The_Cambridge_Guide_to_Orchestration_----_(Chapter_4_Plucked_instruments)

CHAPTER 4 PLUCKED INSTRUMENTS
This listing includes various instrument groups which have only one thing in common: the pro-
duction of sound. This is produced by plucking either strings (plucked chordophones) or an
elastic resonating body (plucked idiophones). Even some keyboard instruments like the harp-
sichord, spinet, virginal and others are, technically, plucked instruments. The sound of these
instruments cannot be artificially lengthened once they are plucked. Some of these instruments
produce a sound of naturally longer duration or include a resonance chamber which can extend
the sound. Others do not; in their case, the tones fade very quickly.
The plucked idiophones (represented most importantly by the mouth harp) as well as the
plucked instruments with keyboards (especially the harpsichord) are discussed in the chapters
on percussion instruments and keyboard instruments, respectively. Here we will limit ourselves
to a discussion of the plucked chordophones.
Harp
General information
The harp is a plucked string instrument with forty-seven strings.
Range:
8va
8ba
With scordatura it is possible to adjust the lowest tone (C) down to a B (see Ravel’s Daphnis
et Chloé and Berg’s Wozzeck) or even an A. The upper limit of the range (g ) can also be
adjusted upward a minor 2nd to a .
Registers and their characteristic timbres

Principally, the harp can be divided into three acoustic ranges of approximately similar sizes:
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䡲 lowest third: diffuse, dark and sonorous

䡲 middle third: warm and rich
䡲 upper third: clear and thin. This register has a limited dynamic range, and loud tones should
not be required.
Let vibrate / laissez vibrer

While tones of the first two registers have a natural tendency to ring, those of the uppermost
register lose this quality. If the sound needs to be allowed to ring, then the instruction “let
vibrate” or in French “laissez vibrer” should be added above the notes. The abbreviation “l.v.”
is in general use and will be understood without problems. The same effect can be requested
with a tie, and some orchestrators use both directions simultaneously:
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196 Plucked instruments
l.v. l.v. l.v.
Sons étouffés
If, on the other hand, a specific pitch should not be allowed to ring (while others are), then the
symbol for étouffé should be used ( ):
l.v. l.v.
This symbol can mean one of two things:

䡲 Do not allow to vibrate: muffle the note after it is played.
䡲 Mute the tone before playing.
This issue will be discussed in detail later (see “Muting” on page 214).
Hands on the strings

The harp is played with four fingers of each hand. As the instrument rests on the right shoulder
of the player, the right arm is somewhat restricted in its movement compared with the left. For
this reason, some playing techniques can be used in the right hand only to a limited degree. The
little finger of each hand is not normally used except for certain types of glissandi and in mod-
ern techniques in literature of the twentieth century and later. To help the player’s orientation,
the C-strings of the harp are colored red and the F-strings blue or black.
Feet on the pedals

The harp has seven pedals, each of which controls one pitch (in all its chromatic variations) in
all octaves. Only the lowest and highest strings (1C and g ) cannot be controlled by the pedals;
their tuning must be manually altered. (Note: there are exceptions. On some harps, the tuning
of the two lowest strings, 1C and 1D, is altered manually; the g -string is controlled with the
G-pedal.) The pedals, housed in the pedal box, are controlled with the feet. Each pedal can
be set to three levels or notches, either its home position (its highest notch) or one of the two
lower notches. In its home position, the string is at its shortest length and minimum tension.
If, for example, the A-pedal is set to its first notch, the pitch is changed from A to A; the
second changes it to A. When all seven pedals are in the home position, we have only pitches
with flats – C major. Lowering the pedals to the first position raises the pitches to C major;
lowering them further to the second position raises the key to C major. It follows that:
䡲 The basic tuning of the harp is C major.
䡲 The flats sound more natural than the sharps. For this reason, the harp part often has many
flats in works with many sharps: for example, the orchestra plays in C major but the harps
play in D major.
䡲 Double flats and double sharps are not used in harp notation (except in very rare examples
of scordatura).
Though the basic tuning is C major, the pedals and strings are designated with the tones of C
major (A-string, B-string, E-pedal, etc.). The left foot adjusts the following pedals (listed from
left to right, as seen by the player): D, C and B. The right foot adjusts the pedals E, F, G and A.
Sometimes the E-pedal can also be adjusted with the left foot and the B-pedal with the right.
Both cases are very rare, however, and should not be considered normal.
Harp 197
The pedals can be adjusted more quickly than one may think. The novice orchestrator should
know which pedals are adjusted with which foot. One foot cannot adjust two pedals at the
same time. There is one special case: two pedals which are located next to one another can be
adjusted by one foot from the same start to the same finish position (for example, F and G to
F and G). This should not, however, become a routine operation. One should also remember
that adjusting the pedals makes some noise. Enharmonic substitutions (see below) can be used
to avoid many unnecessary adjustments of the pedals.
As the characteristics of the pedals make clear, the harp is not a chromatic instrument. If the
harp is used in a very chromatic piece, the following points may be observed:
䡲 The harp may be given a simplified melodic or harmonic part, which contains few or no
chromatic changes.
䡲 Two or more harps can be used so that chromatic notes are divided between them.
䡲 If possible, enharmonic substitutions should be used (see below).
䡲 The harp can be omitted altogether and replaced by other instruments such as piano, celesta,
vibraphone, glockenspiel, and so on as necessary.
Enharmonic notation
Enharmonic notation can be very helpful for the realization of harp parts and essentially means
that the same pitch can be played on two separate strings. It is most important in its use in sim-
plifying tone repetitions, which are not so easy to play on one string. When a single string is
plucked repeatedly, it is also repeatedly muffled, which results in an unclear sound. When, in
contrast, two different strings are tuned to the same pitch (for example, the D- and C- strings
to D and C, respectively) and plucked in alternation, the repeated tone sounds much clearer.
There are only three pitches which cannot be played on the harp using enharmonic substitu-
tions – d, g and a – as none of their neighboring strings can be tuned to these pitches (there
are, as we know, no double flats or double sharps on the harp).
The passage in the following example is impossible to play at a fast tempo, as there is not enough
time to adjust the B-pedal from B to B and back again (a). Even at a slower tempo, which
would technically allow these pedal adjustments, the noise of the continuous changes would
become too dominating. A solution would be to adjust the otherwise unused C-string to C
and use it instead of the B (b):
a. b.
The term “homophone sounds” is found instead of “enharmonic sounds” in some literature but
because the word “homophone” has another meaning, the use of this term is not recommended.
Notation
Usually two staves are used for harp notation – one for each hand, whereby treble and bass clefs
are used as the registers require. Some composers notate sharps and flats at the beginning of
the staff; some only accidentals as required.
Indication of pedal changes
One important aspect of writing for the harp is notating instructions for changing the pedals.
The first position of the pedals should be notated at the beginning as well as each change
that follows. However, harpists are not of one opinion concerning at what point pedals should
be changed and many composers are still not well versed in these details. For these reasons,
enough space should be left in the harp part so that the player can write in the pedal changes
where he really needs them.
For orchestrators who want to enter the pedal changes themselves, the following information
will be helpful. Let us assume we need the following tones: D, C, B, E, F, G and A. Disre-
garding the enharmonically doubled tones, we have a total of five pitches. These can be notated
in four different ways:
1. This notation is very professional and is much appreciated by harpists. They can react very
quickly to this diagram without having to read the names of the pitches. The levels of the
pedals (home position, first and second levels) are indicated graphically. All flats are writ-
ten above the horizontal line. Notes without accidentals are written on the line; sharps are
written below. The vertical line divides the pedals of the left foot from those of the right.
It is recommended that the vertical bars above and below the horizontal line (representing
the flats and sharps) should not touch it. In this way they are easier to distinguish from the
tones which are not chromatically adjusted.
2. This notation also represents a very simple and practical method for showing pedal changes
and it is recently becoming more and more popular: ∨ stands for tones with flats; ∧ stands
for sharps and — stands for tones without accidentals. The vertical line divides the left foot
from the right.
3. This, too, is a very simple and clearly understandable system. The names of the tones are
written on the same side and in the same order as the pedals themselves:
D, C, B / E, F, G, A
4. Here the pedals of the right foot are written above and those of the left are written below,
and they are listed outwards from the middle.
E, F, G, A
B, C, D
The notation methods described above are recommended for general instructions at the begin-
ning of a piece or the beginning of a longer section. Further changes during the piece can be
notated as follows: “change A to A,” “change C to C,” etc. It is better to write these instructions
above or below the entire two-staff system and not between the staves.
Functions of the harp in the orchestra

