Ecological Effects of the War in Vietnam

Author(s): Gordon H. Orians and E. W. Pfeiffer

Source: Science , May 1, 1970, New Series, Vol. 168, No. 3931 (May 1, 1970), pp. 544-554
Published by: American Association for the Advancement of Science

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1728609

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 rubber tree Hevea brasiliensis is par-
ticularly susceptible to damage by
defoliants, especially 2,4,5-trichloro-
phenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) (3), we in-
terviewed plantation owners concerning
defoliation damage. The planters them-
Ecological Effects of the selves--have--not-carried out systematic
studies of the physiological effects of
War in Vietnam defoliants on rubber trees, but they
have been very much interested in esti-
mating their losses. The Rubber Re-
Effects of defoliation, bombing, and other military search Institute of Vietnam, a private
research corporation, has made careful
activities on the ecology of Vietnam are described. observations of the nature and extent
of damage to rubber trees and has car-
Gordon H. Orians and E. W. Pfeiffer ried out some experiments to find ways
of minimizing the loss to defoliants.
The data in the files and publications
of the Institute, kindly made available
to us by the director, Jean-Paul Poli-
Wars are always destructive of en- fects on animal life. Accordingly, the niere, were invaluable to us in learning
vironments, but never before have the Society for Social Responsibility in Sci- more about effects of defoliation on
ecological effects of a war been a major ence decided to sponsor a trip in rubber trees. Also, during a visit to the
issue. For the past several years there March 1969, with the objective of research station of the Institute, we
has been widespread concern among supplementing Tschirley's observations were able to observe recent damage to
scientists about the massive use of with those of zoologists. Unfortunately trees by defoliants and to view pictures
chemicals for defoliation and crop both ofde-
these visits have been made in of trees damaged and killed by previous
struction in Vietnam. Because these the dry season. defoliations. Officials of the Michelin
chemicals have never before been used Plantations also provided us with data
in military operations, there are no from their files on the nature and ex-

data upon which to predict the effects Sources of Information tent of herbicide damage to rubber
of such use. However, J. S. Foster, Di- trees on one of their plantations.
rector of Defense Research and Engi- We gathered information and im- The Faculty of Science, University
neering, Department of Defense, has pressions from interviews with military of Saigon, and government agencies
stated that the Department of Defense personnel involved with both field op- concerned with plants and animals,
would not use these chemicals if it erations and policy decisions. We trav- such as Ministries of Fisheries, Fores-
judged that seriously adverse ecologi- eled by helicopter over areas damagedtry, and Agriculture, are staffed with
cal consequences would occur. The by B-52 bombing raids, and we flew onbiologists trained primarily in France
basis upon which this judgment was spray missions with the C-123 aircraftand the United States. These people
made is not clear in view of the fact which have been modified for spray ap-are knowledgeable and concerned about
that the report of the Midwest Re- plication. We were also able to take athe ecological effects of the war in
search Institute (sponsored by the De- 2-hour, 40-minute (104 kilometers) their country. By means of interviews
partment of Defense) on the ecological trip by Navy patrol boat through the with them we were able to assess their

effects of herbicides (1) points out that Rung Sat Special Zone, an extensive re-concerns, find out what kinds of stud-
predictions based on civilian uses are gion of mangroves on the Nha Be Riv- ies have been initiated, explore ways of
not valid. This is because the military er, which has been heavily defoliated.helping them launch future studies, and
application of herbicides in Vietnam is The main shipping channel to Saigonto gather information they had collected
carried out under conditions that are passes through the area and widespreadwhich was relevant to our mission.
defoliation has been used to reduce the
not comparable to the civilian situation. Wartime conditions prevented us
incidence
Recognizing that there were no data of rocket and mortar attacks from making ground observations in
on vessels coming up the river. We are
on the ecological effects of the military heavily defoliated forests, but we were
use of herbicides in Vietnam, the De- grateful to the U.S. Embassy, Army, able to discuss damage with B. R.
partment of State sent F. H. Tschirley, Navy, and Air Force, the Rubber Re- Flamm, Chief, Forestry Branch, U.S.
Agency for International Development,
a U.S. Department of Agriculture plant search Institute of Vietnam, Plantations
ecologist, to Vietnam in March 1968, Michelin, and the many Vietnamese Saigon, and to examine photographs he
to make a 30-day assessment of the biologists, both in governmental and took inside forests receiving one and
ecological effects of defoliation. His re-nongovernmental positions in their two applications of defoliants. In ad-
port (2) indicates that the defoliationcountry, for their cooperation and hos- dition, one of us (G.H.O.) visited some
program is having a profound effect onpitality. All information which we re- of the sites in Puerto Rico, which have
plant life in Vietnam. He was, however,quested from the Department of De-been used to test defoliants under trop-
unable to get first-hand data on many fense that did not carry a security ical conditions, in April 1969, for a
aspects of the problem, including ef- classification was made available to us. closer look at vegetation recovery and
Dr. Orians is with the department of zoology Because rubber plantations are one animal populations.
at the University of Washington, Seattle, and Because previous work on the ef-
Dr. Pfeiffer is with the department of zoology
of the most important sources of for-
at the University of Montana, Missoula. eign capital in Vietnam and since the fects of defoliation in the field have
544 SCIENCE, VOL. 168

