The Cambridge Guide To Orchestration - (Chapter 1 String Instruments)

CHAPTER 1 STRING INSTRUMENTS
General information
For the following reasons, we will first consider the string instruments as a uniform group
and then examine them separately according to a fixed system of criteria within each theme
discussed.
The commonalities and similarities in the construction and playing technique of the string
instruments greatly outweigh their differences. String instruments are a very homogeneous
instrument group and do not have the striking differences between them that the wind instru-
ments do. Examining four different string instruments according to different topics (range,
characteristics of the strings, multiple stops, harmonics, etc.) gives us the advantage of being
able to compare the instruments with one another directly and makes flipping the pages back
and forth unnecessary.
Characteristics
Bowed string instruments have certain characteristics which separate them from other instru-
ment groups:
䡲 Because of the acoustic homogeneity of the string instruments, their combined range of
seven octaves provides a uniform timbre with only minimal individual differences.
䡲 The differences of timbre between the registers of a single instrument are almost negligible.
䡲 The entire dynamic palette can be required of any string instrument in any range.
䡲 Many different methods of sound production are possible, including sustained or quick pas-
sages, smooth or active lines, scales, arpeggio or leaps, tone repetitions, trills, tremolo, mul-
tiple stops, pizzicato, col legno and many more.
䡲 String instruments are rich in overtones and for this reason can be used in close or wide
spacing.
䡲 They can be used for longer periods of time without becoming tiring for the listener or the
player.
Instruments and their parts, bows and strings

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The members of the string instrument family in the modern orchestra are the violin, the viola,
the cello and the double bass. Only the double bass is a transposing instrument, sounding one
octave lower than written. In general, these instruments have the same basic structure (except
for the double bass, which has more to do with the viol family and is, like them, tuned in
4ths). The main difference between them lies in their sizes, their ranges and their timbres
(which correspond in a certain way to their sizes). Violin, viola and cello have more or less
the same form with rounded shoulders. The shoulders of the double bass are angled more
steeply.
As the production of various pitches depends on coordination between bow and strings, we
will talk about these first. A string bow consists of two parts: the wooden rod (of pernambuco
wood) and the horsehair strung along the rod. The bow is held on the so-called frog, a movable
part of the bow with a screw mechanism, which is used to regulate the tension of the horsehair.
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4 String instruments
The other end of the bow is called the point (tip). For practical reasons, the bow is divided
into three portions: the upper, middle and lower thirds. These are important for various bowing
techniques (see details below in the section “Bowing” on page 9).
The strings are attached to turnable pegs held in the peg box, which is located between the
scroll and the neck of the instrument. The raised part between the peg box and fingerboard is
called the nut. The fingerboard, made of ebony, is secured to the neck. The strings are strung
along the fingerboard where they can be gripped by the fingers of the left hand and their pitches
changed. The lower half of the fingerboard extends across the body of the instrument without
touching it. The strings continue over the bridge, which not only holds them but also transfers
their vibrations to the body. Finally, the strings are tied to the tailpiece, which contains fine
tuning screws and is in turn attached to the body of the instrument.
The strings are tuned as follows:
I I
Violin II Viola II
III III
IV IV
I I
Cello II Double Bass II
III III
IV IV
(V)
Some double basses have a fifth, low C-string. Some four-string double basses have a spe-
cial attachment (C-attachment), which can lengthen the E-string, allowing tones down to
contra-C.
The strings of the violin are the thinnest and lightest. They also respond well to gentle bowing.
The strings of the viola, cello and double bass become progressively thicker and heavier and
respond less and less easily, especially in light, quick and delicate passages. This is especially
true for the double bass; the differences in timbre produced by the various bowing techniques
are also more prominent on the double bass. Thus the violin is the most agile of the string
instruments; the cello, the most agile bass instrument of the orchestra. If the double bass is
required to play a very agile bass line together with the cello, it is usually given a simplified
version of the cello part.
On any one of these instruments, the higher strings respond more easily and sound brighter
but resonate less strongly than the lower strings. For this reason, quick staccato passages sound
faster and more brilliant on the violin, but are not as clearly articulated, while similar pas-
sages on the cello or double bass are accompanied by more noise components but are articu-
lated more clearly. Larger instruments respond more slowly, are darker in tone and have more
resonance.
The acoustic properties of the strings of the string instruments are of extreme importance for
instrumentation and should be studied carefully to ensure the correct choices in scoring:
Violin
E-string: brilliant, powerful; transparent and luminous in piano
A-string: fairly brilliant and powerful in its low range. Much of this brilliance vanishes in the
higher range, making the A-string suitable for passages in the two-line octave range in which
the brilliance of the E-string is not desired.
General information 5
D-string: the least powerful string, with a warm, mellow colour which becomes even warmer
in the higher range; ideal for lyrical passages
G-string: powerful, sonorous; intensive and penetrating in its higher range
Viola
A-string: fairly penetrating, though not as much so as the E-string of the violin; has a nasal
quality; good for solo passages
D-string: fairly weak and uncharacteristic; mostly used for accompaniment figures
G-string: also fairly weak, not as powerful as the G-string of the violin; also used for
accompaniment
C-string: typically powerful, dark, raw and hard
Cello
A-string: the most penetrating string with the most brilliance; typical for solo passages
D-string: warm and gentle; very good for lyrical lines
G-string: comparatively the weakest string, but still powerful
C-string: has true bass qualities; rich and sonorous
Double bass
G-string: fairly mellow, good for soli and harmonics
D-string: the most used string, with a typical bass sound; more solid than the G-string but more
mellow that the A-string
A-string: a quite powerful bass sound, good for the orchestra
E-string: fairly thick, heavy and dark; rather unclear in quick passages
C-string: very thick and heavy, very dark; not suited for quick passages
One observation concerning the double bass is of utmost importance for the novice orchestra-
tor and must be made at the very beginning. The sound of the double bass is relatively small,
weak and distant – which does not mean, however, that it cannot play loudly. For this reason,
the double-bass line must be doubled by at least one other instrument or group of instruments,
preferably (but not necessarily) in the upper octave. The most satisfying results will be achieved
in this way, as double basses have a wonderful quality of lending depth and acoustic richness
to a bass line played by other instruments. Many composers who have attempted to use the
double bass as a single bass instrument have had to revise their works and reinforce the bass
lines with other instruments; Bruckner was one of them. On the other hand, not every bass
line needs to be doubled with double basses, not even in loud passages in a large ensemble.
Bass trombone and tuba can be used to play a very effective bass line that would become less
penetrating if double basses were to be added. In special cases, for example in soft passages and
in a reduced ensemble, the double bass can be used now and then without being doubled. (As
pizzicato produces very good results on the double bass, a pizzicato line on the double bass can
function without being doubled, if the dynamic is not too loud.)
Before we get to our next theme – the ranges of the instruments – here are a few additional
observations concerning points which may affect timbre on the string instruments:
䡲 The smaller the point on the string which is activated (as, for example, by fingernail pizzi-
cato), the more overtones are produced, resulting in a nasal, guitar-like sound. The larger
this point of contact (through the hair of the bow or the fingertip being used for pizzicato),
the darker the tone becomes.
䡲 The tone quality and dynamic depend directly upon the pressure and speed of the bow.
When the bow pressure is increased, the bow speed is reduced. Of course the speed of the
bow depends also upon the tempo of the piece played.
Ranges
The usual ranges of the string instruments are:
8va
Violin Viola
Cello Double Bass
(sounds one octave lower)
In contemporary music it is difficult to determine the upper limits of the ranges. Many com-
posers tend to require more tones in the upper ranges than are notated above (for example, a
notated c or even d for the double bass!). Some require “the highest possible tone.” In
this case, the finger is placed so high on the string that only enough space remains to set the
bow between the finger and the bridge. This is notated as follows:
Vl.
Sometimes the lowest possible tone is requested. This doesn’t make much sense with the
strings, as their lowest possible tone is always that of the lowest open string. “Lowest possi-
ble tones” are, however, used in notation for the brass, as the ranges of these instruments can
be expanded downward in certain cases through use of unorthodox fingerings, blowing tech-
niques or mouthpiece effects. With string instruments, it is of course possible to extend their
range downward by tuning the lowest string lower than usual. The lowest string on the violin
and viola can be tuned as much as a major 2nd (or even minor 3rd) lower; in certain works
for the cello, the string is lowered by a perfect 4th. This technique is called “scordatura” (see
page 60).
Clefs
The clefs used for notating the string instruments are:
䡲 violin: treble clef
䡲 viola: alto and treble clef
䡲 cello: bass, tenor and treble clef. (In older scores, in which no tenor clef was used, the treble
clef was used but read an octave lower. This technique is no longer used.)
䡲 double bass: bass, tenor and treble clef (each sounds an octave lower than notated)
Changing clefs is recommended if three or more ledger lines become necessary. For individual
high or low notes which can still be notated in the currently used clef, no change is necessary.
General information 7
Methods of sound production
The violin and viola are laid on the left shoulder and held with the chin. The thumb of the left
hand supports the neck of the instrument lightly. The other four fingers of the left hand lie on
the fingerboard and grip the pitches on the strings (or execute other motions such as pizzicato
or glissando, which we shall discuss later).
The cello is held between the knees of the seated player and stands on an adjustable peg. The
neck extends over the player’s left shoulder. The double bass also stands on an adjustable peg,
and the player stands or sits on the right side behind the instrument, which is additionally
supported by the player’s left knee.
With all these instruments, the right hand holds the bow, which is normally stroked on the
strings between the fingerboard’s lower end and the bridge. This technique is called arco or
col arco. The point of contact between bow and string can be varied drastically depending on
the required sound, as we will see later. When laid on the strings, the bow forms a right angle
with the fingerboard. An open string rings in its entire length between bridge and nut. In some
special techniques (for example, pizzicato), sound is produced without use of the bow. During
shorter pizzicato passages, the player holds the bow in the right hand and uses the fingers to
produce sound by plucking the strings. During longer passages (often entire formal sections),
the bow is laid away on the side.
The fingers of the left hand determine the pitch (except notes on open strings) by pressing
different points on the strings against the fingerboard and thus shortening them. The left hand
has a certain position on the fingerboard which it changes by sliding up and down along the
same in order to produce various pitches. These positions are numbered: first, second, third
position, and so on.
Fingering (stopping) techniques and positions

For the novice orchestrator who is not a string player, it will be enough to learn just the basic
principles of fingering technique. The following will explain the system of “positions,” but do
not attach too much importance to this. Detailed knowledge and understanding of the posi-
tions does not really have much to do with instrumentation. The fingerboard is a unit in and of
itself and does not “contain” or “consist of” different positions. These are only visualisations,
developed as a system for teaching string technique and also for facilitating communication
between string players on subjects of technique and interpretation.
The following symbols are used for fingering instructions: “0” open string; “1” index finger;
“2” middle finger; “3” ring finger; “4” little finger. “0” for open string should not be confused
with the “◦ ” for harmonic.

When the first finger is placed for the first note on any string, this is called “first position”.
When the first finger is placed for the fourth note on the string, this is “fourth position.” For
example, when the first finger plays the note a on the G-string, we are in first position. The other
three fingers are in position for the next three notes (b, c , d ) and their chromatic alterations.
If the first finger plays d on the A-string on the viola, we are in third position and the other
fingers are ready to play the next three notes (e , f and g with alterations). This explanation is
intended as an initial orientation for those who are not familiar with string instruments. We are
dealing with a very flexible system with many exceptions. For example, when the first finger
plays e instead of e on the D-string, this is called “half position.” Similarly, there are other so-
called “half positions,” especially on cello and double bass, which can be described as slightly
higher or lower “altered” positions between the “regular” ones. They are of little importance
for practical instrumentation and will not be discussed here in detail. However, the following
information is useful for instrumentation.
Most pitches can be played on various strings, resulting in different timbres. For example, g
can be played on all four strings of the violin. On the E-string it sounds clear and strong; on
the A-string, much more mellow, almost muted; on the D-string, rather dark and nasal; on the
G-string, very scratchy and distorted. (A higher tone sounds less brilliant than a lower tone on
any string for the following reason: as the pitch becomes higher, a progressively shorter portion
of the string actually rings.)
In most cases the players will decide which note or passage is played on which string. How-
ever, the composer or arranger may have special colours in mind for certain passages and may
require a certain string; this should be noted in the score. Instructions for requiring a passage
to be played on a certain string should be given as follows:
English: on the D-string or III
German: auf der D-Saite or III
Italian: sulla Re corda or sulla IIIa (3a) C. (corda)
French: sur la III (3e) corde or sur (le) D (Ré)
Positions higher than the fifth are seldom used on the low strings but rather often on the first
(highest) one. As the left hand moves into higher positions, the distance between the notes on
the fingerboard becomes smaller, which brings certain advantages (for example, easier finger-
ing of larger intervals, which would be impossible in lower positions; heightened intensity and
expressivity on some strings such as the G-string of the violin, etc.) but also certain disadvan-
tages: heightened difficulty in intonation control; diminished intensity on some strings such as
the A-string on the violin; loss of brilliance; and progressive difficulty fingering pitches, espe-
cially multiple stops. The latter instance is not only because the distance between the strings
increases, but also because the distance between the strings and the fingerboard becomes
greater. Loss of brilliance can sometimes be a desired effect.
All this is true for the other string instruments as well. Due to the size of the viola, the distance
is greater between the fingers playing neighboring notes. For this reason, chromatic notes are
more easily played on the viola.
In the case of the cello and the double bass, the size of the instrument and the resulting increased
distances between the tones on the fingerboard result in changes in fingering technique. In the
lower ranges of the cello, the index finger and little finger together can span a major 3rd (on
the violin, they can span a tritone; on the viola, a perfect 4th).
Because the cellist does not need to hold his instrument, he can use the thumb of his left hand
(in addition to the other fingers) to finger notes. The thumb becomes very important as of
the seventh position, especially used to finger large intervals such as octaves on neighboring
strings. The symbol for fingering with the thumb is :
1 2 3
Vc.
On the double bass, the ring finger is always used together with the little finger; this means only
three “fingers” can be used: the index finger, the middle finger, and the ring and little fingers
together. From seventh position onwards, the thumb can also be used and the middle finger
can also assume a role independent of the ring finger. The thumb is used for fingering pitches
and also as a kind of saddle to stabilize the left hand on the fingerboard.
Sharp keys are better suited for the string instruments than flat keys.
Bowing 9
Leaps
Large leaps can be very effective on string instruments in solo passages and repertoire but in
orchestral music they are somewhat risky. The following leaps are especially difficult for strings
in the orchestra:
䡲 legato leaps
䡲 large leaps on one string
䡲 leaps across one or two strings
Bowing
General information
The bow will be drawn across the string of a string instrument either as a down-bow
or as an up-bow . The choice between the two bowing types depends on many factors which
we will discuss later. To begin with, let us say that a rising line usually requires a down-bow and
a falling line is usually played with an up-bow. The symbols and , if absolutely necessary, are
notated above the pitches. Though there are many systems of classification for bowing tech-
niques, we will begin with the most basic.
Non-legato (separate bows)

