distinguish rea)
o Verify that the reasons are false o Give clear reasons
o Find that the reasons related to each other in an o Give cogent reasons
invalid logical structure o Convince others rationally
o Realize that there’s an informal fallacy o Identify problematic reason
• Kinds of criticisms of arguments and concepts o Reasons based on properties of individual
• External Criticism = How a certain standards is not met o Reasons based on relations
• Internal Criticism = How the claims made/actions performed • Practicing will enhance your ability to participate in an
are contradictory (because something cannot be both A and exchange of reasons required for a rational participant of
not-A at the same time) ethical and civic life
Week 3: Human Rights Part 1: Trafficking (part 1) Week 3: part 2
Topic 3.1: Human Rights • UDHR as a Statement of Moral Rights
o Not a law all by itself – does not enact any legal
• Entitlements = to be free to do something, exercise a power,
rights
provided with some benefit
o Asserts several moral rights
• Duties
o Proclaims that these rights should be respected in
o To refrain from interfering with others freedom
all nations
o To refrain from interfering with others ability to
• LEGAL DOES NOT MEAN MORTAL RIGHT
exercise a power
• Universal – International Human Right Treaties
o To provide others with some benefit
o Atrocities of the Holocaust and subsequent
• Legal Rights
Nuremberg war crime trails prompt calls for
o Described in the laws of a country’s legal jurisdiction
international protection of fundamental right
o Government has the power to create, interpret and
o Human rights incorporated into the UN in 1945
enforce the laws
• 7 Core Human Rights Treaties
o Subject to the laws of specific countries which vary
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Right (1966)
from place to place and time to time
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
• Example: Rights to health care, Women’s rights to vote
Right (1966(
• Human Rights
• International Covenant on the Elimination of All Forms of
o Rights we have simply because we exist as human
Racial Discrimination (1965)
beings (UN Human Rights)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
o Legal, Moral and Universal
Discrimination Against Women (1979)
o Define and protect fundamental freedoms and
entitlements for all humans • Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1984(
• Legal Rights
o A right that exists because of a legal statute or some • Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989(
other government action • International Convention on the Protection of the Rights
o New legal rights may be introduced in a jurisdiction of All Migrant Workers and Member of families (1990)
over time • UDHR consists of:
o People in different jurisdictions may have different • Article 1 – ‘ All human beings are born free and equal in
legal rights dignity and right, endowed with reason and conscience and
• Constitution of Singapore (Part IV) (Legal right for human) should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood’
o Liberty of the Person – Article 9 • Article 2 – Right against discrimination
o Prohibition of Slavery and Forced Labor – Article 10 • Article 3-5, 19-21 – Civil and political rights, include right to
o Protection Against Retrospective Criminal Laws, life, liberty, personal security, and political participate
Repeated Trials – Article 10 • Articles 16-18. 22-27 – Economic, social, and cultural rights,
o Equal Protection – Article 12 including rights to an adequate standard of living, social
o Prohibition of Banishment, Right to Freedom of security, work, rest and leisure, family, education, and
Movement - Article 13 participation in the cultural life of a community
o Freedom of Speech, Assembly and Association – Article • Article 28 – ‘Everyone is entitled to a social and
14 international order in which the right and freedom set
o Freedom of Religion – Article 15 forth in this declaration can be fully realized.’
o Rights Relating to Education – Article 16 • Article 29 – Everyone has duties to the community, rights
• Moral Rights and freedoms subject only to limitations, as determined by
• Morality, Critical Morality , Conventional Morality law, for the purpose of securing the rights and freedoms of
• A moral right may exist without being the legal right others, and ‘ of meeting the just requirement of morality,
• Group of people – women for instance and disabled people do public order and the general welfare.’
not have rights to vote and to receive education in some parts • Advantages
of the world o Avoid discrimination, Improve the quality of human
• Respect for the ‘Inherent Dignity’ of ALL humans, and equality beings, Set the standard for individuals to be
• Embodied by the Universal Declartion of Human Rights treated equally, Procedure and framework for
(UDHR) government to protect and promote human rights
• Adopted by the UN in 1948, succession of binding • Disadvantages = UDHR is not an international law, Lacks
international conventions the power to legally enforce any directive
Week 3: (Part 3) Week 3: (Part 4)