The harp can assume or take part in any function in an ensemble. Though of course its dynamic
restrictions and limited chromaticism always remain, the harp can enrich chamber and orches-
tral music with many different colors and effects. It can play primary or secondary melodies
Harp 199
(in whole or in part), provide different kinds of accompaniment (chords, arpeggios and other
figurations), support the bass line, and create other effects, which will be discussed below. The
scores of Debussy and Ravel provide excellent examples of all the harp can contribute in an
orchestral setting besides glissandi. The harp part of the first movement of Debussy’s La Mer
alone is a wonderful learning resource for the orchestrator.
Short history of the harp

Before we discuss the special effects available on the harp, it will be helpful to cast a backward
glance on the instrument’s history. The harp is over 5,000 years old. It originated in the Orient
and has experienced many modifications and improvements in its construction. In Europe, the
harp was originally a purely diatonic instrument, and throughout the years different attempts
were made to add chromatic notes. One such attempt in approximately 1720 led to the simple
pedal harp, which, in addition to C major, had all the flat keys at its disposal. (Mozart wrote
his Concerto for Flute and Harp for this instrument.) In 1810, Érard invented the fully chro-
matic double-pedalled harp, which is still used today. Another chromatic harp was invented
in Lyon in 1845. It had no pedals, but two rows of strings which were strung crossed in an X
shape. Despite certain advantages (no pedals, no shortening and lengthening of the strings),
this instrument did not succeed in becoming popular due to its inferior sound quality and
technical limitations – not the least of which was that it was ill suited for certain special effects
typical for the harp (for example, glissando!).
Chords and arpeggios

Each hand can play chords of three or four notes, whereby three-note chords are more effective
and also more practical to play. At faster tempi, two notes per hand give very satisfying results.
If not noted otherwise, chords are always lightly arpeggiated due to certain given qualities of the
instrument. Although the terms are usually not used in newer schools of harp playing because
of the confusion they can cause, the words plaqué or non-arpeggiato should be added to
the notation to indicate that chords should be played without arpeggiating them. Harpists crit-
icize the use of the word secco because non-arpeggiated chords do not necessarily need to
sound “secco.” Instead, the term plaqué – though still quite unknown among composers –
is used today. Some orchestrators prefer to use a square bracket; others combine this with a
written instruction:
plaqué
It is wise to indicate at the beginning of the piece whether all chords should be arpeggiated
(sempre arpeggio) or not (sempre non arpeggio). In a notation based on sempre arpeggio,
all plaqué chords must be notated as discussed above, and all arpeggiated chords in a piece
designated “sempre non arpeggio.”
The hand for non-arpeggiated note pairs or chords can extend to a 10th or an 11th (whereas the
tension of the hand is roughly equal to that of an octave reach on the piano). For anatomical
reasons, large intervals are best written for the thumb and index finger. Arpeggiated chords
can have a wider range, as not all the notes need to be played simultaneously. If the hands are
allowed to alternate their arpeggios, chords can consist of even more than eight notes:
(slowly)
Arpeggios which are too high or too low do not produce a good sound. Arpeggios should not
use the same string twice and should not, in conventional writing, be used in both registral
extremes. Arpeggios with fewer tones sound clearer than those with too many.
The direction of the arpeggios can be indicated with a straight (a) or wavy (b) line. If no arrow-
head is added to this line, the arpeggio will normally be played upward (c). In these three
examples, the line is unbroken. This means that one hand begins alone and the other hand
takes over when the first is finished (in this example, the right hand follows the left). When
the line is broken (when each hand has its own line), then both hands begin their respective
arpeggios simultaneously (d). In this last example (d), the arpeggio is played downward. It is
also possible for each hand to have its own direction (e). Each hand can also use its own playing
technique: one hand can play an arpeggio and the other an unbroken chord (f).
a. b. c. d. e. f.
Cluster chords must be mentioned separately. Either three or more notes are plucked on neigh-
boring strings (a) or, in the case of hand slap clusters (b), a number of strings are slapped with
the palm of the hand. In this last case, correct changes of pedal are not so important, especially
in the low register, as the pitches are very difficult to differentiate.
a. b.
(slowly)
In higher registers, the hand slap clusters can only be heard if they are struck with a short
rubbing motion.
Cluster glissandi are not as effective as on the string instruments, as the harp is a diatonic
instrument. Regardless of how dissonant they actually are, they sound more tonal than plucked
clusters because of their repeated notes. Carlos Salzedo, founder of the modern school of harp-
playing, gives examples of special glissando techniques for cluster sounds in his L’Étude mod-
erne de la harpe. These will be discussed under “Glissando.”
Harp 201
Trills, tremolo and bisbigliando
Trills are not typical for the harp, especially in the orchestra, where they can hardly be heard.
They are played by both hands on two neighboring strings; each hand plays two alternating
notes. The double note stems used in this and the following examples are used to indicate that
the trills or tremoli should be played with both hands. This is the most efficient technique:
....
A tremolo on one pitch does not produce a good sound if it is played on a single string, as the
vibrations of the string are repeatedly muffled by the next plucked note. For this reason, tremolo
is not played in this manner. Instead, two neighboring strings are tuned enharmonically and the
two hands alternate playing on the two strings of identical pitch (a). Other tremoli are played
with both hands in alternation. Enharmonic tuning can also be used here when necessary (b):
a.
....
b.
....
These examples should give a basic idea of the technical capabilities of the harp. There are
many variations of and alternatives to these techniques, but illustrating them all here would be
excessive for the novice orchestrator.
Bisbigliando is a special kind of tremolo that is very characteristic for the harp. It produces a
whispering, whooshing sound, which is very quiet. Each hand can play up to four notes, and
the word bisbigliando or the abbreviation bisb. should be added to the notation:
slowly
bisb.
To repeat: trills and tremoli are fairly weak acoustic effects on the harp. They should be used
primarily in solo repertoire, chamber music and in the most transparent of orchestral passages.
Near the soundboard (It.: sulla tavola; Ger.: am Resonanzkasten; Fr.: près de
la table)
Technique: The strings are plucked near the soundboard.
Result: Sound resembling a guitar or banjo, somewhat dry and a bit metallic.
Notation: Although the written instruction “près de la table” (p.d.l.t.) cannot really be misun-
derstood, modern notation uses the wavy line shown in the following example more and more.
It renders written instructions optional or even superfluous. If only one hand is supposed to
play near the soundboard, then the wavy line should be drawn on the outside of this hand’s
staff (a). If the effect is intended for both hands, then two wavy lines are drawn, one above and
one below the two-staff system (b):
a.
(près de la table)
b.
(p.d.l.t.)
(p.d.l.t.)
As a variation, it is possible to play in the middle of the string and then gradually move in the
direction of the soundboard (a) or vice versa (b):
a.
(ord.)
b. (ord.)
It should be added that harpists whom we questioned on the subject during the writing of this
book unanimously preferred the abbreviation p.d.l.t.
Near the tuning pins (Fr.: près des chevilles)