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 Table 1. Estimated area (1 acre = 0.4 hec-
dealt almost entirely with direct effects example, aerial reconnaissance of the
tare) treated with herbicides in Vietnam.
upon plants, we made a special effort Actual area sprayed is not known accurately target area prior to the decision to
to observe animals in all the areas we because some areas are resprayed. Areas are spray it, is omitted if the schedule is
estimated from the number of spray missions busy, and in enemy-held areas there is
visited and to ask as many questions
flown, the calibrated spray rates and the
as we could about changes in the statuswidth of spray swath covered. [From Depart- often no warning given.
of animals. Because our own knowl- ment of Defense data.] To reduce transfer of herbicides by
edge was most extensive about birds we the wind and to improve the kill on
Defoliation Crop
learned the most about them, but we Year destruction the desired target, the military authori-
(acres) (acres) ties have established regulations gov-
did gather some information on other
taxa through interviews. Because of the 1962 17,119 717 erning conditions under which defolia-
1963 34,517 297
short duration of our visit we were un-
1964 53,873 10,136
tion may take place. Missions are to
able to obtain definitive answers to 1965 94,726 49,637 be flown only when the temperature is
some of the most important questions 1966 775,894 112,678 less than 85?F (29.4?C) and the wind
1967 1,486,446 221,312
which have been raised by the Ameri- is less than 10 knots. This restricts
1968 1,297,244 87,064
can scientific community about the eco- aerial spraying to morning hours,
logical effects of the war, but we feel though usually an attempt is made to
that the material we gathered forms a fly two successive missions each morn-
Roadsides and riverbanks
significant contribution to continuing ing. are subjected
to multiple defoliation
efforts to assess the impact of modern The defoliants
at regularused in Vietnam, the
in-
tervals.
warfare upon the environment in which concentrations used, and those used in
man must live. U.S. civilian
Officially the defoliation operations, and
program is the
a pur-
Vietnamese program withposes forthe
which assistance
they are best suited
are given in Table 2. In the region of
of the United States. The initial re-
Operational Aspects of quest for defoliation may be madeSaigon,
by where wind-blown and gaseous
the Defoliation Program herbicides pose threats to cropland,
either a district or a province chief
with the support of his American ad-White is now preferred because
agent
Inasmuch as it is the widespread usevisor. Included in the request mustofbeits lower volatility and persistence,
of herbicides in Vietnam that has beenthe claim that the targeted area is but in regions where there is little agri-
of greatest concern to American scien-under control of the National Libera- culture, Orange is the preferred agent
tion Front or of the North Vietnamese.
tists, we gave top priority to learning because it is more economical. Present-
The chief must also pledge to reim-
about the effects of the defoliation pro- ly in Vietnam, Orange constitutes about
gram in Vietnam. Defoliants have been burse his people if there is any acci-50 percent of the total herbicide used,
used in Vietnam by the United States dental damage to their crops by wind- White 35 percent, and Blue 15 percent,
since 1962. The program started mod- blown spray or other causes. The re- the latter being used primarily against
estly but increased sharply after 1965 quest also must contain a promise to mountain rice crops (4). Approximate
(Table 1). A peak was reached in 1967 inform people in the target area that areas where extensive defoliation has
followed by a slight reduction of total it will be sprayed, giving them the been carried out are shown in Fig. 1.
area sprayed with defoliants in 1968 reasons for the spraying, and offering
as a result of the reassignment of them the opportunity to change their
equipment for other missions follow-allegiances if they so desire. Plans are Effects of Defoliants on Trees
ing the Tet Offensive (4). The bulk of supposed to be made in advance to
the spraying is directed against forests handle any refugees which might resultIt was impossible for us to visit de-
and brush, but a significant proportionfrom the operation. foliated forests on foot or by means of
is directed against cropland in the This request then goes to the division
ground transportation. We, therefore,
mountainous parts of the country (4).tactical zone commander and his Amer- are unable to add much to what has
The U.S. military authorities believe ican advisor, then to the Corps com- already been reported on the direct ef-
the food grown in the mountainous mander and his advisor, and then to fects of defoliants on forest trees. We
areas is used to feed the forces of the the Vietnamese Joint General Staff and can confirm Tschirley's report (2) that
National Liberation Front. They deny its American advisors in Saigon. In the trees which are collectively known
using defoliants on rice crops in the Saigon the request is circulated among as mangroves are extremely susceptible
delta region. Much of the defoliation is a broad spectrum of groups dealing to the action of defoliants and that one
along roads and rivers and around mil-with pacification operations, intelli- application at the normal rate employed
itary establishments, and border areasgence, psychological warfare, and in Vietnam is sufficient to kill most of
(near Laos and Cambodia) are exten- chemical warfare. Finally, permission the trees. Most of the areas we visited
sively defoliated. Forested regions must be given by the commanding gen- by boat on the Rung Sat Peninsula
north and northwest of Saigon in Tay eral and the United States Ambassador (Fig. 1) were still completely barren
Ninh, Binh Long, Binh Duong, Phuoc to Vietnam. even though some of the areas had been
Long, and Long Khanh provinces have Despite this formal arrangement, in sprayed several years earlier. Only in
been very hard hit. This area contains Vietnam the program is generally con- occasional places was there any regen-
some of the most valuable timber lands sidered to be an American one, and eration of mangrove trees. We observed
in the country. In most cases, broad military justification of it is always giv- no growth of the saltwater fern Achros-
forest areas have not been repeatedly en in terms of the American lives it ticum aureaum which often invades
defoliated, though possibly 20 to 25 saves. Moreover, there is evidence thatmangrove areas.
percent of the forests of the country the many precautions specified by the Mangrove vegetation is floristically
have been sprayed more than once. procedures are neglected regularly. For simple, the forests in Vietnam being
1 MAY 1970
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dominated by Avicennia marina, A. in- dominant Rhizophora-Bruguiera forest.defoliated forests. The unusual soil con-
termedia, Rhizophora conjugata, Bru- This estimate is based upon the assump-ditions of mangrove forests may result
guiera parviflora, B. gymnorhiza, Ceri- tion of immediate redistribution of in a failure of the herbicides to be de-
ops candoleana, and Nipa fruticans, seeds to the defoliated areas and thecomposed. If the molecules remain
the latter species also forming dense presence of suitable germination bound con- to the soil particles they might
stands along most rivers in the delta ditions when they arrive. Although influence
our seed germination for a long
region where they are subject to tidal observations were limited to what we time. Alternatively, seed dispersal into
influence. The normal pattern of vege- could see from the boats with binocu- the areas is difficult because of the large
areas in which mature trees have been
tation succession in mangrove areas has lars, there is reason to believe that the
been reviewed by Tschirley (2) who timetable may be somewhat longer than killed. Many of the areas, as a result
suggests that about 20 years would be this. Possibly conditions for seed ger- of continued soil deposition under the
required for the reestablishment of themination are not now very good in the trees, are flooded only at the highest of
high tides, and seeds must be trans-
ported for long distances from the river
channels under very unfavorable condi-
tions. It cannot be excluded that rees-
tablishment of the original forest may
be impossible except along the edges
of the river channels and backwaters.
Military operations in Vietnam pro-
vide an opportunity to study the effects
of unusually high rates of application
of herbicides. For example, before jet
pods were installed in the C-123 air-
craft, the planes were unable to remain
aloft in case of engine trouble. In such
a contingency, the crew could jettison
the entire contents of the tank (1000
gallons; 3.79 kiloliters), in slightly less
than 30 seconds, whereas normal spray
time is about 4 minutes. Although such
contingencies are said to occur less fre-
quently now, they do continue to hap-
pen. On the spray mission which one of
us (E.W.P.) accompanied as observer,
the spray nozzles of one plane failed
to work properly, and the entire tank
was unloaded at the end of the target.
Fig. 1. (Above, left) Approximate areas of massive defoliation in III Corps,Because
as indi-the locations of targets are
cated by Chemical Operations, MACV. (Above, right) Map of route throughpinpointed
Rung Sat very precisely, and because
Special Zone. (Below) Defoliated mangrove association in Rung Sat Special Zone.
reports are made of all unusual activi-
ties during a spraying mission, it should
be possible to keep a record of such
occurrences. It is most important that
all such incidents be recorded in order
to enable biologists, in the future, to
investigate the sites of concentrated de-
foliant applications.