• Countries apply some form of Human Rights legislations but at • Implications for Nation States
the same time also ignore and go against others: • Threats of human trafficking:
o Freedom of religion or worship • Criminal: Use of Force, Coercion, Fraud, Exploitation
o Right to education • National Security: Terrorism, drugs, political/armed
o Right to vote conflict, border security
o Right to basic health care • Human/social aspects: Physical and mental health
• Why are some rights not enforced and protected in various consequences
jurisdictions? • Human rights: Protection, prosecution, legislation,
o Political context advocacy
o Limited resources • Impact of Covid-19 pandemic
o Cultural differences • Negatively affected livelihoods and economy
• Topic 3.2: Human Trafficking • Global rise in unemployment and reduction of income,
• What is Human Trafficking? especially for low wage and informal workers
• The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt • Garment, agriculture, farming, manufacturing and
of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms domestic work sectors most affected
of coercion… or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or • Impact of Covid-19 on Human Trafficking
receiving of payments of benefits to achieve the consent of a • Made a desperate situation even worse
person having control over another person, for the purpose of • ASEAN countries reported rise in domestic violence
exploitation • Victims of abuse trapped inside their homes with abuser
• How Trafficking Breaks Down • Domestic servitude or sex slavery disproportionately
• Actions (first) = Recruit, Transport, Provide, Obtain/Attempts affects women and girls
• Means (second) = Force, Fraud, Coercion • Greater exposure to virus, less equipped to prevent it, less
• Purpose(third) = Commercial Sex Acts, Labor Services access to healthcare
• ‘The World Oldest Trade’, Historical overview, human trafficking • Topic 3.3: Related Ethical Considerations
in SEA • Human Dignity – Humanity Principle (Immanuel Kant)
o Pre-colonial Southeast Asia = Angkor, Ayuthya, Malacca, • Article 1 of UDHR states that ‘ All human beings are born
Achech, and Makassar, in their pre-colonial heyday, free and equal in dignity and rights’
require large labours that was provided by import slaves • Prinicple of Humanity provides a rationale for this equal
o Debts, punishment, starvation and war captivity, slave dignity shared by all human beings
raiding and trade • All human beings are rational and autonomous beings,
o Debt/Bonded labor – employed close to their areas of entitled to equal respect
origin; inter-regional slave trade • Right to life, liberty, security, and other things are owed to
o Slaves used in Agriculture, Manufacturing, Industry all human beings, because the things that people have
• Modern- day slavery? = Child abduction, Forced labor, Selling human rights to are needed to preserve their rationality
baby, Forced chill beggar, Trafficking boat, Organ theft, Forced and autonomy
marriage, Human cage, Forced prostitution • Humans as Rational and Autonomous Beings
• Estimated Annual Profits from Trafficking = Asia highest number • Being rational – Using reason to figure out what to do is
• ILO Global Estimates on international Migrant workers morally acceptable way ( Shafer-Landau 2020)
• Human Trafficking = 40% migrants – Asia Pacific region, why? • Being autonomous: to be in control of one own life. Shaf
Major countries of origin, transit and destination (Top pyramid) • Kant: Rationality and autonomy of people makes them
• Modern Slavery bottom left pyramid supremely valuable and worthy of respect. Thus, to treat a
• Forced labor = highly gendered labor migration pattern and person as an end and to respect them as they deserve,
trends (bottom right pyramid) one must support their rationality and autonomy
• Displacement – Armed Conflict and Natural Disasters • Since all persons are rational and autonomous beings,
o Forced labor in Asia-Pacific region is world’s most respected is owed to every person equally
lucrative • Human Dignity – Humanity Principle (Immanuel Kant)
o Forced labor in fishing industry widely reported in • To always treat a person as an end, never merely as a
Cambodia, Thailand and Indonesia means (discrimination fail to respect person as ends)
o Victims are paid too little or not at all for 20hrs/day
• Commitment to impartiality: everyone deserve equal
o Reasons (on top heading)
respect due to their rationality and autonomy – regardless
o Displaced since 2008
of their sex, race, age
Week 3 (Part 5) Week 4 part 2
• Human Trafficking – Treating Persons as Mere Means • UNCRPD: What did it do?
o Principle of humanity prohibits treating someone as a mere • Marks a shift in the way societies view and treat
means persons with disabilities compare to the past
o Treating a person as a mere means is to use them in a way that • Emphasizes and enshrines the rights of PWDS as
they could not rationally consent to being used right holders and subject of law
o Many kinds of actions are not rationally consent to , amount to • Puts them in the center with rights to fully
treating people as mere means: Deception, Coercion, participate in formulating and implementing policies
Exploitation, Violations of Privacy that affect them
• Human Flourishing – Eudaimonia (Aristotle) • Reflects the social perspective that sees disability as
• ‘Happiness’ , ’Flourishing’ – exercise of reason a universal human experience not unique
o Reflects ‘ pursuit of virtue, excellence, and the best within us’ • Shifts the lens from seeing them as just unfortunate
(Huta & Waterman, 2014: 1426) few, the outliers of society
• Good life can be attained by practicing virtues like courage, wisdom, good
• Eliminate legal and social barriers that prevent
humor, moderation, kindness etc PWDs, from fully participating in society
o Eudaimonia – Highest good that human being can attain • Article 1 of the CRPD: Open-ended description of
o Eudaimonia as intrinsically good treaty, Persons with disabilities include those who
• Golden Rule have -long term physical, mental, intellectual or
• Treat others as you want to be treated (Gensler 2013:1) sensory impairments which in interaction with
• According to Gensler, Golden rule has been common to all major various barriers may hinder their full and effective
religions and philosophies throughout human history participation in society on an equal basis as other
• Commitment to human dignity, in the form of the golden rule, rule of • New titles, innovative measures and mechanisms of
reciprocity, or universal ethics for humans UNCRPD
• Accessibility (Article 9)
Week 4: Human Rights Part 2: Disability (Part 1)
• Living independently and being included in the
Topic 4.1: Human Rights and Disability community (Article 19)
• Personal mobility (Article 20)
• Disability = world largest minority . (80% lives in poor countries) means
• Habilitation and rehabilitation (Article 26)
= less access to physical amenities, less infrastructure, less financial
support, less social polices • Article 3: General Principles of UNCRPD consist:
o Involves issues to do with social exclusion • Respect for inherent dignity, individual, autonomy
o Increase exposure to abuses and vulnerability include freedom to make one own choice and
o Up to the 1970s globally, rights of disabled persons were not independence of persons
under the main purview, not a priority • Non-discriminations
o With the United Nations Charter there has been a slow • Full and effective participation and inclusion in
recognition that disabled people are rights bearers in society
international law • Respect for difference and acceptance of persons
o UN began to adopt non-binding declarations to do with the with disabilities as part of human diversity and
rights of disabled people humanity
o Change in terms used: Development delays for intellectual • Equality of opportunity
disorders PWD for disabled people • Accessibility
o Medical Model of disability which focusses on physical/medical • Equality between man and woman
defects or impairments • Respect for the evolving capacities of children with
o Social Model of disability which focusses on discriminatory disabilities and respect for the right of children with
barriers in society and the environment disabilities to preserve their identity
• United Nations Conventions on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities • UNCRPD promulgated by the UN in 2006
(UNCRPD) • Singapore signed UNCRPD on 30 Nov 2012, ratified
o Adopted by the UN in 2006 on 18 July 2013
o Very first human rights treaty that was developed by disabled • UNCRPD is encapsulated in two of the enabling
people for disabled people master plans
o 60 years after the UDHR • Singapore is an inclusive society where persons with
o Goal of UDHR is to promote and protect inherent dignity and disabilities are empowered, recognized ad given full
equality of all human beings (UNCRPD same but for disabilities) opportunity to become integral and contribute
Week 4 Part 3 Week 4 Part 4
• Topic 4.2: Disability in Singapore • History of Disability and Inclusion in Singapore
• Disability in Singapore • Before second world war, British heck care disability
• Those whose prospects of securing, retaining places and • Care of poor, disabled left to voluntary welfare and
advancing in education and training institutions, employment members of society
and recreation as equal members of the community are • After war, British noticed alarming trends and situation
substantially reduced as a result of Physical, Sensory, • Poverty, homelessness, vagrancy, juvenile delinquency
Intellectual and Developmental Impairments • 1946, gov setup social welfare department address state
• Developmental disability encompasses Autism as well as Down welfare policy include disabled
Syndrome and Cerebral Palsy • People with disability became cornerstone to gov policy in
• Persons with sensory (blind and deaf) and physical disabilities light of country industrialization and modernization
constitute half of the disability group • The social model (People are disabled by the barriers)
• Other half comprises those with intellectual and • Badly designed buildings, no lifts, isolation, few sign
Developmental Disabilities language interpreters, inaccessible transport and public
• Upward projection of persons with disability. With venues, poor job prospects, no ramps, special schools
demographic trend of ageing on the rise. Number of persons (Seek to change society to accommodate people living
with disabilities will increase significantly by 2030 with impairment)
• Strengthened the argument for social inclusion in SG • The Medical Model (People are disabled by medical
• Social Inclusion = encompasses and influences and shapes condition)
three main domains of a person’s life,, social, economic and • Can’t hear or see, Need help and carers, Can’t work,
political Dependent, Can’t walk, Looking for a cure ( Sought to
• UNESCO defines it as’ A society for all in which every individual, isolate and fix PWDS)
each with rights and responsibilities, has an active role to play • Shift in Government and Societal Mindset towards
• Social Exclusion Disabled Persons in SG
• Social inclusion can be a vague term but its easier to identify • Very pragmatic rationale behind the gov shift in and
how someone is excluded priorities and policies with regards to disabled person and
• Refers to systemic disadvantage or discrimination of an society with national interests of developing human
individual based on their identity resource
• Ethnicity, Race, Religion, Sexual Orientation, Descent, Gender, • Not just to develop and train certain segments but all
Age, Disability, HIV status, Citizenship, Nationality segments of society such that they will be productive and
• Why is social exclusion an issue? contributing member of society
• Unequal access to resources • Key milestone SG for disabilities policy
• Unequal participation • 1973 – Singapore Disability sport council, 1980 – Launch
• Denial of opportunities of car park label scheme, 1991- Assessment and diagnosis
• Implications of Social Exclusion units for early identification of developmental needs,
• Corrosion and breakdown of society because of poor social 1999- MOE launches Assistive technology fund, 2003 –
cohesion Compulsory education act, except those with special
• Entrench and worsen the marginalized conditions of segments needs, need attend primary school, Early intervention
of society Program for Infants and Children, 2006- first wheelchair -
• Communities who are socially excluded face unemployment, accessible public bus, Engaging person with disabilities in
poor educational outcomes, low income, poor housing Employment Fund, 2007 to 2011 – Enabling masterplan,
conditions, poor health and family breakdown 2019 – Children with moderate to severe special need to
• The Excluded Disabled attend government funded special education schools
• Face physical barriers to their inclusion • Social Inclusion in Singapore
• Are not included in legislations • PM LEE endorsed the UN catch phrase ‘ An inclusive
• Face financial struggles due to their inability to get education society where no one is being left behind,
and employment • Basic needs such as healthcare, education and public
• Face attitudinal barriers and obstacles in their day-to-day life housing that all persons in Singapore are entitled to
• All this shapes and defines the day-to-day experiences in • Social mobility so the ability to progress in life to get an
society and constitutes social exclusion of disabled people education to make a better living to support family
• Succession of SG Enabling Master plans which emphasis
and highlighted need for social inclusion (more to PWD)
 Week 4 Part 6:
Week 4 Part 5:
• Closing Thoughts
• The Way Forward
• Think about human rights as fundamental and universal
• Third Enabling Master Plan (2017-2021) envisions Singapore
to be caring and inclusive society where PWDs are • If we say human rights are fundamental and universal
because they are rights that apply to all humans, then we
empowered to achieve their full potential and participate
fully as integral and contributing member of society should try to think beyond the lenses of nation state
boundaries
• NCSS study with on needs of PWDs found that 6 in 10 PWDs
do not feel socially included, accepted and given equal • Need to move from object to subject
opportunities to contribute to society • Related policy should focus on heterogeneity of disabled
• Topic 4.3: Related Ethical Considerations people
• Human Dignity • Inclusion: Voices of the excluded, their aspirations, their
rights, what’s important TO them and what important FOR
• Kant and the concept of human dignity, Prinicple of
them
Humanity, we should always treat humanity as an end, never
as a means Week 5 Part 1: Reproduction Ethics
• Human dignity is the founding moral principle of the human
rights framework Topic 5.1: Introduction
• From UDHR, dignity is the innate worth of human beings • Reproduction ethics, or the ethics of reproduction is broad
• All human beings regardless of ability, physical appearance, • Consists of abortion, contraception, IVF, surrogacy, egg
race, religion gender and so on are persons with dignity and donation
have innate value and worth as human beings • Ethical question arise is these area might be:
• Prinicple about inherent dignity and worth of human being is • Moral status of embryo, morally acceptable to interfere in
encapsulated in the UNCRPD which emphasizes the reproductive processes, ethical to experiment on embryo,
importance of human dignity rights of woman people vs right of fetus, surrogacy a
• Prohibition of all inhuman treatment, humiliation, or commodification of a woman body
degradation by one person over another • Why abortion? (an issue of importance and contention)
• Assurance of the possibility for individual choice and the • Understanding the various perspectives around tricky or
conditions ‘ each individual’s self-fulfillment’, autonomy, or difficult ethical situations, can give us guidance on:
self- realization o How to make decisions
• Recognition that the protection of group identity and culture o How to justify these decisions
may be essential for protection of personal dignity o How to offer support and guidance to others
• Creation of necessary conditions for each individual to have • How is this relevant to you?
their essential needs satisfied • Helpful in bringing to light many of our own personal
• According to Clapham (2006), one of the main goals of beliefs and values
human rights is the protection of dignity • Cuts to the heart of what we think about rights, autonomy,
• Right and responsibilities life, duty, responsibilities, virtues, and values
• What should the rights of all individual regardless of race etc • Help you reflect on these important questions and identify
• Whose responsibility or duty? what you think is important, and more crucially, be
• Shift in approach towards disability issues over past 2 equipped to support your choices with good reasoning
decades, from one motivated by charity to one based on right • Roe v Wade overturned = 1973 ruling that recognized a
and equal opportunities woman constitutional right to an abortion legalized it
• Protecting and upholding rights of the disabled and nationwide in the US
disadvantaged- should not be seen as just a concern of • This is likely to affect poor and minority group the hardest
philanthropy but as a duty and responsibility at individual, • Blurs the distinction between church and state, which is
societal and state levels key to preventing religious conflict
• Limitation and disadvantages with regards to law • Sign of deepening conservatism in the US, which impact
• Companies in Thailand and Japan rather pay fine to on other issues such as gun control and healthcare
government for not hiring PWDs, • A guide for using some of the same tactics to limit access
• A law in place but societal attitudes may not be in sync to abortion elsewhere in the world, and increase stigma
• Prevailing issues still faced by PWDS around abortion even in countries where it is legal
• Lack of physical environment accessible to PWDs, Attitudinal • Be assured that abortion is extremely controversial topic ,
barriers, Employment, Participation in society, Discrimination give fair attention, try your best to listen, take a moment
and stigma, Isolation and social exclusion to decide, reach out
Week 5 part 2 Week 5 part 3
• Topic 5.2: Empirical Background • Why killing is wrong? (abortion)(Don marquis)
• Rate of abortion is decreasing • Human Iife is scared, killing take away someone
• Married woman increasing, teenagers dropping reasons (risk personhood
jobs, cannot afford, postpone childbearing) • Killing someone deprives them of a future, deprives them
• Abortion is prohibited after 24 weeks of pregnancy unless of everything they will experience, a good future one
woman life is in danger with happiness, future like ours
• Statistics about the effectiveness of banning abortions (Kramer • Topic 5.4: Virtue Ethics
2016): • Is a family of moral theories according to which morally
• Number of unsafe abortions rise right actions are explained by the nature of a good life,
• Estimate 47k woman die every year due to complications of and the good character traits (virtues) need to live such a
unsafe abortions life
• Does not prevent it from happening • How virtue ethics might be relevant to abortion?
• Latin America and Caribbean, 97% of woman live in countries • By virtue theory, its morally permissible to have an
where abortion restricted or banned, 44 abortions per 1000 abortion whenever a virtuous person choose to do it
woman, 26% higher than worldwide average • Greek philosopher and scientist who lived between 384
• Facts BCD (before Christian era) – 322BCE (ARISTOTLE)
• One of the safest surgical procedures for woman, takes place • Esteemed for his many contributions to philosophy and
within the first trimester and done by professional (give birth is ethics, physics, math, biology and politics
riskier than abortion) • Believe that virtues are necessary to have a good life or a
• No scientific evidence to support the idea that having an flourishing life
abortion is any more dangerous to a woman long term mental • Held that eudaimonia is the exercise of reason
health than delivering and parenting a child she did not intend • Argue that being about to reason well was the highest
• Early studies suggesting an increase in breast cancer among good for human because ability to reason is uniquely
woman who had abortions had found to be flawed and widely human function – what separates us from other beings
discredited • Held that highest human good cannot be attained
• Having an abortion will not usually affect your chance of without virtues
becoming pregnant and having normal pregnancies in future • Held that virtue necessarily require the excellent exercise
• Myth of reason: so to be virtuous, need to be able to exercise
• Dangerous procedure excellent reasoning
• Woman traumatized after abortions • Virtues involves exercising reason because determining
• Causes breast cancer what is virtuous require us to engage well in the process
• Causes infertility of reasoning
• Topic 5.3: Ethical Concern • Reasoning involves identifying something called the
• Difference people may approach the discussion around abortion ‘mean’
from different focal points • ‘Mean’ is what we find between two extremes of
• Question from perspective of Right character – on one end, ‘the excess’ and the other ‘the
• Whether pregnant person have a right to continue with deficiency’
pregnancy, does a fetus have rights or a right to life, fetus have a • Taking a risk = ‘drive’ towards the action of taking a risk
right to be carried to term, what kind of right is been use right of • Excess of such a drive would be to be rash
self determination or right to privacy • Deficiency of such a drive would be to be cowardly
• Question from the perspective of Moral status of fetus • To be virtuous, you would need to exercise reason, or
• Is it a person, when it become a person, is it consider a separate practical wisdom to be more specific, and work out the
being apart from the mother mean, which is to act neither rashly nor with cowardice,
• Is the fetus right to life stronger then the mother right to her but courageously
body • Practical wisdom is the ability to reason well about how
• The right to life is not an absolute right (Judith Jarvis Thomson one ought to act in circumstances. Aristotle held that
o In some cases abortion is morally permissible reasoning consists of two abilities. Practical wisdom and
o Having a right to life does not guarantee having either a theoretical wisdom. Latter had to more with theoretical
right to be given the use of the right use of another body wisdom like solving math problems
o Morally permissible where pregnancy cause by rape
o Morally permissible when need to save mother life
Week 5 part 4 Week 6: Euthanasia (controversial topic)

