The Cambridge Guide To Orchestration - (Chapter 2 Wind Instruments)

CHAPTER 2 WIND INSTRUMENTS
General information
The wind instruments are divided into two groups: woodwind instruments and brass instru-
ments. Before we begin discussing the wind instruments in groups and individually, two terms
must be made clear.
Overblowing: This is a term that will appear very often in this chapter. It designates a technique
of intensifying the pressure of the mass of air in the tubing in order to make an overtone sound
instead of the fundamental tone.
Timbre: This term designates the tone quality or sound color that allows us to distinguish
between, for example, an oboe and a clarinet. Timbre should not be confused with registral
color. Each instrument has a certain timbre and can also have various registral colors (this is
especially noticeable among the wind instruments). The overtones present in the sound of an
instrument play a major role in determining the instrument’s timbre:
䡲 Instruments with a richer overtone spectrum sound fuller and more expressive; those with
fewer overtones sound drier.
䡲 Instruments with lower overtones dominating have a sound which is fuller and lower but not
as penetrating; those with strong higher overtones sound shrill and penetrating. If middle
overtones dominate, then the sound is round and mellow.
䡲 The relative strength of the overtones and their relation to the fundamental tone play a role.
The overtone content of the sound of any instrument is more or less well known. Overtone
production and thus the timbre, to a certain extent, can be affected through changes of the
mouthpiece, the bore, the type of tubing and/or the bell, for example. These four factors are
especially important with wind instruments and, for this reason, will be discussed with each
individual instrument.
Range
The ranges of the wind instruments are not always the same, especially in the higher registers.
The instrument type and manner of construction play an important role. The ranges in use in
everyday practice will be given in the individual discussion of each instrument. These can be
extended, but this should only be undertaken after checking with the player involved. There
Copyright © 2013. Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.
are many works in the literature in which ranges are senselessly extended not only upward,
but also downward, and the fact that these works were written by famous composers does not
make them any more possible to play. Let the novice orchestrator be warned!
Transposition
Many wind instruments are transposing instruments; that is, they sound differently than they
are notated. Non-transposing instruments are: flute, oboe, clarinet in C, bassoon, soprano sax-
ophone in C, trumpet in C, trombone and tuba (except the Wagner tuba).
The following table gives an overview of the notation of the most important transposing instru-
ments and the resulting sound:
Sevsay, Erturul. The Cambridge Guide to Orchestration, Cambridge University Press, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/sibdilibro-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1182955.
Created from sibdilibro-ebooks on 2022-11-21 16:14:19.
72 Wind instruments
Notation
Piccolo P8
Flute in E
Clarinet in E m3
Trumpet in E
Sound Clarinet in B
Trumpet in B M2
Cornet in B
Flugelhorn in B higher
instruments
Clarinet in A
Trumpet in A m3
Cornet in A
Flugelhorn in A
Alto flute in G P4
English horn in F P5
French horn in F
Alto clarinet in E M6
Alto saxophone in E
Sound
Bass flute P8
lower
instruments
Contrabassoon P8
Bass clarinet in B M9
Tenor saxophone in B
Baritone saxophone in E M13
Transposition 73
Sound
Piccolo P8
Flute in E
Clarinet in E m3
Trumpet in E
Clarinet in B
Trumpet in B M2
Cornet in B
Flugelhorn in B
Clarinet in A
Trumpet in A m3
Cornet in A
Flugelhorn in A
Alto flute in G P4
Notation
English horn in F P5
French horn in F
Alto clarinet in E M6
Alto saxophone in E
Bass flute P8
Bass clarinet in B M9
Tenor saxophone in B
Baritone saxophone in E M13
Contrabassoon P8
In tonal music, the key signature of a piece is a deciding factor for what kind of instrument
should be used: for example the B clarinet for flat keys and the A clarinet for sharp keys. B
clarinets have two flats less in the key signature than the sounding key (A clarinets would have
three additional flats). In sharp keys, A clarinets have three sharps less (whereas B clarinets
would have two additional sharps to read).
74 Wind instruments
Woodwind instruments
The woodwinds are the most heterogeneous instrument group in the orchestra. Due to their
various sound characteristics, sound colors and other qualities, in comparison with string
instruments they have several advantages (for example, a variety of colors and acoustic effects
among themselves), but also disadvantages (for example, problems of sound balance and tun-
ing between individual instruments).
Classification
The woodwinds can be divided in different ways according to three different criteria.
Classification by instrument families

1. Flutes
Piccolo, flute, flute in E, alto flute in G, bass flute in C; also flute in D, piccolos in D and E,
bass flute in G, contrabass flutes in C and G
2. Oboes and bassoons
Oboe, English horn in F, bassoon, contrabassoon; also oboe d’amore in A, heckelphone in C,
baritone or bass oboe in C as well as sarrusophone and soprano oboe in E
3. Clarinets
Clarinets in B and A, bass clarinet in B; also clarinets in C, D, E, F and A, alto clarinet in
E, bassett horn in F, bass clarinet in A, contralto clarinet in E and contrabass clarinet in B
4. Saxophones
Alto in E, tenor in B, baritone in E; also sopranino in F or E, soprano in C, alto in F, tenor
in C, baritone in F, bass in C or B, contrabass in F or E, subcontrabass in C or B
Classification by mouthpiece
1. No reed: flutes
2. Single-reed: clarinets and saxophones
3. Double-reed: oboes, bassoons and sarrusophone
Classification by form of the vibrating column of air

1. Cylindrical
open: flutes (overblowing at the octave)
closed: clarinets (overblowing at the 12th)

2. Conical
Oboes, bassoons, saxophones (overblowing at the octave)
Woodwinds in the Classical and Romantic periods

In the Classical period, woodwinds were restricted to one or two flutes as well as two each of
oboes, clarinets and bassoons. The clarinets were added relatively late, and Mozart was the first
composer to use them in symphonic works. Alternative instruments such as the piccolo and the
English horn were used occasionally in symphonic and opera orchestras of the Classical period
but did not become regular members of the orchestra at this time. In a typical orchestral score
of the Romantic period, the woodwinds are listed in the following order:
Woodwind instruments 75
Piccolo
2 flutes
2 oboes
English horn
2 clarinets
Bass clarinet
2 bassoons
Contrabassoon
Toward the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century, the number of
woodwinds used – parallel to the number of strings and brass – reached very large dimensions
(see pages 90–91).
Flutes
Flute
The flute is an open, cylindrical wind instrument shaped like a pipe with an embouchure hole
and plate. Though today’s flutes are normally made of metal, they are still considered to be
woodwind instruments.
Range:
8va
Some instruments have a B-foot which makes the low B playable and enriches the sound of
the low tones. On the other hand, it makes the brilliance of the high register suffer somewhat.
Some composers (such as Tchaikovsky, Mahler and Ravel) require the low B. This is either
a mistake or an instruction relating to voice leading (perhaps in order to make clear motivic
integrity). Similarly, a tone may be required which lies a half-step lower than the lowest actual
tone of the instrument (this occurs in Baroque music, for example a c in de la Barre and a d
in Telemann). This tone is produced by a modification of the embouchure (“rolling in”).
The registers of the flute and their characteristic sound colors:
penetrating,
shining, bright cutting
gentle, mild, brighter
bleak, hollow, mellow
䡲 Chromaticism is difficult to play in the very high and very low ranges. Low tones sound
relatively weak and are easily covered by other instruments, even when they play softly. In
soft dynamics, the low notes have a trumpet-like color.
䡲 Although in principle any dynamic value can be required, crescendo and decrescendo on
the flute are not very effective. The highest tones (b and upward) should only be used in
loud dynamics, as final notes or as effects and not as part of a continuing melodic line. Softly
played notes are certainly possible up to b .
䡲 The sound of the flute has the fewest overtones of the wind instruments and thus sounds
very pure.
76 Wind instruments
Almost everything is playable on the flute. It is a very dexterous instrument. Rapidly repeated
notes, scales, broken chords, legato lines, large leaps, double-tonguing, triple-tonguing, flutter-
tonguing – these are all usable and effective. However, the flute requires a good amount of air,
and one should give the flute more rests than the other wind instruments (these are necessary
not only for breathing but also for relaxation of the embouchure).
Trills and tremoli can be used in various registers and dynamics. Some trills and tremoli can be
difficult to play in the lowest register, depending on the instrument and the technical abilities of
the player. For example, the trill c –d is difficult to play on older instruments. Later a special
key was developed for this, but this key made it almost impossible to play a tremolo between
c and e . An additional special key to enable this tremolo would make the trill c –d more
difficult, and so on. Many trills and tremoli are also difficult or impossible to play in the highest
register.
Glissando is especially effective in the second octave of the flute.
The playing of overtones (harmonics) is often required; they are overblown at the octave (a) or
at the 12th (b). The tones at the 12th sound more “characteristic.” Sometimes double-octave
harmonics are required (c). Overtones often sound too low. The tone which should be played
as an overtone is marked with a ◦ over the notehead:
a. b. c.
Piccolo
The piccolo is the smallest and thus the highest member of the flute family. It is a transposing
instrument, sounding one octave higher that written.
Range:
Notation Sound
8va
8va
The registers of the piccolo and their characteristic sound colors:

penetrating,
shining, bright cutting
gentle, mild, brighter
bleak, hollow, mellow
䡲 The highest notes are difficult to play. They should only be used rarely and in loud dynamics.
䡲 The piccolo really starts sounding bright as of (written) g . The lower tones are weak and
sound better on the flute. However, these tones and their “breathy” color on the piccolo are
sometimes preferred to those of the flute.
The piccolo is just as dexterous as the flute. Every flute technique is applicable, except perhaps
for flutter-tonguing, which does not produce the same effect as on the flute and sounds better
in the lower half of the range. Excessive use of the piccolo (especially in the high range) is as
tiring for the listener as it is for the player.
Alto flute
The alto flute, which is often incorrectly designated as “bass flute” in older scores, is a trans-
posing instrument in G, sounding a perfect 4th lower than written.
Range:
Notation Sound
8va 8va
The registers of the alto flute and their characteristic sound colors:
shrill
less effective
gentle, mild, full
charming but mellow
The sound of the alto flute is more mellow and pastoral than that of the flute, and its lower
range has more power. The lowest notes also sound more solid than those of the flute. On the
other hand, the high register does not have the same brilliance.
Though all flute techniques are applicable to the same degree, one should be conscious of the
fact that the alto flute, due to its extended length and width, needs more air than the flute.
Bass flute
Another transposing instrument of the flute family sounding an octave lower than written.
Range:
Notation Sound
8va
The registers of the bass flute and their characteristic sound colors:
full-sounding, mild, brighter thin, ineffective

very characteristic
The bass flute has a dark, hollow and somewhat eerie sound quality. In recent times the bass
flute has been very widely used in popular music, where it is usually amplified.
Due to its size, the bass flute requires more air than the other members of the flute family.
Because of the heavy weight, some instruments have a support device which rests on the player’s
right thigh.
78 Wind instruments
Flute in E
Sounds a minor 3rd higher than written. It is smaller than the flute but larger than the piccolo.
It is notated in E, and its key signature contains three flats less or three sharps more than the
other instruments.
The flute in E has the same written range as the normal flute. Tones which sound shrill on the
normal flute can be played on this instrument with a pleasant sound quality. Unfortunately the
flute in E has not become widespread.
The flute in D and piccolos in D and E are military instruments and are used very rarely
today.
A bass flute in G as well as a contrabass flute in C and G (sounding, respectively, a 12th, two
octaves, and two octaves and a 5th lower than written) have recently been constructed, but have
not become widely used.
Oboes
Oboe
The oboe is a conical, non-transposing woodwind instrument with a double reed.
Range:
The lowest tone on the Viennese oboe is b; the lowest tone on the French oboe and other instru-
ments is b, which later became standard.
The registers of the oboe and their characteristic sound colors:
very thin,
less effective, ineffective
hard, tender, affecting, thin
penetrating plaintive, delicate
䡲 The middle range of the oboe is very characteristic and makes it a typical “melody
instrument.”
䡲 Low notes are difficult to play p. In contrast, the high register is weaker. The highest five to
six notes have a very thin sound, and, though some works even require a fff, this dynamic
can simply not be reached in this range. Especially if other instruments are playing f, the
sound of the oboe can be totally lost in this register.
The oboe can play very expressive legato lines. Contrary to the opinion of some inexperienced
composers and arrangers, the oboe is also very capable of executing quickly moving figures and
staccato passages. In this case, only single-tonguing is used, as double- and triple-tonguing is
not possible on the oboe. The oboe requires little air, meaning that it can even play extended,
unbroken passages. Extremely long passages should, however, be avoided, as they can cause the
oboist to begin to suffer from lack of oxygen before he runs out of air.
The sound of the oboe is very rich in overtones and can thus become tiring for the listener if it is
used too much. For the same reason, the oboe (compared with the flute and clarinet) does not
mix as well with other instruments of the orchestra. On the other hand, it is very well suited to
doubling other lines. The oboe supports the line it is doubling, helping it to be heard clearly.
Not all that rarely, the oboe even trumps the instrument it is doubling. (As we will see later, the
bassoon is also a very effective doubling instrument, but does not tend to come to the fore as
the oboe does. This is an advantage the bassoon has over the oboe.)
Many instrumentation schools warn the orchestrator – and they are right – against using the
lowest tones of the oboe, which have a loud, hard, thick, heavy sound. However, on a modern
instrument with an experienced player and with suitable reeds, it is possible to achieve a velvety
timbre in a soft dynamic in this range. Especially when these tones are approached from higher
notes in legato, their dynamic flexibility is vastly improved. It is almost always a single tongue
stroke which produces the thick, heavy tone. Low notes on the oboe mix well with low strings
and lend their sonority more body.
As on the flute, a few trills and tremoli are difficult to play in the lowest register, although
most of these problems have been overcome by improvements in instrument construction. The
highest register of the oboe is not suited for such effects. Trills on the oboe sound especially
penetrating.
Harmonics are overblown at the octave. For the first six chromatic tones, the octave key is
used. The others are produced with other fingerings and embouchure techniques. The actual
sounding pitch is notated with a ◦ above it.
English horn
The English horn is the alto instrument of the oboe family, a transposing double-reed instru-
ment with a pear-shaped bell. It sounds a perfect 5th lower than notated; its key signature has
one additional sharp or one fewer flat. The predecessor of the English horn, the oboe da caccia,
which was a very popular instrument in the Baroque period, was also written in F.
Range:
Notation Sound
Some instruments have a key for the low b (sounding e).