If no slur is marked, the direction of the bow changes with each note:
Allegro
( )
Vl. I
Johann Sebastian Bach: Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 in G major, 1st movement
Legato (slurred bowing)

When two or more notes are notated under a slur, they are played in one direction with-
out a change in bow direction. Legato is possible on one string or between neighboring
strings. It is impossible to skip over a string in legato (for example, from the G-string to the
A-string).
Adagio
( ) ( )
Violino
piccolo
(sound)
Johann Sebastian Bach: Brandenburg Concerto No. 1 in F major, 2nd movement

The number of notes that can be played under one slur is limited. The possible length of a slur
depends upon various factors.
Aesthetic factors
䡲 style of the music
䡲 character of the music
Technical factors
䡲 Tempo: The faster the tempo, the longer the slurs can be.
䡲 Dynamic: The softer the dynamic, the longer the slur can be.
䡲 Type of bow: In relationship to the requirements of the instrument, the violin bow can be
considered longer, in a certain sense, than that of the viola, cello or double bass. Thus longer
slurs can be required of the violins.
䡲 Type of bowing: See page 12.
The maximum lengths of slurs on the violin can be approximated through use of the following
list (the duration will be respectively shorter on the viola, cello and double bass):
12 seconds in pp
6 seconds in p
3 seconds in mf
1 second in f
0.5 second in ff
When we consider that a quarter note lasts for one second at a metronome marking of 60,
the rest is easy to calculate. Three quarter notes at MM = 60 (per quarter note) last three
seconds. In p, this requires one half of the bow; in mf, the entire bow. Similarly, two eighth
notes at MM = 120 (per eighth note) last one second; they are equivalent to a quarter note at
MM = 60. In this case, the entire bow will be used in f, but only a sixth of the bow will be used
in p.
Caution: The number of notes under one slur is not necessarily a reliable indication of the
actual duration of the stroke. One can be easily misled:
Allegro molto appassionato
Violino
principale

Vl. I
Mendelssohn Bartholdy: Concerto for Violin and Orchestra, Op. 64 in E minor, 1st
movement
The slur of the “violino principale” in this example looks twice as long as the slur of the “violino
I”, although actually they are the same length. Still, the solo violin does have a solo function to
carry out here and, despite having the same dynamic marking as the first violins, needs to be
heard more. (In practice, this is known as the brilliancy factor.) As a consequence, the solo
violin will use more bow.
When writing legato, one has to be careful that alternating down- and up-bows maintain parity
among themselves, especially if they are not separated by rests. Repeated long down-bows and
short up-bows (or vice versa) will upset this balance and cause difficulties, if not impossibilities,
in execution. The length of the bowings should be kept as symmetrical as possible. If an even
Bowing 11
number of short notes occurs between two long ones, each can be played with a change of bow,
and the desired balance will be reached in the end:
(Allegro molto)
Vl. I
Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 in E minor (From the New World), 1st movement
Before we examine concrete examples, we must occupy ourselves with a few further points in
reference to up- and down-bows:
䡲 If the first note of a passage falls on an accented beat, it should be played with a down-bow. If
the line starts with an upbeat, an up-bow is normally used. Immediately after the beginning
of a down-bow, there is a natural softening in the dynamic, while an up-bow usually has
the tendency to maintain the same dynamic or even become louder. All these phenomena,
however, can be modified by changing the bow pressure. Due to the laws of physics, the right
hand executes more pressure on the strings as it approaches the instrument.
䡲 Sometimes a long note receives the marking . In this case the instrumentalist changes the
direction of the bow at his discretion during the note in order to sustain it longer:
Sehr langsam und noch zurückhaltend
G-Saite ( )
Vl. I
dim.
lang gezogen
Mahler: Symphony No. 9 in D major, 4th movement (Adagio)

The change of bow from to may take place at a different point in the measure depending
on the dynamic used (and the dynamic required in the measure following). Additionally,
the players may be asked to change their bows individually on long, held tones in order to
preserve continuity:
(In gemessenem Schritt)
Plötzlich schneller. Wild
Vl. II
Mahler: Symphony No. 5 in D major, 1st movement

䡲 If long and short notes follow each other in a regular pattern, they must be played in pairs,
each pair with one bow:
Allegro con brio
Vl. II
Beethoven: Overture to Coriolanus
This example begins with an up-bow on the first eighth note followed by a downbow on the
next two notes. When such patterns are played, the change of bowing takes place after the
short notes and before the long notes, not the other way around.
In other words, the same bow is used for a “long/short” figure and not for a “short/long”
figure.
䡲 Contrary to widespread opinion, there will be no perceptible gap or break in music because
of a change from up-bow to down-bow or vice versa. Any competent string player can play
this sort of change easily without making it noticeable, and this is especially true in the
orchestra. Every able string player can hide the accents which can occur through changes
of bow. In an orchestra, the bow changes will be noticeable if they are executed simultane-
ously. In order to avoid such accents, “staggered” bow changes can be used.
䡲 In many scores, one finds very long slurs. These are really intended as phrase markings and
not as bowing instructions. Students of orchestration are strongly encouraged to avoid such
markings.
䡲 If a true legato is what is wanted in a very long passage, it is possible to divide the part, giving
each half a separate (complementary) articulation:
Lento
Vl.
Cobian: Nostalgias
䡲 In French scores (for example, by Debussy or Ravel) the symbol is used for down-bow
instead of .
䡲 Despite all efforts and good will, it can occur that not all players are satisfied with the phras-
ings and articulations notated by the composer. This fact should not make the novice orches-
trator panic and fill his score with unnecessary bowing marks. Rather, he should attempt to
notate what he wants to hear as simply as possible. If you are in any doubt, it is strongly
recommended that you consult with instrumentalists and ask for advice. This is an attitude
which is usually appreciated by all players and definitely a better choice than writing things
which are very difficult, if not impossible, to play.
Types of bowing
There are basically two types of bowing, depending on whether the bow stays on the string (on-
the-string bowing) or is lifted off (off-the-string bowing). On-the-string bowings can further
be classified as slurred or separate.
Slurred on-the-string bowings

Legato
As already discussed, all notes under the same slur are played in a single bow in one
direction.
Tempi: all
Dynamics: all levels
Bowing 13
Allegro ma non troppo
Vl. I
Beethoven: Violin Concerto in D major, Op. 61, 1st movement
Louré (Eng.: brush strokes, bow vibrato; It.: portato, separato; Fr: piqué)
Two to five or, at most, six notes are taken in one bow. The softer the dynamic or the faster
the tempo, the more notes are possible. Each note receives individual pressure from the bow
but the interruption between the notes is barely perceptible. Louré is notated by placing tenuto
marks above or below the noteheads and indicating the intended bowing direction with phrase
marks. Slurs determine the change of direction of the bowing.
Tempo: (usually) slow
Dynamics: all levels up to ff
Feierlich und gemessen
mit Dämpfer
Vc.
Mahler: Symphony No. 1 in D major, 1st movement
Slurred staccato
This can be considered as a variant of louré with shorter notes and larger rests between them.
Slurred staccato is usually used for groups of two to eight notes at a time, though in orchestral
music more than four notes in one bow are difficult to play. As a rule, slurred staccato will be
played up-bow though down-bow is also possible for not more than two or three notes. Slurred
staccato is notated with dots above or below the noteheads, and appropriate slurs.
Tempo: moderato
Nicht zu schnell stacc.
stacc.
Vl. I
Mahler: Symphony No. 5 in C minor, 3rd movement
Separate on-the-string bowings

Détaché (Eng.: separate; It.: sciolto)
The direction of the bow is changed with each note. The notes can be strung together gen-
tly or more clearly divided from one another. Either the entire bow or only a portion thereof
is used, depending on tempo and dynamics. To understand the principle of détaché playing,
one must keep in mind that, as the tempo increases, the player uses less and less bow and
restricts himself to the middle or upper portion thereof. The most common types of détaché
follow.
With the entire bow
Tempo: slow
Dynamic: mf or louder (p is also possible but runs the risk of becoming flautando)
Andante non troppo
Vl. I
2
Tchaikovsky: Serenade for Strings, Op. 48, 1st movement
With the middle or upper third of the bow

Tempo: moderately fast
Dynamic: mp or louder
A special version of these two détaché techniques is called alla corda. The bow is laid on
the string and each note played exactly to its full value, right up to the beginning of the next
note:
Andante Andante
alla corda
or
At the frog (It.: al tallone; Ger.: am Frosch; Fr.: au talon)

Tempo: slow or moderate
Dynamic: loud and heavy
Allegro vivo
sul G
Vl. I
feroce
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6 in B minor (Pathétique), Op. 74, 1st movement
At the point (It.: punta d’arco; Ger.: an der Spitze; Fr.: à la pointe)
Tempo: moderately fast or fast

Dynamic: all levels, but usually soft
(Largo, = 48)
5 5
punta d'arco
Vl. I (div.)
3 3
Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring, “Second Part: The Sacrifice, Introduction”
Bowing 15
Successive down-bows
The bow is raised slightly from the string after each note in order to separate it from the next.
Tempo: moderate or slower
Dynamics: mf or louder
Allegro vivace
Vl. I
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 5 in E minor, 4th movement
Successive up-bows
As with successive down-bows, the bow is raised slightly between the notes in order to separate
them.
Tempo: moderate or slower
Dynamic: mf or softer
(Stürmisch bewegt)
Etwas langsamer
Vc.
Mahler: Symphony No. 5 in D major, 2nd movement

Successive up- and down-bows can also be played as “off-the-string” bowing, as will be
explained later.
Martelé (martellato)
Although the bow remains on the string, there are clearly perceptible stops between the notes.
Each note receives a heavy accent and has a definite end.
Allegro moderato
sul G
punta d'arco 3
3 3
3
Solo Vl.
marcato e rubato
Wieniawsky: Violin Concerto No. 2 in D major, 1st movement

Martelé can be played with each third of the bow, depending on the desired effect. For a heavy,
raw sound, the lower third of the bow, near the frog, is used. In this case the bow does not stay
on the string:
Allegro energico e passionato
Vl. I
Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E minor, 4th movement
Tempo: typically moderately fast; a slower tempo is also possible.
Dynamics: f or louder
Martelé can be indicated in different ways:
a. b. c. d.
Vl.
Staccato
This type of bowing produces the shortest notes of all. The tempo should not be very fast,
otherwise there is a good chance that the bowing will turn into an off-the-string variety (see
next section). Normally, the direction of the bow will be changed after each note. When, in
some exceptional cases, a series of short notes is to be played rapidly, a few of these notes can be
taken on the same up- or down-bow, as with slurred staccato. In true staccato playing, however,
all notes are genuinely short and separate from one another. Staccato is indicated by adding dots
above or below the noteheads, only when the tempo is slow.
Tempo: slow or moderato (not fast!)
Andante moderato
Vl. I
Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E minor, 2nd movement

The following table gives us a comparative overview of the various kinds of on-the-string
bowings:
(alla corda)
long
(détaché)
note values
(martelé)
(legato) (portato) (slurred stacc.) (staccato)
short
slurred separate
Bowing 17
Important: In certain types of on-the-string bowings where the notes are to be played short
(staccato, martelé, etc.), the bow leaves the string slightly but does not really bounce off the
string as it does in the off-the-string varieties. This fact should be understood clearly before we
proceed with the off-the-string bowings.
Off-the-string bowings
Spiccato (saltellato)
Spiccato is normally played with the middle third of the bow. The direction of the bow is
changed for each note. The bow bounces off the string as it does in all off-the-string bowings.
In slower tempi, spiccato can be played at the frog to produce a heavy sound. To differentiate
spiccato from staccato, write the words “spiccato” or “off-the-string” in addition to the dots
above or below the noteheads.
Tempo: slow or moderate
Dynamics: f or softer
Allegro
spicc. spicc.
Vl. I
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Symphony No. 39 in E major, 3rd movement

A very energetic type of spiccato is called collé-spiccato. Here the bow is held very close to the
string. As soon as the bow touches the string, it bounces off immediately, almost like a pizzi-
cato. Compared with staccato, collé-spiccato produces a louder dynamic and a more brilliant
sound.
Allegro vivace
Vl. I
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 5 in E minor, 4th movement

Collé-spiccato resembles true collé, a seldomly used bowing technique in which the bow begins
with a certain pressure on the string and bounces off immediately.
Sautillé (balzato)
This bowing technique closely resembles spiccato but with one major difference: it is played
so quickly that the bow cannot be controlled by the hand as usual. The “jumping” of the bow
results from its rebounding off the string. The result is light and very delicate. Sautillé is indi-
cated by placing dots above or below the noteheads. Assuming the tempo is fast enough, no
additional written indication is necessary.
Tempo: fast
Dynamics: mp or softer
Allegro di molto
Vl. I
div.
Mendelssohn Bartholdy: A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Overture), Op. 21
Staccato volante (flying staccato)

This technique resembles the slurred staccato, the only major difference being that the bow
bounces off the string after each note. Normally, it is played up-bow. Although it is theoretically
possible to play staccato volante down-bow, this is not very common in orchestral practice. It
is possible to play up to eight notes on one bow. In orchestral writing, however, four notes is
the safe limit.
Tempo: moderate
Dynamics: mf or softer
Andante sostenuto
Vl. I
3 3 3 3 3 3
(dim.) dolce
Brahms: Symphony No. 1 in C minor, 2nd movement

Up-bow staccato volante can also be played at a fast tempo. This is called pichettato. This is
a rather difficult technique which not all string players can manage, and thus should be saved
for the solo repertoire.
Jeté (Eng.: ricochet; It.: gettato; Ger.: Wurfbogen)

In this bowing technique, the bow is “thrown” onto the string and then bounces back and forth
rapidly a few times. In this manner, it is possible to play two to six notes in a single down-bow
stroke. Jeté can also be executed on an up-bow. This is, however, difficult, and is used very
sparingly, almost exclusively in the solo repertoire. Along with the combined markings of dots
and slurs, the word “jeté” should be indicated in the score.
Tempo: fast
Dynamics: p or louder
(Andantino, quasi Allegretto, = 52)

jeté
div.
Vl. I
3 3 3 3 3 3
Rimsky-Korsakov: Scheherazade, 3rd movement

A very light and delicately executed variety of jeté with down- and up-bows is called feather
bowing. It is notated as shown above, but with appropriate dynamics and bowing markings.
Multiple stops 19
Arpeggiando (bouncing arpeggios, bariolage)
Crossing two to four strings, arpeggiated intervals and chords are played with very little bow
and controlled mostly from the shoulder. The bow bounces away from the string automatically.
In notation, each group of notes is placed under a slur and dots are added above or below the
noteheads.
Tempo: fast
Dynamic: f or softer
Violino principale
Mendelssohn Bartholdy: Violin Concerto in E minor, Op. 64, 1st movement (cadenza)
In some books – and even more in daily practice – the meanings of several of the terms
explained above are confused (for example, staccato is confused with spiccato or sautillé with
spiccato). In this book, we use the most widely used terminology. The following table should
help make the terminology clear for the “optically similar” bowing techniques:
Staccato Spiccato Sautillé

Bowing technique on-the-string off-the-string off-the-string
Tempo slow/moderate slow/moderate fast
Dynamic all levels f or softer mp or softer
Slurred staccato Staccato volante Jeté