• Aristotle and Abortion Topic 6.1: The Concept of Death

• Is the person choosing abortion exercising reason excellently? • Relevance of Euthanasia and Abortion
• Are they assessing the mean between the excess of their drives • Draw out deepest and strongest ideas about various
or emotions and the deficiency of those drives or emotions aspects of life, understand what we value and why we
excellently? value it, lead more meaningful lives, reflect on
• Given the circumstances may decide that: being virtuous and intuitions, process the beliefs and attitudes
choice is a virtuous one, assessed poorly and are not being • What is Euthanasia? = happy death or good death
virtuous, circumstances where a virtuous person choose to abort, • Philosophy Robert Young writes ‘ When a person
virtuous person would never choose abortion under any circum performs an act of euthanasia, bring about the death of
• AL-FARABI (Islamic philosopher born in 870 CE) another person because she believes the latter’s
• Was a greatly admired medieval Islamic philosopher of Turkish or present existence is so bad that he would be better off
Persian origins dead, or believes that unless she intervenes and end his
• Greatly influenced by Aristotle and work on his own virtue theory life, his life will very soon become so bad that he would
• Agree with Aristotle on importance of the exercise of excellent be better off dead. Accordingly, motive of the person
reason who performs an act of euthanasia is benefit the one
• Held that the doctrine of the mean was crucial to virtue whose death is brought about.’
• Offered a breakdown of practical wisdom in 4 components: • Type of Euthanasia:
• Deliberative virtue or foresight, is ability to work out how to get • Voluntary
what you want to get o When it is requested by the person who
• Moral virtue, ability to discover what is morally good undergo it
• Natural virtue, that which enables a person to want a morally • Involuntary
good end o The person who undergoes it want not to do so
• Theoretical virtue, ability to gain knowledge about the world • Non-voluntary
• ‘ Sadists take pleasure in the suffering of other people. A sadist o The person who undergoes it is unable o
may have excellent deliberative virtue, in that they can find indicate if he wants it or not
ingenious ways to make others suffer. But the sadist is not wholly • Active and Passive Euthanasia
virtuous.’ • Acting (active) as opposed to doing nothing at all
• ‘ I could discover that it is morally good to drive less, fly less, eat (passive)
less meat, and so on, because it will help stem climate change. • Active euthanasia = whenever anything is done that
Even so, I might not actually do these things, contributes to the person death
• AL Farabi and Abortion • Passive euthanasia = nothing at all is done that
• Is the person exercising practical wisdom in decide to terminate contributes to the person death
pregnancy? • Example: Human action is the main cause of death as
• Given the circumstances, is the person excellently exercising all 4 opposed to injury or disease is the main cause of
components of his practical wisdom? death
• Given the circumstances we may decide that: person is virtuous • Active euthanasia = main cause of death is human
in so far as they had excellently exercised their reasons, where a action
virtuous person might choose to have an abortion, would never • Passive euthanasia = main cause of death is not only
choose abortion under any circumstances human action but instead injury or disease
• Why abortion is relevant topic for us to consider in line of ethics • Concept of death
• Empirical data collected about abortion • Are your dead when your heartbeat and respiration
o Rate of abortion declining irreversibly cease?
o Most married women and not teenagers undergo • Are you dead when your spontaneous heartbeat and
abortion respiration irreversibly cease?
o Stats on the main reasons for abortion • Are you dead if you irreversibly lose consciousness and
• Attempted to bust some myths include those that suggest your whole brain is dead?
abortion compromise healthy and safety • Are you dead if you irreversibly lose consciousness and
• Two most prominent argument for and against abortion your higher brain is dead?
• Judith Jarvis Thomson argue for, Don marquis and Objections
argue against
Week 6 part 2 Week 6 part 3