The registers of the English horn and their characteristic sound colors:
brighter, less effective

hollow, intense tender, mellow
䡲 The pear-shaped extension at the end of the bell lends the instrument a serious and melan-
choly sound. For this reason, the English horn is usually used for slow, expressive passages,
although it can also play quick passages as the oboe can.
䡲 The very high and very low registers are difficult to play, but principally the English horn is
free from the hoarse sound the oboe has in the lowest register.
䡲 The sound is not as penetrating as that of the oboe, but it can nevertheless be heard well in
the orchestra.
80 Wind instruments
Oboe d’amore
The mezzo-soprano of the oboe family – a transposing instrument in A. It was already popular
in the Baroque period; Johann Sebastian Bach notated parts for this instrument at concert pitch,
but today a transposed notation is appropriate (three less sharps or three flats more).
Range:
Notation Sound
The oboe d’amore has a more mellow, sweeter sound than the oboe and has a pear-shaped bell
like the English horn.
Heckelphone
The heckelphone is a baritone or bass oboe, a transposing instrument in C sounding an octave
lower than written. Its appearance is similar to that of the bassoon. Richard Strauss, Delius and
Hindemith are three of the few composers who have written for this instrument.
Range:
Notation Sound
Baritone or bass oboe

A further baritone or bass double-reed instrument with the same range as the heckelphone.
The only essential difference between them is their outer appearance: the baritone or bass oboe
looks like an English horn. With the exception of Holst and Delius, hardly any composers have
used this instrument.
Soprano oboe in E
A little-known transposing instrument with a range of b–f (sounding d –a ).
Clarinets
Clarinet
The clarinet is a closed, cylindrical and (with the exception of the clarinet in C) transposing
instrument with a single reed.
Range of the clarinet:
Notation Sound (Cl. in A) Sound (Cl. in B ) Sound (Cl. in C)
The clarinet has a larger range than other woodwind instruments. Some new B clarinets have
a low c key. The most often-used clarinets are those in B and A.
Within its wide range, the clarinet has at least four sound colors which are clearly distinct from
one another. If several various clarinets are used in differing registers at the same time, an
enormous variety of color combinations is possible.
The registers of the clarinet and their characteristic sound colors:
shrill, very shrill,

intense, penetrating
neutral, elegiac, tender, vehement
deep, eerie colourless plaintive
䡲 The tone of the clarinet is very homogeneous. With the exception of the highest register
(notated a upward, where only loud tones are possible), all tones are playable at all dynamic
levels. The clarinet can begin a tone without articulation in almost total silence and proceed
to reach each dynamic value (the sequence can also be reversed).
䡲 The clarinet in A has a more mellow, darker tone compared with the other clarinets. The
clarinet in C, today hardly used, sounds thinner and more cutting.
䡲 The three (written) tones g , a and b produce the weakest sound. The register break
between b and b , which constituted a problem before, has been rendered unproblematic
by new technical developments.
䡲 The clarinet is less rich in overtones than the oboe. In the lower register – called the
chalumeau register – the odd-numbered overtones dominate. The clarinet sounds more pli-
ant and less penetrating than the oboe and blends more easily with other instruments.
䡲 Like the flute (and unlike the oboe), the clarinet sounds weaker in the one-line octave and
becomes stronger the higher it is played. For this reason it is recommended to have the clar-
inets play higher than the oboes especially in loud passages, in melodic as well as in chordal
functions.
The clarinet is as dexterous as the flute and equally well suited for quick and slow passages.
Quick staccato is, however, difficult. Staccato in general is effective but less cutting than on
the oboe. Double- and triple-tonguing is almost never used, except by very good players in
extremely fast staccato passages.
All trills and also tremoli with smaller intervals are playable on the clarinet. As the intervals
increase, the tremoli become more difficult.
Glissando functions very well and is usually even requested across the register break between
b and b . The fingers and lips produce this effect together. Below the register break the fingers
play a greater role; above the break, the lips do.
Overblowing on the clarinet results in an interval of a 10th. For this reason, octave jumps are
more difficult than for the other woodwinds. Harmonics are not required of the clarinet. The
term sub-tones (or echo tones) indicates tones of the lowest (chalumeau) register, which are
blown very gently and sound dull and almost muted:
(Echo tones)
82 Wind instruments
Clarinet in E (piccolo clarinet)
This clarinet is a transposing instrument in E sounding a minor 3rd higher than written. The
key signature is modified with three additional sharps or three fewer flats.
Range:
Notation Sound
8va
The registers of the E clarinet and their characteristic sound colors:
shrill, penetrating
colourless, neutral shining, intense
䡲 The E clarinet is usually used in the upper register where the normal clarinets begin to
sound shrill. The lowest register sounds thin and not very characteristic.
䡲 All technical peculiarites of the usual clarinets apply here, too. Especially typical is the use
of biting, pointed staccato in the upper registers.
The E clarinet can be used soloistically or in doublings. The piccolo clarinet is to a certain
degree more difficult to play than the normal clarinet. One should be careful not to overfill its
part; frequent rests are very welcome. The E clarinet is used more and more in contemporary
music.
Bass clarinet
This instrument represents the bass of the clarinet family. It is a transposing instrument in B.
In the past, some composers wrote for a bass clarinet in A but this instrument is no longer used
today and its parts are played by bass clarinets in B. The bass clarinet is also called the clarone.
There are two types of bass clarinet: the most common has an e in treble clef (sounding D)
as the lowest tone, the other can reach a c (sounding 1B, the lowest tone of the bassoon).
Range:
Notation Sound (B. Cl. in B )
Normally written in treble clef, the instrument sounds a major 9th lower than written. In the
past the bass clef was also used; in this case, the instrument sounds a major 2nd lower than
written.
The registers of the bass clarinet and their characteristic sound colors:
forced,
more brilliant colourless
mysterious, full, but less effective
penetrating intense, full
The most characteristic register extends to g . The bass clarinet has the same technical possibili-
ties as the normal clarinet, only its staccato is not as cutting. It is an exceptional bass instrument
for the woodwind section, especially when there is no bassoon or it is being used in some other
function. Its dexterity in the bass register gives it a unique advantage and has made it one of the
best-loved instruments of contemporary music. A further plus is its dynamic flexibility. Even
harmonics are possible on the bass clarinet.
Clarinets in D, F and A
The clarinet in D is a variant of the clarinet in E and is seldom used. It sounds a major 2nd
higher than written. Its parts are usually played on the E clarinet. Clarinets in F and A sound
respectively a perfect 4th and a minor 6th higher than written. They are only used in military
bands.
Bassett horn
The tenor instrument of the clarinet family is notated in F (or, seldom, in E). The bassett
horn sounds a perfect 5th (or a major 6th) lower than written. It was one of Mozart’s favorite
instruments.
Range:
Notation Sound (B. H. in F) Sound (B. H. in E )

Alto clarinet in E
This clarinet is primarily used in wind orchestras and bands. Its basic function is to fill out
harmonies; only on occasion is it used for melodic doubling. It is notated in E and sounds a
major 6th lower than written.
Range:
Notation Sound
84 Wind instruments
Contralto clarinet
This clarinet sounds one octave lower than the alto clarinet and is also notated in E. Its range
lies between that of the bass clarinet and the contrabass clarinet; sometimes the instrument is
called a contrabass clarinet in E in the literature. It is primarily used in wind orchestras and
ensembles.
Range:
Notation Sound
8ba
Contrabass clarinet
The contrabass member of the clarinet family in B. A metal instrument with a rich sound,
somewhat less dexterous than the bass clarinet. It is hardly ever used in symphony orchestras,
but more in wind orchestras and ensembles in place of the contralto clarinet. In some books it
is called pedal clarinet.
Range:
Notation Sound
8ba
Bassoons
Bassoon
The bassoon is a conically built, non-transposing double-reed instrument.
Range:
It is possible to play a contra A on the bassoon by placing an extension piece (“pavillon de

recharge”) in the open end. Composers such as Wagner and Mahler require this pitch. Bass
and tenor clefs are used; some contemporary composers also use treble clef.
The registers of the bassoon and their characteristic sound colors:
light but intense thin
thick, strong, full neutral, gentle
䡲 Staccato and legato passages are equally well suited for the bassoon. Single-tonguing works
well, but double- and triple-tonguing are very difficult to play. There are, however, bassoon
players who can “fake” double-tonguing very well. Humorous staccato passages are espe-
cially typical for the bassoon, whereby upward leaps are more easily executed than down-
ward ones.
䡲 Unlike those of the oboe, the lowest tones can by played with a pliant tone quality, though
this is difficult to do in very soft dynamics.
䡲 The bassoon is easily covered by other instruments and/or thick orchestration. This
must be kept in mind when writing solo passages. According to Forsyth, eight play-
ers were used to strengthen the bassoon part at the Paris Opéra in Gluck’s day.
The rich and abundant use of this instrument in French music is especially worth
mentioning.
䡲 The sound of the bassoon blends very well with all other instruments and lends their
melodies more body, even when these are written one or two octaves higher than the bas-
soon. The register between g and g is most often used for this purpose:
Bsn. I
Vl. I
Mozart: Symphony No. 41 in C major (Jupiter), 1st movement
Used as a doubling instrument, the bassoon, as opposed to the oboe, reinforces the sound color
of the melody instrument and allows it to be heard more clearly while the actual color of the
bassoon remains in the background.
There are two historical variants of the bassoon: the tenoroon or tenor bassoon (sounding a
perfect 5th higher than the bassoon) and the Quartfagott (sounding a perfect 4th lower than
the bassoon).
Contrabassoon
The contrabassoon is a conically built, transposing double-reed instrument in C sounding an

octave lower than written.
Range:
Notation Sound
8ba
86 Wind instruments
The registers of the contrabassoon and their characteristic sound colors:
less effective
thick, deep neutral but effective
䡲 The most characteristic register is the lowest one. The higher registers are – though they are
sometimes used in contemporary music – weaker and colorless.
䡲 Due to the size of the instrument, long tones are accompanied by a certain rumbling and
buzzing.
Although all bassoon techniques are theoretically applicable, the contrabassoon does not
respond as quickly as the normal bassoon, which is especially noticeable in staccato passages.
The contrabassoon is primarily used to lend the bass line more body and an octave doubling.
Its use as a solo instrument is rare, but when required, it seems that a combination between
short, quick passages and sustained tones functions best.
Inexperienced orchestrators are often unsure whether they should use a contrabassoon or a
third bassoon. Let us say that the accessibility of very low notes which cannot be reached on
a normal bassoon should not be the only criterion for using a contrabassoon (as these notes
could also be given to other bass instruments). Instead, the dark, solid color of the instrument
should play a role in its being chosen for a particular passage. There are so many scores in which
use of this heavy instrument could be avoided through minimal re-instrumentation with few
compromises and no change in the overall sound of the work. If the third bassoon and the
contrabassoon are to be played by the same musician, then he must be allowed a generous
amount of time in which to switch from one instrument to the other.
Sarrusophone
The sarrusophone can be defined as a bassoon made of metal. It became especially popular in
France. Its resonating tube is wide and conical. It is produced in seven sizes, exactly like the
saxophone. All sarrusophones are notated in treble clef and are transposing instruments:
Sopranino in E sounds a minor 3rd higher than written
Soprano in B sounds a major 2nd lower
Alto in E sounds a major 6th lower
Tenor in B sounds a major 9th lower
Baritone in E sounds an octave and a major 6th lower
Bass in B sounds two octaves and a major 2nd lower
Contrabass in E sounds two octaves and a major 6th lower

Range:
Notation Sound: see above
A contrabass sarrusophone in C was introduced to replace the contrabassoon. It is notated in

bass clef.
Range:
Notation Sound
8ba
Saxophones
Though they are made of brass, these conically built, single-reed, transposing wind instruments
are usually treated as woodwind instruments due to their structural, technical and acoustic
proximity to the clarinets.
Together with the saxhorns and saxotrombas (see the “Brass instruments” section beginning on
page 88), the saxophones were developed around 1840 by Adolphe Sax. At that time, musicians
were interested in inventing a family of brass instruments reaching from the soprano to the
contrabass register. For this reason, all the “Sax” instruments (including the sarrusophone and
others) were produced in all sizes. Of all the “Sax” instruments, the saxophones became the
most important and, to this day, most long-lived group, though mostly in “non-classical” music.
Saxophones come in seven different sizes. They are notated in treble clef and are transposing
instruments:
Sopranino in E sounds a minor 3rd higher than written
Soprano in B sounds a major 2nd lower
Alto in E sounds a major 6th lower
Tenor in B sounds a major 9th lower
Baritone in E sounds an octave and a major 6th lower
Bass in B sounds two octaves and a major 2nd lower
Contrabass in E sounds two octaves and a major 6th lower
The sopranino and especially the contrabass saxophone are used very seldom.
All saxophones use the same fingering system, so it is no problem for the same player to switch
between different sizes of instrument. Even a subcontrabass saxophone exists, though the ques-
tion remains if it is ever used.
All saxophones have the same notated range. Good jazz saxophonists extend this range up to
an octave upward:
Notation Sound: see above
The saxophone is mostly used in jazz, wind orchestras and wind ensembles. In the past, it was
used only occasionally in orchestral music. Today it is gaining in popularity in this field as
well.
88 Wind instruments
Almost everything is playable on the saxophone. Only quick staccato notes do not function
very well.
Brass instruments
Compared to the woodwind instruments, the brass instruments are, as a group, more homo-
geneous. For this reason, their use creates fewer problems in terms of their blending with one
another. On the other hand, they can destroy the instrumentation’s balance if their unique
dynamic power is not considered.
Classification
Brass instruments are usually divided according to four criteria, whereby the first two criteria
are of the greatest practical use.
Classification by instrument families

1. Horns and tubas
The Wagner tubas, alto and tenor horns, euphonium, cornets and flugelhorns also belong to
this group.
2. Trumpets and trombones
Classification by mouthpiece
1. Shallow cup mouthpiece
Trumpets and trombones: very bright, transparent and overtone-rich sound
2. Deep cup mouthpiece
Cornets, flugelhorns and tubas: more malleable and milder sound, less rich in overtones
3. Funnel mouthpiece
Horns: much darker and very mellow sound with relatively few overtones
Classification according to transposition

1. Transposing instruments
Trumpets and cornets (except for those in C), horns, Wagner tubas
2. Non-transposing instruments
Trombones and tubas, euphonium, trumpets and cornets in C
Classification according to the availability of fundamental tones

1. Half-tube instruments: horns and trumpets. These instruments cannot play their fundamen-
tal tones, only overtones.
2. Whole-tube instruments: trombones and tubas. These instruments can play, in addition to
overtones, their fundamental tones. Using the slide (on the trombone) or the valves (on the
tubas), it is possible to extend the range of these instruments downward and to play tones which
are lower than the instrument’s fundamental tone. (The fundamental tone of each instrument
is the lowest tone which can be played without use of the slide positions or the valves.) These
Brass instruments 89
tones, lying lower than the fundamental tone, are actually fundamental tones of the extended
ranges which are accessed by use of the slide or the valves. Together with the actual fundamental
tone of the instrument, they are called pedal tones. It must be said that the alto trombone,
due to its small mensuration (see below), cannot produce pedal tones of good quality, if at all.
Manufacturers have attempted to correct this failing in some newer models with a wider bore,
but the upper registers suffer. An average tenor trombone, on the other hand, can play the first
four pedal tones. More on this later in the context of the individual instruments.
It is not really possible to classify the brass instruments according to their bore as each one has
a unique structural form based on an individual combination of cylindrical and conical tubing.
This observation brings us to the next point.
Factors influencing the timbre of the brass instruments

Mouthpiece
This is the most important factor and has already been discussed above. One should remember
that the sound becomes more brilliant and richer in overtones as the cup of the mouthpiece
becomes shallower.
Mensuration (Ger.: Mensur)

Mensuration is the ratio between the diameter and the length of the sounding tube. The nar-
rower the instrument’s bore, the more brilliant, richer in overtones, and more cutting the sound.
A narrower bore facilitates the production of higher partials and tones, whereas a wider bore
facilitates the lower ones.
Tubing
Cylindrical or conical. Cylindrical tubes sound brighter and have more overtones. Coni-
cal tubes sound mellower and have fewer overtones. Accordingly, an instrument sounds
brighter or darker depending on the ratio between the cylindrical and conical parts of the
tubing.
Bell
The ratio between the length and the width of the bell plays a part here. Longer, narrower bells
(trumpets) concentrate and project the sound with more force, making it brighter; shorter,
wider bells (horns) produce a less direct and thus mellower sound.
Brass instruments in the Classical and Romantic periods

Brass instruments were not used in every orchestral work of the Classical period; often, for
example, they appear only in the first and last movements of a symphony. In scores with brass,
two (occasionally four) horns are usually used. Some works add two trumpets (together with a
pair of timpani). Some authors call the timpani the “third trumpet” because these instruments
are, as a rule, used together. It is probably for this reason that the trumpets, though sounding
higher than the horns, are written in the score beneath the horns, near the timpani. A further
reason for this apparent inconsistency, which has become a fixed and unalterable custom, is
90 Wind instruments
the function of the horns among the wind instruments, which is very similar to that of the
woodwinds. In the past, several composers (for example, Wagner) went so far as to write the
horns in the score between the clarinets and the bassoons or even between the second and third
bassoons:
Andante maestoso, = 50
sehr gehalten
3
Cl. I-II in A
3
sehr gehalten
3
Hr. I-II in E
sehr gehalten
a2 3
Bsn. I-II
Wagner: Tannhäuser, Overture

The trombone had already developed into its modern form by the end of the sixteenth cen-
tury. Even then it was produced in various sizes. In works with choir and orchestra, trombones
played a very important role supporting the human voices (colla parte technique). It wasn’t
until Beethoven that the trombone family became a fixed element of the brass family in the
symphony orchestra. The tuba first joined this family in the second half of the nineteenth cen-
tury and quickly replaced all its predecessors as the bass instrument of choice.
A typical, large Romantic orchestra contains the following brass instruments:
4 horns
2–3 trumpets
3 trombones
1 tuba
At the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century, symphony orches-
tras reached gigantic proportions. As examples, here are four representative works using large
groups of brass instruments:
Richard Wagner: The Ring of the Nibelungen

Piccolo, 3 flutes (third flute also plays second piccolo), 3 oboes, English horn (also plays fourth
oboe), 3 clarinets, bass clarinet, 3 bassoons, contrabassoon, 8 horns (fifth to eighth horn also
2 tenor tubas and 2 bass tubas), 3 trumpets, bass trumpet, 3 tenor-bass trombones, contrabass
trombone (usually also bass trombone)
Richard Strauss: Also sprach Zarathustra