Effects of Defoliation on Upland Forests

Our observations on upland forests

that were sprayed directly were lim-
ited to aerial reconnaissance. Regret-
tably we have nothing to add to the
published studies about the short-term
effect of defoliants on tropical forest
trees after single applications of herbi-
cides (1, 2, 5). The area in northern
Long Khanh province that one of us
(G.H.O.) observed from the air had
been sprayed previously, and many of
the trees on the actual target of the
546 SCIENCE, VOL. 168

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mission already appeared to be dead. defoliation onreach tree being estimated
Except for the wetter spots which were visually. Apprareitly there had been no
covered with bamboo, the ground was recent ground visits to the sites because
clearly visible in most areas from the all the trails were overgrown and the
low-flying aircraft. Many areas in War boundaries of the plots were almost im-
Zones C and D (Fig. 1) have been possible to find. There has been little
sprayed more than once, and this mul- interest in the continuing effects of the
tiple spraying is also associated with herbicide treatments. This is unfortu-
coverage of wide areas. Vegetative re- nate for some areas received very high
covery as judged from the air was lim- rates of herbicide application [27
ited to the growth of bamboo and un- pounds acid equivalent per acre (30.2
derstory trees rather than to refoliation kilograms per hectare)]. Assays of
of the canopy dominants. growth rate and germination of cucum-
Observations of defoliated upland bers, made in soils up to 1 year after
forests were made from the ground by application of the herbicides, revealed
Tschirley (2) and Flamm (6). They relatively high concentrations of piclo-
visited defoliated forests near Special ram, although this technique does not
Forces camps in Tay Ninh and Binh provide precise quantitative measures.
Long provinces northwest of Saigon, a There is a possible serious source of
region of gray podzolic soils. Accord- error in the visual estimates of the
ing to these studies, after defoliation, speed of refoliation in these Puerto
on sites sprayed once, there appears to Rican rain forest plots. At the higher
be a modest kill of canopy trees, but rates of herbicide application, it was
understory seedlings and saplings sur- clear that most of the trees had been
Fig. 2. Defoliated crowns of Lagerstroemia
vive and forest regeneration begins fair- and Pterocarpus near Tong Le Chon. either killed or severely damaged. How-
ly rapidly (Fig. 2). However, on sites [Courtesy of Barry D. Flamm] ever, these plots had been invaded by
that received two sprayings roughly 1 vines which climbed the trunks of the
year apart, a heavy kill of all woody dead trees and spread out over the for-
plants, including seedlings, is reported. mental Forest in northeastern Puerto mer canopy. On some of the plots near-
Two or three spray applications may Rico. They had been sprayed in 1965 ly all of the greenery above 3 meters
kill approximately 50 percent of com- with a Hiller 12-5 helicopter which de- was contributed by vines and not by
mercially valuable timber in such for- livers the spray over a standard swath refoliation of the original trees. Never-
ests. These areas are being invaded by 35 feet (10.7 meters) wide. The plots theless, a quick visual estimate, particu-
grasses which are resistant to forest de- were 60 by 80 feet (18 by 24 meters) larly if it were made from a helicopter,
foliants and which may arrest succes- separated by buffer zones 20 feet might (6 be taken to indicate that exten-
sion by preventing the reestablishment meters) wide and there were three rep- sive refoliation of trees had occurred.
of tree seedlings for a long time. Even lications, ordered in a randomized The vine-choked plots will not return
if this does not occur, it will take many block design, with 50-foot (15-meter) to their former state as rapidly as they
decades before a mature forest grows. buffer zones between the strips. The might
ex- otherwise, because the dead
Subtle effects, such as changes in the tent of defoliation had been measured 1 trunks will probably collapse under the
species composition and forest physi- year after treatment, the percentage of weight of the vines in a few years, cre-
ognomy, may persist for much longer
than that.
A year after spraying, timber is still Table 2. Chemical composition, rates of application, and uses of military herbicides from
in good condition, and could be har- data supplied by the U.S. Departments of Defense and Agriculture. One pound per gallon,
acid equivalent (AE) equals 114 grams per liter. One pound per acre equals 1.12 kilograms
vested for commercial use, if equip- per hectare.
ment and markets are available. How-
ever shrapnel will be a serious problem Concen- Rate of
for the Vietnamese lumber industry for Agent Composition tration apolication
Ag(%) (lb/gal (lb/acre) Use
many years. Most sawmills report that AE) Vietnam U.S.
they lose from 1 to 3 hours each day
Orange n-Butyl ester 2,4-D 50 4.2 27 2 General defoliation
because shrapnel in the logs severely
n-Butyl ester 2,4,5-T 50 3.7 of forest, brush,
damages the saw blades. The forestry and broad-leaved
program is looking for suitable metal crops

detection equipment that might help Purple n-Butyl ester 2,4-D 50 4.2 General defoliation
to reduce this damage. n-Butyl ester 2,4,5-T 30 2.2 agent used inter-
Isobutyl ester 2,4,5-T 20 1.5 changeably with
A variety of herbicides, including agent Orange
picloram, bromacil, isopropylamine,White Triisopropanolamine Forest defoliation
prometone, dicamba, divron, and fenac salt, 2,4-D 2.0 6 where longer term
have been tested for their effects under Triisopropanolamine control is desired
salt, picloram 0.54 1.5 0.5-2
tropical conditions in Puerto Rico since
Blue Sodium cacodylate 27.7) .1 93 Rapid short-term
1962 (7). The plots visited in April Free cacodylic acid 4.8 5 defoliation. Good
1969 were located at an elevation of Water, sodium chloride for grass control
balance and use on rice
540 meters in the Luquillo Experi-
1 MAY 1970
547