Technique: The notes are plucked on the uppermost portion of the strings.
Result: a somewhat thinner, fragile sound
Notation: Although a zigzag line is used for notation of this technique, the instruction près des
chevilles should be added above the staff, as this is a rather seldom-used technique because the
sound quality produced is not as special as that produced près de la table, resembling instead
the ordinary sound of the harp. In addition, this technique cannot be used in quick tempi on
the upper third of the range, as the bent form of the harp limits the agility of the fingers:
Harp 203
(près des chevilles)
As in “près de la table” playing, it is also possible to vary the sound by moving the hands up
and down while producing this effect.
Glissando
This is the most well-known effect played on the harp, and many composers have used it to
excess. One or both hands glide across the strings upward, downward or in both directions. In
a glissando of average speed and dynamic, it takes about 1 second to touch all the strings of the
instrument.
Carlos Salzedo rejected the term glissando as describing the gliding effect of the hand but not
the resulting sound. He replaced it with the term flux. He called the conventional glissando
flux éolien as it consists of a gently flowing gesture, sometimes including a swinging motion,
and represents neither a quick gliding motion (which would earn it the term “glissando”) nor
a slow motion (which would allow the ear to recognize how the effect is produced). In our
discussion of the various forms of this technique, we will use the term “flux”; until then we
will continue to use “glissando.” Scales, pairs of notes and chords can be played in glissando.
Each hand can make a glissando with up to four notes, though two or three notes per hand
produce the best acoustic results. Glissandi played with one or two fingers are louder and
more resonant than those played with three or four. Ideally, the hand should not be stretched
across an interval exceeding a 6th. Both hands can also play glissandi simultaneously. Fin-
gernails can also be used to play glissandi. Below, we will discuss two special kinds of fin-
gernail glissando described by Salzedo under the terms falling-hail effect (flux en grêle) and
xyloflux.
It is not possible to omit individual strings during a glissando. If chords are to be played in
glissando, the harp will usually be enharmonically tuned to eliminate the unwanted pitches
and to reinforce the pitches of the desired chord. For example, if an E7 chord is to be
played as a glissando, then the strings must be tuned as follows: D, C, B / E, F, G, A.
Six strings are thus tuned as enharmonic pairs: C = B, F = E, A = G. Although all
strings within the range of the glissando are played, only four pitches are heard (E, G, B
and D).
Other chords can be difficult if not impossible to produce – for example, a C7 chord. Six of the
seven strings can produce a note of this chord (C, B / E, F, G, A) but the D-string cannot. This
means that this glissando must include a D or D, resulting in a C7/9 or C7/ 9 chord. Solutions
for such problems are best found by trial and error.
Glissando can be notated in different ways. There have been and still are orchestrators who use
several different methods of notation for the same effect. However, it is highly recommended
to choose one of the existing notation methods (or to develop a new one) and to use only this
one method, at least within a single composition. All forms of glissando notation have one
point in common: they do not note all the strings which are played. The instruction “gliss.” can
be added as a supplement above or below the lines. Straight or wavy lines can be used. Some
possibilities follow:
a. b.
gliss.
gliss. gliss.
c.
d. e.
= 76
gliss.
)
(
In the following descriptions of individual kinds of glissandi we will often refer to Carlos
Salzedo’s terminology. This will be noted with (Sz) after the term in question.
Aeolian flux (Sz: flux éolien)

Ordinary glissando, for which most orchestrators use the term “glissando.”
Technique: a gliding motion in the center of the strings with the index or middle finger (move-
ment upward) or with the thumb (movement downward). The fingers are held loosely.
Result: the harp’s “typical”-sounding glissando
Notation: The initial tone is always noted. The end can be notated in different ways:
a. with a specific note with stem: suited for ending on a beat
b. with a specific note without stem: suited for ending before a beat
c. approximate notation with an arrowhead
d. unclear notation, to be realized as the player feels best; used especially often when several
glissandi are played simultaneously in different directions.
a. b.
c. d.
Harp 205
Oboic flux (Sz: flux hautboı̈stique)
Technique: like flux éolien, but played near the soundboard; best played in mf and not too
quickly
Result: glissando with a bare, guitar-like sound
Notation:
= 100
Falling-hail effect (Sz: flux en grêle)

Technique: glissando in the center of the strings with the back of the fingernail; best played
slowly and in soft dynamics. In a downward motion, the hand is held with palm pointing in;
in an upward motion, the palm is turned outwards.
Result: a glissando which sounds like a hailstorm
Notation:
= 84
8va
The thumbnail can also be used for glissandi upward. Combinations are also possible: for exam-
ple, an upward glissando played with the back of the thumbnail as well as one or more “normally
placed” fingers (a), or a downward glissando played with a “normally placed” thumb as well
as the nails of other fingers (b). For anatomic reasons, example (b) is easy for the left hand but
rather difficult for the right:
a. b.
Thumb
2
Thumb
2
3
Xyloflux (Sz)
Technique: like the hailstorm effect, but played near the soundboard
Result: like the hailstorm effect, but with a metallic component
Notation:
= 126
)
(
Aeolian rustling (Sz: bruissements éoliens)

Technique: The fingers are held closed and the hands pulled across the strings slowly and
with pressure (a). It is also possible with an open hand and spread fingers, which allows the
hand more flexibility and is useful if the direction of the glissando needs to be altered while
playing (b).
Result: a whooshing sound
Notation: The notated pitches are approximate. Final pitches can be notated, but they are also
approximate.
a. b.
= 50
Gushing chords (Sz: accords en jet)

Technique: The glissando is played very brusquely and quickly between the two notated pitches.
The third finger is used for upward motion; the thumb is used for downward motion.
Result: loud, gushing, quickly moving sounds
Notation: The direction of the glissando is indicated with an arrowhead.
= 106
Effect of snare drum without snares (Sz: effet de tambour militaire sans timbre)
Technique: The left hand is laid on the upper half of the strings and covers the strings that are
notated with diamond-shaped heads. At the same time, the right hand plays “accords en jet” in
an upward motion on these strings.
Harp 207
Result: explosive, gushing sounds of drum-like character
Notation:
= 108
or
The fingernails of the right hand can also be used, most typically in a downward motion. A
further variation consists of covering the strings with an object such as the wooden portion of
the tuning key. This must be notated with the appropriate symbols.
Aeolian tremolo (Sz: trémolo éolien)

Technique: Either the flat of the hand or stretched fingers are rubbed back and forth quickly
between the strings of the notated pitches.
Result: fast glissandi alternating in both directions. If only one finger is used, then the sound
is louder, but interrupted. If several fingers are used, the sound is more continuous and homo-
geneous but weaker, as the sound of each string is repeatedly muffled by the next attack of the
same finger.
Notation:
)
(
Again, a reminder: this example uses enharmonic tuning (A and B, D and E). Together
with the other tones (G, C and F), this tremolo produces only five different pitches, although
all the strings between the highest and lowest notated pitch are rubbed.
Thumb tremolo
Technique: The sides of both thumbs rub the strings in a quick downward motion. Both thumbs
are used, as one thumb cannot be used to rub back and forth. Small clusters of two to four notes
are most effective.