Piccolo, 3 flutes (third flute also plays second piccolo), 3 oboes, English horn, piccolo clarinet,
2 clarinets, bass clarinet, 3 bassoons, contrabassoon, 6 horns, 4 trumpets, 3 trombones, 2 bass
tubas
Gustav Mahler: Symphony No. 6 in A minor
4 flutes, 4 oboes, piccolo clarinet, 3 clarinets, bass clarinet, 3 bassoons, contrabassoon, 8 horns,
4 trumpets, 3 trombones, bass tuba
Igor Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring

Piccolo, 3 flutes (third flute also plays second piccolo), alto flute, 4 oboes (fourth oboe also
plays second English horn), English horn, piccolo clarinet, 3 clarinets, bass clarinet, 4 bassoons,
contrabassoon, 8 horns (seventh and eighth horn also 2 tenor tubas), small trumpet, 4 trumpets
(fourth trumpet also plays bass trumpet), 3 trombones, 2 tubas
Historical development of the valve instruments

Natural instruments
A detailed account of the historical development of the brass instruments would go beyond
the scope of this book. Still, we must cast a short glance at the past in order to appreciate the
role played by the so-called natural French horns and natural trumpets in the earliest period of
modern orchestration. These natural instruments, unlike their modern counterparts, were not
equipped with any valves. A wind instrument with no valves represents a single tube which can
be used to produce the overtones of a certain fundamental tone. The pitch of this fundamental
tone is determined by the length of the tube.
The player must produce the proper tone only by altering his embouchure. To this end, he must
“hear” the pitch before playing. These natural instruments were used until well into the second
half of the nineteenth century.
Irrespective of the actual pitch of the fundamental tone, notation of the natural instruments
always used the harmonic overtone series based on C.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
( )
The French horns could not play the fundamental tone (tone 1); the trumpets could play nei-
ther the fundamental tone nor the first overtone (tones 1 and 2). Only a few high trumpets
with a wider bore could play the first overtone (tone 2). At the other extreme, the 12th partial
was generally considered the upper limit of what was playable in the Classical period, although
tones as high as the 16th partial were required in a few works. Baroque composers used the
brass instruments in higher ranges and required them to play similar things to the violins. Thus
they demanded a very advanced technique of the players. This technique, used by brass players
in the highest ranges, was called clarino technique. (At this time, the trumpets employed to
play lower overtones were called principali while those playing higher overtones were known
as clarini.) An ultimate rejection of clarino technique – a small rebellion on the part of the
players – changed this. From this time onwards, tones above the 12th partial were no longer
required; the number of available tones was reduced and more focus was laid on the harmonic
function of the instruments. This was the first important step in the direction of modern instru-
mentation and went hand in hand with the end of the late Baroque period in music, during
92 Wind instruments
which instrumentation technique had essentially not developed any further. In some books
on instrumentation, the abandonment of clarino technique is treated as a loss. Truly, however,
it is responsible for a considerable technical advancement in the treatment of the orchestra.
Difficult clarino passages are played today on French horns which are specially built for these
purpose, as well as on small trumpets in D and E and the so-called Bach trumpet, which was
invented in 1881.
Out of the tones of the harmonic overtone series, the 7th, 11th, 13th and 14th tones do not fit
into the system of tempered tuning. Of these tones, the 11th partial played an important role
in Classical and Romantic music. This brings us to an examination of an interesting playing
technique called stopping. The right hand is cupped and inserted into the bell, thus “length-
ening” the resonating tube and resulting in a lowering of the “stopped” pitch. This technique
is mostly used on the French horn. It has also been attempted on the trumpet, but has not
become widely adopted due to the relative narrowness of the bell and the player’s difficulty in
reaching it. This stopping technique makes tones available which are not found in the nat-
ural overtone series. The timbre of the stopped notes is dull and compressed; thus several
composers (including Mozart) tried to avoid them as much as possible. Beethoven did not
use a single stopped note in his first symphony; in his second symphony, there is only one
stopped note (in the third movement). From the Eroica onwards, they are found fairly fre-
quently. Other composers who did not like the sound of the stopped notes (including Berlioz
and Weber) simultaneously used French horns in different tunings in order to increase the
number of available tones (each tuning has its own overtone series). Romantic composers of
the French school used additional brass instruments such as cornets, trombones and bugles à
pistons to solve the problem of tones which were not available on the normal French horns and
trumpets.
We have already seen that the 11th tone of the overtone series does not fit into the tempered
system; its tuning is too low. By slight use of the stopping technique, resulting only in a minimal
change of timbre, it is possible to play an open 4th above the fundamental tone.
(Spiritoso)
a2
Hr. I-II in D
Haydn, Symphony No. 104 in D major, 4th movement
“Inventionshorn”
The invention of the “Inventionshorn” with one or sometimes even two removable crooks made
it possible to play one horn in various tunings. Each crook had a different length according to
which the overall length of the resonating tube was altered, producing different pitches as the
fundamental tone. Each horn had up to ten of these crooks. Regardless of the tuning being used
at any one time, the horns and trumpets were always notated in C. The actual overtone series
being used determined the designation of the instrument, for example “horn in E,” “horn in
F,” “trumpet in D,” etc.
Here is a list of the natural instruments and the characteristics of their transposition:
Horns in Trumpets in Sound
A-basso m10
B -basso M9
B-basso m9
C-basso P8
C (D ) M7
D m7
E M6
E m6
F P5
F (G ) A4
G P4
A M3
A-alto A m3
B -alto B M2
B-alto B m2
C-alto C non-transposing
D m2
D M2
E m3
E M3
F P4
Of all these instruments, the horns in E, E and F as well as the trumpets in D, E, E and F were
most popular. Tunings such as C, F, A and B were, as with their corresponding keys, rarely
used.
As we see, some of the horns are additionally marked as alto or basso. These terms refer to
horns in the same tuning but based in different octaves. A “horn in B alto” is, for example, a
very small instrument sounding a major 2nd lower than notated, whereas a “horn in B basso”
is a large instrument sounding a major 9th lower than written.
Introduction of valved instruments into the orchestra

In the course of the Romantic period, more and more stopped notes were being used. Several
composers (such as Meyerbeer and Schumann) acted as pioneers in introducing valved instru-
ments into the orchestra. Others (such as Brahms) stayed conservative and used only natural
instruments. Still others (such as Wagner, at least for a period) tried to use both natural and
valved instruments at the same time.
There is a variety of reasons for the fact that the introduction of valved instruments into the
orchestra took over forty years. Firstly, the valved instruments showed certain technical defi-
ciencies; their sound and intonation needed improvement. Secondly, these instruments were
not available in great number. The third and probably most important reason was the danger of
change in the traditional voicings and structural fundamentals of instrumental composition,
which were strongly based on and influenced by certain “horn intervals,” as well as apprehen-
sion at the possible leveling out of the rich variety of colors which the various horn tunings
provided. This was particularly true for the German-speaking realm. Interestingly enough,
French musicians began to introduce valved horns and trumpets even later than their Ger-
man colleagues due to the fact that they – as already described – were already using other brass
instruments which could play chromatically (for example, the cornet).
94 Wind instruments
The typical “horn intervals” are:
Especially at the time when stopped notes were still very infrequently used, voice leading in
the brass parts was sometimes very strange:
Allegro con brio
Orch.
Tr. I-II in C
Beethoven: Overture to Coriolan

One practice which was preserved from earlier times was the specialization of horn players on
the higher or lower register. This went so far as to lead to job advertisements not for individ-
ual musicians but for pairs of horn players. This circumstance led to a special idiosyncracy in
horn notation which is still in effect today. For example, in an orchestra with four horns, the
third horn usually plays a higher part than the second horn, although the third horn is notated
together with the fourth horn on a single clef below that of the first and second horn. Some
composers notate the first and third horn together in the upper clef and the second and fourth
together in the lower one, but this practice has not gained universal acceptance.
Valved instruments
These instruments normally have three valves, but – as we will see later – sometimes more. The
valves can be either rotary or piston valves. This is solely a difference in construction and has
no influence on the valves’ principal function.
Each valve is connected to an additional set of tubing which is connected to the main tubing
when the valve is pressed. In this way, the resonating tube is lengthened and the fundamental
tone correspondingly lower. The second valve lengthens the tubing by the least amount; the first
valve lengthens it somewhat more and the third valve lengthens it the most. It is possible to use
combinations of two or all three valves simultaneously. In the latter case, the fundamental tone
and the overtone series based upon it are lowered by a tritone. Let us take as an example a horn
in F with a fundamental tone of F and the overtone series based on F. When the second valve
is pressed, the fundamental tone is changed by the additional length of tubing to E (with this
pitch’s corresponding overtones). It is as if one were to remove the F-crook and replace it with
an E-crook. This principle is the same for all valved instruments. The following table illustrates
the results of the various valve combinations. Note that the acoustic result is the same whether
one uses the third valve alone or the first and second valves together – the fundamental tone is
lowered by a minor 3rd:
Pressed valves Sound

none no change
2 m2
1 M2
3 or 1+2 m3
2+3 M3
1+3 P4
1+2+3 A4
3
0 2 1 or 1+2 2+3 1+3 1+2+3
The tuba functions according to the same principle as all other valved instruments.
All valved instruments have an additional tuning slide for fine tuning.
Old and new notation

Before we examine the different brass instruments separately, we need to deal with a some-
what eccentric notation practice from the past which is still apparent in the scores of some
composers of the twentieth century. We call this practice “old notation” in contrast to the “new
notation” used today. At the outset, we must say that it is not always easy to recognize whether
a score uses “old” or “new” notation if this is not indicated by the composer. Many composers
of the twentieth century specify which notation they use in their scores. This course of action
is absolutely recommended for the student orchestrator. Though the appearance of very low
notes written in bass clef is often an indicator for “old” notation, this system of recognition is
not very reliable, as “old notation” also allows for not very low notes to be written in bass clef.
Still, this confusing problem can be overcome with time, especially if one takes care to examine
a variety of different scores.
To answer the question as concisely and simply as possible, we must understand the following
principle: whenever a bass clef was used for a brass instrument in “old notation,” the transposed
pitch was then written an additional octave lower.
The method one must use to notate the pitch consists of two steps:
1st step: Transpose the concert pitch (the result is exactly like “new notation”!).
2nd step: Notate this pitch an octave lower using the bass clef.
An example: We want to hear an F from a horn in F. How do we notate it?
1st step: Transposition (a horn in F sounds a perfect 5th lower than written, so we notate it
a perfect 5th higher): The solution is c.
2nd step: Write this c an octave lower (solution: C):
desired sound 1st step 2nd step
(new notation) (old notation)
Another example: We want to hear a B from a horn in E. How do we notate it?
1st step: Transposition (a horn in E sounds a major 6th lower than written, so we notate it
a major 6th higher): The solution is g.
2nd step: Write this g an octave lower (solution: G):
96 Wind instruments
desired sound 1st step 2nd step
(new notation) (old notation)
It is also possible to notate the g (1st step) in treble clef. In this case, no additional octave
transposition is necessary, as the bass clef is not used.
What do we have to do when we find brass voices notated in bass clef in a score using “old
notation”? We simply reverse the procedure described.
1st step: Move the pitch which is notated in bass clef an octave upward.
2nd step: Transpose this pitch.
An example: We see a written G in bass clef for a horn in E. Which pitch actually sounds?
1nd step: Octave shift upward (solution: g)
2nd step: Transposition (a horn in E sounds a minor 6th lower than written, so we transpose
this g a minor 6th downward): The solution is B.
old notation 1st step 2nd step

(sound)
One more example: In the very first bars of Don Giovanni, Mozart wrote c and C for the trum-
pets (in D) using bass clef. Which actual pitches did he want to hear?
1nd step: Octave shift upward (solution: c and c)
2nd step: Transposition (trumpets in D sound a major 2nd higher than written):
The solution is d and d.
old notation 1st step 2nd step
(sound)
In “new” or modern notation, the octave is not changed when the bass clef is used. This means
that all notes sound lower than written regardless of whether treble or bass clef is used. A final
example comparing the two systems of notation:
old notation sound new notation
Hr. in F
Horns
The (French) horn is an open portion of a brass tube with a funnel-shaped mouthpiece and
a wide bell on the other end. There are two kinds of horns: the natural horn and the modern
valve horn with its variants (double horn, triple horn).
Natural horn → “Historical development of the valve instruments” (see page 91)
Modern (valve) horn
The modern horn is a transposing instrument in F with three valves. With time, a further
improvement was added to the horn: Using an extra valve, the horn’s nearly 3.6 meters of
sounding tube can be shortened to 2.7 meters, making the F horn into a B (alto) horn. The
resulting instrument is called a double horn and has become a standard instrument in most
symphonic orchestras.
Range:
Notation Sound
Pedal tones Pedal tones
of the B division of the B division
Although horns are actually half-tube instruments, unable to play primary and pedal tones, the
first four of these tones are playable on the B division of the horn (see the preceding example).
As already mentioned, the first and third horns are specialists at playing in the high register;
second and fourth hornists play in the low register. All horn players can play comfortably in
the (notated) one-line octave.
The registers of the horn and their characteristic sound colors:
solemn,
brilliant, loud,
very dark, dark, thick, strong, clear penetrating
hesitant somewhat uncertain solid
(pedal tones)
The horn has great dynamic flexibility throughout its range; there are only two exceptions:
䡲 A true fortissimo cannot be expected in the lowest register. In this range, which requires an
absolute minimum of activity for the production of tones, the sound of the horn does not
carry well, especially when other brass instruments are also playing.
䡲 In the highest register (beginning with the ledger lines), it is difficult to produce tones within
a soft dynamic. This is true for the highest registers of all brass instruments.
The primary advantage of the B division is a heightened facility and security in producing the
higher partials. From a purely technical standpoint (and despite common belief), there is no
great difference in terms of the difficulty of playing the c on the F or B division of the horn,
but, because the lower partials lie further apart in the B division, “finding” and “holding” these
pitches is much easier.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Tones of the F horn
X - Fundamental tone of the F horn,

not playable
Double horn
in F / B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Tones of the B horn

- Fundamental tone of the B horn,
playable - 1st pedal tone
98 Wind instruments
Although rare, there is another type of double horn which combines a high B and a high F
horn in one. The even more advanced “triple horn” can be constructed based on the same
principle. It has an additional subdividing valve which halves the total length of the tubing,
allowing the switch to a high F horn. This is, however, not a standard instrument.
The arranger should not concern himself with which division of the horn is to be used. This decision
should be left to the player. Accordingly, the arranger should write for the horn in F.
The horn is quite a dexterous instrument which can play staccato and legato. Probably due
to the acoustic character of the instrument and to the manner in which it was normally used
in the music of the Romantic period, legato and sustained lines seem to suit it best. All types
of articulation are playable.
Trills can be produced with the valves or with the lips. Trills which make use of more than one
valve are difficult to play. Tremoli become risky and difficult beginning with the interval of a
3rd.
Glissando and muting → “Methods of sound production and special effects” (see page 118)
Stopped notes (It.: chiuso; Ger.: gestopft; Fr.: bouché)

The right hand is placed as far as possible inside the bell. The resulting sound is quiet and nasal
but fairly cutting. It is possible to accentuate this biting quality with certain dynamic effects
such as fp. The symbol + placed above or below the note indicates a stopped note; a return
to normal “open” notes is indicated with the symbol ◦. The stopped notes sound higher and
are thus played a half-step lower in order to correct the intonation. Please note: This technique
should not be confused with either the “stopping” technique on natural instruments (which
lowers the pitch) or the muting of modern instruments.
Echo tones
Very quiet, calm sounds which give the impression of coming “from a distance.” The pitch of
an echo tone sounds too low. The player corrects the pitch upward.
Brassy (It.: suono/i metallico/i; Ger.: schmetternd; Fr.: cuivré)