Bowing technique on-the-string off-the-string off-the-string
Bowing direction up-bow (seldom down-bow) up-bow (seldom down-bow) down-bow (seldom
up-bow)
Number of notes 2–8 (up-bow) 2–3 (down-bow) 2–8 (up-bow) 2–6 (down-bow)
in one bow
Tempo moderate moderate fast
Dynamic all mf or softer p or louder
Multiple stops
General information
A single string instrument can produce, under certain circumstances, two, three or four notes.
As this is one of the most interesting themes for a composer or arranger who is not a string
player, we will examine it in detail. First we should state that multiple stops are mostly used
to play secco chords and sonorous passages in loud dynamics. Double stops are an exception
here, as they are also used in soft dynamics and can be used for sustained notes as well as
short ones. Before we learn how to write multiple stops, we must be clear about their general
characteristics:
䡲 The notes must be located on neighboring strings (a string in between cannot be “left out”).
䡲 It must be possible to play the notes simultaneously (certain intervallic combinations are, for
technical and anatomical reasons, impossible to execute – see below).
䡲 The bow can hold two notes on neighboring strings with no problem. Triple and quadruple
stops must be played as arpeggios; the tone on the highest string (or occasionally the tone
on the lowest string in reversed arpeggio) may, however, be sustained. This is also possible
for the tones on the two highest strings together:
Vl.
䡲 For all three notes of a triple stop to sound simultaneously, the player must either exert quite
a lot of pressure (whereby the middle string will sound louder than the others) or play close
to the fingerboard. The viola is better suited for playing simultaneous triple stops. Triple and
quadruple stops have a short duration. Triple stops are easier to play and more effective than
quadruple stops except when one or both of the outer strings are left open for a quadruple
stop.
䡲 Two notes which can only be played on one of the strings cannot be played as a double stop:
Vl.
䡲 Multiple stops are easier to play when they contain one or more open strings. However,
quadruple stops with open strings in the middle and fingered outer strings are difficult to
play. The disadvantage of using open strings is that their tones ring longer.
䡲 Double stops on the violin and viola played with two fingered notes most often consist of
3rds, 6ths and octaves; 2nds and 7ths are least common; 4ths and 5ths are not used much in
double stops but often appear within triple and quadruple stops. In contemporary music, all
intervals are used.
Seconds, 7ths and octaves are difficult and sometimes impossible on the cello. On the other
hand, 7ths and octaves are playable if the left thumb is also used.
Multiple stops on the double bass are not practicable. Double stops can sometimes be con-
sidered in very high registers or when one of the notes is played on an open string.
䡲 Writing complete chords for multiple stops is not necessary, and even incorrect voice leading
can be tolerated if it produces double stops that are easier to play. The works of the Baroque
and Classical masters are full of such examples.
䡲 Double stops of intervals exceeding an octave are only possible through use of an open string.
If one note of a double stop can be played on an open string, then more difficult and very
large intervals become simple:
Vl.
䡲 Multiple stops should preferably be used in the lower registers. A general rule states that the
upmost note of a triple stop or quadruple stop should not exceed the highest open string of
the instrument by more than an octave. Stated in another way, fourth position is the highest
position which should be used for multiple stops. The disadvantages of higher ranges out-
weigh their advantages, especially in regard to multiple stops (see comments to this effect at
the beginning of this chapter).
Multiple stops 21
䡲 If a series of chords played with multiple stops is necessary, it is important to leave enough
time to change between the chords, whereby the changes in fingering normally take less time
than changes of the bow.
䡲 Large leaps between consecutive multiple stops should be avoided. This is even true for
double stops, except for cases in which two consecutive double stops can be combined into
a single quadruple stop:
Vl. =
䡲 If multiple stops notated in a single voice are not to be played divisi, then this must be noted
specially:
Con moto
sempre non divisi
Vl. I
Rimsky-Korsakov: Scheherazade, 2nd movement

䡲 If they are to be played by different groups, they are notated as follows:
Allegro non troppo
div.
Va.
crescendo poco a poco
Rimsky-Korsakov: Scheherazade, 1st movement

䡲 For practical reasons we must stress that the simplest, most efficient, and thus most widely
used form of multiple stops consists of 5ths and 6ths.
Writing multiple stops

The very simple technique described below for learning how to write multiple stops for string
instruments was developed with the invaluable assistance of violinist Alexander Palamidis
(Principal Violin II, San Diego Symphony Orchestra, USA). We will first examine a few exam-
ples and then present explanations and general guidelines.

We recommend first writing down the desired multiple stop (keeping the points discussed
above in mind) and then using the following method to determine whether it can be played.
Double stops
Let’s begin with a double stop on the violin and then proceed with two steps:
Step 1: Find out which note would result if the upper note (d ) were transposed a 5th down –
that is, from the A-string to the D-string.
Step 2: Calculate the interval between this projected note and the lowest note of the multiple
stop (in this case, f ).
m2
Solution: When the resulting interval does not exceed

䡲 a tritone on the violin,
䡲 a perfect 4th on the viola,
䡲 a major 3rd on the cello,
then this double stop is playable. In our example, the resulting interval is a minor 2nd – smaller
than a tritone. That means that the double stop is playable on the violin.
Two points must be kept in mind:
䡲 These intervallic boundaries are true for multiple stops which are played in the low registers
of the string instruments. In higher registers these intervallic ranges could be exceeded for
solo instruments, but multiple stops in the higher registers are not recommended for the
string groups of an orchestra (this point has already been discussed).
䡲 If a viola is constructed somewhat smaller than usual or if the player has a very flexible
left hand, then the interval boundary on the viola can be assumed to be a tritone, but, in
order to be perfectly sure, the perfect 4th is recommended. Likewise, some violinists can
extend their fingers considerably more, especially in chords with triple stops, increasing the
interval boundary up to a perfect 5th. However, this possibility should also be considered an
exception and be reserved for soloistic purposes.
We call this technique projection of the upper notes of a multiple stop onto the lowest
fingered string.
Triple stops
With a triple stop, we proceed similarly:

Step 1: Project the upper notes (d , g ) onto the lowest string used (for e , that is the D-string).
Projecting a note (in this case, g ) across two strings means transposing it two 5ths down:
Step 2: In the case of triple or quadruple stops, calculate the interval between the highest note
of the projection (in this case, g ) and the lowest note of the multiple stop (in this case, e ).
m3
This triple stop is playable on the violin.
Multiple stops 23
One important point: These two examples could also be played on the G- and D-strings (first
example) and the G-, D- and A-strings (second example). If this were the case, then much
higher registers would be necessary, the disadvantages of which, especially in regard to mul-
tiple stops, have already been discussed. The second example could be played on the first three
strings in first position, which would be very comfortable. Playing it on the three lower strings
is much more difficult, as it must be played in fifth position.
For several double stops there are even more possibilities which we will discuss later to avoid
confusion now.
Quadruple stops
Step 1: Projection of the three upper tones:

f from the D-string corresponds to b on the G-string,
d from the A-string corresponds to c on the G-string, and
b from the E-string corresponds to d on the G-string.
Step 2: the interval between the highest and the lowest of the four notes.
P4
We see that this quadruple stop is playable on the violin.

About the basic principle: As we have already seen, each finger of the left hand, regardless of
which position the hand is playing in, can grip a pitch (as well as its chromatic alterations) of
any of the four strings. In other words, one finger = one pitch (and its alterations) on each
string × four strings = four pitches (and their alterations).
There are various important exceptions to this basic principle (see below). It might seem rea-
sonable to explain the approach with the help of a fingering chart. We have decided against
this for two reasons. First of all, string players do not use such charts. Second of all, people
without first-hand knowledge of string playing often – at least in our experience – have diffi-
culties reading such charts. It is sufficient to stick to the simple procedure which we have just
demonstrated with three examples.
Fingering of multiple stops

For the interested reader it might be helpful to add a few words about the fingering of multiple
stops, although this matter does not necessarily concern arrangers. We would like to stress
that the reader should understand the difference between a stopped note and its projection as
explained previously. The following should be kept in mind regarding projections:
䡲 The upper one, two or three stopped notes of the multiple stop, depending on how many
stopped notes there are in the chord, will be projected down to the lowest stopped string
and their “projections” will show.
䡲 The stopped note on the lowest stopped string is actually not a projection, because it is
already on that string. For practical reasons, however, we consider it a projection. The pro-
jections of the stopped notes on the higher strings will form the group of projections together
with the note which is played on the lowest string.
䡲 The lowest projection note can either be the stopped pitch on the lowest string (see the last
example on page 23) or it can belong to a pitch played on a higher string (see the third
example on page 26) Therefore the lowest projection note is not necessarily the projection
of the lowest note of the multiple stop and, likewise, the lowest note of the multiple stop
does not necessarily reveal the first projection.
The actual note of the lowest projection, no matter on which string it is, will be stopped by the
lowest-numbered finger being used, because it is stopped closest to the nut. The second-lowest
projection note belongs to the next-closest note to the nut, for which reason it will be stopped
with the second-lowest-numbered finger being used, and so on. Any stopped note from any
higher string can appear as the lowest projection.
In quadruple stops, where each finger stops a single pitch on a single string, the fingering is
simple.
In the first example of the quadruple stops (see page 23) the note stopped closest to the nut is
the a, which happens to be the lowest pitch of the chord to be played. It will be stopped by the
first finger. The next projection up is b, which is the projection of the pitch f on the D-string.
The second finger will stop that f . The upper two projections are c (corresponding to d
on the A-string) and d (corresponding to b on the E-string). The d and b will be played by
the third and fourth fingers respectively. If the projected notes receive a fingering in ascending
order starting from the lowest pitch (1–2–3–4), as in this case, or descending order (4–3–2–1),
the quadruple stop will be rather easy to play. However, multiple stops with mixed fingerings
such as third finger on the G-string, first on the D-string, second on the A-string and fourth
on the E-string could be also played by the instrumentalist with no or very little difficulty,
as long as the interval between the lowest and highest projection notes does not exceed the
prescribed limits (tritone on the violin, perfect 4th on the viola and major 3rd on the cello).
Finally, one more technical detail should be mentioned here as a helpful practical hint for such
chord constructions. One should try to avoid a large interval, such as a major 3rd on the violin
or a minor 3rd on the viola, between the projections of the notes to be played by the third
and the fourth fingers in quadruple stops where all four fingers are employed. Such an interval
will inevitably make for an uncomfortable position despite the fact that the resulting distance
between the highest and lowest projection notes remains within permitted limits. On the violin,
for instance, the first three fingers could be in comparatively close proximity (showing two
minor 2nd intervals in the projection) while the fourth finger would stretch out (major 3rd in
the projection): not impossible to play, but certainly awkward!
In cases of triple and double stops there are more options. This should be left to the discretion
of the string player. For instance, in a triple stop where a single finger stops a single pitch one
or more of the following combinations could be used: 1–2–3, 1–2–4, 1–3–4 and 2–3–4. Again,
the pitch with the lowest projection will be stopped by the first of the three fingers that are
involved in the fingering, and so forth.
Despite all of the above, two important questions may arise from this approach. Let us proceed
as before with several examples which will allow us to discover these questions and then answer
them. A quadruple stop on the violin:
Multiple stops 25
Step 1: The lowest tone is a g (an open string).

Question: What consequence does the presence of an open string have for our technique?
Answer: None! As open strings do not require fingers to grip them they can be disregarded in
the technique of constructing multiple stops. As mentioned, open strings (especially open outer
strings) make playing multiple stops much easier. (Inner open strings can cause problems.)
Certain multiple stops can contain two or even three open strings. The latter should not even
be termed “multiple stops,” as only one tone is gripped.
If we ignore the empty G-string, we find that the D-string is the lowest gripped string. Next, we
project the remaining tones to the D-string: e corresponds to a and g to f on the D-string.
Step 2: Determine the interval between the highest and the lowest projected notes, still ignoring
the open G-string. (If we were to include the empty G-string, the lowest note would be g; the
interval resulting from step 2 would be a minor 6th – the lowest tone g and projected tones e ,
d , b– giving us a false answer.)
P4
We see that this quadruple stop is playable on the violin.

For a second question, let us examine another chord and see whether it is playable:
Step 1: Projection of the upper three notes onto the lowest string:
Step 2: Determining the interval between the highest and lowest notes of these three and the
note on the lowest string:
m3
Question: One note (b) appears twice. Is this allowed?

Answer: If the identical projected notes come from two neighboring strings, as in this case,
then it is allowed. (It means that a perfect 5th is played between two neighboring strings.) This
quadruple stop is thus playable. The same finger can grip two neighboring strings simultane-
ously, resulting in a perfect 5th (diminished and augmented 5ths cannot be gripped in this
way – see page 26).
If the identical projected notes do not come from neighboring strings, then the fingering is
unplayable, as we will see in the next example:
Step 1: Projection onto the G-string:
Step 2: Determining the interval:
M2 M2
This gives us a major 2nd, but the identical projected notes (b) do not come from neighboring
strings. This means the fingering is unplayable. This rule also applies to the viola. On the cello
there are several exceptions which will be discussed later.
There is one special case concerning the diminished 5th. It is not possible for one finger to grip
a diminished 5th within a multiple stop. If, however, the interval is notated as an augmented
4th, it can be played with two fingers. Even if the interval is not notated as an augmented
4th (because of voice leading or sensible chord construction), the player will finger it in this
manner.
Step 1: Projection of the upper three notes onto the C-string:
Step 2: the interval between the highest and lowest note:

M2
The interval of the major second is possible for the viola. The identical projected notes come
from neighboring strings. Thus, this fingering is playable on the viola.
One more example:
Step 1: Projection of the upper three notes onto the C-string:

a is an open string and is ignored; now we need to project d and f onto the C-string.
Multiple stops 27
Step 2: the interval between the highest and the lowest note:
M3
As this interval is smaller than a perfect 4th and contains no identical projected notes originat-
ing on non-neighboring strings, the fingering is playable on the viola.
First example for the cello:
Step 1: Projection of the upper three notes onto the C-string.
A4
For the cello, this interval would have to be a major 3rd or smaller but we have a tritone. For
this reason, the chord is unplayable on the cello.
Second example for the cello:
Step 1: Projection of both upper notes onto the G-string (we have a total of three notes and the
C-string is not being used, so the lowest note is on the G-string):
m2
We find identical projected notes (B and B). As these lie on neighboring strings, the chord is
playable on the cello.
Further possibilities for multiple stops, only for the cello