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ating a low, vine-covered mat through areas throughout the tropics are rich a complete census, but it is doubtful
which regeneration could be very diffi- in bird species (10), many of them re- whether such studies would be worth
cult. We urge that continued studies of stricted to that type of vegetation, and while since the plots are so small that
vegetation succession on these and oth- the Southeast Asian mangroves are no they are less than the average size of
er Puerto Rican test plots be under- exception. most bird territories. Therefore, the ef-
taken so that the time required to re- Fish-eating birds seem to have suf- fects of the tests on bird populations
establish the original forest and the fered less severely, but even their num- should in any event be mimimum. It is
factors influencing the pattern of suc- bers were much fewer than we expect- important to remember, however, that
cession can be determined. ed. The species of birds and the num- results from spraying of very small
Some vine invasion was also char- ber of individuals per species that we areas cannot be assumed to apply to
acteristic of plots receiving lesser observed during a 2-hour period in the
extensively treated areas.
amounts of herbicides, but a severe set- defoliated areas, are: oriental darter
back in these forests did not appear to (Anhinga melanogaster), 2; grey heron
have taken place. Seedlings of mahog-(Ardea cinerea), 13; large egret (Egret- Toxicity of Herbicides
any, Swietenia macrophylla, and Carib- ta alba), 3; little egret (E. garzetta), 12;
bean pine, Pinus caribaea, which had intermediate egret (E. intermedia), 1; The problem of the toxicity of herbi-
been planted in some of the plots a javan pond heron (Ardeola speciosa, 6; cides to animals is not yet resolved.
month after defoliation were surviving stork (Leptoptilos sp.), 2; black-winged Nearly all studies are short term, and
quite well. kite (Elanus caeruleus), 1; osprey (Pan- results are contradictory. Some reports
dion haliaetus), 9; whimbrel (Numenius (1) suggest that at the prevailing con-
phaeopus), 3; little tern (Sterna albi- centrations herbicides are not directly
Effects of Defoliants on Animals frons), 10; and white-breasted kingfish- toxic to animals, and Tschirley (2)
er (Halcyon smyrnensis), 2. All except states: "There is no evidence to suggest
Tschirley obtained no direct informa- the kite, which feeds on small mam- that the herbicides used in Vietnam will
tion on the effects that killing the man-mals, are fish-eating birds. This sug-cause toxicity problems for man or ani-
groves had on animal populations, but gests, as would be expected, that mals." However, according to Holden
he cited statistics that the fish catch in
aquatic food chains in the mangroves (12) 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
the Republic of Vietnam has been in- may have been less severely affected by (2,4-D) may constitute a potential dan-
creasing. Because many factors influ- defoliation than the terrestrial ones. The ger to fish even in normal use. The
ence total fish catch and because most only other vertebrate we saw in the de- LD50 value for salmonids during a 24-
of the fish are caught in regions not foliated
di- areas was a large crocodile hour exposure to 2,4-D is 0.5 part per
rectly exposed to defoliation, the sig-Crocodylus on the bank of a small million. Thus, a concentration of 4
nificance of these data is unclear. channel. pounds of active constituent per gallon
Therefore, we attempted to learn
Ofas
all the areas in Vietnam, the (458 grams per liter) in a small [10
much as we could about animal mangroves
popu- in the delta of the Saigon
cubic feet (0.28 cubic meter) per sec-
lations in the defoliated mangrove for-have probably been most severely
River ond] stream would expose fish to about
ests. 100 times the LD50. It should be re-
affected by defoliation. The area treated
As might be expected, the almost has been very extensive, covering many called that the rate of application of
complete killing of all of the vegetation square kilometers, the vegetation is ex-2,4-D in Vietnam is slightly greater
of the mangrove areas by herbicides tremely sensitive to herbicides, and than this. According to Holden, the
has had a severe effect upon the ani- many of the species of animals inhabit-toxicity of 2,4,5-T is about one-half
mals living there. During our tour of ing mangroves are restricted to that that of 2,4-D.
the defoliated areas we did not see a type of vegetation. These animals are Another possible source of toxicity
single species of insectivorous or frugiv-therefore inhabitants of "islands" sur- to animals from defoliation is an in-
orous bird with the exception of barn rounded by unsuitable habitat and as direct effect of the activity of 2,4-D in
swallows, Hirundo rustica, which are such are expected to have higher rates plants. Stahler and Whitehead (13) re-
migrants from the north. Although no of extinction even under normal condi- ported that there are several cases of
data regarding the bird populations in tions than species of more continuous cattle becoming ill or dying after eat-
the Rung Sat prior to defoliation exist, habitats (11). These same properties ing certain species of weeds that had
our experiences in mangrove areas in make them more susceptible to local been treated with 2,4-D. These authors
tropical America indicate that there and complete extermination by disturb-present data that clearly indicate that
should have been large numbers of ance and destruction of habitat than sublethal dosages of 2,4-D may mark-
land birds. For example, in Panama as are species of upland habitats. Long- edly affect the metabolism of certain
many species of birds were found in a term studies of the ecology of the Rung plant species so that toxic quantities of
pure red mangrove (Rhizophora man- Sat should be given a high priority,nitrates
in- accumulate in the treated
gle) forest as would be expected on the cluding investigation of the status of plants. In the animals the nitrates are
basis of the leaf height profile (density such invertebrates as crustaceans. changed to nitrites which are absorbed
of leaves per unit volume as a function Birds were scarce in the heavily de-into the blood producing methemo-
of height of forest) of the stand (8),
foliated plots in Puerto Rico, but inglobin which results in oxygen defi-
and in a brief census of a similar man-
the more lightly treated areas both spe-ciency to the tissues. This condition
grove forest (primarily Rhizophora) incies composition and general popula- may cause death or illness resulting in
Costa Rica, 44 species of land birds tion density were comparable to that abortion. Leaves of sugar beets that
which appeared to be resident and found in untreated areas in the general had been treated with 2,4-D were
breeding were recorded (9). Mangrove vicinity. There was not time to conduct shown to have amounts of nitrate well
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above the minimum lethal concentra- equivalent amount. Nor is it true dizziness,
that stupor convulsions, general
tion. A recent statement (14) by an paralysis,
forest species can live successfully in and death. The dosage re-
American agricultural specialist empha- quired to cause these symptoms may
the greatly modified conditions which
sizes that "Dairy cows should not be be as
prevail in even partially defoliated little as one ounce (28 grams) of
for-
grazed on irrigated pasture for seven ests. Species characteristic of succes-
cacodylic acid per human adult.
days after application of 2,4-D at the sional stages will, of course, be expected
one-half pound and over rate of appli- to move into the disturbed areas, but
cation." even they may have to wait until the Effects of Defoliants on Rubber Culture
To our knowledge there are no basic food resources, such as insects
and fruit, have built up again, and we Most studies of the effects of defoli-
studies of the effects of agent Orange on
Vietnamese forage plants to determine do not know how long this will take. ants on forest trees have been confined
whether these plants become toxic to A phenomenon that should be investi-to observation of the percentage of de-
animals due to nitrate accumulation gated immediately is a widespread sick-foliation after relatively short intervals
following defoliation with Orange. De- ness which appears at the beginning offollowing single applications of herbi-
termination of nitrate concentration inthe rainy season in commercially im- cides. Studies of the effects of defolia-
leaves should be made in defoliated portant freshwater fishes. The symp- tion on rubber trees have been initiated
and control areas, and the hemoglobins toms are many small, round, dark spots by the Rubber Research Institute of
of animals which feed on exposed in the muscles. The taste of the fish is Malaya and by the Rubber Research
plants should be studied. also adversely affected. Poor people con- Institute of Vietnam because of the
A recent study of the teratogenicitytinue to eat the fish even though they economic importance of rubber trees to
of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T (15) shows thatare diseased. This disease has always Vietnam and because of the widespread
the latter compound is highly terato- been characteristic of that time of the damage to plantations from military
genic in rats and mice at dosages that year in Vietnam, but the director of spraying. Although these studies con-
are possible of ingestion by humans in the Institute of Fisheries has received tain the best available data, they have
Vietnam. reports which suggest that the inci- been limited by the shortage of funds
We uncovered little evidence of di- dence is now higher than before. Con- and difficulties of field work in a coun-
rect toxic effects on animals. The Tan ditions in the shallow water of the try during wartime.
Son Nhut air base in Saigon is sprayedfields are ideal for concentration of Damage to rubber trees in Vietnam
by hand with agent Blue several timesherbicides. The Vietnamese fisheries has been extensive. During 1967-68,
the Institute staff visited over 200 dif-
each year and nonetheless has a seriouspeople, who are qualified and presently
rat problem. A trapping crew everyhave greater mobility in the country ferent plantations in the provinces of
night puts out 100 snap traps and 30 than Americans, are in a positionBien to Hoa, Binh Duong, Gia Dinh, Hau
live traps, baited with bacon. From initiate
3 such studies now. The Minister Nghia, Long Khanh, Phuoc Tuy, Tay
January 1969 to 19 March 1969, they has already circulated a letter among Ninh, and Binh Long. (This covers
had trapped 613 rats and 8 viverrids his representatives in the provinces ask-most of the area between the rice-grow-
of at least two species. We netted anding for any information they may have, ing areas of the Saigon and Mekong
observed birds on a previously sprayedand we agreed to help formulate a River deltas and the mountainous cen-
brushy area near Bien Hoa on two dif-more detailed questionnaire for future tral part of the country.) On this ex-
ferent mornings and found birds very circulation. tensive area of approximately 130 by
common. We saw much territorial de- Some insight into the possible harm-40 kilometers, all plantations reported
fense and singing as would be expectedful effects of the herbicides now in use damage by defoliants. More than 40,-
at the end of the dry season in thein Vietnam may be gained by consult- 000 hectares planted with rubber trees
tropics. were defoliated at least to the extent
ing the labels which give directions for
We did receive one report of many their uses. Dow Chemical Co., makers of 10 percent. It is difficult to estimate
sick and dying birds and mammals in of agents Orange and White, warn that the total amount of damage resulting
forests following defoliation and two these chemicals should be kept out of from defoliation. Plantation owners
reports of death of large numbers of reach of children and animals. The might possibly submit exaggerated
small pigs near Saigon, but were un- label on agent White states: "Do not claims, but there is no doubt that the
able to follow up either report. The allow material to contaminate water damage has been considerable. For ex-
Ministry of Agriculture has received used for irrigation, drinking, or ample,
other Plantation de Dautieng of the
no bona fide claims of animal damage domestic purposes." Dow Chemical Michelin
Co. Company has been affected
from defoliants. Nevertheless, we must also recommends that no grazing by defoliants
be three times since 1965.
not forget that habitat destruction, allowed on treated areas for 2 In years
all cases, the defoliant has not been
which defoliation regularly accom- after treatment and that some broad- applied directly to the rubber trees, but
plishes, is in most cases the equivalent leafed crops may show damage 3 years has been carried by the wind from ap-
of death for animals. The widespread after application. plications in the general area. No trees
view that animals can move to other Ansul Chemical Co., makers of agent were killed, but, by measuring the drop
nearby areas is untenable becauseBlue, re- state that when an individual is in latex production due to stoppage of
cent ecological evidence suggests exposed that (to cacodylic acid) daily for tapping, decreased yield of lightly dam-
tropical forests hold the maximum extended periods, the inspection of skin aged trees, and costs of cutting and
number of individuals of most species sensitivity should be supplemented by trimming back partially killed trees,
that the resources will support. Reduc-monthly urinalysis for arsenic. Symp- the company estimates that the damage
tion of forest habitats will decrease the toms of acute poisoning from cacodylic amounted to $27,835 in 1965, $37,479
populations of forest animals by an acid are headache, vomiting, diarrhea, in 1966, and $27,844 in 1967. The
1 MAY 1970 549