By increasing lip tension and blowing exaggeratedly hard, the player can make the metal of the
horn vibrate. This effect is notated in the score with the term “brassy.”
Bells up → “Methods of sound production and special effects” (see page 118)
The horns blend well with the woodwinds and the other brass instruments. At the same time,
they have a marked individuality as solo instruments and are well suited to choral playing as
a horn section. In the Classical period they served primarily as harmony instruments with or
without rhythmic activity. The intervals which result from the simultaneous use of two horns
became the basis for middle European compositional language, one of the prominent features
of this music. This fact is easy to understand in light of Classical and Romantic compositions.
In the Romantic period, as the horns started to play a more important role as solo and also
accompanying instruments, this attribute remained in spite of the music’s growing chromati-
cism. A quotation of Brahms sheds more light on this theme: “The horn parts should always
look as if they were written in C.” This makes clear how essential the natural overtone series
was for the structure of this music. We can illustrate its importance using the simile of a tree: the
overtones of the fundamental tone are like the trunk and branches (which are always present),
while all other notes, chromatic and otherwise, are like the leaves (only present for a certain
length of time).
Flugelhorns
(Soprano) flugelhorn
This instrument was invented in Austria in 1830 as rotary valves began to be added to keyed
bugles (natural brass instruments with fingering holes and keys). For this reason, the flugelhorn
kept the wide, conical bore and the middle-sized bell of its predecessor. It is played with a
deep cup mouthpiece. Recently, some players have begun to use a funnel-shaped mouthpiece in
order to produce a milder, mellower, “horn-like” sound. Flugelhorns are also called bugelhorns.
The typical representative of the flugelhorn family is the soprano flugelhorn. The flugelhorn is
usually notated in B (occasionally in A), though there are also smaller flugelhorns in C, D, E
and F as well as high flugelhorns in B or A. Notation is in treble clef. The instrument is used
most in wind and military orchestras as well as in jazz music. Appearances in classical music
are seldom, though it is becoming ever more popular.
Range:
Notation Sound (Fh. in B )
The flugelhorn in B sounds a major 2nd lower than written. The high tones are rarely used.
The same technical possibilities apply as to the other brass instruments (articulation, phrasing,
special effects, etc.).
Alto horn
An alto flugelhorn, normally with an oval shape, though sometimes also in trumpet or tuba
form. Unlike French horns and Wagner tubas, the valves of the alto horn are played with the
right hand and the bell points to the left. It is written in E or F. This instrument is mostly used
in wind bands.
Range:
Notation Sound (A. H. in E ) Sound (A. H. in F)

Tenor horn
A tenor flugelhorn with the same features as the alto horn, in B or C, also primarily used in
wind bands.
Range:
Notation Sound (T. H. in B ) Sound (T. H. in C)
100 Wind instruments
Baritone horn
A baritone flugelhorn in B. It has the same length as the tenor horn but, due to its wider bore,
an extended range:
Notation Sound
Bass horn
A term which is used for two different instruments:
䡲 “bass horn” or, more correctly, “bass flugelhorn”: This is simply another name, used in Aus-
tria, for the instrument described above as “tenor horn.” (The term “tenor horn” is used
more in Germany.)
䡲 a wind instrument related to the serpent with bassoon-like, bent tubing. It was made of metal
or wood. This instrument was first replaced by the ophicleide, then by the tuba.
Similar instrument families appeared in other countries, such as the saxhorns in France and
Belgium (see page 114), the flicorni in Italy, and so on. Like these other instruments, flugelhorns
were produced in all different sizes, from sopran(in)o to contrabass, with the goal of producing
a family of wind instruments of similar timbre. Despite these efforts, most of these instruments
have failed to make their way into the world of the symphony orchestra. They remain used, if
at all, primarily in wind and military music.
Cornets
Cornet
This instrument was long confused with the trumpet or at least mistakenly thought of as its
predecessor. In fact, it was invented in France around 1830 as piston valves began to be added to
post horns. Many French composers such as Berlioz, Meyerbeer, Bizet, Debussy and Messiaen
favored this instrument. The cornet’s easy production of chromatic tones fits their musical
intentions well. Today it is an instrument which is mostly used in wind orchestras and other
wind ensembles. Unfortunately, most cornet parts found in the symphonic literature of the past
are played in today’s orchestras on trumpets.
The course of its tubing is more conical and the sound thus less penetrating than that of the
trumpet. The cornet uses a mouthpiece with a deeper cup than that of the trumpet.
For these reasons, the cornet has a nobler and more distinguished sound than the trumpet and
can be combined with almost all instruments. It also must be added that cornets manufactured
today sound more “trumpet-like” than older models.
Though one finds instruments with various tunings, the most common is B. Notation is in
treble clef. The same technical possibilities apply as to the other brass instruments (articulation,
phrasing, special effects, etc.).
Range:
Notation Sound (Crn. in B ) Sound (Crn. in A)
Piccolo cornets in E and D
Smaller cornets sounding respectively a minor 3rd and major 2nd higher than written. They
have the same notated range as the cornet in B.
Trumpets
The trumpet has a cup mouthpiece at one end and a relatively small bell at the other. Its tubing
is essentially cylindrical. There are two kinds of trumpet: the natural trumpet and the modern
(jazz) trumpet.
Natural trumpet → “Historical development of the valve instruments” (see page 91)
Modern (valve) trumpet

The modern trumpet is a transposing instrument in B or A. There are also (non-transposing)
instruments in C. The trumpets in B and A are actually a single instrument, not different ones;
a B trumpet is changed into an A trumpet by extending the tuning slide and increasing the
total length of the instrument. The trumpet in C is, in contrast, a separate instrument.
Before we continue with our discussion, we must understand the essential difference between
“old” and “new” instruments. The modern trumpet is a much smaller instrument than its pre-
decessor. Its fundamental tone lies exactly one octave higher than that of the “old” trumpet.
Thus we arrive at a new overtone series which is identical to that of the cornet. Because of
the characteristics of the overtone series of the two instruments, we can say that the modern
trumpet is notated in cornet notation.
- Overtone series for the modern trumpet = cornet notation (fundamental tone cannot be played)
- Overtone series for the (old) natural trumpet (the first two tones cannot be played)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
XX
X 2 3
1
Due to its cutting sound, the C trumpet was used much less than the B trumpet in the past.
Today the modern construction of the C trumpet has a wider bore, which gives it a less pene-
trating sound, so it is again being used more frequently.
The trumpet is notated in treble clef.
Range:
Notation Sound (Tr. in A) Sound (Tr. in B ) Sound (Tr. in C)
All modern trumpets, with the exception of bass trumpets in E and D with four valves, have
the same notated range. The valve trumpet in F and its “military” relative in E (see page 102)
have a different range, but these are not modern trumpets, rather the last and only survivors of
the old trumpet family with the notated fundamental tone C.
The upper limit of the trumpet’s range (given below) can be exceeded by quite a bit, but not
without diminished sound quality. In jazz and especially in Caribbean music, trumpeters are
famous for their technical prowess in the highest registers, far beyond the range used in classical
music.
As we have already observed, the modern trumpet is a half-tube instrument, incapable of pro-
ducing its fundamental tone (tone 1 of the partial series).
The registers of the trumpet and their characteristic sound colors:
very brilliant,
serious, dull, strong, transparent, penetrating
dark brilliant
In general, it is easier to produce a large sound on the trumpet than a mellow one. Especially
in the highest and lowest registers it is difficult to play a true pianissimo. The trumpet is a
very dexterous instrument, equally effective in staccato and legato. Though fanfare effects and
majestic colors are most characteristic for the trumpet, it can also be used beautifully in softer
dynamics. Overuse can be tiring for the ear.
Trills are usually executed with the valves, but the lips may be used for trills in the highest
register. Trills requiring the use of more than one valve are more difficult to play (especially in
the lower registers). Tremoli, as on the horn, become difficult as of the interval of a 3rd.
Glissando and muting → “Methods of sound production and special effects” (see page 118)
Trumpets in F and E
The trumpet in F was the first widely used valve trumpet in the orchestra. It is a large mezzo-
soprano instrument with a very dominant, noble sound which carries exceedingly well. In
the twentieth century, composers began more and more to use the smaller trumpets (soprano
instruments!) in B and C which are preferred today. The trumpet in F is a transposing instru-
ment, but unlike the French horn and the English horn in F it sounds a perfect 4th higher
than written and thus must be notated a 4th lower. The reason for this is that this instrument –
though already a valve trumpet – still belongs to the family of old trumpets with C as the notated
fundamental tone. Compared in size with the other old trumpets, it was a piccolo trumpet and
sounded a perfect 4th higher than written. The lowest four chromatic tones on the trumpet in
F are of poor quality and are thus hardly used.

The trumpet in E, related to the F trumpet, was a military instrument. It should not be con-
fused with a small trumpet in E or the bass trumpet in E (see below for both instruments).
Range:
Notation Sound (Tr. in E ) Sound (Tr. in F)
Theoretically, these trumpets can play overtones as of the 2nd partial (1st overtone). According
to Rimsky-Korsakov, the trumpet in F (and also the somewhat smaller ones, for example, in
G or G) can even reach the fundamental tone (notated C) without problems.
Piccolo trumpets in D and E
These are smaller trumpets. They sound respectively a major 2nd and a minor 3rd higher than
written and have a very radiant sound. As we have seen with the flutes and clarinets in E, the
main advantage of these instruments is that they can be played more comfortably in the higher
register where normal trumpets start sounding shrill. In the lowest register, on the other hand,
these instruments sound less characteristic.
Piccolo trumpet in B
A very small trumpet transposing a minor 7th upward. Its characteristic register consists of the
upper two-thirds of its range.
Bass trumpet
This very large transposing instrument, invented by Wagner, is actually a valve trombone in
the form of a trumpet with a trombone mouthpiece. The bass trumpet part is usually played by
the trombonists. It exists in various tunings such as E, D, C or B, sounding a major 6th, minor
7th, octave or major 9th lower than written – sometimes even in F (sounding a 5th lower). The
latter instrument is actually an alto trumpet in F, an invention of Rimsky-Korsakov.
While bass trumpets in C and B have the same notated range as the modern trumpet (a), those
in E and D may have an additional fourth valve which extends the low range of this instrument
a further half-step downward (b). The bass trumpet has a powerful sound in the low register
where the normal trumpet cannot play effectively if at all.
Range:
a.
Notation (B. Tr. in C or B ) Sound (B. Tr. in C) Sound (B. Tr. in B )
b.
Notation (B. Tr. in E or D) Sound (B. Tr. in E ) Sound (B. Tr. in D)
Trombones
The trombone originated from the trumpet family, and shares with it a cup mouthpiece. On the
bass trombone, bore and bell become noticeably wider to allow playing of the lower partials.
The trombone is perhaps the only wind instrument to achieve technical perfection even before
the nineteenth century (followed then by the bassoon). It has only been subjected to minimal
changes, affecting nothing more than the bore and the course of the tube, since the sixteenth
century.
From the beginning, the trombone was a chromatic instrument. Basically, the trombone con-
sists of two U-shaped tubes, one of which slides within the other. This mechanism is used to
change the overall length of the tubing, resulting in alterations of pitch. There are seven slide
positions on the tenor trombone. First position (called Position 0 in some schools) is the posi-
tion in which the sliding tube is closest to the instrument. This position corresponds to the
horn and trumpet when none of their valves are pressed, and the fundamental tone sounds
without alteration. When the trombone slide is moved to second position, the tones of the first
position are lowered by one half-step (this corresponds to pressing the second valve on the
horn or trumpet). The trombone’s furthest position (seventh position) lowers the tones of the
first position by a tritone.
Bass and treble clefs are used for notation of the trombone. The alto trombone is notated in alto
clef and, in some modern works, in treble clef. All trombones are non-transposing instruments
and sound as written, although they are produced in different keys. As already discussed in the
“Natural instruments” section (page 91), the tuning of a brass instrument is determined by
the fundamental tone of the natural series which can be produced in the basic position of this
instrument. Principally, trombones are full instruments; that is, they can play the fundamental
tone and at least several of the pedal tones below it.
There are various kinds of trombone which we will discuss individually below.
Descant or soprano trombone

This is a historical instrument which, due to its weak sound, never became popular and was
quickly replaced by the cornett (Ger. Zink) and the trumpet. In recent times it has become more
widely used as the sound quality has been improved.
Alto trombone
This is tuned in E and has seven positions. The alto trombone was first used together with
one tenor and one bass trombone. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, this combination
ceased to be used, and composers began writing instead for two tenor trombones and one bass
trombone, or for three tenor trombones. In the meantime, many trombonists use a tenor-bass
trombone (see page 106).
Range:
the five chromatic tones
between these two notes are missing
Pedal tones
The registers of the alto trombone and their characteristic sound colors:
hesitant weak, strong intensive,
not effective not as strong
(pedal tones)
The first pedal tones are playable but are not of very good sound quality and were not used
earlier. On newer models of trombone of wider bore, at least a few of the pedal tones can be
used with satisfactory acoustic results, but they come at some cost to the sound color of the
highest register.
Tenor trombone
This trombone is in B. The tenor is the most often used of the trombones. Some instruments
have an additional trigger valve (F-trigger or -attachment) which, when pressed, makes use
of supplementary tubing and changes the B instrument into an instrument in F. Such trom-
bones are actually double instruments like the double French horn. They are called tenor-bass
trombones and will be discussed on page 106.
Range:
the five chromatic tones

between these two notes are missing
Pedal tones
We see that there are tones missing between the first pedal tone 1B and the E which cannot
be produced on a tenor trombone without the F-trigger. Tenor trombones with the F-trigger
(see “Tenor-bass trombone” on page 106) can play all these missing tones except the contra B
by changing into an F instrument. In order to play the contra B an E-trigger or attachment is
needed. In this case, the additional valve changes the tuning of the tenor trombone by a tritone,
from B to E, producing the overtone series of B in the sixth position. (The bass trombone
usually has this additional E-attachment, as we shall see further below.) The tenor trombone
has seven positions but only six when the F-trigger is pressed.
Only the first three or four pedal tones are used, although the others can be played by at least
some trombonists. They are, however, only used in solo repertoire.
The registers of the tenor trombone and their characteristic sound colors:
very intense,
raw, somber, thick, very strong, heroic, somewhat less strong
dark threatening blaring
(pedal tones)
Bass trombone
Usually the third trombone in the orchestra, sometimes combined either with an alto and a
tenor or, more commonly, with two tenor trombones.
In earlier times the bass trombone was built in F or G. Later it was built in B like the tenor
trombone, but always with an F-valve which could change it into an instrument in F. There are
only small differences in construction between the tenor and the bass trombone. The latter has
a wider bore, a larger bell and a larger mouthpiece. (In contrast, tenor trombones may or may
not have an F-attachment.) In most orchestras, the bass trombone is replaced by the tenor-bass
trombone.
Range:
7 pedal tones
(without F-attachment)
6 pedal tones
(with F-attachment)
The bass trombone has seven positions but only six when the F-trigger is engaged (exactly like
the tenor trombone). The bass trombone can produce the 1B (and its partials) through use of
the E-tuning slide.
The first four pedal tones of the bass trombone are playable by all; the rest, only by very good
players.
The registers of the bass trombone and their characteristic sound colors:
penetrating,
very massive, heavy, strong, strong, solid very strong
very dark full
(pedal tones)
It is also possible to use attachments in G, G, E or D instead of in F and/or E. This is remi-

niscent of the various crooks of the natural horn. When longer attachments are used, the range
of the trombone is extended downward while the number of playable positions is reduced. For
example, when, on a bass trombone, the F-attachment is engaged and a tuning slide in G is
used (G-attachment), then the number of usable positions is reduced to five and the lowest
pedal tone in the fifth position is the subcontra B, a half-step above the lowest tone of the
piano.
Tenor-bass trombone
This instrument has become the standard trombone in many orchestras. It can be described as
a combination of a tenor and a bass trombone. When the F-attachment is not engaged, it is a
tenor trombone (though with somewhat wider bore); otherwise it is a bass trombone. Usually
it also has an E-tuning slide (E-attachment). In this case, it can even be regarded as a “triple
instrument.” The tenor-bass trombone with E-tuning slide has the same range as the tenor
trombone but without the missing low chromatic tones (see “Tenor trombone” on page 105).
However, the bass division of this trombone, i.e., the F-attachment, cannot produce the pedal
tones which the F-attachment of a true bass trombone can.
Contrabass trombone
This was first built in B, like the tenor trombone, but one octave lower. Wagner used this
instrument in his Ring with the goal of replacing the tuba and freeing the trombone family
from combination with the tuba. Today’s standard contrabass trombone is in F with two attach-
ments which increase the range considerably. However, tone production and tone control are
rather difficult on this instrument, because of the large lung capacity required as well as the
uncomfortable embouchure. Though composers such as Wagner, Strauss, d’Indy and Schoen-
berg used this instrument from time to time, it has never become a standard instrument due
to its technical requirements.
Range:
8ba
Pedal tones
Valve trombone
A trombone with valves – usually three or four – instead of a slide. The principle is the same as
with other valve instruments. When no valve is pressed, the instrument is at minimal length.
Pressing the valves extends the length of the tubing, resulting in the production of other partial
series. This instrument never became popular and is used only infrequently in wind orchestras.
Methods of sound production on the trombone