• Topic 6.2: Ethical Concerns • Objections to Involuntary Euthanasia

• Ethical Considerations • Euthanasia is done for the good of the person. So if a
person expresses a desire that it not be done, how can
• Traditional View
is be done for the good of the person?
o Passive euthanasia morally permissible and should be
legally permitted, Active is not morally permissible and is • Topic 6.3: Ethical Theories
illegal • Utilitarianism can be a Problematic Theory ( Race,
• Radical View Slavery) validity of theory should not be dependent
o Weak version: some cases where active euthanasia is on the history of its proponents.
morally permissible • Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory – in a
o Strong version: some cases where active euthanasia is nutshell, this means that what is moral or not is
morally obligatory decided base on the consequences
• Main issues for ethics then is whether there is in fact a moral • Consequentialism is a family of moral theories that ‘
difference between active and passive euthanasia. It indeed there shares the idea that the morality of actions, policies,
is no significant moral difference, then active euthanasia should motives, or rules depends on their producing the best
not be illegal actual or expected results’ (SHAFER-LANDAU 2020)
• Ethical Considerations • According to utilitarianism: An action is morally
• Theological reasons = tend to be same approach as the required if it maximises overall well-being. An action
theological one against suicide maximises overall well-being when it does more to
improve overall well-being than any other action you
• Non-theological reasons = Appealing to moral feelings or
could have done in the circumstances ( SHAFER-
intuitions
LANDAU 2020)
• Example = If a doctor let a patient die, for humane reasons, he is
• Well-being (good and valuable)
in the same moral position as if he had given the patient a lethal
• Overall well-being is the net well-being of all
injection for humane reasons. If his decision was wrong-if, for
example, patient’s illness was in fact curable- the decision would individuals affected by an action
be equally regrettable no matter which method is carried out. • Net well-being is the net balance of benefits and losses
And if the doctor decision was the right one, method used is not to well-being produced by action (Timmons 2020:7)
important – Rachels • Everyone’s well-being counts equally:’ the benefit (or
• Are active and passive euthanasia morally different? Arguments loss) to one person counts just as much as the same
• situations in which passive euthanasia is morally permissible, no size benefit (or loss) to anyone else affected by one’s
morally defensible distinction between passive and active actions’ (Timmons 2013: 114)
euthanasia, any situation in which passive euthanasia is • What to avoid = Absence of well-being
permissible is also one in which active euthanasia is permissible, • Example = Jeanette know she will not get any better,
active euthanasia is sometimes permissible euthanasia could free up the opportunity for another
• Objections to Voluntary Active Euthanasia (VAE) treatment, and parents no longer need to care for her,
• Supporters of Voluntary euthanasia usually hold that if a person: she feel it increases personal autonomy as she has a
o Suffering from a terminal illness sense of control over her own life
o Unlikely to benefit from the discovery of a cure for that • Objection to Jeanette case
illness during what remains of her life • How can we be sure, in advance of the act, that it
o Is as a direct result of the illness either suffering maximise overall well-being
intolerable pain, or only has available a life that is • Since:
unacceptably burdensome • Overall well-being is the net well-being of all
o Has an enduring, voluntary and competent wish to die individuals affected by an action
o Is unable without assistance to end her life • Net well-being is the net balance of benefits and losses
• Then VAE is morally permissible and provisions (both legal and to well-being produced by an action (Timmons 2020:7)
medical) should be made for this person to die – YOUNG • Everyone’s well-being counts equally
• Objections to Non Voluntary Euthanasia • Its hard to say jeanette choice to be euthanized will
• Euthanasia could be justified (active or passive) for those maximize overall well-being simply because we cannot
incapables to give their consent know with certainty
o Life is no value to them (eg are in a persistent • Other objections:
unresponsive or comatose state) • This put undue moral pressure on those who are ill or
o Life is horrible or quite likely to become horrible vulnerable to end their lives
• This creates a slippery slope to involuntary euthanasia
Week 6 Part 4 Week 6 Part 5

• Euthanasia: Legal in Netherlands. Dutch Regulations suggest: • Believers in the theory of Karma may argue that
• Carried out by a physician euthanasia is not morally permissible for the following
• Be based on a patient’s explicit request reasons:
• Patient’s decision must be durable and free • Bring bad karma to people doing it, because of the
• Must have an incurable condition which they find unbearable violation of the principle of ahimsa. ‘In both Hinduism
• Must be no reasonable alternative and Budhist traditions, all living creatures represent
• Independent physician must agree manifestations of the law of karmic rebirth. To honor
• Euthanasia and the Hindu ethics these, laws, one must show great respect for the
• May not be so surprising when we consider that the term ‘ preservation of life and non-injury of sentient beings.
HINDUISM’ itself is not in traditional, pre-colonial Hindu literature. Acts destructive of life are morally condemned by the
principle of ahimsa.’ Breaking these laws, as is arguably
• Prior to the modern period of history, authors
the case in Euthanasia, will mean that this person will
• The term itself is not rooted in any Indian language, but likely
have a lesser chance of moksha, as they are likely to be
derives from the Persian term ‘ SINDHU’, cognate with the Latin
reincarnated into a life of imperfection, and this is to be
‘INDUS’, used to refer to inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent
avoided. -Namita Nimbalkar. The Hindu Perspective
(Monier-Williams).
• Some schools of thought believe that body and soul are
• Its historical usage is thus an umbrella term that identifies many
two separate entities. They believe that soul and body
related religious and philosophical traditions that are not clearly
must separated at the right time, at a time that is not
part of another Indian tradition, such as BUDDHISM and JAINISM.
unnatural. Euthanasia, suicide, murder and so on result
(Shyam Ranganathan, Hindu Philosophy) all the content above
in the unnatural, untimely separation of the body and
• There is no such things as one Hindu ethics. So let be mindful of this
soul, which can affect moksha and liberation.
as we touch VERY briefly on some of these ideas in Hindu
• Possible Counterargument
philosophy
• Helping to end the life of a person who is suffering, has
• Four Values
autonomously chosen this for themselves, perhaps for
• Dharma = the ethical or moral (in action, or in character, often
the benefit of other well-being, doctor or person
translate as ‘duty’)
performing euthanasia is doing a good deed. As such,
• Kama = pleasure
doctor will earn good karma for fulfilling a moral duty
• Artha = economic wealth
• Perhaps even the person choosing euthanasia will incur
• Moksa = liberation from rebirth and imperfection. A sort of
good karma if their decision was based on promoting
salvation
the most well-being for others
• Hindu Philosophy and Euthanasia
• These choices arise from compassion. A’ concern for the
• There are three aspects of Hindu philosophy that are considered in
welfare of others, [by] one who is dying can be seen as a
line with euthanasia
sign of spiritual enlightenment.’ – Namita Nimbalkar,
• Karma = determines the nature of a person next life. Is the net The Hindu Perspective
outcome of the good and bad deeds that a person has done in their
• With reference to the untimely separation of body and
lifetime. If we accumulate bad karma, we are unlikely to achieve
soul, would not apply to prolonging some life artificially?
moksha, which as we said is the liberation from the cycle of death
As this too means body and soul are not separated at
and rebirth. This liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth. This
the right time
liberation is the ultimate aim for Hindus because it means you attain
• Believers in the theory of Ahimsa might be against
eternal freedom – Namita Nimbalkar, The Hindu Perspective
euthanasia because:
• Liberation = being freed from the cycle of reincarnation – being
• Ahimsa holds that ‘ One must consider all living beings
reborn means we re-enter into imperfection and suffering. Is an
in the image of one’s own self and thus not commit acts
interesting and controversial one. Some philosophers of these
of violence in thought, word or deed against other living
traditions argue that death is kind of liberation from the material
creatures.’ – Namita Nimbalkar
world
• Even this is complicated though: is it possible for us to
• Ahimsa (non-violence) = Hindu dharma proclaims, ‘ Ahimsa Paramo
argue that voluntary euthanasia, carried out according
Dharma/ or, Ahimsa is the highest form of dharma (virtue). Ahimsa
to regulations, with awareness and care, is not in fact
means non-violence, non-injury or non-killing… We must not be
committing violence on another living creature? Or that
indifferent to the sufferings of others. One must consider all living
allow suffering, and preventing autonomy in cases
being in the image of one’s own self and thus not commit act of
where a person is able to made a sound decision, and
violence in thought, word or deed against other living.’ Buddhism
therefore voluntary euthanasia, is in adherence with
hold it is a paramount virtue (Namita Nimbalkar)
ahimsa?
•
Week 7: Equality and Meritocracy – Two opposing Forces? Week 7 (Part 2)

• Topic 7.1: Equality • What is equality of opportunity?