Result: quick, short, downward-moving glissandi
Notation:
(Thumb)
Ascending aeolian chords (Sz: accords éoliens ascendants)

Technique: One finger plays the notes of a chord almost simultaneously from lowest to highest.
This finger is then held against the palm of the hand and the next finger plays the next chord and
so forth. The hand must be held in a normal position. As no string can be omitted, enharmonic
tuning must be used (except for clusters). The thumb is not used in this technique.
Result: short, pulsating chords with a scraping character
Notation: The duration of the effect is notated with a straight line following the symbol.
= 126
3 3
Descending aeolian chords (Sz: accords éoliens descendants)

Technique: as above, but played with the thumb in a downward direction
Result: as above
Notation:
= 126
Thunder effect (Sz: effet de tonnerre)

Technique: The middle finger of the left hand is slid between the wire-wound strings (cordes
filées) of the lowest register. The strings strike against one another and are allowed to ring.
Intervals smaller than an octave are most effective.
Result: loud, cracking, metallic sound – a kind of thunder on the strings used
Notation: The direction is indicated with an arrowhead.
This technique can also be used on the other strings but produces a non-metallic sound – a
noise that has little to do with thunder.
Whistling sounds (Sz: sons sifflés)

These are best produced on the wire-wound strings. The pan flute symbol, though actually
superfluous, is generally accepted for these effects and should be used in notation. There are
two kinds of whistle tones: sliding the hand and scratching with the fingernails.
Harp 209
Sliding the hand: rapid whistling sounds
Technique: The left hand is laid flat on the wire-wound strings and slid as quickly as possible
upward or downward along their length. Normally, the hand stays in contact with the strings
the whole time, not allowing them to ring freely. If a bit of ring is required and the hand is
released from the strings, then a bit of extra pressure should be applied to the strings before
this is done. This makes the strings ring a bit more loudly. “Laissez vibrer” or “l.v.” should be
added to the notation.
Result: a whistling glissando noise of indeterminate pitch
Notation: The notated duration refers to the duration of the sound, not the actual movement
of the hand, which should be performed as quickly as possible. The direction of the stroke is
indicated with an arrowhead without a stem. The noteheads should be written well off the staff
so that they are not confused with actual pitches.
l.v.
Sliding the hand: slow whistling sounds

Technique: as above, but executed slowly (according to the notated duration of the tones)
Result: a whistling glissando noise of indeterminate pitch with a hissing character
Notation: In this case, the notated length indicates the duration of the hand’s sliding motion
and not that of the note’s sound. The direction of this motion is indicated after the double note
stem either by a diagonal arrow or by contour lines. As above, it is important that the noteheads
are far enough away from the staves.
If the sliding hand is to be left lying on the strings after its motion is ended, then this should be
indicated after the notes with the instruction “non l.v.” or with a comma (see the last measure
of the example). A staccato mark is not recommended, as it implies that the hand should be
lifted:
Scratching with the fingernail: rapid whistling sounds

Technique: One or two wire-wound strings are scratched in an upward or downward direc-
tion with one fingernail per string. As the strings are released and allowed to ring after being
scratched, their normal pitches are heard.
Result: a scratching, mechanical glissando sound of definite pitch
Notation: an arrowhead on a vertical line leading from the notehead. The fingernail symbol is
written under the two-staff system, and under it the pan flute symbol. The notes indicate the
duration of the sound, not the scratching movement, which should be executed as swiftly as
possible. The direction of the scratching is indicated by an arrowhead without line or stem:
l.v.
Scratching with the fingernail: slow whistling sounds

Technique: as above, but executed slowly (according to the notated duration of the tones). Slow
scratching does not really make the string sound, thus no definite pitch is produced.
Result: a scratching, mechanical glissando sound of indefinite pitch
Notation: The notes indicate the duration and the diagonal arrows or contour lines indicate the
direction of the scratching. Fingernail and pan flute symbols are added as above. The noteheads
are put in parentheses to indicate that, although a specific string is scratched, no definite pitch
is produced.
Whistle tones can also be produced with a tuning key, tuning fork, beater, stick, coin or plec-
trum, as well as objects made of plastic or cardboard. In these cases, it is wise to use an appro-
priate symbol supplemented by a written explanation.
( )
Pedal glissandi
Technique: Tones are produced conventionally but the position of the pedals is then changed
before the sound fades, producing chromatic or microtonal alterations. This technique is most
effective in the low register, as the lower tones ring longer. The use of octaves is recommended.
Pedal glissandi do not have to be played rhythmically, but this is possible.
If the resulting pitch is microtonal, then the pedal may not be released but must be held with
the foot until the tone has faded. If the alteration is chromatic, the pedal can be set at the next
level before the tone has faded.
Result: chromatic or microtonal alteration(s) of tones with an audible glissando. The sound
resulting from microtonal glissandi is called a bent tone (see “Microintervals” on page 220).
Harp 211
Notation:
a. b. c. d.
B-B - B
E -E -E
Tuning pin glissando

Technique: The string is plucked and its tuning then altered on the tuning pin. This should only
be done by lowering the pitch, to avoid the risk of breaking a string. If an upward glissando is
necessary, then the interval should not extend a minor 2nd on the higher strings and a major
2nd on the lower ones.
Result: a quickly fading glissando (similar to a bent tone)
Notation: A written instruction is necessary.
Tuning pin gliss.
Muffling (dampening) and muting

These are two of the most important effects in harp technique. We differentiate between the
tones produced normally, then muffled (dampened), and the tones which are muted before
being produced.
Muffling (dampening)
Normal tones are produced, then muffled.
Muffling tones as part of normal playing technique

Technique: The tones are plucked normally and then, if not otherwise noted and according to
their notated duration, muffled with the palm of the hand and spread fingers. It is not always
possible and also not always necessary to muffle all the tones.
Result: normal sound production
Notation: No special notation is required.
Isolated sounds (Sz: sons isolés)

Technique: A string is plucked and then muffled exactly at the same moment in which the next
tone follows. Two fingers are used simultaneously: one plays the new tone and the other muffles
the previous one at the same moment. Sometimes, depending on tempo and register, this is all
done with one finger, but the orchestrator does not need to concern himself with this.
Result: normal pitches which sound in isolation. The resonance of each tone is actively muffled
at the precise time the next one is produced, so that no two tones overlap.
Notation: The symbol indicates that the previous string should be muffled. For several notes
of shorter duration, a line is drawn instead of repeating the symbol.
= 60
. .
Muffled sounds (Sz: sons étouffés)

Generally, sounds which are muffled after being plucked are called sons étouffés. Usually this
is done by laying the hand with spread fingers securely on the string. The symbol is drawn
near the intended notes or rests – above the two-staff system for the right hand (a) and below it
for the left (b). Both hands can also be used to muffle the strings simultaneously (c). If a chord
with a wide range and a large number of tones needs to be muffled, then the symbol is written
in a circle between the staves; the palms of both hands are used to touch all the strings lightly
with a dabbing motion, according to the range of the chord (d):
a. B B
F F A A B B 3
3
c. d.
b.
There are various kinds of sons étouffés. Individual strings may be muffled:
or
It is also possible to muffle a limited range (for example, within a chord) by laying the hand
between the notated pitches (the second hand may also be used if necessary):
Harp 213
or
( )
( )
or
gliss. gliss.
( ) ( )
A series of tones can also be muffled. Salzedo recommends that this be done in a rising, stepwise
motion (playable in both hands, example a). A springing movement (example b) is better played
by the left hand. In the first example, the same finger which plays the tone also muffles it (using
the side of the finger). In the second example, the tones are muffled with the palm of the left
hand:
a. b.
= 96
= 54
3
3
3
3
One hand can play chords which are immediately muffled by the other hand:
= 126
Gradual muffling: While one hand is playing a series of notes or after a certain sound (chord,
glissando, etc.) has been produced, the other hand begins to muffle the strings in one register,
moving gradually with a blotting or dabbing motion into another register:
= 60
Muting
Production of muted tones
Xylophonic sounds (Sz: sons xylophoniques)

Technique: The fingertips of one hand are pressed firmly on the lowest point (near the sound-
board) of those strings which are indicated with diamond-shaped noteheads. At the same time,
the other hand plucks these strings normally (a).
Tones produced in this way may be combined with normal tones (b).
Result: short, muted tones without resonance
Notation:
a. b.
(or) près de la table
Xylophonic sounds “a la chitarra”

Technique: similar to that described above. Here the strings are muted in or near the middle
and plucked near the soundboard (a). Muting at a harmonic node (for example, exactly at the
middle of the string) can produce harmonics. Muting and plucking can also be performed
together near the soundboard (b).