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areas of spraying, direction of the exports suffered even more heavily, have been unable to stay in business.
wind, and areas of the plantation af- this diminished amount (26 percent of Only the large planters, with solid fi-
fected are shown in Figs. 3 to 5. the 1960 exports) made up 72 percent nancial backing, can afford to remain
The yield of rubber per hectare is of South Vietnam's exports, which had in operation despite the war.
decreasing. In 1960, rubber plantationsdecreased to $17,800,000, or 20.8 per- According to studies by Dow Chem-
in Vietnam yielded 1066 kilograms of cent of the 1960 exports (16). ical Company (as reported to us by the
dry rubber per hectare (on plantations If a rubber tree is completely de- Rubber Research Institute), the defoli-
of more than 25 hectares). In 1967, foliated by herbicides, the Institute rec- ant is absorbed through the leaves of
the yield had dropped to 793 kilo- ommends that planters stop tapping the trees and is carried down through
grams per hectare. In contrast, in Ma- until its new leaves are fully grown. the phloem within 24-hours, and symp-
laysia the yield in 1960 was 758 kilo- Because it takes a month for a new leaf toms of defoliation appear within a
grams of dry rubber per hectare, but to grow to full size from the timefew of weeks after spraying. The distance
had risen to 1007 kilograms per hec- breaking of bud dormancy and because the defoliant travels down the tree is a
tare in 1966. The decrease in yield in dormancy is not usually broken im- function of the dosage received, and
Vietnam is due to a combination of mediately after defoliation, the mini- the Institute people have assessed this
circumstances such as the cessation of mum period of stopping is about 2 by the simple device of cutting into the
tapping forced by military action,months.
less The maximum period of stop- trunk of the trees at different heights to
experienced labor and less thorough page is, of course, permanent if the investigate the flow of latex. Necroses
control in the field, herbicide damage,tree is killed. If tapping is not stopped are also clearly visible in the sectioned
lack of general upkeep of plantations, while the tree is defoliated, there is trunks, many of which we examined in
and the cutting of rubber trees competition
along between growth of new the laboratories of the Institute. As
roads where about 3000 hectares have leaves and yield within the tree, and themight be expected, the smaller the rub-
already been cut. The relative impor- future health of the tree is jeopardized. ber tree, the more readily it is killed by
tance of each factor seems impossible In a number of cases where trees were defoliants. Research in Malaysia has
to assess. It is a fact that they are all not killed, tapping has been stoppedshown for that a wide range of concen-
the consequence of the war. as long as 1 year. If only some oftrations the of the n-butyl ester of 2,4,5-T
The total yield of rubber in Vietnam leaves are lost, tapping can be contin- killed rubber seedlings in 6 weeks (3).
has also declined. In 1960, 77,560 tons Accidental defoliations in Vietnam in-
ued, but there is a drop in latex produc-
of dry rubber were produced. Rubber tion after a lag of about 1 month. The
dicate that trees less than 7 years old
exports amounted to $48,000,000, loss, over a period of a year, has can
beenbe killed by the dosages used in
which was 56 percent of South Viet- estimated to be sometimes as much as military operations, but that older trees
nam's total exports for that year. In normally recover. Nevertheless, all
30 percent of the normal yield of latex.
1967, the yield had dropped to 42,510 At current prices that amount of loss trees on 100 hectares on Plantation Ben
tons of dry rubber, which, considering reduces profit from about $90 per Cui hec-were killed by herbicides in 1965,
the devaluation of the piaster, amounted tare per year to nothing. As a con- despite the fact that the trees were 33
only to $12,800,000. Inasmuch as other sequence, most of the small plantationsyears old. From such occurrences, the