All tonguing techniques are possible on the trombone. Only repeated quick tonguing is difficult
on the larger trombones because of the larger mouthpiece.
A true legato is only possible between various partials of one series without change of slide
position. When the player changes position between tones, he must make a short break in order
to avoid a glissando effect. Theoretically, there is space between these notes, but in practice an
experienced player can make this imperceptible, especially at a soft dynamic.
Trills are played with the lips and the slide. Tremoli are more difficult to play and are not typical
for this instrument group.
Glissando
A “natural” technique on this instrument. Most typical is the slide glissando, executed by mov-
ing the slide between two pitches. As we know, the tritone of the fully extended seventh position
is the largest interval the trombonist can produce by moving the slide. For this reason, the inter-
vallic limit for a slide glissando is the tritone on the tenor trombone (or the tenor division of
the tenor-bass trombone) or a perfect 4th on the bass trombone (or the bass division of the
tenor-bass trombone). Not all glissandi of a tritone or less are, however, playable on the trom-
bone, especially if the instrument has no F-attachment. Here is a table with all the glissandi
which are playable on the trombone, with and without the F-attachment:
natural tones without F-attachment with
10
9 10
9
8
7 8
6 7
6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Slide or
position
1st partial = 1st natural tone = fundamental tone = pedal tone

2nd partial = 2nd natural tone = 1st overtone
3rd partial = 3rd natural tone = 2nd overtone etc.
For a glissando to be playable, its first and last tones must be related to the same partial – for
example, the 3rd partial. To better understand this, let us take several examples and see if they
can be played:
gliss. gliss. gliss.
The first example (c –g) is playable, as both these notes are related to the 5th partial. The slide
begins in second position and is moved to seventh position. The F-attachment is not needed.
The second example (b–g) is, according to the left-hand table above (listing natural tones with-
out use of the F-attachment) unplayable. The b can be played based on the 5th partial (in fourth
position) or on the 6th partial (in seventh position) but the g cannot be played in either of these
positions. However, the situation changes when the F-attachment is engaged: here both tones
are available from the 6th partial. The slide begins in second position (b from the 6th partial)
and is moved to fourth position (g from the 6th partial).
In the third example (A–c), without use of the F-attachment, the A is only playable from the
2nd partial in second position. The c is, however, not available from the 2nd partial. With
use of the F-attachment, the A is available from the 3rd partial in fourth position, but the c is
again not available from the 3rd partial. This glissando is therefore impossible to play on the
trombone, with or without the F-attachment.
Additional glissando techniques and muting → “Methods of sound production and special
effects” (see page 118)
Tubas
The term “tuba” has always led to misunderstandings. It encompasses a group of instruments,
which differ from one another not only in size, as do the trombone or clarinet families, but
also in structure. During the second quarter of the nineteenth century, many “tuba”-shaped
instruments were constructed in Europe. The tuba was first patented in Berlin in 1835; in the
1840s, Adolphe Sax was developing his tuba-shaped instruments (saxhorns, saxotrombas) first
in Brussels, then in Paris. There was a general need to develop a family of brass instruments,
homogeneous in appearance and sound, which would encompass all registers, from sopranino
to contrabass. (The construction of such instruments was, in fact, somewhat successful, but
ironically such instruments never became regular members of symphony or opera orchestras.
Germany was the first country in which these experiments were abandoned.)
In view of the enormous cumulative range of the trumpet and trombone family, and most
probably cognizant of Adolphe Sax’s designs, Wagner was eager to reinforce the lower registers
of the horns and ordered “horn-like” instruments to this end. The outcome was the “Wag-
ner tuba.” As we will see later, these instruments are modified horns (i.e., half-tube instru-
ments with horn mouthpieces) and were played by the hornists. Regardless, Wagner called
them “tenor tuba” and “bass tuba.” He also added another instrument to this group, which
he called the “contrabass tuba,” which is different from the ones mentioned above. With the
contrabass tuba, Wagner could not only reinforce the low registers of the horns but also extend
them further down. The contrabass tuba is similar in structure to the modern orchestral tuba. It
is a whole-tube instrument with a cup mouthpiece. The confusion in terminology results from
the use of the same generic name “tuba” for two different types of instrument and still continues
today.
The tuba, although a relatively recent instrument, has undergone many structural modifica-
tions. Certain features of the horn family (for instance, the conical bore, the – for the most
part – rotary valves) were combined with some features of the trumpet/trombone family (for
instance, the cup mouthpiece) and certain characteristics of the “tuba”-shaped brass instru-
ments of the mid-nineteenth century (for instance, the upward-pointing bell).
Because of its similarities with the other brass instruments, the tuba can easily be com-
bined with any of them. All of the instruments listed below, from the baritone to the
contrabass tuba, are regularly found in orchestras. They have the following features in
common:
䡲 The tuba, the largest of the brass instruments, has a very deep cup mouthpiece and a wide
bell. The large mouthpiece facilitates the production of lower tones in general and pedal
tones in particular. Its tubing is basically conical and for this reason its very powerful sound
is mellow compared to the trumpets and trombones.
䡲 All tubas (except Wagner tubas) are non-transposing instruments, despite being constructed
on different fundamental keys.
䡲 Tubas usually have four but sometimes five or even six valves, the latter known as compen-
sating valves (see “Bass tubas in F and E” on page 110). These additional valves are usually
used to ensure the intonation of the instrument rather than to increase its range. The valves
are usually of the rotary type. Although rare, all types of tubas, especially the smaller ones
like baritone and euphonium (see below), also exist with pistons.
䡲 In notation, the bass clef is always used except in a few special cases (see baritone and eupho-
nium, below).
Baritone
This is a small tenor tuba (see below) with three pistons. It is mainly used in military music
and wind orchestras. It is also called the bombardino.
Range:
This corresponds to the range of the tenor trombone. The baritone is usually notated in bass
clef. In some wind orchestras it is played by the flugelhorn players. In order to make it easier
for such players, the baritone part can be written in treble clef, thus making the baritone a
transposing instrument which sounds a major 9th lower than written.
Tenor tuba in B (euphonium, bombardone)

This is a small tuba with four pistons. In some English-language books it is referred to as the
bass tuba in B or the 9 bass tuba. It is often confused with the baritone, but in comparison the
tenor tuba has more conical tubing and a larger bore which result in a mellower and smoother
tone. It is an agile instrument. In some countries (e.g., the USA) it is sometimes used instead
of the Wagner tuba. It appears only rarely in the symphonic literature; Don Quixote by Richard
Strauss and Holst’s The Planets are two of the few examples.
Range:
This corresponds to the range of the bass trombone. The bass clef is usually used in the notation.
As in the case of the baritone (see above), the treble clef is used in some scores, whereby the
sounding pitch is a major 9th lower than written.
Bass tubas in F and E

In some books, these are referred to as 12 or 14 bass tubas or bombardoni. The bass tuba in
F is also called the orchestral tuba, whereas the bass tuba in E is called the military tuba.
Range:
in F in E
Pedal tones Pedal tones

These tubas have four or more valves. The fourth valve has a special function: five low chro-
matic tones are not playable on the tubas with only three valves (see the example below). This
situation is similar to that of the tenor trombone, on which the five chromatic notes between
the fundamental (1B) and the lowest second partial tone (E) are not playable without an F-
attachment. In different combinations with the first three valves, the fourth valve enables the
tuba player to produce the pitches between the first partial tone (the fundamental) and the
second partial tone (first harmonic):
Bass tuba in F
Fundamental the lowest 1st harmonic

(1st partial tone) (the lowest 2nd partial tone)
(no valve) possible with the 4th valve (with all three valves – 1+2+3)
Contrabass tubas in C and B

These are the largest tubas. In some books they are referred as 16 and 18 (contra)bass tubas; in
German-speaking countries, they are also known as Kaiserbass. The terms CC and BB tubas
are also used, though the former is technically a misnomer as the instrument’s fundamental
pitch “C” is “only” a contrabass C (i.e., 1C), whereas the B of the latter instrument is a sub-
contrabass B (i.e., 2B), thus deserving of the name BB.
These instruments are the most preferred by tubists.
Ranges:
in C in B
8ba 8ba
Double (contrabass) tuba

As in the case of the double French horn, as well as the tenor-bass trombones, the bass tuba in
F and the contrabass tuba in B can be combined to form a single instrument with the aid of
an additional valve. The double tuba provides better intonation in the lowermost register and
for that reason it is used fairly frequently. The upper registers are also very satisfactory.
Range:
8ba
Because the diverse sizes and constructions of the tubas, as well as their varying bores and
mouthpieces, greatly affect the quality of the sound, it is difficult to talk about register colors
that apply to all tubas. However, the diagram provided below will give the reader a general idea:
very dark, very strong, not that strong,

heavy, low brassy but intensive
8ba
䡲 The tone is in general very smooth and round, without any piercing quality. On the other
hand, tubas, especially those with larger bores and mouthpieces, have enormous carrying
power.
䡲 One thing should always be kept in mind when writing for any kind of tuba: the lowermost
notes tend to be relatively weak. On the other hand, one expects these notes to be powerful on
the tuba since, especially in the case of the contrabass tuba, no other strong instrument can
even reach these notes. In the lowermost register, indeed, the tuba can play loudly and very
effectively. The problem lies here in the reduced agility of the instrument in this register. It is
recommended that the tuba should be given only longer notes in this register, thus avoiding
any weakness in sound. This strategy will allow for wide dynamic flexibility with the single
exception of extremely loud passages (a problem with breath!).
䡲 As with the other brass instruments, it can be difficult or even impossible to get soft dynamics
in the highest register.
Given its size, the tuba is more agile than one may expect. All tonguing techniques are playable.
Fast tonguing is more difficult on tubas with larger mouthpieces.
Trills are effective and can be executed with the valves. As on the other valve instruments, trills
involving more than one valve are more difficult.
Glissando → “Methods of sound production and special effects” (see page 118)
Muting → “Methods of sound production and special effects” (see page 125)
Wagner tubas
As mentioned above, these are actually modified horns invented by Wagner for his Ring des
Nibelungen, probably in 1854. That is why they are also called “Rheingold” tubas or “Ring”
tubas. They come in mainly two sizes: tenor and bass. They have a funnel mouthpiece like the
other horns and are often played by the horn players in the orchestra. They have three to four
rotary valves which are operated by the fingers of the left hand, as on the regular horn. The
Wagner tubas have narrower bores (mensuration) compared to the bass tubas.
Range:
Tenor Wagner tuba in B

Notation Sound
Bass Wagner tuba in F

Notation Sound
The main role of these horns is to provide a strong, powerful horn sound in the low register
where the regular French horns fail to do so. But Wagner tubas do not actually extend the range
of the regular horns.
The notation itself was already confusing in Wagner’s time. In Das Rheingold and in the Pro-
logue of Götterdämmerung, the tenor Wagner tubas are notated in B and the bass tubas in F.
But in Die Walküre, Siegfried and the rest of Götterdämmerung, Wagner wrote the tenor tubas
in E and the bass tubas in B, believing that this transposition was easier to read. This state-
ment was probably only for the conductors because he further stated that, when copying out
the parts, the E parts of the tenor tubas should be written in B and the B parts of the bass
tubas should be written in F.
Additionally, Wagner adopted “old notation” for the natural horns when he used the bass clef
for the bass tubas in B, writing the notes one octave lower. This means the bass tubas in B
sound only a 2nd lower when they are notated in bass clef, but they sound a major 9th lower
when they are notated in treble clef. The tenor tubas in Das Rheingold sound a major 2nd lower
than written when notated in treble clef, but a major 9th lower in the Götterdämmerung Pro-
logue, again in treble clef. To add to the confusion, the bass tubas in F are written in “new
notation,” which means they always sound a perfect 5th lower than notated in bass clef. How-
ever, they sound either a perfect 5th or a 12th lower than notated in treble clef (see the chart
below).
Apart from Wagner, composers who used these instruments include Bruckner, Richard Strauss
and Stravinsky. These composers notated the tenor tubas in B in treble clef, sounding a perfect
9th lower than written. However, they also notated the bass tubas in F in treble clef, sounding a
perfect 12th lower than written. The following chart will summarize and hopefully clarify this
confusion in notation systems where the treble clef was used:
Tenor tuba in B (treble clef) Bass tuba in F (treble clef)

Wagner: Das Rheingold written in B written in F
sounds a major 2nd ↓ sounds a major 5th ↓
Wagner:
the rest of the Ring (also see written in E written in B
below) sounds a major 6th ↓ sounds a major 9th ↓
Wagner:
Götterdämmerung (Prologue) written in B written in F
Bruckner: Symphony No. 7 sounds a major 9th ↓ sounds a perfect 12th ↓
Strauss: Elektra
Keyed horn (keyed bugle)
Basically a keyed bugle is a tube with holes which are equipped with keys. In its most developed
form, this historical instrument had seven holes corresponding to the seven chromatic primary
tones rising from b to f . By overblowing it was possible to play the overtones of these primary
tones. This technique is very similar to that used today on the valved instruments, only that keys
were used instead of valves. The primary difference is that keys produce an ascending series of
primary tones while on the valved instruments the primary tones are produced in descending
order. The keyed horn is notated in treble clef, usually in the key of B, but sometimes in C
or A. There are also lower keyed horns in F and E. Except for the keyed horn in C, all keyed
horns are transposing instruments:
Range:
Notation Sound (K. H. in B ) Sound (K. H. in C)
The great advantage of the keyed horn lies in the availability of chromatic notes and the possi-
bility of excellent legato. The disadvantage lies in severe difficulty in intonation.
Ophicleide
Like the keyed bugle, the ophicleide is an antiquated instrument and will be discussed here
due to its historical value. The ophicleide was a bass keyed horn made of metal in the form of a
bassoon with a strong conical bore and large sounding holes covered with keys. The instrument
had intonation difficulties but these were not as serious as those of the smaller keyed bugles. It
was built in C or B. Though it was already constructed an octave lower than the keyed horn,
it had still another octave in the bass register at its disposal due to its eleven sounding holes.
Range:
The ophicleide is used in many Romantic scores, especially in the works of Meyerbeer,
Mendelssohn, Schumann, Wagner and Verdi. Though the ophicleide was quickly displaced
by the newly invented tuba in German-speaking countries, it continued to be used in France –
though less and less frequently – until the beginning of the twentieth century. Today, ophicleide
parts are played by tubas. The ophicleide was a non-transposing instrument. Bass and treble
clefs were used in its notation.
Very seldom, alto ophicleides (in F or E) as well as contrabass ophicleides (also in F or E)
were used. An obsolete variant of the bass ophicleide was the Russian bassoon.
Sarrusophone
A metal double-reed instrument → “Bassoons” (see page 84)
Saxhorns (bugles à pistons) and bass tuba in C
Striving to produce a homogeneous family of brass wind instruments which would cover all
registers, the famous Belgian instrument builder Adolphe Sax developed three instrument
groups around 1840: saxhorns, saxotrombas and saxophones.
Saxhorns are keyed horns with three (later up to six) integrated rotary valves and played with
a cup (semi-spherical) mouthpiece. They were very popular in France and Belgium and later
also in England and the USA, especially in military music. They were produced in various
sizes. Some composers notated them all in treble clef; some used treble and bass clefs. They
were shaped like tubas and all of them were transposing instruments. To give the reader a
clearer idea of these instruments, the following table compares the saxhorns to other brass
wind instruments in respect to register:
Saxhorns: Compared with:

Sopranino in E (petit bugle, Mi) Piccolo flugelhorn in E
Flicorno sopranino in E
Piccolo cornet in E
Small trumpet in E
Soprano in B (bugle contralto, Si) Soprano flugelhorn in B
Cornet in B
Trumpet in B
Alto in E (alto, Mi) Alto horn in E
Alto flugelhorn in E
Flicorno alto in E
Tenor in B (baryton, Si) Tenor horn in B
Tenor flugelhorn in B
Flicorno tenore in B
Baritone
Bombardino
Tenor trombone
Bass in B (basse, Si) Baritone horn in B
Bass flugelhorn in B
Flicorno basso in B
Euphonium
Bombardone in B
Tenor tuba in B
Bass trombone
Bass in E (contrebasse,* Mi) Bass flugelhorn in E
Bombardone in E
Bass tuba in E
Contrabass in B (contrebasse, Si) Contrabass flugelhorn in B
Flicorno contrabasso in B
Contrabass tuba in B
Helicone
Contrabass trombone
* Note: Though E. Guiraud calls this instrument “contrebasse” in his Traité pratique
d’instrumentation, it would be more appropriate to call it “basse.”
The first four saxhorns are half-tube instruments; the last three are whole-tube instruments.
Most of the instruments in E listed above (except for the saxhorns) exist also as variants in F;
most of the instruments in B exist also in C. These instruments have already been discussed
separately. To make comparisons with the saxhorns easier, only instruments in the same keys
as the saxhorns have been listed in the table above.
Range:
Notation Sound
Sopranino in E
Soprano in B
Alto in E
Tenor (Baryton)
in B
Bass in B
Bass in E
Contrabass in B
An additional bass saxhorn exists. Also known as the bass tuba in C, it is the only saxhorn to
have found its way into the symphony orchestra. It is a non-transposing whole-tube instrument.
Range:
In addition to the above-mentioned saxhorns, there were also other sizes especially in the low
register. Later additional valves were also added. Accordingly, the ranges listed should not be
regarded as absolute.
Saxotrombas
Another brass wind instrument developed by Adolphe Sax, with three to four valves and a
conical bore. Its appearance is similar to that of the saxhorns, but it has a narrower bore. It was
also produced in various sizes.
Saxophones → see page 87
Mellophone and mellophonium