Result: short, light, muted tones without resonance, resembling the sound of a guitar; they
sound brighter, drier, rounder and shorter that the other xylophonic sounds.
a. b.
Harp 215
Vibrant sounds (Sz: sons vibrés)
Technique: The left thumb presses the string down repeatedly and quickly between the tuning
pins and the saddle while the right hand plucks the string. This technique is very effective
especially in the high register, as the distance between the tuning pins and the saddle is greater,
leaving more room for vibration.
Result: a vibrating sound of slightly nasal character
Notation:
= 60
Muting with other objects

A strip of paper approximately 1.5 to 2 cm long can be placed between the upper ends of the
strings directly beneath the tuning pins. This results in sounds similar to those of a harpsichord.
Fingernails, tuning keys, triangle beaters, metal rods, drumsticks and other objects can be used
to touch the strings before or after they are plucked. The resulting sound is called a buzz effect.
On the low strings, which ring for a long time after being played, it is even possible to produce
simple rhythmic effects as we see in the following example of fingernail buzz technique:
slowly
(ord.)
Harmonics
Overtones are used very often in harp notation. Although they are very quiet effects, they have
a certain charm. They sound best in the middle register. They require time to play; that is, they
cannot be executed quickly.
Technique: Usually the 2nd partial is used (an octave above the fundamental tone). The 3rd
partial (the 12th above the fundamental tone) has only recently begun to be used with more
frequency. Even the 4th and 5th partials (two octaves and two octaves plus a major 3rd) have
been used occasionally in literature from the the mid-twentieth century onwards.
Because of the way it is held while playing, the right hand can only be used to produce one har-
monic at a time. The outer edge of the index finger’s knuckle is held to the string at a harmonic
node (the upper half of the string produces the 2nd partial; the upper third, the 3rd partial;
the upper quarter, the 4th partial; the upper fifth, the 5th partial) while the thumb plucks the
string.
The left hand can play one to three harmonics at once if these lie within the range of a 5th; it
also helps if the notes share the same accidentals (though this is not completely necessary). It
is even possible, though difficult, to play four harmonics at the same time, though one must
accept that the lowest note will not vibrate and will not sound as good as the others. In any case,
the lower part of the palm is held to the node(s) and each finger plucks one string. If more than
one harmonic is played at once, the highest tone will sound the best and longest, as it is played
with the thumb.
Result: quiet, airy, dull, fragile harmonic sounds
Notation: For a harmonic at the octave, the plucked string is usually notated in the normal
way with a circle added above; the tone sounds one octave higher than notated. Sometimes the
sounding pitch is notated with a circle added above, but this system is not recommended as it
can lead to confusion.
= 52
To specify a different type of harmonic, a more differentiated notation is necessary. No unani-

mous method of notation exists. The single octave harmonic can be notated as mentioned
with a circle above the note to be plucked. Other kinds of harmonic can be notated as for the
strings: the note to be plucked is notated with a normal notehead and the node, which is to be
touched, is notated with a diamond-shaped notehead. It is not necessary to notate the resulting
pitch, but if it is added, it should have a normal, round notehead (not a diamond-shaped one,
as some composers do). In L’Étude moderne de la harpe, Salzedo recommended using a small,
white, oval note for a harmonic at the 12th, but ever since even higher harmonics have been
used, this notation technique has been abandoned.
The following example shows us complete notation for all standard harmonics:
In any case, it is important that the orchestrator avoids confusion by explaining clearly in each
score how harmonics are notated.
The left hand can combine harmonics with tones that are produced normally; in this case, the
restriction of the 5th loses its validity (a). Combinations of harmonics and normal tones in
separate hands are also possible (b).
a. b.
= 80
Xyloharmonic sounds (Sz: Sons xyloharmoniques)

Technique: Harmonics are played and immediately muffled.
Result: short harmonics with a dry, “wooden” character (a special effect)
Harp 217
Notation:
= 108
Plucking with fingernails and other objects

Technique: The strings may be plucked with the fingernails or other objects including a plec-
trum, a coin, small metal objects such as a nail file or small rod, etc. The fingernails are used
most frequently. When the fingernails are used to pluck the strings near the soundboard, a
sound is produced that Salzedo calls sons plectriques / plectric sounds.
Result: A metallic sound, which varies depending on the kind of object used.
Notation (for plectric sounds):
= 48
Plucking the strings with the fingernails takes more time, as the nails must be positioned cor-
rectly. Thus adequate time should be given before the effect. Arpeggios are difficult to play with
the fingernails. As we have already seen, the symbol for fingernail is or .
Effects with the pedals

Metallic sounds (Sz: sons métalliques)
Technique: The pedal is held between two levels. (Please note that this foot cannot be used to
adjust another pedal for the duration of the tone.)
Result: a metallic sound of microtonal pitch

Notation:
or
Pedal glissando → “Glissando” (see page 210)
Pedal tremolo
Technique: as with pedal glissando. A string is plucked and its pedal moved up and down as
quickly as possible until the tone fades.
Result: tremolo with decrescendo
Notation:
C- C - C - C - C - C- C - C - C - C -
C - - - - - C - - - - -
Irregular pedal changes

Technique: One or more pedals are changed randomly either during a glissando or bisbigliando;
while tones, intervals or chords are being repeated; or after a chord has been played.
Result: irregular variations of pitch, depending on the pedal
Notation: A written instruction is necessary.
Esoteric sounds (Sz: sons ésotériques)