• Why study equality? • Opportunity is defined as ‘chances of getting a good
• The phenomenon of equality is an important one both in academic if one seeks it’ (Arneson, 1989, .85; cited in Ferreira
research as well as in practice & Peragine, 2015)
• In the academic research, equality is studied as a conceptual topic • Equality of opportunity can be defined as ‘ equality
in many field (eg sociology, public policy, etc) of chances of attaining a good if an individual seeks
• In the practical scene, equality is often discussed/addressed as a it’ ( Ferreira & Peragine, 2015)
living outcome to be attained/strengthened by means of • An equitable (just) society secures for all its members
government/public policy (e.g. equality in access to education) equal changes to achieve their cared outcomes
• Phenomenon of equality is one that positively shapes the lives of (Ferrerira & Peragine, 2015)
many individual in many societies, including ours, whichever society • Equality of opportunity can be difficult to realize in
we may associate ourselves with(eg improve equality of access to real life as individuals have different economic/social
better paying jobs in the job market) circumstances, which can affect their chances of
• What is equality? social mobility despite heavy intervention
• ‘Equality signifies correspondence between a group of different • What is equality of outcomes?
objects, persons, processes or circumstances that have the same • Outcome can be understood as living outcome (e.g.
qualities in at least one respect, but not all respect, i.e., regarding level of income, education, access to healthcare)
one specific feature, with differences in other features’ (Stanford • Equality of outcomes can be defined as a situation
Encyclopedia of Philosophy) in which individuals approximately have/experience
• Based on the Stanford encyclopedia definition of equality, we can the same set of living outcomes
therefore say that it is not conceptually meaningful to talk about • Individuals have different personal goals; why should
total/complete/full/absolute equality they have the same outcomes (Phillips,2004)
• In everyday life, it is difficult to justify the existence of • According to Ronald Dworkin – the best life being the
total/complete/full/absolute equality as there will be some form of life committed to accumulating wealth and
inequality between individuals/communities/ institutions/ consuming luxuries comes as close as any such
societies theory to pure absurdity (Phillips,2004)
• Formal Equality • You are free to take whichever view you may wish on
• When two people have equal status in at least one normatively the concept of equality of opportunity and equality
relevant respect. Must be treated equally with regard respect of outcomes, but bear in mind that the equality of
• Proportional Equality outcomes is quite a problematic concept
• ‘ A way of treather others or a distribution is proportional or • Strength: When equality of opportunity is
relatively equal when it treats all relevant persons in relation to successfully practice in a given society, it can
their due’ equalize one very important living outcome, which is
• Moral Equality access to education
• ‘Everyone deserves the same dignity and respect’ ‘This is now the • Flaws: when the equal of opportunity is not
widely held conception of substantive, universal, moral equality’ practiced effectively in a given society
• Further entrench social divisions
• Example: Different nationalities are working together, which mean
there’s an equality of access to jobs, which cover formal and • Access to good education is not equally spread out
proportional across as many group people from various
• Different nationalities being able to work in this common workplace backgrounds as possible
setting demonstrates that these individuals are hired without • Those with financial or social resources can make use
discrimination, and this demonstrates moral equality of access to good education to further better their
station in life, education level and employability level
• ‘Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own
person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means, but
always at the same time as an end’ (Immanuel Kant Principle of
Humanity)
• ‘Treat others as you would like others to treat you’ (Golden Rule)
• Three concepts of equality are applicable in real life and they are
aligned with the two moral concepts
Week 7 Part 3 Week 7 Part 4
• Topic 7.2: Meritocracy • Procedural Meritocracy
• Why study meritocracy? • Based on law professor Daniel Markovits,’ The
• Meritocracy is a social system that, in various ways to varying meritocracy trap
degrees, is practiced in many societies, with one of the ultimate aims • Merit:’ individual agents deserve the rewards and
being to advance a particular society’s socio-economic development position they are able to earn in competitions that
o Use of education to facilitate upward social mobility, are free to anyone willing to join’
namely, the ability to get higher-paying jobs etc.( e.g., China, • Meritocracy produces elites in society via
Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, South Korea, etc.) ‘transforming education into a rigorous and intense
o Use of job-training schemes (e.g. re-skilling/ up-skilling contest to join the elite’ and ‘ creating a system of
courses) to facilitate employability, namely, the ability to work in which the most demanding jobs are also
get and remain employed in the job market (e.g. Singapore, the most lucrative (e.g. law finance)’
European Union, etc.) • Differences Platonic Meritocracy (Sonia 2021)
• Meritocracy is a system that impacts the lives of many of us in many • Assume talent/ ability are natural
societies and can be a vehicle to facilitate positive societal • Morally irrelevant features include the individual
development parent background, socio-economic status
• What is Meritocracy? • Rewards are distributed accordingly to a strict social
• ‘a social system in which advancement in society is based on an hierarchy of roles
individual’s capabilities and merits rather than on the basis of family, • Goal here is to pursues the common good of the city
wealth, or social background’ (Kim & Choi (2016)) and education ‘ in the ideal city is designed to
• In real world situations, it is (almost) practically impossible to ignore perform this function, rather than equip individuals
that individuals have different socio-economic circumstances (e.g. to make the choices they want in pursuit of their
different level of wealth, social connections etc.) personal conception of a good life’
• These connections can impact an individual’s access to and • Differences Procedural Meritocracy
therefore ability to take advantage of opportunities (e.g. educational • Assumes that talent/ability are learn and earn
employment) to facilitate the individual’s upward social mobility • Rewards are distributed ‘ simply the result of free
• To discuss meritocracy meaningfully in real world terms, we should market competition
understand it as a social system that rewards individuals • In a competitive market economy, all individuals
primarily/mainly based on merit rather than non-merit factors (e.g. presumably start with the same scheme of basic
family connection) freedoms and all opportunities are open equally for
• Meritocracy does not total discount the (potential) impact of non- competition
merit factors on an individual’s ability to take advantage of • A system is meritocratic by virtue of its meritocratic
opportunities within a meritocratic environment to further the procedures/processes
individual’s station in life • Visual aid platonic meritocracy external triangle:
• It purports that meritocracy prioritizes merit as a factor to distribute police soldiers auxiliaries
rewards to individuals in society • Inner triangle bottom producers: farmers artisans
• This contrasts with other forms of social system, for instance, an • Inner triangle top rulers: guardians
aristocratic system, rewards individuals (mainly) based on inherited • Procedural meritocracy visual aid best job for the
social lineage, family connections etc. best people (interviews)
• General definition of merit:’ a quality of achievement which entitles • Topic 7.3: Equality and Meritocracy
or gives one the right to a reward’ • We will look at the conditions under which equality
• Platonic Meritocracy and meritocracy oppose and complement each
• Based on ancient philosopher Plato’s account of an ideal city, The other
Republic • Conditions refer broadly to the social, economic and
• Platonic merit: ‘ Those who possess the natural talent and ability political situations/events/factors under which
that equip perform certain roles in the polis (city) deserve to be equality and meritocracy can oppose/ complement
assigned those roles after receiving proper education one another
• ‘ system in which individuals’ position and function within the whole • We will apply the concepts that we have covered so
reflect the differences in their natural abilities, while all other far on equality and meritocracy in the case study of
differences are neutralized and prevented from having an influence the Singapore tuition (private academy) industry
on the social order
Week 7 part 5 Week 7 Part 6