1. We have seen that, on the violin, viola and cello, a perfect 5th can be played with the use of
only one finger on two neighboring strings. On the cello, this can also be done by using the
thumb position:
In this chord, the two lowest notes (A and e) are fingered by the thumb on the two lowest strings.
Our projection method for determining whether a multiple stop is playable may not be used
in connection with the thumb position. In this case, the left hand can be stretched beyond the
intervallic boundary of the major 3rd valid in our projection method. The projection technique
is fully applicable for building chords which do not use fingering by the thumb.
Even in this case we can profit from the projection method, using one important rule: the
notes fingered by the thumb must represent the lowest projected notes (the two low As in the
projection of our last sample chord):
2. The thumb can be used to finger single tones:
Fingering with the thumb gives the hand a greater elasticity, allowing the fingers to grip wider
intervals. As already mentioned, it is used primarily in the higher positions. In the lower posi-
tions, the index finger is often used instead of the thumb, but fingering with the thumb is also
possible for intervals and chords which require a wide stretch of the hand and would be other-
wise unplayable. When the hand is stretched in this manner and a large interval, for example
an octave, is played between the thumb and another finger, the remaining fingers are practi-
cally immobilized, making it difficult if not impossible to build a chord of several tones. Thus
the function of using the thumb in the lower positions is restricted to the playing of large inter-
vals (and some chords). Chords played with the help of thumb fingering are usually used in the
higher positions and belong more to solo than to orchestral repertoire. Multiple stops requiring
thumb positioning are thus of limited importance for the arranger. As experience shows, the
novice orchestrator who has mastered the writing of multiple stops using the projection method
has no great problems with chords using thumb positioning. Common sense helps here, and
in case of doubt, asking a cellist for advice is recommended (and will be appreciated).
If, in addition to a single note or a 5th fingered with the thumb, a second 5th is required, then
this second 5th cannot be gripped by a single finger – the hand is in too awkward a position.
Thus two other fingers are used:
2 P5
1
P5
Two neighboring perfect 5ths should theoretically be playable across all three strings with one
finger (see the left-hand chord in the following example). On the violin and viola this is very
uncomfortable, if not impossible to play. Three perfects 5ths are really impossible (see the right-
hand chord in the following example):
a. b.
Such chords can, however, be played in pizzicato if the violin or viola is laid on its side like a
mandolin or held like a “mini-cello” against the thigh. Then the index finger can grip all the
strings at once, resulting in consecutive 5ths. (This fingering cannot be executed on the violin
or viola in normal playing position.) On the cello, in contrast, such chords are easily produced.
The index finger is laid across the fingerboard and allows the playing of following chords or
stacked 5ths such as:
This quality of the cello allows the player to produce many sounds by using one finger to grip
more than one string, as we see in the following example (a).
Multiple stops 29
Step 1: Projection of the upper three notes onto the C-string (b).
Step 2: The interval between the highest and lowest note (c):
a. b. c.
M2 M2
According to the resulting interval, this chord is playable on the cello. But of what importance
are the multiple Es in the projection? Not only do we get three Es in the projection, but, because
of the F between them, they do not lie on neighboring strings. Still this chord is playable, as
all the tones resulting in Es in the projection are gripped by the index finger, leaving the other
fingers free for the other tones (in this case, a C).
A modified version of this chord follows (a).
Step 1: Projection of the upper three notes onto the C-string (b).
Step 2: The interval between the highest and lowest note (c):
a. b. c.
m2 m2
In this case the projection of the notes fingered by the thumb (E) lie higher than the other
projected note (D), so this chord is not playable. The reason for this is easily understood.
When the index finger grips the 5ths, we get c (A-string), f (D-string), B (G-string) and E
(C-string). The A would need to be played on the G-string, which is already gripped by the
index finger for a B. A note lower than B is not possible here, and so the chord is unplayable
on the cello as opposed to the previous example, which required a c on the G-string.
Arpeggio
We can use the same technique to write easily playable arpeggiated figures. Several of the chords
analyzed above could be used as arpeggios as follows:
Vl.
3 3 3
In slow arpeggios, the fingers of the left hand have time to change between the tones available
in that position. This makes playable some arpeggios which would be impossible in a quicker
tempo:
Vl.
Multiple stops are not suited for the double bass, with the exception of double stops using
an open string (these are not technically double stops, as only one string is fingered) while a
neighboring string is fingered:
D. B.
Quicker arpeggios are possible on the double bass when only a single string is fingered:
D. B.
One last observation on multiple stops: Many such stops, especially double stops, can be played
on various strings in various positions and with various fingers. This should not concern the
arranger too much. It is better to let the player choose. There are of course not as many choices
for triple stops, and a quadruple stop only has one possible fingering. For the interested reader,
here is an example of a double stop in various positions:
Vl.
These two pitches can be produced at two points on the violin:

on the D-string (e ) and the A-string (c ), resulting in the following fingering:
first position: e (index finger), c (middle finger)
on the G-string (e ) and the D-string (c ), which looks like this:
third position: e (ring finger), c (little finger)
fourth position: e (middle finger), c (ring finger)
fifth position: e (index finger), c (middle finger)
This makes it clear that alternative fingerings exist. The fingering on the D- and A-strings
would be the easiest to play, as it stays in first position. But a low range is not always the main
determinant for the choice of fingering, as there are other criteria:
䡲 The first two fingers (index finger and middle finger) are stronger and better-suited for play-
ing multiple stops. In the above example, the first variant is played with the first two fingers
and is therefore the easiest.
䡲 The context preceding and following the multiple stop must be taken into account. If a high
position is required immediately before or after a multiple stop then the best solution might
be to play the stop in a higher position as well.
䡲 Timbre: A higher position will have a more muted sound than a lower, brighter-sounding
position.
䡲 Although the tones come closer together in the higher positions, multiple stops may even
become more difficult in these positions. Large intervals such as octaves do require a smaller
stretch of the fingers than in lower positions, but the intonation in high positions is more
difficult to control. Additionally, multiple stops which require only a minimal stretch of the
fingers in the lower positions may lead to the fingers getting in each other’s way in higher
positions.
䡲 Personal preferences on the part of the musicians can play a role in the choice of fingering
positions.
Again: the arranger should leave the exact determination of fingering positions up to the players
and concentrate instead on writing (easily) playable multiple stops.
Division of the strings

Sometimes a single string part will be divided into two, three or more voices. The group
of players is divided between these voices according to the composer’s instructions; some-
times, however, no division is made. Though a dividing of the strings (or “divisi”) reduces the
Division of the strings 31
strength of individual notes, the ultimate result is a more uniform and solid sound with better
intonation.
Div. (Eng.: divided; It.: divisi; Ger.: geteilt; Fr.: divisé(e)s): Usually two but possibly more voices
(depending on the circumstances) are divided among groups of players. There are various
ways of notating a divisi:
䡲 Both groups are notated on a single clef; the two voices share note stems. This is possible only
when the rhythm for the two voices stays exactly the same. It is important to write “divisi”
above the clef at the exact point where it begins.
div.
Va.
䡲 Both groups are notated on a single clef but with different note stems. The stems of the upper
voice are written upward and those of the lower voice downward, regardless of the actual
pitches used. This manner of notation is used when the two voices have differing rhythms
and cross one another very little or not at all. It is recommended to notate the beginning of
the divisi, but this is not absolutely necessary:
div.
Va.
䡲 Two separate staves, one for each voice. This notation is used when the voices are rhythmi-
cally very different and/or they often cross one another, which would make other notation
difficult to read. “Divisi” is written between the staves:
Va.
div.
Splitting (alternating divisi): This technique is usually used to simplify complicated or diffi-
cult passages within a part. One group begins to play on the last note of the other group.
It is important that each alternation begins on a stressed beat:
(Allegro)
Vc.
Div. a3: A three-voice passage or triple stop is divided up.

Div. a4: This is the same as div. a3 but with four voices or a quadruple stop:
a. b.
div. a3 div. a4
Vl. I Vc.
Div. da legii: Division by desk. Each desk of two players receives its own part, which in turn
may contain a further divisi.
Unis. (Unisono): Cancels all divisi instructions.
Non div. (Eng.: not divided; It.: non divisi; Ger.: nicht geteilt; Fr.: non divisé(e)s): Often used
mistakenly instead of unisono. This expression should only be used if a division would be
possible but is not wanted.
Half (It.: la metà; Ger.: die Hälfte; Fr.: la moitié): Only half of the players play (for example,
the player on each desk sitting nearer to the audience).
Solo strings: In some passages, a solo instrument is required. Solo passages do not necessarily
have to show virtuoso technique. A solo violin passage will be played by the concertmaster
(for example in Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade). Passages for two solo violins will either
be played by the first desk of the first violins or by the concertmaster and the first chair
of the second violins. Solo viola passages are less common (for example, Berlioz’s Harold
in Italy) but solo cello passages are found frequently (for example, Schumann’s second
symphony). Passages for double bass are rare (Mahler’s first symphony). Groups of solo
strings are also used in orchestra works (for example, Dvořák’s ninth symphony From the
New World).
Tutti: All (cancels la metà or solo).
Special effects
Vibrato
Vibrato, actually a normal part of playing, was developed and modified as a special effect as of
the start of the twentieth century.
Technique: The finger which stops the tone is moved lightly back and forth on the fingerboard
through use of the finger, wrist and lower arm musculature in different combinations depend-
ing on the desired type of vibrato.
Result: a light fluctuation of the pitch, usually less than one half-step away from the beginning
tone
Notation: As this is a normal part of playing technique it is not usually notated separately.
However, the following changes in vibrato may be requested:
molto vibrato: much vibrato
un poco vibrato: little vibrato
non vibrato: without vibrato
ord. (modo ordinario): return to the normal manner of playing
No vibrato is used for short note values as time is insufficient. Vibrato can be used for
fingered notes of longer value (quarter notes or longer in moderato). There is no vibrato
on open strings, a fact which can reduce possibilities of musical expression. For this reason,
open strings are avoided in passages in which the use of vibrato is important. Except for
the lowest string, all pitches of the open strings can be played as fingered notes on at least
one other string. If, for some reason, the open string must be used, the missing vibrato can
be replaced to some degree as follows: the left hand can play vibrato on the same pitch an
octave higher. If, for example, the violin’s g is played as an open string, vibrato can be pro-
duced on the D-string where the note g would be gripped. If one of the upper three strings
(or one of the upper four strings on a five-string double bass) is played as an open string,
then this pitch can be gripped and vibrato produced on the neighboring string. If the open A-
string is being played, for example, the player grips the a on the D-string and produces vibrato
there.
Special effects 33
Variants of vibrato in music of the twentieth century
Often-used variants and their notation (see also “Techniques with microintervals” on
page 64):
a. slow vibrato
b. fast vibrato
c. vibrato with “built-in” dynamic; the thickening of the line indicates a louder dynamic.
d. combinations of the above
a. b. c. d.
Trill
Using two fingers for rapid alternation between two constant neighboring pitches (a minor or
major 2nd apart).
Technique: One finger grips one pitch and the neighboring finger grips a minor or major 2nd
higher on the same string, alternating quickly with the first.
Result: two rapidly alternating tones a 2nd apart.
Notation: is written over the note (a). Some composers use only “tr” but this is only rec-
ommended for shorter note values without slurs (b). For a series of trills in legato, a single trill
symbol can be used, followed by a wavy line (c).
a. b. c.
It is often necessary to indicate the kind of 2nd required in the trill, which is done by placing
either an accidental near the trill symbol or a small notehead in parentheses near the main note
(a). If the trill is to begin with a note above, this note is written as a grace note (b):
a. b.
or
Using an open string for a trill usually does not produce very satisfying results. Trills can be
played at all dynamic levels.
Double trills are also possible, usually a 3rd apart. If no open string is used, then all four fingers
are involved simultaneously. Double trills are only found in solo repertoire.
Variants of the trill used in music of the twentieth century will be discussed below under “Tech-
niques with microintervals” on page 64.
Tremolo
Either similar to a trill (when the interval used is a minor 3rd or larger) or rapidly repeating
pitches. There are various kinds of tremolo, which are produced with various techniques and
also notated differently.
Bowed tremolo
Unmeasured bowed tremolo
Technique: One or two pitches (if two, then on neighboring strings) are produced at the same
time by alternating up-bows and down-bows as quickly as possible.
Result: one or two rapidly repeated notes
Dynamic: all levels
Notation: in faster tempi three and in slower tempi four bars through the note stems. For pas-
sages where this is not clear enough and misunderstandings may occur, the additional instruc-
tion “trem.” is used:
Moderato or faster Andante or slower
(trem.) (trem.)
or
Measured bowed tremolo

Technique: as above. It is only different from unmeasured bow tremolo in that a certain number
of repeated notes are called for.
Result: as above, but not as fast
Dynamic: all levels
Notation:
Moderato or slower (all tempi)
or
Non-rhythmic bowed tremolo

Technique: The bow is stroked on one or two strings in changing and irregular tempo, usually
somewhat densely and loudly.
Result: bow tremolo without clear rhythm or tempo
Notation:
Fingered tremolo
Unmeasured fingered tremolo
Technique: the same as used for trills but using an interval greater than a 2nd;
executed rapidly, with no determined metrical speed for the notes
Result: two very rapidly alternating notes
Dynamic: all levels
Notation: three to four bars between the note stems, depending on the tempo; sometimes
“trem.” can be added:
Moderato or faster Andante or slower
(trem.) (trem.)
or
Special effects 35
Measured fingered tremolo
Technique: as above. The difference is that a certain number of notes per beat are required.
Result: as above, but not as fast
Dynamic: all levels
Notation: The best way to notate a measured fingered tremolo is to write out the first complete
beat, avoiding confusion:
Moderato or slower (all tempi)
or
As this manner of tremolo is produced on a single string, the maximum size of the interval used
is determined by the reach and stretch of the hand. The following limits should be observed
for the first (lowest) positions:
violin: interval no greater than a tritone
viola: no greater than a 4th
cello: no greater than a major 3rd
double bass: tremolo not possible (only trills)
It is possible to exceed these limits in higher positions where the tones lie closer to one another
on the fingerboard. Additionally, much larger intervals are possible when open strings are used,
even on the double bass.
Non-rhythmic fingered tremolo

Technique: The notes of the tremolo are played in changing and irregular tempo.
Result: finger tremolo without clear rhythm or tempo
Dynamic: all levels
Notation:
Largo
Undulating tremolo
Technique: played in rapid alternation between two neighboring strings while the left hand
grips a double stop. As two strings are involved, much larger intervals can be played than with
finger tremolo. Because the bow must be switched between strings, it is not possible to play
quickly enough to constitute an unmeasured tremolo; for this reason, we do not divide this
manner of tremolo into measured and unmeasured variants.
Result: two moderately quickly alternating pitches
Dynamic: not louder than f
Notation: with normal note values, usually legato
Adagio Moderato
or
On/over the fingerboard (It.: sul tasto or sulla tastiera; Ger.: am Griffbrett;
Fr.: sur la touche)
Technique: The bow strokes the strings above the end of the fingerboard.
Result: a quiet, indefinite, nebulous, covered sound. On the fingerboard, the tone becomes
darker and weaker because of the less pronounced overtones.
Notation: “On the string” or “sul tasto” must be written above the staff.
Flautando
This term can mean one of two things.
Near the fingerboard

Technique: very similar to sul tasto only with the bow not directly over but near the fingerboard
Result: a bit louder than sul tasto but still mellow and velvety
Notation: “flautando” written above the staff
This kind of flautando is often used to mean the same as sul tasto. For many people, there is
no perceptible difference between the sounds produced by the two techniques. For practical
reasons we do not recommend using the term flautando in order to get a louder sul tasto, but
rather simply using the appropriate dynamic symbol for the desired effect.
With little pressure