Technique: The pedals are moved back and forth as energetically as possible between two levels
without using the hands to produce any pitch.
Result: A rather mysterious, faraway sound, produced by the vibrations of the strings caused by
the moving pedals. This effect is more impressive if performed on several harps simultaneously.
If the pedals are moved across all three levels, the sound will be stronger, but somehow broken.
Some harpists refuse to execute this effect, as they consider it harmful for the mechanism of
the instrument.
Notation: Though Salzedo developed a very effective notation for this effect (a), a simpler, con-
ventional notation with x-shaped noteheads can also be used (b).
A third staff should be added for the pedals:
a. b.
= 60 = 60
Ped. Ped.
A C B D
Result: = 60
Harp 219
Scordatura
Technique: Some or all strings can be tuned to pitches higher or lower than normal. This rather
seldom-used (and often unnecessary) technique represents the only case in which double flats
or double sharps may be used in harp notation. (If, for example, the basic tuning of the A-string
is changed to A, then the pitches the string can produce are A, A and A, without A. If
its basic tuning is changed to A, then A, A and A are playable on this string, but not A.)
Scordatura can also be used for microtonal intervals (see “Microintervals” on page 220).
The higher strings should not be tuned more than a minor 2nd above their normal pitch, the
lower strings, not more than a major 2nd. The risk of breaking a string is much greater if these
intervals are exceeded. Tuning the strings lower than usual does not pose this danger, but as
the tension of the string is reduced, the tone production suffers. It is for this reason that smaller
intervals are also recommended for tuning lower than normal.
Scordatura is normally taken care of during the general tuning process before the beginning
of the piece. Scordatura is possible during the performance but is usually restricted to a few
pitches.
Before deciding to use scordatura, one should be sure that it is really necessary and that no
enharmonic solution is available. Experience shows that many scordatura passages required in
various compositions and arrangements or even described in orchestration textbooks could be
better solved with enharmonic solutions.
Result: the altered pitches as desired
Notation: The altered tuning must be indicated at the beginning of the piece, for example: “The
basic tuning of the A-string is a and that of the E-string is e.” The following illustration can
also be used:
Scordatura
In addition, we differentiate between direct and indirect notation. Direct notation is preferable,
as indirect notation can be confusing in many cases; indirect notation is shown here only as a
comparison.
a. Direct notation: the actual pitch is notated. The player is instructed how to position the
pedals in order to produce the required pitches. Thus the notated pitch is identical to the
actual pitch. The pedals are notated according to their sound, not according to their posi-
tion. In order to remind the player of the discrepancies between the positioning of the pedals
and the notated pitches, the positions of the differently tuned pedals are indicated in paren-
theses near the notes, either above or below the staff.
b. Indirect notation: the differently tuned string – the scordatura – is notated. The player
plucks the string as if it were normally tuned, but the resulting pitch is different from the
notated one. The pedals are notated according to their position, not their sound. The actual-
sounding pitches are notated in parentheses near the notes but off the staff. (Some prefer to
write the resulting pitches on staff fragments above the scordatura.)
a. b.
(E ) (E )
(A ) (Ax)
D C B E F G Ax D C B E F GA
E A E Ax
Microintervals
These are produced on the harp as follows:
1. The pedal is held between two positions and then the string is plucked (see “Metallic sounds”
on page 217).
2. Bent tone
Technique: There are several possibilities:
▫ The string is plucked, and then the pedal is moved up or down and held between two
positions (see “Pedal glissandi” on page 210).
▫ The wooden handle of the tuning key is placed between two strings and then, after one of
the strings is plucked, the handle is turned so that the pitch is raised or lowered. Here it is
important to indicate exactly where the tuning key should be placed, either in the middle
of the string or near the soundboard.
▫ The tuning key is held on the string with a certain amount of pressure. After the string is
plucked, the tuning key is moved up or down.
▫ The string is plucked and then pressed with the hand close to the tuning pin.
Result: a glissando similar to a bent tone, of short duration
Notation: The conventional bent tone notation is used except for pedal glissando. A written
explanation is necessary to specify which technique is to be used.
3. Scordatura
Technique: The strings can be tuned microintervallically higher or lower than their original
pitches. All other techniques and effects can be used in combination with this effect.
Result: the desired microtones
Notation: The required altered tuning should be described in writing (see “Scordatura” on
page 219).
Effects with the tuning key

For effects with the tuning key, the following symbol can be used: . Either the metal or the
wooden portion of the key can be used.
Fluidic sounds (Sz: sons fluidiques)
Technique: The left hand touches the upper end of a string with the central, metal portion of the
tuning key and moves it along the string, stopping at a specific frequency intersection point,
while the index finger of the right hand (in fast tempi alternating with the thumb) plucks the
lower end of the string. This technique, which produces a sound similar to that of the singing
saw, is especially effective when used to play fast diatonic or chromatic scales (a) and glissandi
(b). The range of the technique is usually limited to two octaves. The best-suited strings are
those between g and g .
Result: a gliding series of tones with a “fluid” sound
Notation: The diamond-shaped notes on the upper staff represent the rhythm and duration
of the plucked notes; the lower staff shows the tones produced. The diamond-shaped note
and the dotted circle indicate the string on which the effect is produced (in the following exam-
ples, the d -string).
a. b.
Harp 221
Rocket-like sounds (Sz: sons en fusées)
Technique: a variation of the effect just described. Here, too, both hands are activated at the
same time. The left hand executes a quick glissando, either using almost the entire length of
the string (a) or stopping at a certain pitch (b). Meanwhile the right hand plucks the string.
Result: glissando with a “rocket-like” sound
Notation: The meaning of the diamond-shaped notes and the dotted circle remains the same
as before:
a. b.
Buzz effect
Technique: The player either touches the tuning key to a ringing string (a) or touches the tuning
key to a string and then plucks it (b).
Result: In the first case, a normal tone is produced which changes to a fading buzzing sound
when the tuning key is touched to the string. In the second case, the sound is distorted from
the beginning, its further development similar to a tone of the first case.
Notation:
a. b.
ord.
Other effects
䡲 The steel portion of the tuning key can be pressed on the string to suffocate the tone.
䡲 It is possible to use the tuning key to produce a tremolo on the string or also to produce
percussive effects on all parts of the instrument.

䡲 The tuning key can be stroked along a low string and then pulled away from it quickly and
with pressure, resulting in a metallic twang.
Effects with the tuning pins

In addition to the “près des chevilles” and scordatura effects, which have already been dis-
cussed, there is one remaining technique, which, along with several percussive effects (see
below), must be added.
Technique: The strings are plucked above the tuning pins
Result: a very quiet, weak and broken sound of unidentifiable pitch
Notation: usually notated with x-shaped noteheads and the instruction “above the tuning pins.”
As accidentals and pedal changes are of no effect here, they should be omitted:
Above the tuning pins
Percussive effects
These are performed either on or between the strings or on the body of the harp.
On the strings
Technique: Fingertips, fingernails, knuckles, palms of the hand and various other objects such
as beaters and mallets, brushes, tuning keys, pencils, plectra, bottles, crotales and other small
percussion instruments can be used for percussive effects in differing intensities ranging from
a light tap to a heavy stroke. Sometimes metal objects such as small plates or bells are held to
the strings. When the string is plucked, it strikes against the object and produces a metallic
sound with a large noise component.
Result: various percussive sounds
Notation: similar to that of the string instruments; a written instruction should be added.
Salzedo describes two particular percussive effects on the strings:
Tam-tam sounds (Sz: sons de tamtam)

Technique: A low string is struck or stroked with a small stick of ivory; the best results are
produced between 1C and 1A.
Result: sound similar to that of the tam-tam
Notation:
TT
Thunder effect (Sz: effet de tonnerre) → “Glissando” (see page 208)
Between the strings

Technique: A suitably sized object (such as a pencil or a thick nail) is placed between two neigh-
boring strings and used to produce a tremolo.
Result: a tremolo of relatively limited dynamic with pitch and noise components
Notation: In addition to a written explanation, a wavy line can be useful to designate the vertical
position used. In the following example, the tremolo begins fairly high on the strings, and is
moved down toward the soundboard and then back to its original position:
tremolo with a pencil

between the strings
Harp 223
On the body of the instrument
Technique: In this case as well, objects are used to produce different sounds on different parts
of the instrument such as the crown, pillar, neck, soundboard, tuning pins and pedals. Sharp-
edged objects should be avoided. Percussive effects on parts of the harp other than the sound-
board usually require the player to stand.
Result: various percussive sounds
Notation: similar to that of the string instruments; a written instruction should be added.
Salzedo describes two additional percussive effects on the body of the harp:
Timpanic sounds (Sz: sons timbaliques)