• Why Singapore tuition (private academy) industry? • Examples of other conditions, which can influence the
• Education has been used as a driver of Singapore’s socio- opposing or complementing relationship between
economic development for the past several decades, given lack equality and meritocracy
of natural resources • In presence of a fair political system/government that
• There is notable trend of pursuit of academic excellence in SG provides opportunities for individual regardless of their
• Key component of this education driver and culture is the tuition backgrounds to maximize educational opportunities,
industry of SG meritocracy can complement equality and drive socio-
• According to Household Expenditure Survey conducted by economic development
Singapore’s Department of Statistics, from October 2017 to • Presence of an inequitable or less than equitable
September 2018, Singapore households spent 1.4 billion on political system/ government that does not provide fair
tuition, figure increased from 650 million 15 years ago and 1.1 and adequate opportunities to individuals regardless of
billion 2012 their backgrounds to maximise their educational/
• 1000 MOE registered tuition center as of 2020 employment opportunities, meritocracy can hinder
• Minus income of private tutors, total tuition industry revenue 1.5 equality and stifle socio-economic development
bi • Practical world, amyriad of conditions can, at varying
• Look at the socio-economic divide condition to understand degrees, influence the opposing or complementary
equality and meritocracy can oppose or complement each other relationship of equality and meritocracy
• Important to note that the socio-economic divide is not the only • Topic 7.4: Conclusion
condition that influence the opposing or complementary • Type of conditions and degree to which these
relationship between equality and meritocracy conditions influence the opposing or complementary
• Rather than race or religion, class is potentially SG most divisive relationship of equality and meritocracy varies
fault line, which is the finding from the survey, raise question according to the society in question
whether SG society underpinned by equality and meritocracy • Whether these equality and meritocracy are opposing ,
• Equality and Meritocracy (SG tuition industry) or complementary force depends on the following:
• Opposing Conditions • Our definition of equality
• Socio-economic divide is heavily entrenched • Our definition of merit
• No/inadequate community/ public measures to help bridge • Our definition of meritocracy
divide • Society in question – existing political, economic and
• No/inadequate financial support scheme/ subsidies to ease social conditions that are distinct to this society
financial access of student from lower socio-economic rung of • Week 08: Multiculturalism – More of a Boon or More
the ladder to resources that they need to enhance their skill set of a Bane? Part 1
to attain socio-educational mobility • Topic 8.1: Multiculturalism
• No/inadequate outreach campaigns to inform the above • Why study multiculturalism?
students of the existence of programs/ policies that can enable • Many societies in the world today are ethnically and
them to enhance their skill sets culturally diverse and the reasons for this trend are
• The socio-economic divide (inequality) can remain or even varied, arguably, for instance due to globalization
worsen (meritocracy hinders equality) • ‘ globalization may be defined as the increasing
• Complementing Conditions interaction among, and integration of, the activities,
• Socio economic divide is considerably addressed especially economic activities, of human societies
• Adequate community/public measures to help bridge the divide around the word’ (MUSSA 2003)
• Adequate financial support scheme/ subsidies to ease financial • may argue that globalization is one of the key drivers of
access of student from lower socio-economic rung of the ladder multiculturalism around the world
to resources that they need to enhance their skill set to attain • Most, if not all of us, whichever society we may be
socio-educational mobility affiliated with, are shaped by globalization , for
• Adequate outreach campaigns to inform the above students of example, in our work, education, etc
the existence of programs/ policies that can enable them to • Therefore, we will need to further enhance our
enhance their skill sets multicultural competencies in terms of, for example.
• The socio-economic divide (inequality) can narrow or even Communicating and interacting with various culture
continue (meritocracy complement equality)
Week 8 Part 2 Week 8 part 3

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy define • Multiculturalism is an important and crucial ideal to pursue,
multiculturalism retain and strengthen
• ‘is an ideal in which members of minority groups can • Through multiculturalism, different cultures/ ethnicities can
maintain their distinctive collective identities and practices. have more opportunities to interact and communicate
In the case of immigrants, proponents emphasize that • This can better enable the different cultures/ ethnicities to
multiculturalism is to compatible with, not opposed to, the understand each other cultural norms/ customs/beliefs etc.
integration of immigrants into society, multiculturalism in many social situations, including the workplace
policies provide fairer terms of integration for immigrants’ • With a social environment that encourages mutual
• Important caveat to multiculturalism is that the definition of interaction, understandings, etc. between the different
multiculturalism does not assume that it, at least practically, cultures/ ethnicities, more diverse perspectives on
is free from tensions/ challenges/ difficulties approaching/ making sense of common issues/ difficulties
• Misunderstands/miscommunication among different confronting these cultures/ ethnicities, can be raised in the
cultures can arise and potentially escalate to tensions workplace and wider society
among them • Further encourage creative/ innovative solutions to
• Example, a lack of understanding of the respective cultural addressing the common issues/ difficulties and can create a
norms in business etiquette in a situation involving a more vibrant/ innovative society and economy as a whole
business deal/ discussion between parties from difference • Topic 8.2: Multiculturalism from the perspective of Moral
culture may stile or even bring the business deal to a halt Theories
• Critiques of Multiculturalism • Principle of Humanity (Shaffer-Landau, 2020)
• Cosmopolitan View of Culture • Always treat a human being (yourself included) as an end,
• Culture are not distinct self-contained wholes. They have and never as a mere means
long interacted and influenced one another through war, • Humanity: ‘ all rational and autonomous beings, no matter
imperialism, trade and migration their species’
• Preserving or protecting a culture runs the risk of privileging • As an end: giving the individual the due respect
one allegedly pure version of that culture, thereby crippling • As a means: treating the individual as a means to your end
its ability to adapt to change • On it, multiculturalism implies respect for all cultures/
• Jeremy Waldron ‘ rejects the premise that the options ethnicities and this in turn aligns with the ideal of treating
available to an individual must come from a particular individuals as end
culture; meaningful options may come from a variety of • Golden Rule (Gensler, 2013)
cultural sources. What people need are cultural materials, • ‘Treat others as you would like others to treat you’
not access to a particular cultural structure • It implies treating other cultures/ ethnicities and by
• Multiculturalism counter response ‘ cultures are extension, individuals as how one wants to be treated (i.e.
overlapping and interactive, but they maintain that with respect, understanding kindness, etc.)
individuals belong to separate societal cultures’ • Utilitarianism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2021))
• Universalist ideal of equality • Posits that the morally right action brings about the greatest
• Brian Barry: ‘ religious and cultural minorities should be good for the greatest number of people
held responsible for bearing the consequences of their own • Impartiality:’ Everyone happiness counts the same. When
beliefs and practices and the special accommodations are one maximizes the good, it is the good impartially
owed to people with disabilities, but he believes religious considered. My good counts for no more than anyone else’s
and cultural affiliations are difference from physical good.’
disabilities: the former does not constrain people in the way • Agent-neutrality: ‘ The reason I have to promote the overall
that physical disabilities do.’ good is the same reason anyone else has to so promote the
• Multiculturalism counter response ‘ many case where a law good. It is is not peculiar to me.’
or policy disparately impacts a religious or cultural practice- • If we define utility/ good as respect for/ advancement of
constitute injustice.’ cultural diversity in societies, then we can argue that
• Postcolonial critique multiculturalism’s call for integrating difference cultures/
• ‘ Some postcolonial theorists are critical of multiculturalism ethnicities in societies would help maximise the greatest
and the contemporary politics of recognition for reinforcing, utility/ good as defined for the greatest number of
rather than transforming structures, of colonial domination communities
in relations between settler sates and indigenous
communities.’
Week 8 part 4 Week 8 part 5
• Topic 8.3: Case study of the Global Workforce • Multiculturalism, boon or bane?
• Recent report 2020 on workplace diversity by OECD • More of a Boon (advantage)
(Organisation for economic co-operation and development) • In turns helps to drive creativity and innovation at the
• In an international organization that works to build better workplace
policies for better lives, goal is to shape policies that foster • Creates the social space for employees to voice diverse
prosperity, equality, opportunity and well-being for all. We perspectives on ways/ approaches to address as well as
draw on 60 years of experience and insights to better prepare solve common challenges
the world of tomorrow. Together with governments, policy • Creates and encourages a professional environment based
makers and citizens, we work one establishing evidence- on mutual respect and understanding various applicable
based international standards and finding solutions to a range cultural norms in the workplace
of social, economic and environmental challenges • More of a Bane (Disadvantage)
• OECD society and workforce can become increasing diverse • With different cultural norms existing alongside each
over the past decade; women’s participation in the labor other in a global workplace, misunderstandings over
market has increased significantly common issues can arise
• An example, participation rate rose from 61% in 2000 to 69% • Examples include, but not limited to, business etiquette,
in 2018 workplace communication, etc
• Number of immigrants and people from ethnic minorities have • In the worst-case scenario, these misunderstandings can
increased virtually escalate to tensions/ conflicts and can hinder workplace
• 1/10 living in OECD countries are foreign born productivity, innovation, etc.
• Workplace diversity report by OECD (2020) • 2017 boston consulting group survey found ‘ a strong and
• Discrimination, entrenched social norms, for specific group like statistically significant correlation between the diversity of
migrants, lack of networks and accessibility issue for PWDs, management teams and overall innovation’ (Lorenzo,
result in substantial labour market and wage gaps – even in Voigt, Tsusaka, Krentz & Abouzahr, 2018) below average
the public sector- and are a threat to social cohesion diversity scores lesser innovation revenue
• There is a sizeable societal and economic cost associated with • Topic 8.4: Conclusion
the under utilization of talent due to discrimination and non- • Advantages/ strengths of multiculturalism outweigh its
inclusion. Many businesses can benefit from having a more weaknesses and this stems mainly from that the fact that
diverse workforce. Public policy corporate governance both multiculturalism has the potential to encourage and drive
have economic as well as ethical reasons to promote equal workplace productivity, creativity and innovation
opportunities • Has the potential to ultimately foster greater inter-
• ‘ World Economic Forum is the international organization for cultural/ethnic understanding and respect, and in turn,
public-private cooperation. Forum engages the foremost better enable use to build kinder, more emphatic, and
political, business, cultural and other leaders of society to more tolerant societies
shape global, regional, and industry agendas. It was • there is no straightforward answer to this topic, require us
established din 1971 a not-for-profit foundation and is to consider the following factors:
headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. It is independent,
• specific socio-cultural context in question ( e.g. particular
impartial and not tied to any special interest.’
society, workplace)
• Workplace diversity by the WEF (2019
• specific issue/question at hand (e.g. work issue/ societal
• ‘ usiness has transformative power to change and contribute issue)
to a more open, diverse and inclusive society, we can only
• interests/ considerations of the parties involved
accomplish this by starting from within our organisations.
(stakeholders’ interests)
Many of us know intuitively that diversity is good for business.
The case for establishing a truly diverse workforce, at all
organizational levels, grows more compelling each year. Moral
argument is weighty enough, but the financial impact – as
proven by multiple studies – make this a no-brainer,’
• The coming together of people of different ethnicities with
different experiences in cities and societies is a key drive of
innovation. Food we eat everyday is a result of blending of
cultures. Musical genres are the product of cultural
amalgamation
Week 9 : Political Systems Types, Features, Moral Week 9 part 2:
Justifications, Problematics (part 1)
• Authoritarian Regimes: consist of 2 regimes
• Outline = Introduction , Features, System and Ideology, • Military Regimes
Problem of Best and Worst political System • Political freedoms: very restricted
• Political Systems Categories are Fluid and Changeable • Free and fair elections: No. predetermined outcomes
• US = Liberal Democracy + illiberal Democracy • Civil Liberties: Restricted
• SG = Limited Democracy + Liberal Democracy • Focus of political System: Order at all costs
• Political Participation: Limited and as approved by Military reg
• Dissent and resistance: Not allowed
• Example: Pakistan ( during military regimes)
• Authoritarian Monarchies
• Political Freedoms: Very restricted
• Free and Fair elections: No
• Civil Liberties: Not allowed
• Focus of political System: Order
• Political Participation: Not allowed
• Dissent and Resistance: Not allowed
• Example: Present-Day Saudi Arabia
• Totalitarian Regimes
• Topic 1: Features of Political Systems • Far-left / Far-right
• General feature of democracies • Political Freedoms: Not allowed
• Liberal Democracy • Free and Fair elections: Not allowed
• Political Freedoms: Unlimited • Civil Liberties: Not allowed
• Free and Fair Elections: Yes • Focus of Political System: Control all aspect of people lives
• Focus of Political System: Individualism • Political Participation: Absolutely not allowed
• Political Participation: Allowed with No Restrictions • Dissent and resistance: Absolutely not allowed
• Dissent and Resistance: Allowed with Restriction only of • Example: Nazi Germany, Khmer Rouge Cambodia
use of violence • Moral justifications of political systems
• Example: US • Freedom
• Limited Democracy • Liberal Democracy – Rule of the People
• Political Freedoms: Limited • Order
• Free and Fair Elections: Somewhat- Some restrictions on • Authoritarian Military Regimes – Putting House in Order
who can run for office • Morality
• Civil Liberties: Yes, but Somewhat limited for all • Illiberal Democracy – Defending Rightful Citizens
• Focus of Political System: Collectivist • Duty
• Political Participation: Allowed with No restrictions • Authoritarian Monarchal Regimes – Hereditary Privilege as
• Dissent and Resistance: Dissent Restricted, Resistance duty
Generally Not Allowed • Freedom as Order
• Example: Singapore • Limited Democracy – Limited freedom in interest of order
• Illiberal Democracy • Obedience as morality
• Political Freedoms: Unlimited for some ethic/racial grp only • Totalitarian Regimes – Far-right – Fascist/ Far left –
• Free and Fair Elections: Yes, but for some ethnic and racial communist – Obedience as loyalty, loyalty as morality –
grp • Morality as Duty
• Civil Liberties: Yes, Unlimited for Some • Totalitarian Regimes and Theocratic Regimes – Religious Rule
• Focus of Political System: Maintaining Status of Privileged as Morality and Duty –
grp • Topic 2: Political Systems and Ideologies
• Political Participation: Allowed with No Restrictions for • What are ideologies
some • What is the purpose of ideologies
• Dissent and Resistance: Allowed for some only • What are the problematics of ideologies
• Example: Present-Day Israel
Week 9 Part 3 Week 9 Part 4