Technique: stroking the strings with little pressure
Result: quiet, flute-like, somewhat whistling sound
Notation: “flautando” written above the staff
On/at/near the bridge (It.: sul ponticello; Ger.: am Steg; Fr.: au chevalet)
Near the bridge
Technique: The bow touches the strings very near to the bridge. Usually sul ponticello is played
without vibrato.
Result: a metallic, eerie, glassy sound resulting from the enhancement of the higher overtones
which cannot be heard as well when the normal playing technique is used
Notation: “on the bridge“ or “sul ponticello” written above the staff
Sul ponticello is often combined with tremolo:
(div.)
sul ponticello
In practice, sul ponticello is played closer to the bridge for slower and/or louder music and
further away from the bridge as the music becomes faster or softer. Overtones become stronger
in sul ponticello playing, resulting in a brighter and stronger sound. If the strings are played
very near the bridge, their resistance causes loss of the tone’s strength as well as the string’s
fundamental oscillation, which can result in a scratching noise.
Special effects 37
On the bridge (on the string)
Technique: bowing on the bridge
Result: purring sound, non-perceptible pitch
Notation: For the notation either a normal five-line staff (a) or a four-line tablature can be used
(b). In the second case, each line represents one string. Though no pitches can be perceived,
the timbre changes from string to string.
a. b.
E
Vl. Vl. A
D
G
It is also possible to notate this effect without a staff, either with (a) or without (b) instructions
as to which string should be used. If no string is indicated, then the choice is left up to the
player. The durations of the notes are indicated by the length of the beam.
a. b.
D AE A
Vl. Vl.
Behind the bridge

This effect has been used extensively by many composers.
Technique: The string is stroked between the bridge and the tailpiece, usually in a loud dynamic
with a certain amount of pressure.
Result: no definite pitch, but a squeaking sound with an even glassier sound
Notation: The notation changes depending upon the number of strings used. As above, a five-
line staff (a), a four-line tablature (b) or notation without a staff can be used:
a. b.
E
A
Vl. Vl. D
G
In notation without a staff, the durations of the notes are indicated by the length of the beams.
As above, this can be notated with (a) or without (b) indication of which string is to be used.
a. b.
D AE A
Vl. Vl.
All these effects can be combined with one another. For example, a player can switch between
various areas around the bridge or from fingerboard to bridge, can add tremolo, and so on. As
a special effect, it is also possible to stroke the wood of the bridge without touching the strings.
On the violin and viola it is only possible to stroke the sides of the bridge, producing a high
“creaking” noise. On the cello and double bass it is possible, due to the enlarged proportions
of these instruments, to reach not only the sides of the bridge but also the areas between the
strings, resulting in a weak hissing noise.
Glissando
Technique: A finger of the left hand is placed on the string and slides upward or downward
to a new pitch. This general description is subject to many variations, especially in contem-
porary music, as we will see later. Glissando can be played in a single bowing or combined with
tremolo.
Result: a continuous, gliding change of pitch upward or downward
Notation: Usually the first and last notes of the glissando are connected with a straight line,
which can also be combined with the additional instruction “gliss.”
gliss.
Vl.
There are various other notation possibilities depending on how the glissando is begun and fin-
ished. In the last example, the glissandi end on indefinite pitches which are indicated approxi-
mately by the end of the straight line:
a.
Vl. gliss.
b.
Vl. gliss.
Sometimes, instead of a line being used, the chromatic notes are written out. In this case the
notes are to be played as quickly as possible. This type of glissando is most often found in solo
repertoire:
gliss.
Vl.
Glissando can also be played across more than one string. A practiced player can often make
the expected break in the sound almost imperceptible.
gliss.
Vl.
Variants of glissando in music of the twentieth century

Glissando and pizzicato
䡲 Glissando can be combined with pizzicato (see “Pizzicato glissando” on page 44).
䡲 Glissando can begin arco but end with a pizzicato note (only possible with up-bow).
䡲 Glissando can begin with pizzicato and then change to arco.
Glissando and multiple stops

䡲 Glissando can be executed as a double stop on two neighboring strings.
Special effects 39
䡲 Glissando can be executed on two neighboring strings moving in opposite directions, but
only on the cello and double bass. The thumb is laid on the lower of the two strings and the
ring finger on the higher one. During the stroke, the fingers are moved in opposite directions
past one another.
䡲 After a multiple stop, the left hand executes a glissando while the right performs quick,
arpeggiated up-bows and down-bows across all four strings with the bow.
Glissando and harmonics

䡲 Glissandi can also be performed along the overtone series. During the glissando, the pressure
from the fingers is reduced, thus producing the notes of the glissando as harmonics.
gliss.
sul G
Vl.
12
䡲 Glissando with very light finger pressure, almost as if one is trying to produce overtones, is
called glissando effleuré.
䡲 On the double bass, glissando with artificial harmonic tones (see “Harmonics” on
page 48) is especially effective. The fingering remains the same, but the hand slides up and
down, producing broken, gliding pitches mixed with overtones.
Undulating glissando
Instead of sliding directly from one pitch to another, the fingers of the left hand execute small
wave-like movements before arriving at the target pitch:
Vl.
Microtonal glissando
This theme will be discussed on page 64 under “Techniques with microintervals.”
Glissando on the string (glissando with the right hand)

With glissando on the string, all manner of things may be used to produce the desired scratch-
ing effect: the bow, the wood of the bow, the fingers, the palm of the hand and the fingernails
as well as various objects (coins, metal objects, a handkerchief, a credit card, etc.).
Glissando and col legno

Glissando can be combined with col legno, either conventionally with the left hand or with the
bow on the string (see “Glissando on the string” above).
Glissando sul ponticello

As in these other cases, glissando either with the left hand (during a simultaneous bowing
stroke sul ponticello) or with the bow near the bridge.
Glissando with constant change of bow

During the glissando, the direction of the bow may be changed, either irregularly or from pitch
to pitch.
Tuning peg glissando
A glissando can also be produced by turning the tuning peg with the left hand as the string is
being stroked or plucked. This is best executed in a downward direction – otherwise the string
may break.
Portamento
A modified form of glissando.
Technique: With the goal of producing or intensifying a legato effect or for ensuring continuity
between melody notes lying wide apart, the finger is slid gently from one note to the next on
the same string.
Result: a tiny, gentle, short glissando between two notes
Notation: This effect is usually performed intuitively by the player and does not need to be
notated. Still, some composers request it specially. In this case, it should be notated as a straight
line leading to the target note; the additional instruction “port.” can be added:
sul G
(port.)
Vl.
Col legno (Eng.: with the wood; Ger.: mit dem Holz; Fr.: avec le bois)
In this special bowing technique, the wooden stick of the bow is used instead of the horsehair.
There are two kinds:
Col legno battuto (struck with the wood)

Technique: The back side of the bow is struck upon the strings.
Result: short, dry, bare, percussive sounding tones with relatively unclear pitch
Notation: written above the staff:
Comodo scherzando
div.
col legno battuto
Va.
div.
col legno battuto
Vc.
Mahler: Symphony No. 3 in D minor, 3rd movement
Col legno tratto (stroked with the wood)

Technique: The back side of the bow is stroked across the strings.
Result: indefinite, vague, dry sounds
Notation: written above the staff:
Special effects 41
Comodo scherzando
div. a3
col legno tratto
Va.
div. a3
col legno tratto
Vc.
Mahler: Symphony No. 3 in D minor, 3rd movement

䡲 The more seldom-used col legno tratto technique can damage the wood of the bow. For this
reason, some players use a second, inexpensive bow when necessary.
䡲 In order to produce tones of clearer pitch with col legno technique, some of the hair of the
bow can be used along with the wood.
䡲 To cancel the instruction “col legno,” “ord.” or “modo ordinario” should be written in the
score.
Variants of col legno in music of the twentieth century

Col legno at various places on the instrument
䡲 Col legno can be played near the bridge, on the bridge, or behind the bridge.
䡲 Col legno arpeggios can be played normally, on the fingerboard and/or behind the bridge.
䡲 Col legno can also be executed to produce noise on other parts of the instrument, including
(but not limited to) the tailpiece or the chin rest.
䡲 On the cello and the double bass, col legno can also be played behind the strings (between
the strings and the body of the instrument).
Col legno in combination with other effects

It can be combined with glissando, left-hand pizzicato, and various percussive effects such as
letting the bow spring back from the string, knocking, striking, and so forth.
Notation: These variants must be notated according to their modifications; usually a short writ-
ten and/or graphic explanation in the score is necessary.
Pizzicato
Pizzicato, the special effect of earlier times, has become an important element of string instru-
ment playing in today’s practice. Over the centuries, many different types have been developed.
Technique: The string is plucked from the side.
Result: a dry, clear, percussive sound which can resonate somewhat longer when played on the
thicker strings or larger instruments
Notation: “pizz.” is written above the staff. “Pizz.” is canceled with the instruction
“arco.”
pizz. arco
Vl.
The right hand can continue to hold the bow while playing pizzicato, especially if the pizzicato
passage is short or when no time remains to lay the bow down before or after an arco passage.
Otherwise – for long pizzicato passages – the bow can be laid down. It is quite simple to switch
from arco to pizzicato almost without a break, especially when the arco ends with an up-bow.
The switch from pizzicato back to arco requires more time.
Pizzicato notes tend to fade quickly. They only resonate longer on thicker strings and larger
instruments. The following examples show how to indicate the duration of pizzicato notes:
“l.v.” means “let vibrate” (laissez vibrer). The last two versions (“l.v.” and ties) can also be used
together:
(pizz.) l.v.
= =
The upper limit for pizzicato should be approximately an octave above each open string. Above
this limit, the tone becomes very dry and uncharacteristic, especially on the upper (thinner)
strings. A long pizzicato passage with no break can be slightly tiring for the player. Rests should
be used when possible, or alternations between different groups (or within one voice) as illus-
trated here:
Allegro
pizz.
Vl. I
pizz.
Vl.II
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 4 in F minor, 3rd movement
Further types of pizzicato

Left-hand pizzicato
Technique: A finger of the left hand plucks a (usually open) string. In some cases, a whole series
of notes can be plucked with the left hand; the finger which grips the highest note plucks the
tone of the next lowest finger. For example, the little finger plucks the tone of the ring finger.
This can be done on one string for as much as a 4th.
Result: a normal pizzicato sound
Notation: Left-hand pizzicato is indicated with a + above or below the note. The instructions
“pizz.” and “arco” are not used:
Allegro I and II
Vl.
I arco II arco
Special effects 43
Pizzicato of multiple stops
Multiple stops can also be played pizzicato, either arpeggiated (broken) or secco (unbroken).
Technique: Normally arpeggiated chords are plucked from the bottom up. Pizzicato from
the top down is also possible (reverse pizzicato) or alternately plucking up and down (a la
chitarra or pizzicato arpeggiato). Multiple stops can also be plucked simultaneously; each
finger of the right hand plucks one string. In this case, double stops are best for producing a
secco sound.
Result: intervals or chords with a pizzicato sound
Notation: Multiple stops played with normal pizzicato only need the instruction “pizz.” (a); for
pizzicato in different directions, up-bow and down-bow symbols or arrows are used (b); for
plucking alternately up and down, arrows and the indication a la chitarra or quasi chitarra
must be added (c); a true secco chord is notated with brackets (d):
a. b. c. d.
(a la chitarra)
or or
pizz. pizz. pizz.
It is important to know that, within multiple stops, open strings resonate considerably longer
than gripped strings. For pizzicato multiple stops, everything that has been said about multiple
stops in general holds true. Still, one special case relating to the violin and the viola is worth
mentioning. As we have seen, only one perfect 5th can be used in a multiple stop, and that
needs to be on neighboring strings. But on the violin or viola, two or even three 5ths can be
gripped simultaneously when the instrument is held like a mandolin under the arm or pressed
vertically against the thigh.
Bartók pizzicato
Technique: The string is plucked not to the side but directly upward, and strikes back against
the fingerboard.
Result: a snapping, very percussive and penetrating pizzicato sound
Notation: (the instruction “pizz.” is not added):
Fingernail pizzicato
Technique: The string is plucked by the nail of the right index finger. Fingernail pizzicato cannot
be used for a quick sequence of notes. It is recommended to leave the player a bit of time before
the pizzicato.
Result: Due to the very small point of contact between fingernail and string, a very sharp, metal-
lic sound is produced.
Notation: (the instruction “pizz.” is not added):
䡲 This manner of pizzicato can also be executed sul ponticello, resulting in a metallic sound.
䡲 Instead of simply plucking the string, the nail of the index finger can be used to touch the
string from below. That is, the upper surface of the fingernail touches the lower surface of
the string. Lifting the finger produces a delicate fingernail pizzicato.
Pizzicato harmonics → “Harmonics” (see page 58)
Buzz pizzicato
Technique: There are three types. In variants 1 and 2, the string is touched after being plucked;
in variant 3, beforehand.
1. The most common: The resonating string is allowed to strike against the nail of the right-
hand finger that plucked it.
2. A normal pizzicato is played and the resonating string is touched lightly with the pad of a
finger of the left hand.
3. A fingernail of the left hand touches the string that is to be plucked.
Result: a normal pizzicato sound followed by a buzz or hum (variants 1 and 2) or a pizzicato
sound mixed with this buzz (variant 3)
Notation: See the following example for variant 1. For the other variants, a previously defined
symbol or a written explanation in the score can be used.
(buzz pizz.)
Pinch pizzicato
Technique: The string is pinched between two fingers of the right hand and then plucked.
Result: a unique pizzicato sound, usually accompanied by a percussive noise
Notation: “pizz.-ø” (with a written explanation) written above the staff
Pizzicato glissando
Technique: After plucking the string, the left-hand finger glides along the fingerboard, prefer-
ably upward. This can be executed as a double stop glissando on two neighboring strings, which
sounds especially good on the cello.
Result: glissando of the pizzicato tone
Notation:
pizz. pizz.
Vc. or
Pizzicato tremolando / Banjo pizzicato