The mellophone is a brass instrument with piston valves, in the form of a trumpet or cornet. It is
basically a saxhorn in the alto register. It has a rather large bell, similar to that of a French horn.
It is usually in the key of E or F. Its sound is less piercing than that of the trumpet yet carries
better than that of the French horn. It was invented in the last quarter of the nineteenth century
and never found its way into the symphony orchestra. Today it is becoming more and more
popular, especially in wind ensembles and bands in the USA. The major difference between a
mellophone and a mellophonium is chiefly in appearance, the latter having a French horn form
with a considerably long neck between the body of the instrument and the bell.
Helicone
An oval-shaped bass or contrabass tuba, existing also in smaller sizes, invented in Vienna. Its
bore is somewhat narrower and its bell somewhat less protruding than that of the tuba. Thus
it should actually be considered a contrabass flugelhorn. The instrument is mostly used in
military music. Its oval form permits it to be carried over the shoulder while marching or even
riding. Its range is similar to that of the tuba. It is also called the pelittone after its inventor,
Pelitti.
Sousaphone
A further model of tuba invented by John Philip Sousa, the famous American composer, and
primarily intended for military music and marching bands. The sousaphone sounding tube is
shaped in a circle, permitting the player to carry the instrument around his body. The remov-
able bell, very large and flat, can be turned in different directions but is mostly pointed forward.
Cimbasso
This rare instrument was used by Verdi and several other composers, primarily of the Italian
school, and served as the bass instrument of the trombone family.
It looks like a trombone which has been bent into an upside-down L shape. The short leg of the
“L” consists of the bell and the long leg consists of the valves, the tuning slides and a footpiece
which can be used to support the instrument on the floor. The instrument has no slide like that
of the trombone. The instrument has recently been newly produced. It is built in the key of C
or F.
Notation of the wind instruments 117
Notation of the wind instruments

1. Woodwind instruments are usually written in pairs on a single staff. Brass instruments follow
a similar system, with two exceptions:
䡲 When three trumpets are required, they are notated either on a single staff (especially if they
play more or less the same note values) or the first two trumpets are notated on one staff and
the third trumpet on a second staff (see “Some additional observations” below).
䡲 The third trombone (usually a bass or tenor-bass trombone) is notated together with the
tuba on one staff beneath the staff of the first two trombones.
If not otherwise noted, the first player plays the upper line and the second player the lower
line. If the parts of the two players are very different, they can be notated on two separate
staves.
2. If both (or all three or all four) wind instruments of the same type should play the same
notes, this can be indicated with “a2” (or “a3” or “a4”). Please note that there is no “a1,” which
an inexperienced arranger may be tempted to use.
3. If one instrument should play and the other rest, this can be indicated in one of the two
following ways:
䡲 Write a “1.” if the first instrument should play and the second should rest (or a “2.”
for the opposite result). Phrase markings should be placed normally above or below the
noteheads – in other words, not on the same side (above or below) as the stems and flags.
I
Ob. I-II
䡲 Notate all note stems pointing upward when the first instrument should play alone and
notate a rest for the second instrument beneath this line. (Accordingly, notate all note stems
pointing downward and place a rest above this line when the second instrument should play
alone.) In this case, phrase markings should be placed on the same side as the stems and
flags: above the noteheads for the first instrument and below the noteheads for the second
instrument.
Ob. I-II
䡲 One should never use these two techniques at the same time. This would make the score
much more confusing.
4. If both instruments play identical or similar note values, one can use a single stem for both
notes and also a single phrase mark. If dissimilar note values are used, then separate stems and
phrase marks must be used. In this case, the stems for the first instrument point upward and
those for the second instrument point downward, especially important where the voices cross.
Tr. I-II
in B
5. If, within a two-voice sequence, a pair of instruments play several notes in unison, it is best
to notate this spot with stems and flags in both directions as well.
Bsn. I-II
6. If an accidental appears and affects both voices in one bar, it has to be notated for each voice
separately (the first time each instrument plays the note):
Cl. I-II
in A
7. In orchestral music, the instructions “divisi” and “unisono” are not used for wind instru-
ments. In wind orchestras and ensembles, however, they can certainly be used.
8. There are two traditions from the past concerning notation of the wind instruments which
are still valid:
䡲 The grouping of the French horns into pairs: although the French horns, like all wind instru-
ments, are notated in pairs, the third horn plays higher than the second (this circumstance
has already been discussed: see page 94).
䡲 No key signatures are used for the French horns. As we have seen, natural horns were used in
the pre-Classical, Classical and a large portion of the Romantic periods. These horns could
only produce overtones of a certain primary tone and were always notated in C regardless
of their tuning. Accidentals were notated as necessary and these notes were produced as
stopped notes. Curiously, this notational practice was preserved only for the French horns.
Today, trumpet parts are written with key signatures.
Some additional observations

䡲 If the piccolo is to be played by the third flutist (alternating between the piccolo and the C
flute), then the piccolo must be notated on the second staff from the top (that of the third
flute).
䡲 If two instruments (for example, the third flute and the piccolo or the second oboe and the
English horn) are to be played by a single musician, then the instrumentalist must be given
enough time to change instruments – not only enough time for the change itself, but also
enough time to warm up the second instrument.
䡲 In the case of additional third or fourth instruments, an additional staff should be added as
necessary. If, for example, three clarinets (or three trumpets) are used, the first two can be
notated on one staff and the third on a second staff, or (especially if the first has a lot to play
and/or the first part is very different from that of the second) the first clarinet on the first
staff and the second and third together below. If the parts of the second and third clarinets
are, for similar reasons, impossible to notate on a single staff, then each instrument receives
its own staff. This is standard practice in today’s contemporary music.
䡲 Saxophones are normally notated between the clarinets and the bassoons.
Methods of sound production and special effects

Air consumption and breathing
The amount of air necessary for playing depends on the following factors:
1. Type of instrument
Methods of sound production and special effects 119
Basically woodwind instruments require less air than brass instruments. Within these instru-
ment groups, though, there can be wide discrepancies. For example, the flute uses much more
air than the oboe. The contrabass tuba is given preference over the contrabass trombone in
many compositions and even in orchestras because the latter instrument is more difficult to
play and requires more air and strength.
2. Register
Lower registers usually require more air than higher registers to produce the same dynamic
level.
3. Dynamics
In the same register, quieter tones require less air than loud ones.
4. Articulation
Staccato passages can be played with less air than legato ones.
The number of notes in a passage (that is, its rhythm) has very little if any effect on
the amount of air required, assuming all above-mentioned parameters (type of instrument,
register, dynamics and articulation) remain the same.
The importance of rests

Occasional or short rests are not only necessary to allow breathing but also to provide relaxation
for tongue, lip, head and neck musculature (and for other muscles that are directly or indirectly
important for playing). For example, the bass flute needs more frequent rests not only due to
the large amount of air it requires but also because it is, compared to the C flute, a very heavy
instrument which the flutist is not used to holding for a long time (especially without a foot
rest). For obvious reasons, brass players need even more rests.
A further reason for letting the winds rest more frequently is the fact that instruments with
sounds rich in overtones (such as oboe, trumpet and trombone) can be somewhat tiring on the
ear if they are used continuously.
Circular breathing
Some musicians practice this special technique (well known in the cultures of the East for
centuries), which enables them to breathe in through the nose while they blow air into their
instrument through the mouth. In theory, this allows for endless, uninterrupted playing. Not
all musicians learn this technique, however, and it is also easier to learn on some instruments
than on others.
Alternation of identical instruments

To assure continuity in longer (and breath-intensive) passages, it is possible to use two instru-
ments in alternation. In doing this, it is important that the instruments overlap at the point of
change, which is called dovetailing, as observed in the following example:
Andante
Tbn. I-II
Breathing at the ends of phrases

In long passages without written rests, the use of shorter phrasing marks is an effective solution
for the issue of breathing. The composer or arranger can thus – when necessary – show the
player where to breathe. Breathing at the end of such phrases will, in any case, cause a break in
the melodic line, especially if the player needs to take in a lot of air for the passage which follows.
There are many beautiful examples in the literature (especially for flute) which demonstrate
how even great composers have, rather sloppily, ignored this fact.
Register
Every composer or arranger should have a good grasp of the characteristics of the various
registers of these instruments. This is much more important than memorizing the limits of their
ranges. The fact that certain technical requirements (for example, dynamic values or individual
trills) are very difficult to play in certain registers should not, however, keep the composer or
arranger from using these registers in general. It is not these register which should be avoided;
rather, specific playing techniques in these registers.
Dynamics
Not all dynamic levels are available in equal measure in all registers of a wind instrument. For
example, the lowest notes of the flute are virtually impossible to play ff, while the same notes on
the oboe can hardly be played pp. Similarly, a pp is practically impossible in the highest register
of the trumpet, whereas no ff can be expected in its lowest register.
On the other hand, sudden or frequent dynamic changes such as f>p<ff or sfp are very effective
on wind instruments, probably to a lesser extent on the flutes.
Tonguing and articulation

Each note on a wind instrument is articulated with a “tu” or “du” depending on the instrument,
register, dynamic level and desired effect.
When there are two or more notes under a phrase mark, only the first note is articulated with
the tongue. It is not necessary to breathe after every phrase mark. Compared to the strings,
wind instruments can play more notes within one phrase mark, as the string instruments are
limited by the length of the bow.
The most important kinds of articulation for winds are as follows:
1. legato
2. gentle tonguing with little articulation, held longer

3. gentle tonguing with more articulation, not held as long
4. staccato
( )
In a moderate or slow tempo, staccato notes must be marked with dots. This is not necessary
in faster tempi. Staccato can be played in three different ways depending on the instrument,
register, tempo and character of the music:
1. with single tonguing: tu tu tu
(tu tu tu tu tu tu tu tu)
2. with double tonguing: tu ku tu ku

(tu ku tu ku tu ku tu ku)
3. with triple tonguing: tu ku tu or tu tu ku

(tu ku tu tu ku tu tu ku tu tu ku tu)
or
(tu tu ku tu tu ku tu tu ku tu tu ku)
3 3
3 3
Flutter-tongue
A special kind of tonguing in which a constantly rolled “r” (alveolar or velar) is used in the
sound production. This technique works best on flutes, clarinets, saxophones and brass instru-
ments:
Allegro
Fltg.
Fl.
or Allegro
Fltg.
Fl.
This effect is not practicable for double-reed instruments, though some players can “fake” it,
especially on the bassoon. On rare occasions, the oboe is required to produce short flutter-
tongue effects (see, for example, Stravinsky’s The Firebird).
Variants of flutter-tongue in music of the twentieth century

It is possible to begin a tone with flutter-tonguing and then change to a normal tone or vice
versa:
Fltg. ord.
ord. Fltg.
Flutter-tonguing can be combined with effects such as glissando:
Fltg.
gliss.
Flutter-tonguing is also possible without producing a pitched tone:

Fltg. Fltg.
Vibrato
Vibrato, a periodical vacillation (in varying degrees of amplitude and regularity) of tone inten-
sity and/or pitch, is a natural component of musical expression and does not need to be specially
called upon in a score. If as an exception, however, vibrato is not required, then this should be
specified by one of the following instructions:
non vib. / senza vib. / kein Vib.
This instruction can be rescinded by the following:
normal / normale / ord. (ordinario) / con vib. / mit Vib. / gewöhnlich
In traditional classical music, the clarinet is usually played without vibrato. In solo works or in
other genres (for example, jazz), vibrato can certainly be used.
Variants of vibrato in music of the twentieth century

Compare with the corresponding section in the chapter on string instruments. Additional
variants:
䡲 “Exaggerated” vibrato on the trombone (up to an interval as large as a major 3rd) by moving
the slide.
䡲 Bartolozzi uses the term smorzato for a further variant of vibrato – one which changes the
amplitude of the vacillation more than its frequency. This effect is produced on the flute by
interrupting the normal tone through exaggerated air pressure and movement of the lips and
jaw. On the reed instruments, it is produced by small changes in embouchure and moving
the jaw forward and back. The effect works best in the lower register.
Trills
Quick alternation of pitch between two specific neighbor tones (all types of 2nds as well as
neighbor microtones).
Woodwind instruments can play more or less all trills within their normal ranges. Problems
with specific trills which differ from instrument to instrument have been partially solved
through the addition of auxiliary keys and other means.
On brass instruments, trills are effected with either the valves (all instruments except the trom-
bone), the lips (all instruments, especially in their upper registers), or the slide (trombone). If
valves are used, any trill using more than one valve should be considered difficult.
Tremolo
Similar to the trill but using an interval of a minor 3rd or more. Tremoli can become difficult to
play on the wind instruments as the interval increases. This is not primarily due to fingering,
but rather due to the difficulty in quickly modulating the embouchure as necessary to ensure
good intonation of each pitch. Tremoli are more difficult to play on brass instruments than on
woodwinds.
Glissando
Glissando is a quick series of tones in fluid transition produced by a combination of special
lip and finger techniques. It is also possible to produce a glissando without specified pitches.
Glissando is especially effective on clarinets, saxophones and trombones. Though glissandi in
an upward direction are often found, there are also many examples for glissandi downward.
There are different methods of notation depending on the kind of glissando (not on the type of
instrument). As the following examples show, a glissando can end on a specified pitch with (a)
or without (b) a specific note value. It can also end more freely on an unspecified pitch, which is
roughly indicated with a line (c), or extend further upward or downward than the approximate
pitch indicated by the line (d). It can also begin from an unspecified or approximate pitch (e).
In this last case, the note value of the glissando must be indicated in parentheses above or below
the staff. All these different types of glissando can also be given wave-like forms (f).
a. b.
c. d.
e. f.
Variants of glissando
Slide glissando
Probably the most common form of glissando, produced on the trombone by moving the slide
in either direction. The range of the glissando may not exceed that of a tritone (see “Trom-
bones” on page 103).
gliss.
gliss.
Tbn.
Bent tone
A special kind of glissando produced by a change of lip tension in the embouchure or by other
methods, usually produced downward (and mostly combined with a decrescendo) but also
possible in an upward direction. On the flute, this kind of glissando can be enhanced by turning
the mouthpiece inwards (lowering the pitch) or outwards (raising the pitch).
(Bent tone)
Overtone glissando
Similar to that on the string instruments. Produced by overblowing overtones with tense lips.
Can be best executed on the flute and the brass instruments, especially in the upper register
where the overtones are closer together.
gliss.
Tbn.
Key glissando
Possible on the flute and clarinet. The position of the fingers is changed carefully and gradually
(wave-like glissando).
Cl.
Irregular (broken) glissando

Can be played on brass instruments with valves (quick and random pressing of the valves with
appropriate change of embouchure):
Hr.
Half-valve glissando
On a brass instrument with valves, the valves are pressed only halfway down while blowing.
1
2V
Tr.
Various jazz glissandi