• Structure of Ideologies • Do Far-left Far-Right Totalitarian Regimes similar feature?

• Seek to create: • Far-right (Nazi Germany) 1933-1945)
• Sense of identity – ideologies create identity, creating an • Blood and soil ultranationalist narrative = yes
us versus them attitude • Elimination and torture of political opposition = yes
• Societal roles – determine our roles in society/ what we • Death camps and burning books = yes
are supposed to do or not to do • Genocide: Targeting specific ethnic/racial/religious grp = yes
• Sense of goals – determine the goals for a society • Groups targeted = jews, gypsies, handicap and mentally ill
• Norms and values – create norms and values for society/ persons, dissenters, intellectuals
determine what is good and bad for us • Political system and Political Ideology = Totalitarian Nazi
• Claims of Truth – All ideologies present their claim as The Ideology
Truth and as The Best Belief System • Justification: Obedience – as-Morality = yes
• Group Relations – determine who are friends are, and • Religious Affiliation = Protestant Christian
who our enemies ought to be • Country that supported the Regime = Fascist Italy, Imperial jp
• Problematics of Ideologies: • Expansion Beyond Borders = yes
• Tend to create or justify hostility towards others, the • Number murdered = Approx 6 million
‘outsiders’ by encouraging an us versus them mentality • Khmer Rouge, Cambodia (Far-left)(1975-1979)
• Political Systems and Ideologies: Compatibilities • Blood and soil ultranationalist narrative = yes
• Democratic = Liberalism, Conservatism, Nationalism, • Elimination and torture of political opposition = yes
Socialism • Death camps and burning books = yes
• Authoritarian = Conservatism, Socialism, Nationalism • Genocide: Targeting specific ethnic/racial/religious grp = yes
• Totalitarian = Fascism, Communism, Nazism • Groups targeted = Ethnic Vietnamese, Ethic Chinese, cham
• Type of Ideologies: Muslims, Buddhist and Christian groups, intellectuals
• Liberalism = Favoring individualism, social/ political • Political system and Political Ideology = Totalitarian
diversity, least government control Communist Ideology
• Conservatism = favoring traditional values, status quo, low • Justification: Obedience – as-Morality = yes
social diversity • Religious Affiliation = Atheist
• Nationalism = focus on nation and pride for nation – • Country that supported the Regime = Communist China
concept of nation can supersede national boundaries, • Expansion Beyond Borders = Desired but not achieved
examples: racial, ethnic, linguistic group as nations • Number murdered = 1.5mill – 3mill
• Fascism = Ultra-Nationalistic Ideology of Racial • Topic 3: Problematics of the ‘Best’ and ‘Worst’ Political
Supremacy, Target Minority group, No political Dissent Systems
allowed • Tyranny of the Majority < liberal democracy goes to
• Nazism = extreme form of fascism, advocating racial • Liberal democracy > rule of the majority ‘we the people’ >
supremacy and elimination of racial minorities suppression of minority views > minority fear of ostracization
• Socialism = economic equality of citizens and sharing of all > minority tendency to conform > tyranny of the majority
economic resources equally • Democratic Despotism < liberal democracy goes to
• Communism = government ownership of all economic • Liberal democracy > Too much emphasis on individualism >
resources negation of civic duties and responsibilities > individualism in
• Example of Moral Justifications of Political Systems: contradiction to civic duty > bullying of others in the name of
• Totalitarian Regimes (Communist) = Khmer Rouge liberty > chaos/ violence/ riots in the name of liberty/
Cambodia 1975-1979 Present day North Korea individual freedoms > democratic despotism
• Authoritarian Regimes (Socialist) = Present Day China • Dangers of totalitarian regimes (Newspeak/Double-
• Liberal Democracy (Liberal) = Present Day US speak/Thought crime)
• Illiberal Democracies (Conservative) = Present Day Israel • ‘Ignorance is strength freedom is slavery war is peace’ (George
• Totalitarian Regimes (Fascist/Nazi) = Nazi Germany (33-45) orwell)
• Democratic Socialism (Socialist) = Present Day Western EU • Paradoxical logic > deceiving citizens > controlling citizens
• Limited Democracy (Conservative) = Present-Day • Paradoxical logic > controlling citizens
Singapore
• Authoritarian Regimes (Conservative) = Military Regimes
Week 9 Part 5 Week 10 Free speech (Part 1)

