Kaizen: The Japanese word for continuous improvement.

It means constant improvement in an unending

series of small steps. 1-Customer needs 2-Design (Plan) 3- Do 4- Feedback (Check) 5- Improve (Act).
The steps are 5: Identify the business case (reduce inventory), set goals (time, money), select the team
(chosen with a specific reason), collect data(lead time, 5S, cycle time) and plan to support the Kaizen
activity(adjust work scheduled)
Stages of Kaizen: document reality, identify waste, plan countermeasures, reality check, make changes,
verify change, measure results, make this the standard celebrate and do it again. In summary planning and
preparation, event, report out and follow up.
DMAIC: Define-Measure-Analyse-Improve-Control.DMAIC is the six-sigma process improvement
cycle.
Define: problem description: What is wrong? How does it affect the customer? Objectives is what do we
want to achieve.
Measure: collect data. Identify key process input variables (KPIV) and key process output variables
(KPOV). Map the process.
Analyze: conduct RZA, prioritize root causes, perform data analysis, use tools such as Cause and Effect
diagram, control charts and FMEA.
Improve: brainstorm solutions that might mix the problem. PDSA (Plan-Do-Study-Act cycle). Develop a
pilot plan. Implement solution.
Control: make a plan for sustaining improvement, standardize the process and document the improved
process. Continuously improve the process.
DPMO: Defects per million opportunities, a measure of process quality.
DOE (Design Of Experiments): is a structured experimental strategy that allows evaluation of processing
variables (X´s) on their ability to influence a product or a process characteristic(Y´s). Is useful to identify
important factors, establish process stability and find the vest operating conditions. It is linked with
DMAIC.
Steps to Experimentation: Establish Objective, identify factors, conduct experiment and implement.
How to analyze a DOE: six sigma rules of analysis: practical, graphical and analytical.
Effect: the effect of a given factor is calculated numerically as the average response when a factor is high
less the average response when the factor is low.
Interaction Effects: multiply the signs of the two factors together to determine the sign of the interaction
effect. Strong Effect: lineal line or both lines cross. No effect: straight line or no cross in between.
DOE and the Role of Questions: Key questions: What is the objective of the DOE? Is the objective of
the DOE something we already know? What is the response? Are the responses qualitative or
quantitative? Can the responses be measured? Is the measurement system adequate?
Ingredients for a Good Experimental Strategy: Clearly defined objectives, knowledge of the process,
selection of factors and levels, knowledge of environment, prepare a DOE plan.
Regression Models: Steps: 1-Hypothesize deterministic component 2- Estimate unknown model
parameters 3-Specify probability distribution or random error term 4-Evaluate model 5- Use model for
prediction and estimation.
Y=mx + a- m=slope; a=intersection. Yi=beta0+beta1*Xi+Ei. Yi=dependent variable. Beta0=population.
Beta1=population slope. Xi=independent variable Ei=error.
Statistics: the collection, tabulation, analysis, interpretation and presentation of numerical data, provide a
viable method of supporting a topic under discussion.
Population: collection of all possible elements, values or items associated with a situation.
Sample: is a subset of elements or measurements taken from a population.
Deductive statistics: describe a population or complete group of data. The investigator must study each
entity within the population. It provides a great deal of information but it consumes time.
Inductive statistics: deal with a limited amount of data or a representative sample of the population.
Measurement error: is considered to be the difference between a value measured and the true value. The
error occurs by accuracy or precision.
Accuracy: refers how far from the actual or real value the measurement is.
Precision: is the ability to repeat a series of measurements and get the same value each time.
Frequency diagram: shows the number of the measures values occurred when the data were collected.
Steps to create a frequency diagram: collect the data, count the number of times each measurement
occurs, construct the diagram by placing the counts values on the x axis and the frequency of occurrences
on the y axis, and last interpret the frequency diagram.
Steps to create a histogram: collect the data and construct a tally sheet, calculate the range, create the
cells by determining the cell intervals, label the axis, post the values, and interpret the histogram.
FMEA (failure mode and effects analysis): it identifies the ways in which a process can fail to meet
critical customer requirements. It estimates the risk of specific causes with regard to the failures.
Evaluates strengths and weaknesses in a plan. Prioritizes the actions that should be taken to improve the
processs. In 1991 ISO 9000 recommended use of Product and Process FMEA.
FMEA model: W´s are the causes. X´s are the failure mode or defect. Y´s are the effect.
Failure mode: the way in which a specific key process input fails. If not detected and either corrected or
removed it will cause Effects to occur. X´s
Effect: impact on customer requirements. Generally external customer focus but can also include local
effect or downstream processes. Y´s.
Causes: Sources of variation that cause the failure mode to occur. W´s
Severity: importance of effect on customer requirements, could also be concerned with safety and other
risks if failure occurs. 1 not severe, 10 very severe.
Occurrence: frequency with which a given cause occurs and creates failure mode. Can sometimes refer
to the frequency of a failure mode. 10 very likely and bad.
Detectability: ability of current control scheme to detect the cause before failure or the failure mode
before causing an effect. 10 not very likely at all to detect and bad.
RPN (Risk Priority Number): is the output of a FMEA, it is calculated by multiplying severity times
occurrence times detectability. Worst case 1000. Best case 1.
Preparing for the FMEA: team effort and inputs like Process Map, C&E Matric, and the 6 M´s
(Materials, Manpower, Machine, Methods, Measurement Systems, Mother Nature)
Steps to create an FMEA: study the system, process, or part. What are the potential failure modes? What
are the potential failure causes? What are the potential failure consequences? What are the existing
controls? Identify Risk Priority Code and analyze the document.