PLANTATION de DAUTIENG

scale: 62,500

m&~ ( ~ TARGET V
^ \^ GRUBBER DAMAGED ^ PLANTATION de DAUTIENG
lit &::*:* : RUBBER KILLED

Fig. 3 (left). Target area and areas of rubber trees on Plantation de Dautieng affected by defoliation in February 1965, as
indicated by Plantations Michelin. Wind direction is indicated by arrows. Fig. 4 (right). Target area and areas of rubber
trees on Plantation de Dautieng affected by defoliation in December 1966, as indicated by Plantations Michelin. Wind direction
is indicated by arrows.
550 SCIENCE, VOL. 168

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Rubber Research Institute concluded killed.the
of the trees, which suggests that The Ministry has attempted in
that repeated defoliations threaten spray a preliminary
the was carried into the village by a way to assess the total
very existence of rubber culture in damage
southerly or southeasterly wind. Vil-reported and found it to be so
Vietnam (17). lagers informed us that sprayextensive
had hitthat adequate financial com-
In spite of such evidence, Chemical them about 1 week previously.pensation
Chemi-to the owners of damaged
Operations Division, United States cal Operations Division, Unitedtrees States
would probably be impossible. The
Army, claims that rubber trees cannot Army, reported to us that a defolia- experimental station of the College of
be killed by defoliants. According to tion aircraft had had to jettison its Agriculture of the University of Saigon
our observations, although we do not chemicals at the time of takeoff from at Tu Duc has been affected by wind-
claim expertise in this field, damage to nearby Bien Hoa Air Base, approxi- blown defoliants several times, usually
rubber production is severe. The Rub- mately at the time when the Ho-Nai with almost complete kill of vegetables.
ber Research Institute, which does not residents had observed the spray. The It is difficult to determine the
itself maintain any plantations and can-most severe damage was to jack fruit amount of claims actually submitted to
not be accused of bias on that account, (Artocarpus heterophyllus, Moraceae) or paid by the Vietnamese government
seems to be in an excellent position to which is also a producer of a milky sap. Funds for the payment of defoliatio
conduct further research into the physi- The residents of Ho-Nai claimed to claims are provided by the United
ological effects of defoliants on trees. have been affected by defoliation mis-
States, but the claims are handled by
Funds are urgently needed for this pur- sions seven times within the past theyear.
Political Warfare Department of
pose. On 23 March, in a residential area the Air Force of the Republic of Viet-
between Saigon and the U.S. Air Base nam under the Military Civil Assistance
at Bien Hoa, we examined and photo- Program. Damage claims are consid-
Effects of Accidental Defoliation graphed many diseased mango trees. ered and paid by province officials un-
The owner, a biologist trained in the der guidelines established by the cen-
The extent of damage resulting from United States, claimed that the trees tral government. Everyone we talked
wind-blown and gaseous herbicidessufferedhas defoliation 3 years ago, afterwith agreed that payments are mini-
been much debated. Agent Orange is they became infected and had
which mum. We were told by Vietnamese
classified as a volatile herbicide by notplantsince flowered or produced fruit. that people who file claims with the
physiologists, but physical chemists In re-
other areas we subsequently observed government are often threatened with
gard it as nonvolatile. Under proper the same symptoms in mango and other imprisonment if they continue to press
weather conditions nearly all of the trees. According to the Rubber Re- their claims. Many others do not at-
spray is deposited on the vegetation or search Institute, latex-producing trees tempt to file claims because they feel
ground within a minute after release seem to be more susceptible to herbi- it will be of no use. United States of-
from the aircraft. Those vapors formed cide damage than other species. ficials argue that most claims are
during fall of droplets subsequentlyEvery Vietnamese biologist we fraudulent.
diffuse according to the laws of gaseous
talked to explained that actual herbi- It is our opinion that significant
diffusion. Therefore, it has been con- cide damage has been frequent and reg- quantities of defoliants are regularly
cluded that "The rate of downwind ular over much of the delta region. In carried by the wind over broad areas
movement of vapors, and therefore the the
Ministry of Agriculture we were of cropland in the Republic of Viet-
duration of exposure of plants to thephotographs of damaged jack
shown nam. Even given the difficulties of
vapors, is dependent upon windfruit,
speedmanioc, and rubber and were making first-hand observations in a war
in the first few minutes subsequent
told to
that many guava trees had been zone, it would be possible for inde-
spray release. While no quantitative
data are available, it is our considered
judgment, based on the above reason-
ing, that vapors arising during the ac-
tual spray operation, as usually carried
out, can be dismissed as a source of
herbicides for crop damage outside tar-
get areas" (18) (emphasis added by us).
This assumes the existence of inversion
conditions and that transport of the
liquid spray droplets by the wind is
negligible. Our direct observations and
interviews suggest that the seriousness
of this problem has been greatly under-
estimated.
We were able to observe defoliation
damage to several species of trees far
removed from target areas. On 25
March, in the village of Ho-Nai, we
observed many fruit trees that had re-
cently been damaged by defoliants. The
characteristic sign was the presence of
curled, dead leaves on the trees. Dam-
Fig. 5. Target area and areas of rubber trees on Plantation de Dautieng affected by
age seemed excessive on the south side defoliation in May 1967, as indicated by Plantations Michelin.
1 MAY 1970 551

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 moving equipment can be brought to
the sites to fill the craters they will
remain a permanent feature of the
Vietnamese landscape. Areas such as
War Zones C and D, which have been
heavily hit by B-52 attacks, are rid-
dled by craters.
Since most of the attacks have oc-
curred in militarily contested areas it
has not been possible for scientists to
investigate heavily cratered areas to de-
termine the effects on local ecology.
Obviously, they are potential breeding
grounds for mosquitoes; they may pos-
sibly be fish-breeding ponds; they may
also render many agricultural areas dif-
ficult to utilize.