• Newspeak = Fictional Language Used in’ Oceania’ in the • Topic 1: Meaning of Speech
Novel 1984 • Speech = Expression of belief – Freedom of speech is
• Double-speak = Tactic used by politicians in real-life freedom of expression
• Both share same meaning which is : • Types:
• Use euphemisms to hide the real meaning of things • Verbal = What said or written ( Hate speech, Anti-hate
• Using words that have contradictory meaning to deceive speech, feminist speech, LBGTQ speech, published books,
and control people published articles)
• Example = (Orwell said at week 9 part 4), Nazi Germany • Symbolic = Speech without words = T-shirts with political
framing of extermination of jews as duty and morality messages, Flying flags/ burning flags, Special handshakes/
• Thought Crime = category of crime in the fictional novel salutes, Uniforms/ Banners
1984 • Associations = Speech through Associations = Religious
• In Real-life, ‘thought crime’ is a central feature of Associations, Conservative, Libera, Radical, Nationalistic,
totalitarian regimes Ethnic/Racial, Communities
• Meaning = making dissenting ideas illegal, framing ideas of • Autonomy = Speech as Independent Action = Riots,
resistance as illegal, encouraging conformity Resistance Movements, Peaceful Assembly, Vigilante Action,
• Toxic mix of ideology and Terror Pornography (Exclude Chill Pornography)
• Ideology + terror = perpetuation of totalitarianism • Importance of Free Speech = Equality (Among Citizen),
• Ideology > claims of truth > acceptance of terror as Autonomy (Self-Determination), Political Freedom (For All
justifiable punishment > acceptance of conformity > citizens), Promoting Truth (Through Free exchange of Ideas)
perpetuation of totalitarianism • Reasons of Equality, political freedom, autonomy, and
• Terror > acceptance of terror as justifiable punishment > promoting truth are also the reasons why undemocratic
acceptance of conformity > perpetuation of totalitarianism states, especially totalitarian states, prohibit free speech
• Summary • All democracies – liberal democracies (Like the US and
• Difference between liberal democracy and limited is the Western Europe ) or limited democracies (like Singapore)
degree of freedoms allow some element of free speech
• Difference between liberal and illiberal is while in liberal • Consider the Following Quotes:
freedom is available to all, illiberal, freedom is only • Nothing strengthens hate groups more than ceonsoring
available to some racial/ethnic/religious group them, as it turn them into free speech martyrs, feed their
• Tyranny of the majority is a concept that explains how sense of grievance and forces them to seek out more
majority can dominate the numerical minority by voicing destructive means of activism
their view more loudly thereby bullying the minority to • Conversely, as the aftermath of Charlottesville has proved,
conform in liberal democracies nothing exposes the evil of such groups, thus weakens them,
• Difference between authoritarian and totalitarian regimes like letting them show their true nature’ (Glenn Greenwald)
is the level of control by the government. Similarity both • In American society today, real power commanded by the
are oppressive political system racist is likely to vary inversely with vulgar, with it expressed.
• Democratic despotism is concept that too much focus on Those who advocate hate speech laws invite us to spend
individualism in liberal democracies can lead to negation of more time worrying about speech codes than coded speech.
civic duty and lead to violence and chaos (Harvard university professor, henry louis gates. Jr)
• Certain political ideologies are compatible with certain • Broader questions to Ponder = given logic of free speech
political systems. Though expectations can exist should it be regulated, if the rationale for free speech is to
• All totalitarian regimes use some element of double speak achieve truth, should the speech of anti-vaxxers be
to deceive and all resort to the notion of thought crime to outlawed? (Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy)
intimate people into obedience and conformity • Topic 2: Universal Regulations of Free Speech
• Use of ideology always combined with the use of terror in • Circumstances when free speech is regulated (even in liberal
totalitarian regimes, and it is always the combination democratic states):
sustains a totalitarian regime • True Threat = Expressions of intent to harm against a specific
individual or group
• Example: Actual words or symbols, Hate group
• Fighting Words = Provocative statements to get someone to
fight with you
• Examples = hurtful racist remarks, Neo-Nazis marches
Week 10 part 2 Week 10 part 3

• Harassment = Verbal or symbolic expressions of hate or insult • Hate speech and violence from hate speech (2 category)
that alters the targeted individual’s way of life • Harm
• Example: Workplace sexual harassment o Physical
• Bias Crimes = Verbal or symbolic speech that incites violence ▪ Death
due to a bias against an individual or group • Murder
• Example: Anti- LBGTQ bias, Anti-Women Bias, Anti- • Suicide
handicapped person bias ▪ Hospitalization
• Punishment incitements = Inciting someone else to use o Personal
violence against a specific individual or group, can be verbal ▪ Loss of Job/ Inability to secure a job
or symbolic ▪ Forced to change lifestyles
• Examples = Leader of terrorist group/ movement, leader of • Offense
hate group/ movements o Psychological Harm
• Facilitating Criminal Conduct = Providing Information or ▪ Feelings of Insult
logistics to someone to facilitate their hate crime ▪ Alienation
• Examples = Collaborating with hate groups o Emotional Harm
• Regular German citizens who collaborated with the Nazi ▪ Anger
regime by reporting on the whereabouts of jews ▪ Sense of Injustice
• Universal Regulation of Speech = How do determine harm • Universal Regulations of speech
from hate speech, meaning of harm, how do deal with hurt • Speech
caused by hate speech o Expressions of belief (Freedom of speech is
• Harm principle freedom of expressions)
▪ Unclear if qualifies for harm principle
• Basic = a measure to determine the extent of harm done to
the victim by unregulated speech, establishes whether harm • Verbal
can be litigated (take legal action against) • Symbolic
• ‘Harms’ means direct violation of an individual rights due to ▪ Qualifies for harm principle
hate speech = Bodily harm done to the victim, loss of job as a • Associations
result of hate speech (harassment), inability to secure job as • Autonomy
a result of discrimination and hate speech, victim forced to • Topic 10.3: Dangers of Unregulated Free Speech
change their lifestyle due to fear of being targeted (bias • Paradox of Tolerance
crime), Death – either murder or suicide • Democracy > Unlimited Tolerance Unregulated Free
• Harm principle does NOT concern itself with the following = Speech > Proliferation of Hate groups > Intolerance of
does not concern itself with morality or immorality of free Differences
speech (especially in terms of pornography) • Paradox > Tolerance leads to Intolerance
• Offence Principles • Important Note:
• Basic = relevant when hate speech does not qualify for harm • Paradox of Tolerance reflects Plato fear of democracies
principle, intended to censure (publicly disapprove) hate • Paradox of Tolerance is an idea forward by Karl Popper
speech • Present-day liberal democracies DO regulate free speech,
• What is offence principle good for = best for cases of but regulations have higher thresholds
psychological or emotional harm, as these cannot be proved • There is no such thing as completely free speech, even in
well enough to qualify for harm principle, as such, offence liberal democracies – Stanley Fish, Stanford Encyclopedia
principle can be applied to case of pornography as here, too, of Philosophy
actual harm is hard to established, several feminists have • Topic 10.4: Summary
used the offence principle to censure pornography • ‘Speech means more than just what’s said’ – speech also
• Offence principle and neo-nazi march = Jewish community in includes symbols such as shirts we wear or flags we fly,
Skokie, Illinois, was not successful in prosecuting the Neo- associations we join these are indirect way for us to speak
Nazis for marching through their neighborhood as it was through our association with group of movement, speech
deemed that actual harm not be established since the neo- include act of autonomy
Nazis did not resort to any violence, however jewish • All state impose regulation on free speech (include liberal
community was able to establish offence caused by neo-nazi democracies) only difference is in the threshold of
march, and were therefore successful in shaming the neo- limitations
nazis publicly
Week 10 part 4

• 6 major universal criteria for regulating free speech .

• True threats
• Punishable
• Incitements
• Fighting words
• Harassment
• Facilitating criminal conduct
• Bias crime
• Harm principle is the criteria to determine whether hate speech has caused harm and if it can be
litigated. (US has higher threshold for harm principle then SG)
• Offense principle was created, we learned, to censure publiciy disapprove hate speech, and this is
applied when hate speech doesn’t qualify for harm principle and cannot be litigated
• 2 main dangers of unregulated free speech, paradox of tolerance and process of violence