Produced through combinations of the aforementioned techniques. The most important are:
“doink” or “doit” – a short glissando played upward from the main tone (a); “smear” – a short
slide to the next pitch (b); “rip” – a fast, arpeggiated lip glissando (c); and “shriek” – a forceful
“rip” to the highest possible pitch (d).
a. b. c. d.
rip
Sax.
Mutes
Mutes are not very effective on woodwind instruments. A piece of cloth or a handkerchief
is placed loosely in the open end of the instrument (if it is packed in too tightly, the lowest
note of the instrument can no longer be played, for example the low B on the oboe). Another
possibility is to cover the opening with an appropriate object. In both cases, only certain tones
are effected by the muting.
The use of mutes with brass instruments is, on the other hand, a very widely used technique. A
mute (which exists in widely varying shapes and sizes) is placed in the bell of the instrument.
It is a kind of conical plug with pieces of cork on the sides, which allow the mute to be placed
in the bell without sealing it completely.
Horn
Horn players can mute their instrument either with their right hand or with a standard mute. If
the hand is used, the pitch is raised (the horn player corrects this circumstance by playing one
half-step lower). Attention: This technique should not be confused with the typical stopping
technique used on natural instruments, in which a special positioning of the hand extends the
total length of the tubing and thus lowers the pitch.
Standard modern horn mutes do not change the note’s pitch, thus the problem of transposing
is eliminated.
Trumpet
The instrument has the widest selection of mutes. Because of the relatively small size of the
mutes, trumpet players often carry several different mutes with them (the different types are
discussed below).
Trombone
The trombone can also use several different kinds of mutes, though the straight mute is the
most common. Because of the size of the instrument and the mutes, most players do not carry
more than one mute with them.
Tuba
There is only one kind of tuba mute. It requires quite some time (about 5–10 seconds) to be
placed into the bell or to be removed.
The mutes which are frequently used on trombones and trumpets can be divided into three
groups according to their psycho-acoustic properties.
Mutes which alter the airstream

Here the airstream is forced to change its direction and flow between the mute and the inside
surface of the bell.
Straight mute
The most usual mute. If no other mute is specified in the score, trumpeters use this kind of
mute when they see the instruction “con sordino.” It can be played both piano and forte. There
are two kinds of straight mutes:
䡲 metal: the only mute with which a true forte or even fortissimo is possible. In this dynamic,
it has a very piercing tone.
䡲 plastic (fiberglass): not as forceful as the metal mute, a bit darker in color, but still penetrating
Cup mute
Mostly used in jazz. The sound color is generally more subdued and darker than with the
straight mutes. The cup holds back the stream of air, thus the sound also resembles that of
the mutes which block the airstream (see below). Depending on the desired color, the mute
can be played either half or fully closed:
䡲 cup half closed: dull color, less penetrating than the straight mute. This is preferred when
more volume is required, especially when the trumpet is combined with other instruments.
䡲 cup fully closed: has a quiet, distant character and resembles the dull color of the fiberglass
mute. Used mostly soloistically due to its quite weak sound.
Mutes which redirect the airstream

With these mutes, the airstream is usually collected in a chamber and then released in different
ways.
Harmon mute
Another jazz mute, also called a wa-wa mute. It is made of metal and has a stem inserted into
the front of the mute, which runs through the entire instrument. Possibilities:
䡲 stem in: very penetrating, with a special, luminous sound
䡲 half-stem: sounds more distant and closed; the penetrating character remains.
䡲 stem out: very distant and subdued, but cutting
To produce the so-called “wa-wa” effect, one moves the left hand in front of the instrument
alternatingly opening and closing the bell. With the stem out, this produces a very thin but
penetrating “wa-wa” sound. With the stem in, the sound is very clear and close, resembling the
meowing of a cat.
Solotone mute
Resembles the harmon mute in principle, but has a cardboard tube in the middle. The sound
is first caught between the mute and this cardboard tube and then directed through the tube,
which intensifies the sound and gives it a characteristic megaphone-like quality.
Whispa mute
The softest mute: The sound is caught in a chamber with sound-absorbing material. In this way,
the power of the sound is reduced, and only a small amount of air escapes through small holes.
Playing with this mute is especially difficult in high registers and poses intonation problems.
Mutes which block the airstream

These mutes are used to alter the instrument’s sound not within but rather outside of the bell.
In this sense, they are not mutes in the strictest sense.
Bucket mute
Resembles a bucket attached to the front of the bell. The tones are produced normally, then
“swallowed” by the bucket. The resulting color is covered, like the sound of a French horn.
Plunger
A cup with a small handle which is held in front of the bell.
䡲 “fixed” plunger: held very close to (but not inside) the bell. The color becomes very dull. By
playing quick notes this way, it is possible to produce “exploding” tones.
䡲 “moving” plunger: Various sound effects, such as “prrra” or “owaaa” are possible, depending
on the direction in which the plunger is moved.
Hat or derby
Reduces volume without distorting the sound.
Playing in the stand

In order to reduce brilliance and the dynamic level, the bell of a trumpet or trombone can be
held close to the music stand and played in this position.
Many very different sound color combinations can be attained by use of various mutes or the
combination of several brass instruments with differing mutes.
Variants of muting techniques in music of the twentieth century

䡲 The musician can insert the mute into the bell or remove it gradually while playing.
䡲 Apart from conventional mutes, other objects such as the player’s hand, a roll of paper, a
handkerchief, pieces of cloth or fur, a small basket, and so on may be introduced into the
bell. In this case, changes in pitch are to be expected.
䡲 Muting can be combined with other effects and methods of sound production such as
unusual vibrato, glissando, and so forth.
Harmonics
Harmonics can be produced on only a few of the woodwind instruments, principally the flute,
oboe and bass clarinet. Normally the sounding pitch is notated. On the flute, natural harmonics
are available at the octave (the lowest available harmonic being b , if the flute has a B-foot) and
at the 12th (the lowest available harmonic being f ); sometimes even at the double octave (the
lowest available harmonic being b ). There have been recent experiments to produce artificial
harmonics on the flute.
On the oboe the pitches between b and d can be obtained by pressing the octave key. Higher
harmonics are more complicated and require special fingerings along with the octave key:
( )
Fl. Ob.
Some double harmonics – and even certain trills using them – are possible on the flute and
oboe. However, these techniques are still in the experimental phase and have not been mastered
by many players.
Although clarinets are called upon for harmonics in some works, both they and the bassoons
are not presently suited for harmonics. The one exception is the bass clarinet, which can pro-
duce harmonics when played with a tight embouchure and certain fingerings.
Brass instruments do not produce isolated harmonics.
Whistle (or whisper) tones

These are very high, clear pitches which are produced by the flute family. The air is blown over
the mouthpiece without any lip pressure, resulting in the production of the 5th to the 10th
partials of the overblown fundamental.
Microintervals
Microintervals can be produced on the wind instruments using several methods. Not every
technique is applicable to all the instruments.
Altered fingerings
This technique applies to the woodwinds. With certain fingerings, it is sometimes possible to
obtain pitches higher or lower than they sound on the chromatic scale. Although repeated use
of the same microtone through use of one fingering may seem to be an advantage, the reality is
that different makes and models of the same instruments respond differently, thus producing
different microtones. There is still research being conducted in this field today.
Among the brass instruments, this technique is only possible on tubas with more than four
valves, which can be used to produce a few microintervals.
Altering the embouchure

䡲 flute: If the flute is rolled away from the lips (the hole in the mouthpiece moving upward), the
pitch is sharpened. If the flute is rolled toward the lips, the pitch is flattened. The resulting
sounds are called “bent tones” (see page 123).
䡲 double-reed instruments: The embouchure is changed by shifting the jaw.
䡲 single-reed instruments: Altered lip pressure and throat positions can be used to alter the
pitches.
䡲 brass instruments: The embouchure is altered by modifying lip pressure, the position of the
jaw, and the musculature of the throat, resulting in microintervals.
Hand stopping
Used by the horns: the hand is inserted into the bell either to lower the pitch, as with natural
horns (see page 92), or to raise it, as with “stopped notes.”
Slide changes
Trombone: By shifting the slide back and forth it is very easy to raise or lower a pitch while
blowing. This technique can be attempted on the trumpet using the tuning slide, but the results
are rather poor since the tuning slide is rather firmly mounted and not easily moved.
Tuning the instrument higher or lower

This can be applied to all wind instruments. It differs from the other techniques by the alter-
ation of the fundamental tuning of the instrument in question. This is done either by sliding
the mouthpiece and/or the parts of the woodwind instruments slightly closer together or fur-
ther apart, or by slightly pushing in or pulling out the tuning slides of the brass instruments.
This “detuning” remains as it is until it is corrected.
Beats
This acoustical phenomenon takes place when two instruments play the same material but not
perfectly in tune. This effect is used in contemporary music to produce certain colors. The most
widely used techniques include tuning the instruments microtonally apart from one another
and demanding gradual changes in embouchure or in air pressure from the players.
For further information about microintervals (for example, notation and cluster chords) see
“String instruments – Special effects” (pages 64–66).
Multiphonics
Only applicable to woodwind instruments. With this technique, which differs vastly from one
instrument to another, it is possible to produce more than one pitch at a time. It is sometimes
even necessary to use different fingerings depending on the makes of different instruments
in order to produce the same pitch combination. Though many possibilities already exist,
researchers are still exploring. It is to be noted that the use of these effects should be restricted
to solo and chamber repertoire rather than being used for orchestral music.
Technique: For tone production, certain combinations of unusual fingerings, changes in
embouchure, and auxiliary keys or valves are used. Multiphonics are executed without vibrato
regardless of the instrument type.
Result: Two to six pitches are produced simultaneously. The individual pitches are not neces-
sarily related to one another in terms of tempered harmony. Incorporation of single or double
harmonics into the multiphonics is also sometimes possible.
Notation: It is recommended to consult a player should multiphonics be desired. The necessary
fingering should always be notated:
Fl. Ob. Cl.
All tonguing techniques, including the flutter-tongue, can be applied here. Multiple trills can
often be realized between two multiphonic structures. Multiphonics can also be accompanied
by different vocalization techniques (see “Vocal effects” on page 130).
Brass instruments are not capable of producing multiphonics.
New fingering techniques

There are four important special fingering techniques that gained importance in the twentieth
century, although at least the first of these originated way back in history as a string technique.
Enharmonic trill
Also called timbral tremolo, single-pitch trill, unison tremolo, key vibrato and bariolage. It
is based on producing the same pitch using two or more different fingering patterns.
Technique: Two different fingering patterns, producing the same pitch, are to be alternated
rapidly. This technique can be executed on all wind instruments with keys and valves, the only
exception being the trombone, on which only a slow enharmonic trill can be achieved through
changes in the slide position and/or the embouchure. The use of different fingering patterns for
the same pitch does not have to be restricted to trills. The repeated notes can be played more
slowly in order to create different colors.
Result: rapid repetition of the same pitch with a minute change in the timbre of each fingering.
The velocity of the trill depends on the difficulty of the changes in fingerings and embouchure.
Notation: Different fingerings should be indicated by numbers (appropriate valve numbers
for the valve instruments) or different letters above the notes. It is also possible to use dif-
ferent symbols instead of noteheads, in which case a written or graphic explanation will be
necessary.
a b a b a b a b
or or or
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Ob.
a, 1, = b, 2, =
Broken (unison) tremolo

Technique: Two fingers alternate on the same key or valve to produce the same pitch.
Result: Reiteration of the same pitch in a “broken” manner.
Notation:
1-2-1-2-1... 1 2...
or
Tr.
Double trill (color/timbral trill)

Technique: It is possible to play some trills on the wind instruments using alternating fingerings.
In the first measure of the example below, the oboe player produces a d by closing six holes
with the second, third and fourth fingers of both hands. The two fifth fingers can alternately
produce an e by activating the instrument’s side keys. In the second measure the F-keys are
engaged in the same manner.
Result: a trill, which can be very fast
Notation:
or
Ob.
A word of caution regarding the techniques mentioned above: Not all pitches on every instru-
ment can be produced with alternate fingerings. Even if such fingerings exist, it may not be
possible to alternate between the two patterns fast enough to produce a trill or tremolo. One
should research possibilities by consulting instrumentalists and/or recent literature.
Half-valving
This can be performed on the brass instruments with valves.
Technique: The instrument is played as the valves are pushed down halfway.
Result: a noticeable deviation in the blown pitch and its timbre

Notation: a written explanation (for example, in jazz: “dirty-up”) or a newly invented symbol,
the latter with a written explanation
Moderato
3 3
Tr.
Vocal effects
These techniques have been used frequently in recent years. The wind players execute these
effects with or without the use of their instruments, the latter effect being rather theatrical.
Vocal effects may or may not be accompanied by tone production on the instrument. There
are two groups of vocal effects:
䡲 vocalized sounds: singing, humming, speaking, whispering, pronouncing consonants and
vowels, and so on
䡲 non-vocalized sounds: laughing, barking, murmuring, groaning, and so forth. Some jazz
effects fall into this category. These include “buzz” effects, which are produced by the lips
and have no definite pitch, and effects known as “squeak,” “squeal,” “shriek” or “screech” –
all meaning short, high, forcible sounds without definite pitch.
Notation: Considering the many possibilities of combining vocal and instrumental techniques,
it is clear that the notation will be accordingly versatile. Generally speaking, the vocal effects
should be notated underneath the instrumental line. If pitches are involved in the vocal effects,
a second system will be needed.
Andante Fltg.
gliss.
6
Fl.
(Voice)
ah rrr......
Breath and air sounds

Mostly used from the twentieth century onwards. Three factors should be observed in notation.
䡲 Regardless of which types of breath or air sounds are to be used, a uniform system of nota-
tion should be used for all. The various types of sounds can then be explained with text or
additional symbols. For example, we have seen that the use of x-shaped noteheads is already
in use for all types of percussive sounds of unspecified pitch. For breath and air sounds, the
following systems of notation are becoming more and more popular:
a. without indication of breath direction and without pitch
b. with indication of breath direction but without pitch
c. with or without indication of breath direction and with approximate pitch
d. with or without indication of breath direction and with pitch
a. b.
(in) (in) (out) (out) (in)
c. d.
or or
䡲 The notation should be supplemented with phonetic symbols in order to indicate the kind
of sound required: “t” for beginning and/or ending the sound with a stroke of the tongue;
“h” for beginning and/or ending the sound without a stroke of the tongue (“h” is also used
to indicate a closed sound); “oo” for an open sound which can be long or short. When these
principles are understood, then the following syllables can be read clearly: toot, tooh, tooht,
toooht, tooohhht, toohhh, too, hooh, hoot, hooo, hoohhh, hooot, and so on. Exhaling can
be begun either with a stroke of the tongue (“t” sound) or without (“h”), whereas inhaling
must be begun without a stroke of the tongue. Both inhaling and exhaling can be ended with
or without a stroke of the tongue (see the second example below).
䡲 Other variants of such sounds must be defined individually and notated accordingly.
Possible types of breath and air sounds

Breath sounds
Neither a defined embouchure nor any fixed tongue, lip or diaphragm technique is used. The
player breathes through the tube of the instrument, usually by exhaling. Any wind instrument
can be used in this way. The mouthpiece may be removed and the player asked to blow through
the instrument without the mouthpiece or to blow only through the mouthpiece. The breathing
can include additional noises and also use of the voice.
Other air effects

Both various tones with no fixed pitch and even miscellaneous noises can be produced on wind
instruments using different techniques. A few examples of this are sounds of kissing, smacking
the lips, sucking and loud breathing. It is also possible to produce tremolo effects and even
flutter-tonguing using only the breath – that is, without producing tones (see “Flutter-tongu”
on page 121).
Noisy attack
On wind instruments, it is possible to precede a tone with an airy noise, either gently or with
force.
tu-
Hr.
Microintervallic beats → “Microintervals” (see page 128)

Combinations with other effects and techniques

Breath and air sounds can be easily combined with percussive effects such as slapping or mov-
ing the keys, tapping or knocking on the instrument, and so forth.
hut tuuuht hut huuh tuh
Fl.
(Key clicks)
It is also possible to change from a normal sound to a “noisy” one and back again while playing.
Rotating the instrument
On the flute, some special kinds of air noises have been developed either by rotating the instru-
ment (see “Bent tone” on page 123 as well as page 128) or by moving the instrument away from
the mouth (and blowing while in this position). In each case, the airstream strikes the instru-
ment in an unusual way due to the change of the position of the mouth hole. The sound that
results is either a cutting noise of indefinite pitch, high or low tones, or a combination of both.
Effects with the mouthpiece and resonating tube

Mouthpiece
The mouthpiece can be removed from the instrument and used to produce certain pitches,
intervals or simply noises. Double reeds, especially, can be used for shrill and cutting tones.
The open end of the mouthpiece can be stopped with the free hand or with a cup. Various
effects can be combined: A cutting sound can evolve into a pitch, a stopped note can change
into an unstopped note when the hand is removed, and so on.
Resonating tube
Sometimes the musician will be required to blow into the mouthpiece or into the body of the
instrument (after removal of the mouthpiece) without a normal embouchure. This is possible
on any opening of the instrument, including the fingering holes and bell.
Wa-wa effect
A very well-loved jazz effect, produced by a quick opening and closing of the instrument’s open
end.
Ghost tones
Extremely quiet, almost inaudible tones, which are produced by blowing a very gentle stream
of air, almost without support, energy or direction, into the instrument. They can be produced
with the mouthpiece placed normally on the instrument or separately on the mouthpiece or
the body of the instrument.
Dismantling the instrument