Miscellaneous Effects

The prolonged military activity in

Vietnam is causing other ecological up-
heavals. Not the least are the major
Fig. 6. Craters caused by bombs from B-52 aircraft in manioc fields about 20 miles
northwest of Saigon. sociological changes that are taking
place in the country, such as the
amazingly rapid rate of urbanization of
pendent observers to verify or disprove been successful, but there are strong the population. This results as people
many of the conflicting claims. Such a reasons for believing that food short- flee from war-torn countryside or are
study is urgently needed. Rising dam- ages affect women, children, and elderly forcibly transported to the city. Within
age claims in 1967 caused a serious re- people much more than they affect sol- the last decade Saigon has changed
view of the defoliation program at that diers (20). from a quiet city of 250,000 to an
time (19). Serious controversies over overcrowded city of 3,000,000 inhabi-
damage caused by wind-blown spray tants. The tremendous infusion of
had arisen, and the psychological im- Effect of B-52 Bombing American capital has also resulted in
pact on the Vietnamese was great. It is rapid increase in the number of motor-
noteworthy (and substantiates the claims Although it has not attracted the con- ized vehicles in the streets. Japanese
of widespread crop damage) that the cern of American scientists, the dam- motor bikes and small cars of Japanese
United States now has changed its pol- age caused by raids with B-52 bombers or Italian manufacture seem to be prev-
icy and uses primarily agent White in is, of considerable ecological signifi- alent. Traffic accidents are common.
the delta region because its volatility is cance. The 500- and 750-pound bombs Saigon's air pollution problem due to
lower than that of the other available dropped by these aircraft leave craters fumes from the mixture of gasoline
agents. Nevertheless, we encountered as much as 30 feet deep and 45 feet and oil which serves as fuel is so severe
many reports of very recent damage across.
in Most of these are filled with that many trees along the major arte-
that area. water even late in the dry season. The rials in the city are dead or dying. (It
army does not disclose the total num- is possible that the winddrift of de-
ber of bombs dropped, and the total foliants has contributed to weakening
Crop Destruction area affected cannot be calculated ac- the trees, but it is likely that the major
curately. However, the magnitude cause
of is fumes from motor vehicles.)
the
Direct and deliberate application of effect can be estimated from the fol- There are no immediate prospects for
agent Blue to cropland has been re- lowing facts. A standard load for a any improvement as the population of
stricted to the highland regions of theB-52 is 108 500-pound bombs or nearly the city continues to grow and creation
country which are held by the National 30 tons of explosives. Normally, a of an adequate municipal transporta-
Liberation Front. Consequently, scien- "mission" consists of 3 to 12 aircraft. tion system seems improbable.
tists of the Republic of Vietnam and In 1967, 982 missions were flown over A major cause of forest destruction
those of the United States are unable to the Republic of Vietnam. In 1968, 3022 in Vietnam today is fire. Some fires
make first-hand studies at present. Amer-missions were flown (Table 3). If one are started deliberately by the Viet-
ican officials consider the program very assumes an average of eight planes per namese army and some are caused by
successful because many captured sol- mission, then one can estimate that artillery shells. Over 40 percent of the
diers from these areas are seriously un- about 848,000 craters were formed in pine plantations in the country have
dernourished; some to the extent of 1967 and 2,600,000 craters in 1968. As been burned recently; the extent of de-
being stretcher cases at the time of one Vietnamese put it, we are making struction of the mixed forests is un-
capture. These reports might suggestthe country look like the surface of known. We were unable to estimate the
that the "resource denial" program has the moon (Fig. 6). Unless heavy earth- total area involved.
552
SCIENCE, VOL. 168

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 Because of the war, all hunting in Table 3. Missions flown by B-52 bombers over Vietnam.

the Republic of Vietnam has been of- DMZ North

ficially discontinued. Nevertheless, there Month I Corps II Corps III Corps IV Corps NoVet
N S Vietnam
are large numbers of armed men in
1967
the forest, many of whom are poorly January 18 14 27 1 2 7
nourished. Presumably, they regularly February 23 30 30 1 1
shoot all suitable food animals. Tigers, March 45 23 32
on the other hand, seem to have bene- April 55 13 22 2 2 4
fited from the war. In the past 24 May 55 27 23 1 1 3
years, they have learned to associate June 45 28 25 1

the sounds of gunfire with the presence July 44 31 22 3 3 3

of dead and wounded human beings in August 26 28 24 24 1
September 13 9 6 57 15
the vicinity. As a result, tigers rapidly
October 17 15 20 30 27
move toward gunfire and apparently November 13 47 16 1 12 9
consume large numbers of battle casual- December 6 19 22 27 8
ties. Although there are no accurate
1968
statistics on the tiger populations past
January 59 22 23 4 1
or present, it is likely that the tiger February 204 53 34
population has increased much as the March 222 58 27 4 6
wolf population in Poland increased April 173 66 19 7 2
during World War II. May 71 123 27 10 13 1
June 24 87 171 11 4 6
July 28 34 152 26 7 45
Summary and Conclusions August 71 55 161 13 8 8 8
September 51 55 167 18 1 10 8
October 86 33 128 25 2 1 15
In Vietnam the chemical weapons of November 45 36 109 17
a technologically advanced society are December 53 22 125 17
being used massively for the first time
in a guerrilla war. In this conflict there
are no battle lines, no secure territory,
and no fixed, permanent military in- expected that yond inthose any that were intended to be war
future
this nature more extensive use will defoliated. We found abundant evi-
stallations which can serve as targets
for attack. Rather, the military efforts be made of it. At the end of their war dence of repeated moderate to severe
against the Vietnamese, the French dis- defoliation of trees and herbs in areas
are aimed at increasing the toll of fatali-
ties, denying food to the enemy, and covered the usefulness of helicopters as many miles removed from sites of di-
depriving him of the cover and con- field combat aircraft, but they had only rect application. Every responsible Viet-
cealment afforded by natural growth. about a dozen at their disposal. There namese person we met confirmed this.
This type of warfare is, therefore, ex- are now several thousand helicopters Moreover, a pilot in a war zone will
tremely destructive, both of human in Vietnam as a major component of jettison his load of defoliant, rather than
lives and environment. Our own ob- our offensive air power. Making a jeopardize the safety of his crew and
servations showed the profound effects realistic appraisal of defoliation and its plane, and a spray plane will not return
ecological consequences, we must, to its base with a full tank because its
of denuding the country of growth.
The military is emphatic about the therefore, consider not only the pres- crew found the temperature or the wind
effectiveness of defoliation in reducing ent extent of use but also anticipate velocity higher in the target area than
American casualties significantly. The greatly expanded defoliation actions inanticipated. Military use of defoliants
demand for the services of 12th Air the future. will inevitably result in herbicide dam-
Commando Squadron greatly exceeds We consider that the ecological con- age to areas that are far more extensive
their ability to supply them. Although sequences of defoliation are severe. than those specified as targets.
the total number of requests for de- Enough is now known to reveal that a It is evident that the defoliation pro-
foliation missions was not disclosed, significant fraction of mature trees in gram has had tremendous psychological
we were told that even if no further re- most forests are killed by single appli- impact upon the Vietnamese people and
quests were made, the defoliation crewscations of herbicides and that almost has profoundly affected their attitude
would be kept busy for years by thecomplete kill, including destructiontoward of Americans. A farmer whose en-
present backlog. The current extent of seedlings and saplings, is to be ex- tire crop has been destroyed by herbi-
the defoliation program is not deter-pected if repeated sprayings are made.cides, whose fruit trees do not bear fruit
mined by military demand nor by any Because of military demands for re- for 3 years, will inevitably be resentful.
considerations of saving the ecology spraying, we must expect virtual elim- We were told repeatedly, though polite-
and viability of the land and natural ination of woody vegetation of defoli-ly, that a significant deterioration of at-
resources of Vietnam, but solely by ated sites as a common result of the titudes toward Americans has resulted
competition for equipment and person-military use of herbicides. from the massive use of defoliants. The
nel. It is evident that the most stringent claim that defoliation is more humane
With general agreement among mili- regulations for the application of de- than other weapons of war because it
tary experts that defoliation is a potentfoliants cannot prevent the widespread does not directly cause human casual-
weapon in guerrilla warfare, it is to be dispersal of herbicides to areas far be- ties, may appeal to those whose land has
1 MAY 1970 553