Technique: The middle finger of the right hand taps on the most resonant area of the sound-
board while the left hand plucks the strings.
Result: a hollow sound similar to that of the timpani
Notation: The x-shaped, percussive symbols are written on the upper staff.
T
Variations of this technique:

䡲 The soundboard can be tapped immediately before or after the string is plucked. The nota-
tion for the right and left hands must be altered accordingly.
䡲 With only one hand: two fingers are held in a hooked position. One plucks the string on the
lower end (near the soundboard) and the other taps the soundboard.
䡲 Similar: The string is plucked near the soundboard. Then the hand is slid down the string
quickly and with force, and strikes loudly upon the soundboard.
䡲 The body of the instrument can also be used for this effect, but the resulting sound is not
hollow.
Anvil effect (Sz: effet d’enclume)

Technique: The brass plate above the tuning pin is stroked with the tip of the tuning key.
Result: an anvil-like, metallic, high pitch
Notation:
Other effects
In rare cases, electrical amplification of the harp is required.
Some pieces require a percussionist to use the harp as a percussion instrument. In this case, no
harpist is required.
Guitar
Basically there are two groups with many variations:
䡲 acoustic instruments: concert or acoustic guitar
䡲 electric instruments: electric guitar, electric bass
The guitar is seldom used in orchestral music and opera. Only in contemporary music has it
started to be used more often, and then mostly in chamber music ensembles. The electric guitar
and electric bass are primarily used in popular music, but have recently begun to appear more
often in classical music.
The concert guitar has a weak sound which is easily covered by other instruments. Unlike the
electrical instruments, it has a resonating body. The electrical instruments are equipped with an
integrated amplification system (electro-magnetic sound pickup with electrical amplification).
They also have an oscillator, which makes vibrato effects possible.
The guitar, both acoustic and electric, has six strings; the electric bass usually has four, but five
or six are possible. They are tuned as follows:
Concert and electric guitar Electric bass
Notation
Sound
8ba
Guitars are transposing instruments and sound an octave lower than written.
Their ranges are:
concert guitar: e–b or c (sounding E–b or c )
electric guitar: e–d or e (sounding E–d or e )
electric bass: E–f (sounding: 1E–f )
Electric guitars have longer necks than acoustic guitars; thus, their upper ranges are usually
larger than those of acoustic guitars:
Concert guitar Electric guitar 8va
Electric bass
8va
Notation
Sound
8ba
The acoustic guitar can play single melodic lines, chords, arpeggios and melodies with accom-
paniment.
The electric instruments assume various roles, especially in popular music: melody (solo guitar
or lead guitar) or rhythm (rhythm guitar). The electric bass is the bass instrument of the
family.
Guitar 225
Methods of sound production
䡲 normally with fingertips
䡲 with fingernails
䡲 with a plectrum (pick). In contemporary works, other objects are also used.
The neck of the instrument has chromatically ordered frets, which make it easier to grip the
strings. This is done with four fingers of the left hand. As the neck of the guitar is very flat, it is
possible to grip more than one string at a time, laying, for example, the index finger flat across
the strings (Barré technique). This means that up to six tones can be gripped with four fingers.
The right hand plucks the strings with all five digits.
Glissando
There are four types:
䡲 The left hand slides along the neck as the right hand plays.
䡲 The left hand turns the tuning peg as the right hand plucks the open string.
䡲 One finger of the left hand bends the string it is gripping sideways as the right hand plucks
the string.
䡲 The fingernail of the left hand or an auxiliary object stratches a glissando on a metal-wound
string.
Harmonics
These are very popular on the guitar. Although they are even softer than regular tones, they are
used very often in guitar literature. The first four harmonics (the 2nd to the 5th partials) are
playable. This is done as follows:
1 One of the fingers of the left hand grips a string.
2 The index finger of the right hand touches the string at the node for the desired harmonic.
3 The right thumb plucks the string.
Muting
Either the strings are touched with the ball of the right hand on the bridge or a soft cloth or
strip of foam rubber is laid under the strings. The first method is normally indicated in the
score as “con sordino.” The second method requires an additional written explanation.
Warning: In the language of guitarists, the word “pizzicato” means “muted.” When the left hand
is laid lightly on the strings, the resulting muted sound is called pizzicato effleuré and should
also be indicated with this term.
Microintervals
These are basically played in three different ways:
䡲 The right hand plucks the string and an available finger of the left hand bends the string
away to the side.
䡲 The player executes quarter-tone trills or vibrato with audible mictrotonal pitch modulation.
䡲 Scordatura: The tuning is microtonally modified.
Scordatura
The strings of the guitar can be tuned higher or lower than normal. This can be done diatonic-
ally, chromatically or microtonally.
Percussive (and similar) effects
As on the other string instruments, these effects can be produced on the strings or on the body
of the instrument. Typical effects on the strings:
䡲 Snap pizzicato: The string is lifted away from and then released to strike the neck. A similar
effect can be attempted with the nail of a thumb or finger.
䡲 Striking the strings with both hands. The strings then strike the neck of the instrument.
䡲 A tone is played and a free finger stops another tone on the same string. This muffles the
first tone and creates a quiet new tone (the second one fingered) without plucking the string
a second time.
䡲 Tremolo on the strings, played either with the fingers from above or by using various other
objects (triangle beaters, other beaters, mallets, pens, pencils, etc.).
䡲 Rubbing or stroking with the fingers or hand.
Other effects
Many of the effects described in the chapter on string instruments can be used, with greater
or lesser modification, on the guitar. These many possibilities include playing on or behind
the bridge, playing on the fingerboard, placing objects (paper, credit cards, wire, cloth, etc.)
between the strings, and using the bow of a string instrument.
Other plucked instruments

Mandolin
The mandolin is a pear-shaped plucked instrument with a potbelly and eight strings which are
tuned in pairs. It is a non-transposing instrument. The tuning of open strings and the instru-
ment’s range are as follows:
Strings: Range:
The mandolin can be used for playing melodies or accompaniment.