Technique: Multiple stops are plucked in quick succession upward or downward. This functions
best with quadruple stops, as the player need not worry about not being allowed to touch one of
the strings. It is also possible with double stops on neighboring strings. “Pizzicato tremolando”
is played much faster than “pizzicato arpeggiato” (see page 43).
Result: rapidly repeated chords (or intervals, in the case of a double stop)
Special effects 45
Notation:
pizz.
Pizzicato tremolo
Technique: One pitch is repeated quickly, plucked by (normally) two (a) or more (b) fingers of
the right hand.
Result: repeated pizzicato tones
Notation:
a. pizz. b. pizz.
432 1 432 1
2 1
or
Pizzicato bisbigliando
Technique: as above, but very quiet
Result: a whispering, quiet pizzicato tremolo
Notation: as above, but with the addition of “bisbigliando” and an appropriate dynamic marking
(p or softer)
Pizzicato “al mandolino”
Technique: Can be executed on the violin or viola. The instrument is held like a mandolin and
the strings are struck with a plectrum.
Result: a sound like a mandolin – thinner but more cutting and brilliant than normal pizzicato
tones
Notation: “pizz. al mandolino” written above the staff
Pizzicato with plectrum
Technique: as above, but on all string instruments (held normally). A guitar, mandolin or banjo
plectrum may be used.
Result: as above
Notation: A special symbol (for example, a triangle) or a written explanation is necessary.
Pizzicato with other objects
Technique: Various objects (the frog of the bow, a nail file, a pencil, a small metal stick, etc.) can
be used to pluck the strings.
Result: differing pizzicato sounds depending on the object
Notation: notated with a special, previously defined symbol or a written explanation
Pizzicato and stopping
Technique: A note is plucked and another note stopped (without bowing or plucking).
Result: first a normal pizzicato, then a quiet, distant tone
Notation:
pizz. pizz.
or
“Hammer on” pizzicato
Technique: An open string is plucked and then pressed violently against the fingerboard with a
finger of the right hand.
Result: Suffocating the oscillation of the open string results in a suddenly silenced tone.
Notation: “pizzicato” and “hammer on” written above the staff
Pizzicato effleuré
Technique: The string is plucked normally but the left hand touches it only lightly.
Result: pizzicato tones with a somewhat blurred timbre mixed with some overtones
Notation: “pizzicato effleuré” written above the staff
Muted pizzicato
Technique: The fingers of the right hand pluck the strings while the side of the same hand is
pressed against one or more strings near the bridge.
Result: a boring, dry pizzicato sound
Silent pizzicato
Technique: The string is not plucked but rather lightly tapped.
Result: a very delicate “clicking” sound
Notation: notated with a special, previously defined symbol or a written explanation:
(with fingernail) (with fingertip)
Pulled pizzicato
Technique: A variant of the Bartók pizzicato, producing good results on the cello and double
bass. The lowest string is pulled to the side (not perpendicularly to the fingerboard) and then
released, allowing the string to strike back against the fingerboard, sometimes even striking
the next string.
Result: a very percussive, snapping sound
Other pizzicato techniques

1. pizzicato on or behind the bridge, with fingers, fingernails, the frog of the bow, other objects,
and so on
2. pizzicato on half-harmonics (for half-harmonics see the section “Harmonics” on page 48)
3. pizzicato tremolando with the fingers of the left hand
4. pizzicato behind the fingers of the left hand (between the fingers on the fingerboard and the
tuning pegs)
5. sudden release of a gripped string, executed by lifting the finger immediately following the
pizzicato: a very clear tone comparable to that of guitar harmonics
Pizzicato techniques in combination with other effects (examples)

䡲 The left hand plays pizzicato while the right strokes the same string with the bow.
䡲 The left hand plays pizzicato while the right strokes the same string col legno.
Special effects 47
䡲 The left hand plays pizzicato while the right plays behind the bridge.
䡲 The right hand plays pizzicato on or behind the bridge while the left hand mutes the strings.
䡲 Pizzicato can be played tremolando behind the bridge (especially effective on cello and
double bass).
To notate these techniques, one must use either a written explanation or special symbols,
either normally used ones (for example, those for left-hand pizzicato, behind the bridge,
fingernail pizzicato) or personally designed ones. If personally designed symbols are used, it is
very important to prepare a list of the symbols and their meanings and to place this list at the
beginning of the score.
Muting (It.: con sordino; Ger.: mit Dämpfer; Fr.: avec sourdine)
The sound of a string instrument can be muted with a mute made of wood, plastic, ivory or
metal.
Technique: The mute is mounted on the bridge.
Result: a veiled, quiet sound without brilliance. The main purpose of muting is not a reduc-
tion in volume – string instruments can reduce volume by simply playing more softly. Much
more importantly, a mute changes the timbre by inhibiting the smaller, faster oscillations of
the bridge and thus reducing the intensity of the overtones, leading to a muted, dark, distant
sound. Muting can also be effective in louder dynamics and executed with great intensity.
Notation: “con sord.” or “with a mute” written above the staff. To end muting, one of the follow-
ing instructions is used: without a mute, senza sordino, ohne Dämpfer, sans sourdine. Certain
mutes can be removed very quickly; still, the player should be allowed enough time for this
change.
Special muting techniques in music of the twentieth century

Muting with the left hand
Technique: Either the fingers of the left hand press an open string lightly against the fingerboard
or the left hand is laid on the strings.
Result: muting or weakening of the strings’ normal resonance
Notation:
Va.
Dampening (Fr.: étouffer)

Technique: also with the left hand, but in this case after the string has been played
Result: The sound stays normal as long as the string is played. The natural resonance of the
string is then silenced.
Notation:
Va.
Other techniques
1. Mutes can be placed behind instead of on the bridge.
2. A mute of appropriate size can be placed on the strings between the bridge and the end of
the fingerboard. Both sides of the mute are then stroked with the bow. Cello and double bass
are best suited for this technique.
3. A string can be held motionless between the thumb and index finger of the left hand and
the tone played either arco or pizzicato. This effect is called Langlois after its inventor, and
Richard Strauss used it in Salome.
For these last three variants, a written instruction is necessary.
Harmonics
Each tone is a combination of fundamental and overtones – a composite sound consisting of
individual oscillations. The overtones are responsible for the sound’s timbre. Without over-
tones, we only have sine wave tones. On string instruments, the fundamental tone can be
silenced and the individual overtones made audible by touching the strings at certain frequency
intersection points during play. When an open string is played and a finger of the left hand
touches the appropriate frequency intersection point, this is called a “natural harmonic.” When
the index finger grips one pitch firmly and another finger (for example, the little finger) lightly
touches the frequency intersection point, this is called an “artificial harmonic.”
Technique: isolating an overtone from its fundamental tone on an open or fingered string by
touching the corresponding frequency intersection point with a finger of the left hand. The
right hand normally produces the tone by bowing, usually with the upper or middle third of
the bow. Bowing at the frog can be used as a special effect, producing a raw sound. Pizzicato
can also be used to some degree with harmonics, but this is only used rarely.
Result: an isolated, thin, whistling, silver, flute-like, dull sound. Natural harmonics cannot be
played with vibrato. Artificial harmonics can be played with or without vibrato.
Notation: Either a diamond-shaped notehead is used or a small circle above the note. Both
symbols will be discussed in detail. The important thing is that these symbols should never be
combined in the notation of the same harmonic, as they have different meanings (as we will
see later).
Natural harmonics
Before beginning, some confusion in terminology must be cleared up. The fundamental tone
is the 1st partial of a pitch; the 1st overtone is the 2nd partial; the 5th overtone is the 6th partial,
and so on. In the field of acoustics, “the 4th tone” is used to designate the 4th partial, not the
4th overtone.
1st tone = 1st partial = fundamental tone
4th tone = 4th partial = 3rd overtone
Frequency intersection points are symmetrical divisions on a string. If the string is halved, for
example, then the frequency intersection point lies in the middle; when it is touched lightly,
the 2nd partial (1st overtone) is produced. The fundamental tone and the other overtones do
not continue to sound as their oscillations are interrupted by the touching of the string. If we
divide the string into three equal parts, we get two frequency intersection points; touching
either one produces the 3rd partial (2nd overtone). By dividing the string into four, five or six
equal parts, we get three, four or five frequency intersection points; touching them produces
the corresponding partials (see below). If the string is not only touched but firmly gripped at
these points, then we have a new fundamental tone and, as a result, new overtones.
Special effects 49
The 2nd through 6th partials can be produced on every string instrument as natural harmonics.
Compared with violin strings, thicker strings are better suited for making partials sound. The
E- and C-strings of the double bass, however, are not very reliable for harmonics as the strings
do not respond easily, though it should be possible to play the first four overtones without
problems on the E-string.
A reminder: When higher harmonic tones are required from the double bass, they will be
notated in treble clef. The tones notated in this clef are, as all others, written in transposition;
they should sound an octave lower than notated. If the composer or arranger wants to notate
the actual sounding pitches in treble clef, then the instruction “nota reale,” “suono reale” or
“loco” should appear in the score to make this clear.
The following table should help explain natural harmonics. Remember that harmonics are only
produced by touching the string lightly with the finger. White arrows represent this light touch-
ing; black arrows represent a firm gripping of the string.
firm
Violin nut bridge finger grip
light (harmonic)
G-string
IV
partial tones
fundamental
1
tone ( )
IV
overtones
1 2
IV
2 3
IV
3 4
1 2 3 IV
3 3
4 5 2 2
1 1
1 2 3
IV
5 6
normal harmonic normal harmonic
sound (sounds sound (does not sound
as notated) as notated)
First partial
Point of contact: none
Result: This is the pitch of the open string – that is, the fundamental tone. The fundamental
tone cannot be produced as a harmonic as the string is not gripped.
Notation: none
Second partial
Point of contact: middle of the string (first frequency intersection point)
Result: a harmonic an octave higher than the fundamental. (Firmly gripping this point would
result in the octave of the fundamental tone as a normal composite sound, not as a harmonic.)
Notation: the octave of the empty string with a circle above the note. Important: Notation with
diamond-shaped noteheads is not used for the 2nd partial, but only for frequency inter-
section points where light touching and firm gripping produce differing pitches. In our cur-
rent case, both degrees of contact produce the same pitch, even if they have different qualities
(harmonic or normal sound); thus, notation with diamond-shaped noteheads should not be
used.
Third partial
Point of contact: at each third of the string (two frequency intersection points). From now on,
we will number the frequency intersection points (the first one is closest to the scroll).
Result: a harmonic tone a 12th higher than the fundamental tone.
(Firm gripping would produce the following pitches:
䡲 first frequency intersection point: a 5th higher than the open string
䡲 second frequency intersection point: a 12th higher than the open string)
Notation: for harmonics at the following points:
䡲 first frequency intersection point: a diamond-shaped notehead, as light touching and firm
gripping produce differing pitches here. The diamond-shaped notehead marks the note a
5th higher than the open string; that is, the sounding pitch resulting from firm gripping.
Independently of which notation system is used, the string on which the natural harmonic
is to be played must be indicated (sul G, IV, auf G, etc.).
䡲 second frequency intersection point: Here we notate the pitch a 12th higher than that of the
open string and add a small circle above the note as this is the point at which light touching
and firm gripping result in the same pitch.
Fourth partial
Point of contact: at each quarter of the string (three frequency intersection points). We must be
careful here, as the frequency intersection point in the middle of the string produces the 2nd
partial; the frequency intersection points 1 and 3 remain for the 4th partial.
Result: a harmonic tone two octaves higher than the fundamental tone
(Firm gripping would result in the following pitches:
䡲 first frequency intersection point: a 4th higher than the open string
䡲 third frequency intersection point: two octaves higher than the open string)
Notation: for harmonics at the following points:
䡲 first frequency intersection point: a diamond-shaped notehead on the 4th of the open string
䡲 third frequency intersection point: a normal note two octaves higher than the open string
with a small circle above it
Fifth partial
Point of contact: at each fifth of the string (four frequency intersection points)
Result: a harmonic tone two octaves and a 3rd higher than the fundamental tone
䡲 first frequency intersection point: a major 3rd higher than the open string
䡲 second frequency intersection point: a major 6th higher than the open string
Special effects 51
䡲 third frequency intersection point: a major 10th higher than the open string
䡲 fourth frequency intersection point: two octaves and a major 3rd higher than the open
string)
Notation: diamond-shaped noteheads for the points where differing degress of pressure from
the finger result in differing pitches; for harmonics at the following frequency intersection
points:
䡲 first frequency intersection point: a diamond-shaped notehead a major 3rd higher than the
open string
䡲 second frequency intersection point: a diamond-shaped notehead a major 6th higher than
the open string
䡲 third frequency intersection point: a diamond-shaped notehead a major 10th higher than
the open string
䡲 fourth frequency intersection point: a normal note two octaves and a major 3rd higher than
the open string with a small circle above it
Sixth partial
Point of contact: at each sixth of the string (five frequency intersection points). Of these five
frequency intersection points, the third lies in the middle of the string and produces the 2nd
partial; the second and fourth points divide the string into thirds (3rd partial). This means that
only the first (nearest the scroll) and the fifth (nearest the bridge) frequency intersection points
remain for production of the 6th partial.
Result: a harmonic tone two octaves and a 5th higher than the fundamental tone
䡲 first frequency intersection point: a minor 3rd higher than the open string
䡲 fifth frequency intersection point: two octaves and a 5th higher than the open string)
The 6th partial cannot always be produced reliably on the violin.
Notation: for harmonics at the following frequency intersection points:
䡲 first frequency intersection point: a diamond-shaped notehead a minor 3rd higher than the
open string
䡲 fifth frequency intersection point: a normal note two octaves and a 5th higher than the open
string with a small circle above it
Notation possibilities of natural harmonics
(light touching (light touching point

point of the of the finger and the (the harmonic

finger is open string is notated)
notated) are notated)
a. b. c.
(tone 3)
IV IV
Vl.
a. b. c.
IV
(tone 6)
IV
Vl.
The variants a and c require an indication of the string used: sul G (or IV). In notation with
diamond-shaped noteheads, the contact point of the finger (lightly touching) is always notated
with a white notehead, regardless of its note value. For this reason, the use of harmonic tones
shorter than a half note (quarter, eighth note, etc.) requires the notation of the open string with
correct note values as in variant b rather than with written instructions (such as “sul G”).
The tables below give a practical overview of natural harmonics on the string instruments.
Violin
2 3 4 5
8va 8va 8va 8va 8va 8va
sul E
8va 8va 8va 8va
sul A
sul D
sul G
Viola
2 3 4 5
8va 8va 8va 8va
sul A
sul D
sul G
sul C
Special effects 53
Cello
2 3 4 5
8va 8va 8va
sul A
sul D
sul G
sul C
Double Bass
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
8va 8va 8va 8va
8va 8va
sul G
8va 8va 8va 8va

8va
8va
sul D
8va 8va 8va 8va
sul A
sul E
As can be seen from these tables, the natural harmonics should be marked with a small circle
above the note, where possible, from the 7th partial on. We have seen that this circle marks the
point that the finger of the left hand touches lightly in order to produce natural harmonics. If
this point is gripped firmly, then the same pitch is produced, but as a normal sound and not a
harmonic.
Now for the last question on this subject: How can one find out if a certain pitch can be played
as a natural harmonic?
We have seen that the most commonly used natural harmonic tones are the 2nd to 6th par-
tials and that these exist in a certain intervallic relationship to the fundamental tone (= open
string = 1st partial). These intervallic relationships are:
Partial Interval to open string Notation
2 Octave sounding pitch with a circle above it
3 Octave + 5th diamond-shaped notehead a 5th higher than the open
string
4 Two octaves diamond-shaped notehead a 4th higher than the open
string
5 Two octaves + major 3rd diamond-shaped notehead a major 3rd, major 6th or
major 10th higher than the open string
6 Two octaves + 5th diamond-shaped note a minor 3rd higher than the
open string
(Remember that the 3rd to 6th partials can also be notated with a circle above the note; in this
case, the corresponding frequency intersection points are touched in a higher register.)
From this information we can develop a simple procedure to answer our question. Let us select
a sample tone and find out whether it can be played as a natural harmonic:
We simply transpose the following intervals from this tone downward: octave, octave + 5th,
two octaves, two octaves + major 3rd, two octaves + 5th. If one of the resulting five tones
corresponds to an open string on one of the string instruments, that means that the original
tone can be played as a natural harmonic on this instrument.
Only the second of these five tones (e ) corresponds to an open string, specifically the E-string
of the violin. If the open string is e (fundamental tone, 1st partial) then b is the 3rd partial.
The 3rd partial is notated with a diamond-shaped notehead a 5th above the open string,
which means our answer is as follows:
(I)
Another example: a – we use the same procedure:
None of these five tones corresponds to an open string on one of the string instruments. This
means a cannot be played as a natural harmonic tone.
Final example: d
Special effects 55