Sometimes wind players (especially the woodwinds and trombones) are asked to disassemble
their instruments and use the individual parts for special purposes. For example, a woodwind
player can be instructed to play after having removed the lower or middle portion of the instru-
ment (only a few pitches are available), or a trombonist to remove the slide and blow into it,
and so forth.
Vocal effects
All the effects we have already discussed can be executed on the mouthpiece or body of the
instrument alone.
Percussive effects
Effects produced by the tongue and the breathing apparatus
These effects are produced with the tongue or the breathing apparatus upon the reed, mouth-
piece or other opening of the instrument. Cutting or even explosive-sounding tones are typical.
Usually, the player speaks a hard “t” sound as part of the effect. All percussive effects produced
by the tongue and breathing apparatus precede any actual tone production (if a tone is played
at all).
Slap tongue: A well-loved jazz effect, this is a good example of this kind of effect. Slap tonguing
can also be prolonged – like a kind of flutter-tonguing. In true flutter-tonguing, however, the
tongue stays behind the teeth, while slap tonguing requires the tongue to move between the
teeth. To notate this effect, the words “slap tongue” must be written out above the staff.
Tongue ram: This effect is used on the flute and is also called tongue stop. The mouth hole is
covered by the lips and then struck by the tongue as the player blows forcefully. The resulting
pitch lies a major 7th lower than the fingered tone (a).
(Tongue) pizzicato: also an effect which can be produced on the flute. The tongue is struck
against the palate, producing a “te” sound which is combined with an exhalation (b):
a. b.
pizz.
Fl.
Pop and flah effects: suitable for the brass instruments. For the pop effect, the player “snaps”
the tongue into the mouthpiece. For the other effect, the player speaks a percussive “flah” into
the mouthpiece.
Striking the instrument

These effects are executed by the fingers, knuckles, hand or other objects on the body of the
instrument. Theoretically, any portion of the instrument can be struck in this way, but one
should exert caution requiring these effects. Wind players, like string players, are not always
happy about having to strike their instruments, especially with foreign objects. Assuming there-
fore that the desired effect is within the limits of the players’ tolerance, one should take great
care in notation. As already stated in the chapter on string instruments, the composer who
does not simply want to leave these effects to the devices of the musicians must ensure that
the notation is absolutely clear and answers all of the following questions: what, how, where
and with what? For example: “The three middle fingers of the right hand execute a tremolo
on the bell of the horn, moving toward the rim.” For further details, see the section “String
instruments – Percussive effects” on page 66.
Clicking or clattering with the keys or valves

These are perhaps the most common and innocuous of percussive effects. They can be com-
bined with tone production or used alone. As we have seen with the strings, the most frequently
used notation for such effects is x-shaped noteheads either on a normal staff or in tablature.
The latter option is used especially when no tone is produced simultaneously with this effect
(see the lower half of the music example on page 132).
Other effects
Sympathetic vibrations
The open end of a wind instrument is held on top of a timpano or inside a grand piano with the
pedal lowered. This results in an echo-like phenomenon which comes from the resonance of
the second instrument. Instruments such as bass clarinet, saxophone, bassoon, contrabassoon
Wind instruments which are seldom used in the orchestra or are obsolete 135
and tuba are not as well suited for this effect, as it is not so easy to hold their open ends against
the desired surface.
Bells up (It.: campana alta; Ger.: Schalltrichter auf / in die Höhe; Fr.: pavillons en l’air)
This is a well-known technique for wind instruments such as oboes, clarinets, French horns,
trumpets and trombones. The bells are pointed upward while playing and lend the sound the
character of a fanfare. The sound quality suffers to a certain extent, especially on the oboes and
clarinets, as the lips lose a certain degree of control over the tone. This technique is usually
used at loud dynamic levels.
Rotating the bell laterally (Doppler effect)
Results in another acoustic phenomenon. The open end of an instrument (usually a brass
instrument) is moved back and forth, laterally or vertically, and at varying degrees and speeds.
This leads to a fluctuation in perception of pitch and amplitude.
Structural modifications on the instruments

There have been experiments in combining parts of various instruments with one another
(for example, taping a double reed on to a brass instrument) or attaching additional pieces
of tubing, valves or mouthpieces to an instrument (for example, trumpets with two mouth-
pieces and/or six to seven valves). It is interesting to note that, in the course of the history
of instrument construction, similar experiments took place in the development of the natural
instruments.
Amplification
As already discussed in the chapter on string instruments, amplification can have two distinct
goals:
䡲 augmenting the volume of a certain instrument (for example, the bass flute)
䡲 altering the timbre of an instrument
Microphones can be hung or stood near the instrument or even mounted on certain points on
the instrument itself.
Wind instruments which are seldom used in the orchestra

or are obsolete
There are three further groups of wind instruments which should be mentioned here. They are
no longer common in the symphony orchestra today but are either of historical importance or
used very occasionally in modern orchestras.
Instruments with freely vibrating reeds (free reed aerophones)

These instruments are also called “harmonica instruments” and share a mechanism of tone pro-
duction involving the free vibration of metal reeds in an airstream. These instruments have very
rare appearances in symphonic orchestras but sometimes are called upon in chamber music.
Accordion
This instrument is most common in folk, dance and popular music. Its sound is rather cut-
ting and rich in overtones. On the right is the treble or melody side (manual I) with either
a piano keyboard (piano accordion, range f–a /e–c ) or buttons (button accordion, range
a–e /E–c ); on the left is the bass or accompaniment side (manual II). Depending on the
size of the instrument, the bass side comprises between 8 and 140 buttons in up to six rows.
Observed from the bellows side, the first two rows contain individual pitches, namely the 3rds
and fundamental basses. These are reinforced in multiple octaves – up to five! The next four
rows contain the major and minor triads as well as the dominant 7th and diminished 7th chords
of the fundamental basses. These chord tones are also multiply reinforced. New, so-called com-
bination models with 185 bass buttons also have a single bass register (manual III), which has
a range from 1E to c .
Every accordion has register switches on the treble and bass sides (the number depends on
the size of the instrument). In contrast to the harmonica, the accordion is unisonoric – that
is, a key or button produces the same pitch regardless of the whether the bellows is pulled or
squeezed. The most well-loved effects on the accordion include glissandi, cluster chords and
shaking the bellows to produce an exaggerated vibrato. Playing only one or two keys at a time
while applying too much air pressure (as is often required in modern scores) is harmful to the
acoustic mechanism of the instrument.
Diatonic button accordion (melodeon)

Another free reed aerophone which normally also has button keys on the treble side. The great-
est difference between it and the accordion is that the diatonic button accordion is disonoric –
that is, a button produces two distinct pitches depending on whether the player is squeezing or
pulling the bellows. On the bass side it has bass notes singly or in chords, the number of which
depends upon the size of the instrument. The range of the instrument varies accordingly.
Concertina
A special type of button accordion, usually in hexagonal form. Each side has four rows of but-
tons totaling 48 with a range from G to c . The instrument is unisonoric and each button
produces the same pitch regardless of whether the player is squeezing or pulling the bellows.
Bandoneon
A usually square-shaped, very refined and highly developed form of the concertina. It has but-
tons on both sides: the treble has 38 buttons (range a–b ) and the bass has 33 (C–b ) on stan-
dard instruments. Diatonic instruments are bisonoric; chromatic instruments are unisonoric.
“Chromatic” is actually a misleading term here, as both instruments can be played chromati-
cally. As on the concertina, the buttons produce only single tones. Chords must be produced
by combining several buttons at once. The very typical, melancholic sound of the bandoneon
surpasses that of all the other accordion instruments and lends the Argentinian tango orchestra
its special sound color.
Other free reed instruments

The mouth harmonica and melodica should also be mentioned here.
Recorders (It.: flauto dolce; Ger.: Blockflöte, Schnabelflöte; Fr.: flûte douce,
flûte à bec)
A vertical or end-blown flute with a reversed conical bore (that is, the section with wider bore
is closer to the mouthpiece). The mouthpiece resembles a bird’s beak and contains a short air
Wind instruments which are seldom used in the orchestra or are obsolete 137
channel. In its primitive form, the instrument is very old and first became popular in the Middle
Ages. During the Renaissance, the recorder was produced in various sizes, almost all with seven
holes on the front side and a thumbhole on the back. Additional auxiliary keys are also possible.
The most common sizes and ranges are as follows:
Sopranino (descant) recorder in F (f –g , notated an octave lower)
Soprano recorder in C (c –d , notated an octave lower)
Alto recorder in F (f –g )
Tenor recorder in C (c –d )
Bass recorder in F (f–g )
Great bass recorder in C (c–d )
The first four are notated in treble clef; the last two in treble or bass clef.
The sound of the recorder has rather few overtones and little dynamic flexibility. The recorder
was displaced by the transverse flute around the middle of the eighteenth century, only to
become popular again in the twentieth (especially as an instrument in music pedagogy).
Historic wind instruments

Throughout the centuries during which the woodwind and brass instruments were still being
developed, families of instruments existed which were not carried over into today’s practice
and are only used in performances with historic instruments.
Shawm (It.: cennamella; Ger.: Schalmei; Fr.: chalumeau, chalemie)

Though the term “shawm” is a generic name for all historic single- and double-reed instru-
ments, it is primarily used to designate the double-reed instruments which came to Europe
from the Orient during the Middle Ages. The shawm has a narrow bore and six to seven
fingering holes. Historically, it was combined with other instruments such as trumpets and
drums, fiddle instruments, cornetts and trombones in so-called “alta cappella trios” with a
treble shawm for the uppermost voice and alto or tenor pommers and slide trumpets or trom-
bones for the other two voices. The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries saw the development of
the pommer family out of the shawm. The shawm is still in use as a folk music instrument (for
example, in Turkey: zurna).
Pommer (bomhart, bombard, bombarde)

These instruments developed out of the shawm family as of the fifteenth century. The pommer
has a conical bore, six to seven fingering holes and one to four keys. According to Michael
Praetorius (1619), the entire family comprised, at the end of the sixteenth century, seven sizes:
small descant (a –e ), descant (d –b ), small alto (g–d ), nicolo or large alto (c–g ), tenor (G–
g ), bass (C–b) and great bass (1F–e). The first two retained the name “shawm.”
The bass pommer had an S-shaped blow tube. The other pommers, as well as the shawms, had a
so-called “pirouette” around the mouthpiece which served as a lip support and permitted force-
ful blowing, while the mouthpiece itself was inserted into the mouth. (Note: The pirouette was
only a lip support, which could be combined with other mouthpieces. The modern Viennese
oboe still comes equipped with a pirouette.) Pommers were loud instruments with a penetrat-
ing sound. They disappeared gradually throughout the seventeenth century and were replaced
by oboes, bassoons and dulcians (a double-reed instrument of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries with a curved conical bore in various sizes – a predecessor of the bassoon).
Crumhorns
These existed from the end of the fifteenth until the middle of the seventeenth century. A
crumhorn is a double-reed instrument with a windcap, which guarantees a uniform air supply
to the reed and protects it from damage but also renders overblowing impossible. Thus the
instrument’s range is restricted to a 9th. The bore is cylindrical and lightly curved at the upper
end. The instrument has six to eight holes. Some of the larger instruments can be equipped
with keys. The instrument’s unchanging, vibrating sound was very popular in the Renaissance.
According to Michael Praetorius (1619), the family consisted of five members: “exilent” or small
descant (c –d ), descant (g–a ), alto/tenor (c–d ), bass (F–g), great bass (1B or A–d). Today’s
crumhorn set consists of soprano, alto, tenor, bass and great bass.
Cornetts (It.: cornetti; Ger.: Zinken; Fr.: cornets-à-bouquin)

Already existing in the twelfth century, these experienced their heyday in the sixteenth and sev-
enteenth centuries and survived into the nineteenth century in the evolved form of their bass
member, the serpent. They were mostly combined with trombones and complemented these as
a soprano group. The term “cornetto” (plural “cornetti”) should not be confused with the cor-
net (a brass instrument of the nineteenth century), which shares nothing with this instrument
group other than its name and a cup mouthpiece. The cornetts of which we speak were made
of wood (occasionally even of ivory) and covered with leather. They come in various sizes and
two main types:
䡲 the curved cornett or black cornett: lightly curved, usually covered with black leather and
having a hexagonal or octagonal cross section, with 6+1 fingering holes and separate mouth-
piece. Range: approximately a to a .
䡲 the straight cornett or white cornett: with a straight tube, usually a round cross section,
separate mouthpiece and range from approximately a to c (a transposing instrument in
A).
The mute cornett represents a special model with a very narrow bore, slender cross section,
and mouthpiece and body in one piece. It had a quite gentle sound.
Cornetts were not as loud and forceful as trumpets but could play all chromatic tones, which
was a great advantage compared to the natural wind instruments in this period. In addition,
the sound of the cornett is very similar to that of the human voice. The main problem with the
cornett was its intonation in the low register.
Serpent
This was the bass instrument of the cornett family. The serpent had the form of a snake coiled
into a double S (hence its name) and was played, like the other cornetts, with a cup mouthpiece.
It was usually made of wood, covered with leather, and had fingering holes. Finally, several keys
were added to improve its somewhat problematic intonation. It was a transposing instrument
in B with a written range of approximately 1B–b . Both treble and bass clef were used in
notation, depending on the pitch played.
In France, the serpent survived to a later date, especially in the church, where it was used to
accompany Gregorian chant. In other countries, it was first replaced by the bass horn and oph-
icleide (both relatives of the serpent), then by the bass tuba.

The Cambridge Guide To Orchestration - (Chapter 2 Wind Instruments)

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The Cambridge Guide To Orchestration - (Chapter 2 Wind Instruments)

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CHAPTER 2 WIND INSTRUMENTS

Baritone saxophone in E M13

Baritone saxophone in E M13

Classification by instrument families

Classification by form of the vibrating column of air

closed: clarinets (overblowing at the 12th)

Woodwinds in the Classical and Romantic periods

The registers of the piccolo and their characteristic sound colors:

full-sounding, mild, brighter thin, ineffective

Some instruments have a key for the low b (sounding e).

brighter, less effective

Baritone or bass oboe

Notation Sound (Cl. in A) Sound (Cl. in B ) Sound (Cl. in C)

shrill, very shrill,

The registers of the E clarinet and their characteristic sound colors:

Notation Sound (B. Cl. in B )

Notation Sound (B. H. in F) Sound (B. H. in E )

It is possible to play a contra A on the bassoon by placing an extension piece (“pavillon de

Mozart: Symphony No. 41 in C major (Jupiter), 1st movement

The contrabassoon is a conically built, transposing double-reed instrument in C sounding an

Contrabass in E sounds two octaves and a major 6th lower

A contrabass sarrusophone in C was introduced to replace the contrabassoon. It is notated in

Notation Sound: see above

Classification by instrument families

Classification according to transposition

Trombones and tubas, euphonium, trumpets and cornets in C

Classification according to the availability of fundamental tones

Factors inﬂuencing the timbre of the brass instruments

Mensuration (Ger.: Mensur)

Brass instruments in the Classical and Romantic periods

Wagner: Tannhäuser, Overture

Richard Wagner: The Ring of the Nibelungen

Richard Strauss: Also sprach Zarathustra

Igor Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring

Historical development of the valve instruments

Haydn, Symphony No. 104 in D major, 4th movement

Horns in Trumpets in Sound

Introduction of valved instruments into the orchestra

Beethoven: Overture to Coriolan

Pressed valves Sound

Old and new notation

old notation 1st step 2nd step

old notation sound new notation

Tones of the F horn

X - Fundamental tone of the F horn,

Tones of the B horn

Stopped notes (It.: chiuso; Ger.: gestopft; Fr.: bouché)

Brassy (It.: suono/i metallico/i; Ger.: schmetternd; Fr.: cuivré)

Notation Sound (Fh. in B )

Notation Sound (A. H. in E ) Sound (A. H. in F)

Notation Sound (T. H. in B ) Sound (T. H. in C)

Modern (valve) trumpet

Notation Sound (Tr. in A) Sound (Tr. in B ) Sound (Tr. in C)

F are of poor quality and are thus hardly used.

Descant or soprano trombone

not effective not as strong

the five chromatic tones

It is also possible to use attachments in G, G, E or D instead of in F and/or E. This is remi-

Methods of sound production on the trombone

1st partial = 1st natural tone = fundamental tone = pedal tone

Tenor tuba in B (euphonium, bombardone)

Bass tubas in F and E

Pedal tones Pedal tones