Its sound is rather weak and should thus be used in solo passages or together with a limited
number of other instruments.
There are various kinds of mandolin. The most widely used is the Italian Neapolitan mandolin,
which will be discussed here. Other Italian types are, for example, the Florentine, the Genoese,
the Paduan, the Sienese, the Sicilian and the Roman mandolin. Very different from these are
the Portuguese and the German mandolin. The so-called Milanese mandolin is not a true man-
dolin but an evolved type of mandora – a lute instrument, which was the predecessor of the
mandolin.
Sound production
The mandolin is played with a plectrum. For special effects, the fingertips or objects such as
metal pins can be used. The neck of the mandolin has frets as the guitar does.
Most of the special effects we have discussed pertaining to the guitar can be used (glissando,
microtones, scordatura, percussive effects and other effects). Limitations may stem from the
Other plucked instruments 227
mandolin’s smaller build, its drier sound, the ordering of its strings into pairs, and so on.
Although it is theoretically possible to tune all eight strings differently (for example, with
microtonal discrepancies between them), it is quite difficult to play only one string of a pair
without touching the other. This would be easier in a slower tempo than in a faster one. How-
ever, this method of tuning is very effective for clustered sounds:
a a
a b
e d
e e
Mandola
This term is used either for the tenor mandolin (with strings tuned GG, dd, aa, e e ) or as a
synonym for the mandora.
Mandolone
A bass mandolin with seven or eight strings tuned F–(G)–A–d–g–b–e –a . Each string but the
highest is paired with a second.
Balalaika
A Ukrainian or Russian plucked instrument with frets and a triangular body. It is manufactured
in six different sizes (piccolo, prime, second, alto, bass and contrabass) and has three strings, of
which the two lowest are tuned identically and the third string a 4th higher. The prime balalaika
(tuned e –e –a ) is most widely used. The range of these instruments is two and a half to three
octaves.
Banjo
An Afro-American instrument with a longer neck and frets. Its body consists of a tambourine-
like, flat, round wooden or metal rim, which is covered with a skin or plastic membrane. It
can have four to five, occasionally even up to nine differently tuned strings. The most widely
used five-string banjo is tune g –c (d)–g–b–d (actual sounding pitch), whereby the g -string
represents the melody-string, or chanterelle, played with the thumb. Its tuning peg sits sepa-
rately from those of the other four strings on the side of the neck. Like the guitar, the banjo is
a transposing instrument and sounds an octave lower than written. When it is played with a
plectrum, the high g-string cannot be used.
Hawaiian guitar
A folkloric instrument from Hawaii representing a further evolution of the guitar or ukulele (a
small, Hawaiian guitar with four strings: a, d , f , b ) using vibrato and glissando effects. It is
played while being held on the knee. The right hand plucks the strings and the left hand moves
a long object of glass or metal along them, producing the instrument’s typical rich glissando
sound. It has six strings (sometimes eight) tuned E–A–e–a–c –e .
Zither
The ancient zither evolved into the concert zither with a flat, box-shaped body. One side is cut
in an S form; the other has a fingerboard with twenty-nine frets and a central sound hole. There
are different groups of strings:
䡲 five strings on the neck: They are strung above the neck and are used for playing the melody.
They are stopped with the left hand and plucked with a metal ring on the right-hand thumb.
There are two distinct tuning systems: a –a –d –g–c (Munich tuning, typically used today)
and a –d –g –g–c (Viennese tuning). The instrument’s typical vibrato is produced by the
quick back-and-forth motion of the gripping finger.
䡲 accompaniment strings: e –b –f –c –g (g )–d –a–e –b–f (f )–c –g. Tuning in 4ths and
5ths is typical.
䡲 bass strings: a doubling – an octave lower – of the tuning in 4ths or 5ths of the harmony
strings
䡲 contrabass strings: A doubling of the harmony strings two octaves below. These can be
ordered chromatically between 1F and F.
The last three groups listed, strung over the sound hole and soundboard, are called free strings,
as they have no neck and no frets. They are plucked by the four remaining fingers of the right
hand. Their number can vary (thirty-seven or more) and the composer can require different
tunings. The zither is played resting on a table, a stand or the player’s lap.
Historical plucked instruments

Lute
The lute was developed from a very old Arabian instrument called the rebab (or rabab) and
consists of a body in the form of a halved pear made of thin ribs, with no purfling. The short
neck has a fingerboard with frets. The peg box, on which the tuning pegs are mounted, is bent
almost 90 degrees backwards. The number of strings varies between four pairs (fourteenth-
century models) and fourteen pairs (seventeenth-century models). The most widely used
instrument of the sixteenth century had a single upper string, the chanterelle (also named first
course), and five pairs of identically tuned lower strings (named, from above to below, second,
third, fourth, fifth and sixth courses, respectively). This lute was normally tuned A–d–g–b–e –
a or G–c–f–a–d –f . In the twentieth century, the lute guitar was invented, consisting of the
body of a lute and the finger board of a guitar with six single strings (E–A–d–g–b–e ). The lute
was one of the basso continuo group of the early orchestra. It was very popular in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries, but this popularity quickly diminished in the eighteenth century.
Though other basso continuo instruments survive in works by Haydn and Mozart, the lute
was the first to disappear.
Theorbo
A bass lute with two peg boxes, the second of which holds the bordun or bass strings, which
are never gripped on a fingerboard and always vibrate as open strings. Some of the strings are
mounted in pairs and some singly. There are eight bordun strings (1D–1E–1F–1G–1A–1B–C–
D) and eight fingered strings (E–F–G–c–f–a–d –g ). Their tuning is variable.
Chitarrone
Very similar to the theorbo, differing only in minimal points of construction such as a smaller
soundboard, longer bordun strings and a longer neck between the two peg boxes. The bor-
dun strings are mounted singly while the fingered strings (except for the uppermost one) are
mounted in groups of two or three. There are eight bordun strings (1F–1G–1A–1B–C–D–E–
F) and six fingered strings (G–c–f–a–d –g ). It is not clear whether the theorbo and chitarrone
should be considered two different instruments or variations of the same instrument. Both
Historical plucked instruments 229
belong to the oldest generation of lute instruments and were important in the tradition of basso
continuo.
Cittern (gittern)
One of the most popular plucked instruments in the late Middle Ages with a flat, pear-shaped
body and a characteristic side body which becomes thinner towards the lower end of the instru-
ment. Normally it has four to seven strings (there are exceptions of up to twelve), usually
ordered in pairs, which are played with a plectrum or with the fingers. The instrument was
replaced by the mandolin in Italy in the eighteenth century and by the guitar in Germany in
the nineteenth century.
Theorbocittern (ceterone)
A bass cittern with single bordun strings (1G–1A–1B–C–D–E–F) and fingered strings in pairs
(G–d–f–g–b–d –e ).

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CHAPTER 4 PLUCKED INSTRUMENTS

Registers and their characteristic timbres

䡲 lowest third: diffuse, dark and sonorous

Let vibrate / laissez vibrer

l.v. l.v. l.v.

This symbol can mean one of two things:

Hands on the strings

Feet on the pedals

Functions of the harp in the orchestra

Short history of the harp

Chords and arpeggios

Near the tuning pins (Fr.: près des chevilles)

Aeolian flux (Sz: flux éolien)

Falling-hail effect (Sz: flux en grêle)

Aeolian rustling (Sz: bruissements éoliens)

Gushing chords (Sz: accords en jet)

Aeolian tremolo (Sz: trémolo éolien)

are most effective.

Ascending aeolian chords (Sz: accords éoliens ascendants)

Descending aeolian chords (Sz: accords éoliens descendants)

Thunder effect (Sz: effet de tonnerre)

Whistling sounds (Sz: sons sifflés)

Sliding the hand: slow whistling sounds

Scratching with the fingernail: rapid whistling sounds

Scratching with the fingernail: slow whistling sounds

Tuning pin glissando

Tuning pin gliss.

Muﬄing (dampening) and muting

Muffling tones as part of normal playing technique

Isolated sounds (Sz: sons isolés)

Muffled sounds (Sz: sons étouffés)

Xylophonic sounds (Sz: sons xylophoniques)

(or) près de la table

Xylophonic sounds “a la chitarra”

together near the soundboard (b).

Muting with other objects

To specify a different type of harmonic, a more differentiated notation is necessary. No unani-

Xyloharmonic sounds (Sz: Sons xyloharmoniques)

Plucking with ﬁngernails and other objects

Eﬀects with the pedals

Result: a metallic sound of microtonal pitch

Pedal glissando → “Glissando” (see page 210)

Irregular pedal changes

Esoteric sounds (Sz: sons ésotériques)

Eﬀects with the tuning key

percussive effects on all parts of the instrument.

Eﬀects with the tuning pins

Tam-tam sounds (Sz: sons de tamtam)

Thunder effect (Sz: effet de tonnerre) → “Glissando” (see page 208)

Between the strings

tremolo with a pencil

Timpanic sounds (Sz: sons timbaliques)

Variations of this technique:

Anvil effect (Sz: effet d’enclume)

Other plucked instruments

The mandolin can be used for playing melodies or accompaniment.

Historical plucked instruments

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