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not been defoliated, but hardly to those cans. Support for research projects ment of Science, in accordance with its
whose food supply or property has been should be initiated by the American sci-
resolutions of 1966 and 1968 (21), take
destroyed. A realistic assessment of the entific community without delay.the In initiative in setting up an interna-
effects of defoliation must take into ac- Vietnam there are scientists, well- tional research program on the long-
count the psychological effects upon the trained at American and European uni-range effects of the military use of
people. versities, who are deeply concernedherbicides in Vietnam. We believe that
The politically sensitive nature of ef- about the effects of the war on their such action is necessary if United States
fects of defoliation is fully recognized country. They are eager to conduct re-scientists wish to maintain (or regain)
by the military authorities. Although search that is necessary for the re- the respect of scientists in Southeast
they claim that defoliants produce no habilitation of their ravaged land. The
Asia.
long-term effects on the environment, flora and fauna of the country are well
References and Notes
they have instituted the most stringent known. The Rubber Research Institute
regulations to govern their use. The of Vietnam continues to function, al- 1. W. B. House, L. H. Goodson, H. M. Gad-
berry, K. W. Docter, Assessment of Eco-
Army claims that it is more difficult to though it has once been displaced by logical Efjects of Extensive or Repeated Use
get permission for the defoliation of of Herbicides, Midwest Research Institute
military action. It is capable of ex- Report No. 3102-B (1967).
trees in Vietnam than for killing per- panded research into the physiological 2. F. H. Tschirley, Science 163, 779 (1969).
3. F. Hutchinson, J. Rubber Res. Inst. Malaya
sons, and permission to spray rubber effects of defoliants on rubber trees and
15-5, 241 (1958).
trees has never been granted, according other species. Its staff is interested in in- 4. Information supplied by officers in the Chem-
ical Operations Division, Military Assistance
to military sources, even when enemy vestigating the possibilities of diversify- Command, Vietnam.
forces were "known" to use plantations ing so that it can advise rubber planters 5. R. A. Darrow, G. B. Truchelut, G. M. Bart-
lett, OCONUS Defoliation Test Program,
for concealment. It seems that preferen- on avoiding complete dependence upon Tech. Rep. No. 79 (U.S. Army Biology Center,
tial treatment of the politically powerful rubber. A modest investment of funds Fort Detrick, Maryland, 1966), p. 149.
6. B. R. Flamm, A Partial Evaluation of Herbi-
rubber interests in Vietnam has added for Vietnamese scientists is likely to cidal Effects to Natural Forest Stands Prin-
to the hostility of the poorer Viet-
produce important research results. It cipally in Tay Ninh Province (U.S. Agency
for International Development, 1968).
namese. would also improve Vietnamese rela- 7. J. E. Munoz and L. W. Hill, The use of
herbicides for site preparation and their ef-
The secrecy surroundingtions the use
with of scientists.
American
fects on tree survival, U.S. Forest Service
defoliants in Vietnam has also contrib- Although long-term studies, such as Research Note No. IFT 12 (Institute of
Tropical Forestry, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico,
uted to the feelings we have reported following vegetational succession on 1967).
above. The government of the Republic
heavily defoliated areas, would be im- 8. R. H. MacArthur, H. Recher, M. Cody,
Amer. Natur. 100, 319 (1966).
of Vietnam and American officials have possible for Vietnamese (Saigon) or 9. G. H. Orians, Ecology, in press.
not disclosed information to the Viet- American investigators, there are no in- 10. G. D. Field, Ibis 110, 354 (1968); R. P.
Ffrench, ibid. 108, 423 (1966); T. Haver-
namese about the agents used, areas superable barriers to the investigation of schmidt, ibid. 107, 540 (1965); E. M. Cawkell,
ibid. 106, 251 (1964); I. C. T. Nisbet, ibid.
sprayed, and the nature of the chemical fish diseases, of methods of minimizing 110, 348 (1968); B. C. Smythies, in The Birds
action of defoliants and herbicides. The herbicide damage to commercially im- of Burma (Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, 1953).
most concerned Vietnamese scientists 11. R. H. MacArthur and E. O. Wilson, The
portant trees which have been delib- Theory of Island Biogeography (Princeton
did not know the chemical composition
erately or inadvertently sprayed, and of Univ. Press, Princeton, N.J., 1967).
12. A. V. Holden, J. Inst. Sew. Purif. 1964, 361
of the herbicides even though they have
further studies of toxicity to animals. It (1964).
should also be possible to gather soil 112,
tried to ascertain it from their govern- 13. L. M. Stahler and E. I. Whitehead, Science
749 (1950).
ment. samples from areas that have been sub- 14. T. Woiciechowski (Missoula County Agent),
Missoulian (8 May 1969).
jected to different treatments to learn
15. B. Nelson, Science 166, 977 (1969).
more about the fate of arsenical com- 16. From data supplied to us by Plantations
Recommendations Michelin, Saigon.
pounds, their effects on soil microorga-
17. J. P. Poliniere, Situation Phytosanitaire de
nisms, and possible accumulation in theDifferent Sites Heveicoles en Relation avec
American scientists will want to know Apport Probable de Defoliants (a suivre),
soil of the more persistent herbicidesarch. 5/67 (Institut des Recherches sur le
what investigations might be immediate-such as picloram. We urge that such Caoutchouc au Viet-Nam, 1967).
18. C. E. Minarik and R. A. Darrow, Potential
ly possible to sift facts from among sostudies be initiated now rather than be Hazards of Herbicide Vapors (Headquarters
many conflicting claims regarding the delayed until hostilities cease, although U.S. Military Assistance Command Vietnam,
Chemical Operations Division, 1968).
ecological effects of defoliants and toobviously the difficulties are great. We19. E. Pond, Christian Science Monitor (25 and
29 Nov. and 8 Dec. 1967).
recommend most strongly that the
stem the tide of increasing mistrust be- 20. J. Mayer, Scientist and Citizen 9, 115 (1967).
tween the Vietnamese and the Ameri- American Association for the Advance- 21. D. Wolfle, Science 167, 1151 (1970).

554 SCIENCE, VOL. 168

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