Four of these five notes correspond with open strings, showing us that d is playable as a natural
harmonic tone on the following instruments and strings:
䡲 as 2nd partial on the D-string of the violin and viola
䡲 as 3rd partial on the G-string of the violin and viola
䡲 as 4th partial on the D-string of the cello
䡲 as 6th partial on the G-string of the cello and double bass
A certain pitch may also be a higher partial (the 7th or higher) of one of the larger string
instruments and thus playable as a natural harmonic tone. For example, a notated a (actual
sound: a ) is the 9th partial on the G-string of the double bass and could be played in this
manner as a natural harmonic tone:
Notation Sound
8va
D. B.
Artificial harmonics
These tones have the same acoustic characteristics as the natural harmonic tones. Additionally,
it is possible (though not always necessary) to play them with vibrato. In the orchestra, they
are used more rarely than the natural harmonic tones as they are more difficult to play. The
advantage of the artificial harmonic tones is that they are not restricted to the overtone series
of the open strings.
On the violin and viola, artificial harmonic tones are produced on those pitches that can be
gripped by the index finger. The harmonic tones are produced by the little finger, which touches
the frequency intersection point lightly. Everything that has been described for the natural har-
monic tones is true for the artificial harmonic ones. The one exception is that the fundamental
tone is not defined by the tuning peg but rather by the index finger which stops that pitch on
an open string. The oscillating remainder of the string functions as an open string with natural
harmonic tones. On the cello, the thumb is used to grip the strings and the ring or little finger
touches the frequency intersection points to produce the partials required. On the double bass,
artificial harmonic tones are only played in the high positions where they lie within the reach
of the hand. This technique is similar to that used on the cello.
Although it is theoretically possible to produce the partials 2 (only in very high positions), 3, 4,
5 and 6 as artificial harmonic tones, normally only the 4th (and, very seldom, the 3rd) partial is
produced in this way. As we know from our discussion of natural harmonic tones, the frequency
intersection point for the production of the 4th partial lies a 4th above the fundamental tone
(fundamental tone = open string for natural harmonic tones = the first pitch gripped with the
index finger for artificial harmonic tones). The frequency intersection point for the 3rd partial
is a 5th above the fundamental tone. This technique is very easily understood. Let us take a
look at the corresponding notation.
For example, we would like to play f as an artificial harmonic tone. This is usually done with
a 4th partial, which means that the fundamental tone must be two octaves lower. The notation
is as follows:
䡲 The firm gripping which defines the fundamental tone is written in normal notation – in
this case, f . The note value is also used. The light touching is written a 4th higher (b ) as a
white (regardless of the note value), diamond-shaped notehead as with the natural harmonic
tones.
䡲 The resulting pitch can also be included in the notation, either written normally or in
parentheses. This last portion of the notation is not required and is not used by all
arrangers:
or or
The same harmonic tone (f ) could be played with the 3rd partial. In this case, the notation
would look like this:
䡲 The 3rd partial is an octave and a 5th higher than the fundamental tone, which can be found
(and will be gripped with the first finger) by subtracting this interval downward from f . The
resulting pitch is b , written as a normal note. The light touching is written as a diamond-
headed note a 5th above the b (f ). (Although the maximum span in the lower range of the
violin is restricted to a tritone or less – see “Multiple stops” on page 19 – it is not difficult
in this case for the hand to grasp a 5th. We are not dealing with a firm grip here but with a
light touch which allows the fingers to stretch further than a tritone.)
䡲 If required, the resulting pitch, f , can be written above the other notes.
or or
Essentially, an artificial harmonic tone can be played on any string on which the two fingerings
can be executed comfortably. This means it is not necessary to indicate which string is to be
used.
For the other string instruments, the same technique is used.
It is not recommended simply to write the resulting pitch with a circle above it and leave the
decision about how the harmonic should be played up to the player alone; this is not profes-
sional. And once again: never use diamond-headed and circle notation together for the same
harmonic tones!
Upper pitch limits for artificial harmonic tones (these are the practical upper limits, though
sometimes even higher artificial harmonic tones are playable) are:
15ma 8va
Sound
Notation
Violin Viola Cello Double Bass
On the double bass, artificial harmonic tones are played with thumb fingerings and are
restricted, because of the size of the instrument, to the upper ranges. The G-string of the double
bass is best suited for playing artificial harmonic tones. The D- and A-strings are less reliable
for artificial harmonic tones and the E-string is not used for them at all. Starting from fifth
position (notated e on the G-string), the 4th, 5th and 6th partials can be played as artificial
harmonic tones:
Special effects 57
4 5 6
Sound
Notation
Between the seventh and tenth positions (notated g to c on the G-string), the 3rd, 4th, 5th
and 6th partials are playable:
5 6
3 4 5 6 3 4
Sound
...........
Notation
It is possible to play double stops as harmonics in two different ways:

䡲 One of the harmonic tones must be a natural one:
Sound
Notation
䡲 The index finger grips a 5th on two neighboring strings; the other fingers can touch the
frequency intersection points for the required harmonic tones:
8va
Sound
Notation
On the cello, double stops are most easily playable on the D- and A-strings. The firm gripping
is done by the thumb while the other fingers are used for lighter touching:
Sound
Cello
Notation
Double stops with harmonic tones can be used for solo instruments but should be divided
between different groups in orchestral use.
Glissando with harmonic tones
Technique: A finger of the left hand slides lightly along the string (upward or downward) as it
is being bowed.
Result: Only the tones of the overtone series will be heard as harmonic tones.
Notation:
gliss.
8va
sul D
Vc.
Variants of harmonic technique in music of the twentieth century

Pizzicato harmonic tones
Technique: A finger of the left hand touches a frequency intersection point and the right hand
plucks the string.
Result: quiet pizzicato sound with little colour and without brilliance
Notation:
sul G
pizz.
Vc.
This technique is not very impressive on the violin; the 1st partial on the G-string is perhaps
the only good tone for this technique. The 1st partial of the other strings are of poor quality
and the 2nd and higher partials are not to be recommended. On the viola, the G- and C-strings
are well suited. Cello and double bass are also well suited for pizzicato harmonic tones due to
their thicker, longer strings.
Half-harmonics
Technique: They can be produced in two ways:
1. The string is touched lightly but not at a frequency intersection point (a).
2. The little finger of the left hand touches a frequency intersection point using more pressure
than is necessary for a harmonic (b).
Result: a distorted or broken sound similar to a harmonic
Notation: white, diamond-shaped noteheads for variant a; black ones for variant b
a. b.
Vl.
Alternation between a harmonic and the fundamental tone

Suitable for both types of harmonics, artificial and natural. It is very important to know that
this technique cannot be executed very quickly (for example, as a tremolo, as is required in
many scores) because the harmonic tone tends to ring on longer and impair the sounding of
the fundamental tone.
Special effects 59
Technique: The finger touching the string is periodically lifted and then placed again on the
string.
Result: Fundamental and harmonic tones alternate.
Notation:
Sound
Vl.
Notation
More than one harmonic tone can be used in the same passage:
8va
Sound
Vl.
sul A
Notation
Timbre modulation
This is also possible with both types of harmonics. This technique is especially well loved on
the double bass.
Technique: Different fingerings (and positions) are alternated or used in succession to produce
one certain repeated pitch; the pitch stays the same but the timbres change. For obvious reasons,
this technique cannot be executed very quickly.
Notation:
Sound
D. B. sul G
Notation
A harmonic built on another harmonic tone

Technique: As with a natural harmonic tone, the index finger touches a frequency inter-
section point on an open string. The ring finger then touches the string – normally a 4th
away – thus producing an artificial harmonic tone based on the first frequency intersec-
tion point. Depending on the size of the instrument and the position used, the little finger
can also touch other frequency intersection points closer to or further away from the index
finger.
Result: a very dull harmonic tone without brilliance
Notation:
Sound
Vl. Not! sul G
Notation
( )
As we see in the example, two diamond-shaped noteheads are used in notation. They must be
white, regardless of note value. This can lead to confusion between half notes and quarter notes.
For this reason, we recommend indicating the string used for the harmonic with a note of the
correct value instead of a written instruction such as “sul G” (see also the example on page 51).
A harmonic tone glissando col legno

Technique: A finger of the left hand slides with gentle pressure along the string while the right
hand bows col legno.
Result: a series of overtones with the typically unclear, undefined nature of col legno playing;
the effect is, however, not very impressive.
Notation:
sul D gliss.
col legno tratto
D. B.
Highest possible harmonics

Technique: Depending on the abilities of the player, the highest possible frequency intersection
point on the instrument or on a particular string is touched lightly.
Result: highest possible harmonic tone
Notation:
Pulled/bent harmonics
Technique: On the cello or double bass, a finger is laid on the string to produce a natural har-
monic tone; at the same time, another finger pulls the string away to the side. Bowing is normal.
Result: a harmonic tone with the distorted character of a “bent tone”
Notation:
Vc.
Scordatura (abnormal tuning)

The pitches of the open strings can be altered. For technical reasons, however, the new pitch
should not be too far away from the original. If the new pitch is too high, the string may
Special effects 61
break. If it is too low, it can be difficult, if not impossible, to produce pitches on a string with
such little tension.
Technique: The method of tuning stays the same; only the pitches are different.
Result: abnormal tuning of the open strings. Higher-tuned strings sound brighter; lower-tuned
strings sound darker and more colourless.
Notation: Fingering notation is usually used, meaning the tones of the scordatura strings sound
differently than written. Notation of the actual sounding pitches is also used, though rarely. The
scordatura must be indicated at the beginning of the piece, either in words (e.g., “Change E-
string to F and A-string to B”) or notes:
I
Vl. II
III
IV
If the instrument needs to be tuned differently during the piece, then the player must be given
adequate time.
Scordatura can be used for various reasons:
䡲 to change the timbre of the instrument, as Mahler does in the following example, in which
the violin is supposed to sound like a “cheap fiddle”:
In gemächlicher Bewegung
(Fingering notation)
Vl. I Solo
(tuning)
Mahler: Symphony No. 4 in G major, 2nd movement (Attention: fingering notation!)

䡲 to extend the range of the instrument
䡲 to make possible certain pitch combinations that cannot be played with normal tuning:
(a to g )
Va.
Used as a special effect in contemporary music, the tuning of an open string can be altered
while being stroked with the bow. By turning the tuning peg, the player can lower, raise or
restore the original pitch. The C-string of the cello is often used in this way.
Scordatura with microtones → “Techniques with microintervals” (see page 64)
Fingering effects without bowing

Stopping tones without bowing
Technique: The left hand stops the notated tones on the fingerboard. This must be done with
a good amount of pressure so that the tones ring. There is no additional activation through
plucking or bowing.
Result: pitches with a percussive component, like a pitched “knocking”
Notation:
(with definite pitch) (with indefinite or approximate pitch)
Vl.
Trills and tremolo without bowing

Technique: basically as above. The fingers execute a forceful trill or tremolo on the fingerboard,
gripping both tones with a good amount of pressure. A light bowing can be added to each of
these finger techniques, producing a combined effect.
Result: trills or tremolo with a strongly percussive character
Notation:
senza arco senza arco
Vl.
Rolls on two neighboring strings

Technique: Two or more fingers (or a pencil, a small rod, etc.) are placed between two neigh-
boring strings of the cello or double bass and struck against the two strings in rapid alternation.
Result: a sound like a drum roll
Notation: in any case, a written explanation is necessary
Other special bowing effects

Effects with bow pressure
䡲 Irregular accents can be executed with bow pressure during the bowing of a sustained note
or a phrase mark:
䡲 The pressure of both hands can be varied. The left hand can vary its pressure between “heavy”
and “light”; that is, begin by playing a normal tone and gradually changing to a harmonic.
The right hand can change between a light stroke and a heavy pressing. Both procedures
can, of course, be reversed.
Bowing on unusual points on the instrument

䡲 on the fingerboard as close to the fingers of the left hand as possible
䡲 behind the fingers of the left hand (toward the scroll)
䡲 between the tuning pegs and the fingerboard
䡲 below the strings; this is only possible on the cello and the double bass
䡲 with the strings of the instrument inserted between the loosened hair and wood of the bow
䡲 use of the bow on other parts of the instrument and its equipment, producing either a
scratching sound by stroking (on neck, bridge, tailpiece, body, tuning pegs, mute, etc.) or
a percussive effect by striking or knocking on various parts of the instrument (see “Percus-
sive effects” on page 66)
Special effects 63
Effects with the hair of the bow
The hair of the bow can either be stretched tightly (for example, by the right thumb), producing
a raw, scratching sound, or made loose and without tension, making the sound unclear.
Changes of bow as a special effect

Arbitrary changing of bow during sustained or slurred notes
We have seen that string players within a group may be asked to change bow direction indi-
vidually in order to guarantee an unbroken melodic line. In this case, the technique is used as
a special effect, even during lines that could be played without changes of bow:
= 116
Circular bow stroke

Functions well on the cello and double bass. The stroke begins with a normal down-bow and
moves toward the fingerboard, pulled normally (eventually the right arm is raised somewhat).
The tip of the bow reaches the fingerboard and, in a quick motion, the direction of the bow
is changed. Now the bow moves as an up-bow toward the bridge and the right arm is again
lowered. If necessary, the procedure can be repeated.
Elliptical bow stroke

A variant of the circular bow stroke, also used on the cello and double bass.
The player begins with an up-bow but moves the bow down toward the bridge more than across
the strings. At the frog, the direction of the bow is changed to a down-bow and brought slowly
back to its original position.
Rotating bow
Possible on all string instruments: circular stroking motions on one string.
Percussive effects with the bow →“Percussive effects” (see page 66)
Other effects with the bow

䡲 The tip of the bow can be used to touch the string in a “lifting-off” motion, producing a very
delicate sound.
䡲 The bow can jump on the string, in the direction of either the scroll or the bridge.
䡲 Though there really isn’t enough room for this effect, an up-bow on the frog can be used as
a special effect. The sound will have a scratchy character.
䡲 The bow can be stopped suddenly in its stroke and left lying on the string; this interrupts
the tone abruptly. The effect can be heightened by the gripping of another tone on the same
string at the moment of the interruption.
All these effects must be explained in writing in the score. Symbols may be used but these must
be explained either in a list at the beginning of the score or at the point where the effect is first
used.
Techniques with microintervals
As we know, performance technique differentiates between pitches such as c and d. This,
of course, does not yet qualify as use of microintervals in string technique. There are various
systems of microintervals and also various systems of notation. The most common system uses
quarter tones, and they are usually notated as follows:
= = = =
The following example makes clear that a single pitch can be notated in different ways:
= = = =
The following system can be used for the notation of other microintervals:
1
3
1
6
Microintervals became part of compositional technique in the twentieth century. A complete

treatment of this subject would exceed the limits of this book, so we shall limit ourselves
at this point to a few special playing techniques for string instruments which make use of
microintervals.
Vibrato with microintervals

1
1 3
4
= 1 tone higher = 1 tone lower
4 3
Glissando with microintervals

Trills and tremolo with microintervals
or ( )
Scordatura with microintervals

This technique is not commonly used. The G-string (of the violin) can, for example, be tuned
a quarter tone higher or the C-string (of the cello) three-quarters of a tone lower than usual.
Special effects 65
Cluster chords
This term is used for chords consisting of neighboring tones. These tones can be microtonal,
chromatic or diatonic. In the score, the highest and lowest tones are notated and the space
between them filled in with a thick bar. The number and type of the participating instruments
must be indicated (for example, 16 violins, 8 celli, etc.) as well as the kind of interval used to
make up the cluster. Duration is usually indicated by the length of the black bar in comparison
with the other measures. The individual printed parts must contain a list of the pitches expected
from each player, otherwise it will not be clear who should play which pitches:
a.
Va. 1ª–12ª
=
Va. 1ª............................................Va. 12ª
b.
chromatic cluster
Vl. 1º–8º
Cluster chords are not always sustained as masses of sound and are sometimes of short
duration:
chromatic cluster pizz.

8va
Vc. 1°–10°
Sometimes indefinite and approximate pitches are used:

a''
f '' c ''
Vl. c''
g' b ' g '
f'
Here the players have to find out for themselves what each one should play. This technique can
be used in solo music (for example, in piano music) but is not recommended for the orchestra,
as it can cause confusion. If, regardless, one decides on this method, then the individual printed
parts must contain specific instructions for the players.
In place of barlines, time durations can be given for certain segments:
8'' 2'' 5''
Vl. 1º–9º
(chrom.)
1 tone cluster
4
Percussive effects
Col legno playing was perhaps the first percussive experiment used on string instruments.
As this technique has already been discussed (see page 40), we will continue with other
possibilities.
One point concerning notation is very important: there is almost no limit to these experimental
techniques and their variations. Therefore, one should not expect standard notation techniques
for all of them. When a composer decides to use percussive effects in his music, then four points
should be considered:
䡲 the kind of percussive effect; that is, “what?” (for example, striking, jabbing, knocking, rub-
bing, etc.)
䡲 a detailed description of the effect and the technique with which it is produced; that is,
“how?” (for example, “as a trill,” “with growing intensity,” “while the palm of the left hand
is used to silence the strings,” “with irregular arpeggiated bow strokes,” etc.)
䡲 the exact point on the instrument at which the percussive effect is to be produced: that is,
“where?” (for example, on the string, behind the bridge, on the tailpiece, on the back of the
instrument, etc.)
䡲 the implement used in production; that is, “with what?” (for example, fingers, fingernails,
knuckles, bow, beater, stick, pencil, plectrum, coin, handkerchief, etc.)
Notation with x-shaped noteheads

“Striking” effects are usually notated with x-shaped noteheads on the system or on a separate
line below used for indefinite pitches:
pizz.
3
Vl. or
Such notation must, of course, be accompanied by written instructions. It must be made clear
which part of the instrument each line and space stands for (for example, the first space could
indicate the upper part of the instrument’s cover top; the second space, the sides; the third, “on
the bridge,” etc.).
If the palm of the hand is used, then the following is possible:
Historical string instruments 67
Tablature notation
A tablature is a system with a reduced number of lines, each representing a certain instrument
or (as in the following example) a part of the instrument. The meaning of each line must be
explained at the beginning of the score in writing or graphically. Tablatures are used very often
for percussion instruments, and can also be used when other instruments are treated as per-
cussion instruments. In the following example, “A” could represent the side, “B” the shoulder,
and so forth:
3
A
B
C
D
If this information is not given completely and exactly, then certain decisions will be left up
to the performers. For example, the composer can write: “knock on the double bass.” In this
case, the double bass player must decide which part of the instrument he will strike, as well as
whether he will use the palm of the hand, a knuckle or some other object.
Prepared instruments
This technique is if not directly at least peripherally related to the subject of percussive effects.
Various objects (paper, cardboard, a piece of cloth, a credit card, wires, small objects made of
plastic, wood, metal, etc. – even some percussion instruments can be considered) can be either
placed between the strings or attached to the instrument in some way or other. In this way,
as many effects and sounds can be produced as fantasy allows – each one requiring a written
explanation for the performer.
Amplification
In various scores, an electrical amplification of the strings is requested. The goal here is pri-
marily to distort the string sound rather than just increasing its volume, though this can also be
the fundamental goal from time to time. Microphones are usually mounted on the instrument
(a pick-up on the body or bridge, etc.) rather than hung or placed on stands nearby. Disadvan-
tages of this kind of amplification include unbalanced dynamics and an inadvertent alteration
of timbre.
Historical string instruments

The “rebab” (rabab), the earliest string instrument of the Islamic world (invented in the ninth
century or earlier), inspired the development of the “rebec” and the “fiddle” instruments in
Europe. This second group is further subdivided into two families, that of the viols and that of
the liras.
Viol family
First we must clear up a widely held misunderstanding: “viola” refers not to a particular instru-
ment such as a violin or viola but is rather a category – the family name for all viol instruments.
The modern names of the string instruments are descended from this term: “viola,” “violino”
(violin) meaning “small viola,” “violone” (double bass) meaning “large viola” and “violoncello”
(cello) meaning “small large viola.” The viol instruments are divided into two groups: viola da
braccio and viola da gamba. Here is another misconception that has even crept into well-known
instrumentation books and should be corrected: the viola da gamba and viola da braccio do
not belong to the same family. They do not differ from each other primarily in terms of size,
as do the modern viola and the modern cello; the viola da braccio is not always an alto or
tenor instrument and the viola da gamba not always a tenor or bass instrument, as many books
claim. Certain types of viola da braccio are larger and sound lower than certain types of viola
da gamba, and the differences in their construction will be discussed shortly. The only reason
these two instrument types are both designated by the name “viola” is the continued use of the
mutual family name through history. This circumstance confuses some modern authors.
Viola da braccio
This term means “arm viola”; these instruments (with the exception of the tenor-bass viol, see
below) are played on the arm, like the violin. The modern string instruments (violin, viola,
cello) come from this family – except for the double bass, which is descended from the viola
da gamba family. In addition to the difference in playing position, the “braccio” family differs
from that of the “gamba” in the lack of frets on the fingerboard, only four strings, the tuning of
the strings in 5ths, usually f-shaped sound holes, flat central bouts (c-bouts), low ribs, a lightly
convex back and top (belly) and purflings (projecting rims). The viola da braccio is played
standing, the bow held from above. Its sound is bright and luminous. The different kinds of
viola da braccio are:
Descant viol
The soprano instrument of the family and forerunner of the modern violin, tuned g–d –a –e ,
sometimes called violetta (a name which is also used for the descant instruments of the gamba
family as well as for other instruments similar to the descant viol but with three strings).
Alto and tenor viols

Forerunners of the modern viola, tuned c–g–d –a . The tenor instruments are tuned the same
but are larger.
(Tenor-) Bass viol

Forerunner of the modern cello, tuned C–G–d–a. The only member of the “braccio” family
which is held vertically. Its other characteristics, such as form, number of strings, tuning in
5ths, and so on, define it clearly, however, as a “braccio” instrument. In some books, these
instruments are called “violone” though this term is more often used for the bass gamba, which
developed into the modern double bass (see page 3).
Special forms
䡲 Viola da spalla: shoulder violin; a tenor or bass instrument of the viola da braccio family with
four to six strings usually tuned similarly to a cello. It is held by a strap over the shoulder.
䡲 Viola pomposa: an alto or soprano instrument of the viola da braccio family with five strings:
c–g–d –a –e (that is, like a viola with a supplementary E-string). It is held on the arm and
supported by a carrying strap over the shoulder.
䡲 Violino pomposo: a later variant of the viola pomposa – that is, a violin with a supplementary
C-string
䡲 Violino piccolo: the smallest member of the modern violin family, tuned (notated pitch) g–d –
a –e . It sounds a perfect 4th or a major 3rd higher (as used by Monteverdi, Johann Sebastian
Bach and others).
Historical string instruments 69

䡲 Violoncello piccolo: a five-stringed viola da braccio in tenor or alto range, tuned c–g–d–a–e
(that is, like a cello with a supplementary E-string)
Viola da gamba
This term means “leg viola,” as it is played held by the knees like the cello (but without an
adjustable peg). Normally it has six (sometimes only four or five) strings, tuned in 4ths (except
for a 3rd between the middle strings). There are seven chromatic frets on the fingerboard. Other
characteristics differing from the “braccio” family are sloping shoulders, c-shaped sound holes,
lower central bouts (c-bouts), high ribs, a flat back and top (belly) and no purflings (projecting
rims). These instruments were very popular in the sixteenth century but were replaced by the
“braccio” instruments over the course of the seventeenth century with the exception of the bass
gamba, which survived longer and bowed out to the cello only in the middle of the seventeenth
century. The viola da gamba is played seated with the bow gripped from below. Its sound is mild
and dark.
Descant gamba
A rather seldom-used member of the family, tuned d–g–c –e –a –d .
Alto and tenor gambas

As in the braccio group, the only difference between the instruments is their size. Both are
tuned the same way: A–d–g–b–e –a or a 2nd lower.
(Tenor-) Bass gamba

The most characteristic instrument of the family, tuned D–G–c–e–a–d . There are small bass,
large bass and sub-bass viola da gambas. The large bass gamba is also called violone and is the
only member of the family that (as the double bass) has survived into the modern orchestra.
Sometimes the bass gamba is called bass violin, a term which only causes confusion, as it is
also sometimes used for the small bass gamba, for the double bass and, in casual speech, even
for the cello.
Special forms
䡲 Viola bastarda: a mix between the lira da braccio (see below) and the small bass viola da
gamba. The tuning was originally in 5ths and 4ths, like the lira, then later in 4ths and a 3rd
in the middle like the gamba: AA–D–G–c–e–a–d .

䡲 Baryton (viola di bardone, viola di bordone, viola paradon): a further developed form of
the viola bastarda with six to seven fingered strings made of gut and eight to twenty-two
aliquot strings (open strings ringing in sympathy) made of metal with a separate tailpiece.
The strings can be diatonically or chromatically tuned. They run under the fingerboard but
their back side is not covered. This means they can be plucked with the left thumb while the
fingered strings are being bowed, making a unique mix of bowed and plucked tones possible.
䡲 Viola d’amore: also a viola bastarda, but in alto range with five to seven fingered strings
of gut or brass. Seven to fourteen sympathetic strings made of steel, mounted under the
fretless fingerboard, begin to vibrate sympathetically when the fingered strings are bowed,
producing the instrument’s characteristic sound. The tuning is variable, but very often in D
major: (A)d–(d)f–a–d –f –a –d .
Lira family
These instruments are also descended from the fiddle family. Essentially, a lira has the same
form as a violin, but with a wider neck, a flat peg box with perpendicular tuning pegs and
a body which becomes broader on the sides. These instruments were popular between the
fifteenth and the seventeenth centuries.
Lira da braccio
The soprano instrument of the family, usually with five fingered strings and two drone (bor-
dun) strings. The latter are not strung across the fingerboard. The instrument has f-shaped
or c-shaped holes and a flat bridge which allows chordal playing of three to four tones. The
original frets disappeared toward the end of the fifteenth century. The tuning is d–d (drone
strings)–g–g –d –a –e (d ).
Lira da gamba (lirone)

Also called arciviola di lira, lira grande, lira doppia, lirone perfetto, lyra, lyra perfecta or lyrone.
A low member of the lira family, held between the knees and possessing eleven to fifteen strings
tuned in 5ths (the first two strings are drone or bordun strings, which are tuned in an octave
or 5th appropriate to the key). The tuning system is variable. The instrument was an important
basso continuo instrument, especially in Italy.

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CHAPTER 1 STRING INSTRUMENTS

Instruments and their parts, bows and strings

Cello Double Bass

(sounds one octave lower)

Fingering (stopping) techniques and positions

with the “◦ ” for harmonic.

strings. The symbol for fingering with the thumb is :

Non-legato (separate bows)

Johann Sebastian Bach: Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 in G major, 1st movement

Legato (slurred bowing)

Johann Sebastian Bach: Brandenburg Concerto No. 1 in F major, 2nd movement

Allegro molto appassionato

Allegro molto appassionato

Mahler: Symphony No. 9 in D major, 4th movement (Adagio)

Mahler: Symphony No. 5 in D major, 1st movement

Beethoven: Overture to Coriolanus

Slurred on-the-string bowings

Beethoven: Violin Concerto in D major, Op. 61, 1st movement

Mahler: Symphony No. 1 in D major, 1st movement

Mahler: Symphony No. 5 in C minor, 3rd movement

Separate on-the-string bowings

Andante non troppo

Tchaikovsky: Serenade for Strings, Op. 48, 1st movement

With the middle or upper third of the bow

At the frog (It.: al tallone; Ger.: am Frosch; Fr.: au talon)

Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6 in B minor (Pathétique), Op. 74, 1st movement

Tempo: moderately fast or fast

Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring, “Second Part: The Sacrifice, Introduction”

Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 5 in E minor, 4th movement

Mahler: Symphony No. 5 in D major, 2nd movement

Wieniawsky: Violin Concerto No. 2 in D major, 1st movement

Allegro energico e passionato

Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E minor, 4th movement

Brahms: Symphony No. 4 in E minor, 2nd movement

(legato) (portato) (slurred stacc.) (staccato)

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Symphony No. 39 in E major, 3rd movement

Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 5 in E minor, 4th movement

Mendelssohn Bartholdy: A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Overture), Op. 21

Staccato volante (flying staccato)

Brahms: Symphony No. 1 in C minor, 2nd movement

Jeté (Eng.: ricochet; It.: gettato; Ger.: Wurfbogen)

(Andantino, quasi Allegretto, = 52)

Rimsky-Korsakov: Scheherazade, 3rd movement

Staccato Spiccato Sautillé

Slurred staccato Staccato volante Jeté

large intervals become simple:

Rimsky-Korsakov: Scheherazade, 2nd movement

crescendo poco a poco

Rimsky-Korsakov: Scheherazade, 1st movement

Writing multiple stops

ples and then present explanations and general guidelines.

Solution: When the resulting interval does not exceed

With a triple stop, we proceed similarly:

This triple stop is playable on the violin.

Step 1: Projection of the three upper tones:

We see that this quadruple stop is playable on the violin.

Fingering of multiple stops

Step 1: The lowest tone is a g (an open string).

We see that this quadruple stop is playable on the violin.

Question: One note (b) appears twice. Is this allowed?

Step 1: Projection onto the G-string:

Step 2: Determining the interval:

Step 1: Projection of the upper three notes onto the C-string: