9.

1: CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND DERIVATIVES

 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this sub-topic, you should be able to:
•Interpret the nomenclature and formulae of carboxylic acids and their derivatives.
•Describe the formation of carboxylic acids from alcohols, aldehydes and nitriles.
•Recall the reactions of carboxylic acids in the formation of salts, esters and acyl chlorides.
•Explain the acidity of carboxylic acids and of chlorine substituted ethanoic acids in terms of their structures.
•Describe the reactions of acyl chlorides with water, alcohols, phenols and primary amines.
•Explain the relative ease of hydrolysis of acyl chlorides, alkyl chlorides and aryl chlorides.
•Illustrate the formation of esters from carboxylic acids or acyl chlorides using ethyl ethanoate and phenyl
benzoate as examples.
•Describe the acid and base hydrolysis of esters.
•State the uses of carboxylic acids and esters.
 INTRODUCTION
Carboxylic acids are organic compounds widely found in nature and they are also present in
manufactured products such as soaps and oils.
Carboxylic acids have the functional group, carboxyl:
O
C
OH
Their general formula is written as RCOOH, where R is an alkyl, aryl group or hydrogen.
They are named using the suffix – oic after a prefix indicating the number of carbon atoms including
the one in the carboxyl group.
The first two members of the series, whose systematic names are methanoic acid and ethanoic acid,
are usually called by their traditional names, formic acid and acetic acid respectively
 Table 9.1.1: Examples of carboxylic acids
Formula Name Boiling point/ ℃

𝑯𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯 Methanoic acid 101

𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯 Ethanoic acid 118

𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯 Propanoic acid 141

𝑪𝑯𝟑 (𝑪𝑯𝟐 )𝟔 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯 Octatonic acid 237

𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟓 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯 Benzoic acid 249

 NOMENCLATURE
Consider the following carboxylic acids:

Methanoic acid Ethanoic acid

Where there are substituents or side chains on the carbon chain, they are numbered using position, counting from the carbon of the
carboxylic acid as carbon number 1.
Consider the following carboxylic acids:

3 – Methylbutanoic acid 2 – chloropropanoic acid

Aromatic carboxylic acids are named by adding the suffix – carboxylic acid to the name of parent
hydrocarbon. However, the suffix –oic acid can be used as well.

Benzenecarboxylic acid 4 – Iodobenzoic acid

So Benzene carboxylic acid can be named benzoic acid.
 CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES
◦ Carboxylic acid derivatives are compounds that contain a carbonyl group, but now there is an
electronegative atom (oxygen, nitrogen, or a halogen) attached to the carbonyl carbon.
◦ This difference in structure leads to a major change in reactivity.
◦ The acid derivatives have the general formula

◦ Where R is an alkyl or aryl group and R’ is the derivative.

 In acid derivatives the OH group of the acid is replaced by different groups as shown below:
Ester
Esters are named after the aryl
or alkyl derivatives of the
parent acid.
An ester name has two parts -
the part that comes from the
acid (-oate) and the part that
shows the alkyl group (methyl
or ethyl etc.)
Eg methyl propanoate
Amide
On amides the −𝑂𝐻
group of the parent
carboxylic acid is replaced
by an−𝑁𝐻2 group. They
are named using the suffix
– amide.
Eg ethanamide
Anhydride Acyl chloride
Anhydrides are named as the anhydride of
Acid chlorides or acyl
the parent acid. chlorides are named using
the suffix – oyl chlorides
Symmetrical anhydrides are derived from Eg Ethanoyl chloride
two molecules of the same acid and they are
named as the anhydride of the parent acid.
Mixed anhydrides are derived from two
different acids and they are named by listing
the parent acids in alphabetical order
 Physical properties of carboxylic acids
Carboxylic acids are soluble in water, they do not dimerise in water, but form hydrogen bonds
with water.
Carboxylic acids are polar since there is highly electronegative oxygen and due to the presence
of the hydroxyl in the carboxyl group, they are able to form hydrogen bonds with water
molecules.
Smaller carboxylic acids (C1 to C5) are soluble in water, whereas larger carboxylic acids (C6 and
above) are less soluble due to the increasing hydrophobic nature of the hydrocarbon chains.
The boiling points of carboxylic acids increases as the molecules get bigger.
Carboxylic acids exhibit strong hydrogen bonding between molecules. They therefore have high
boiling points compared to other substances of comparable molar mass.
Carboxylic acids have even higher boiling points then alkanes and alcohols. Carboxylic acids,
similar to alcohols, can form hydrogen bonds with each other as well as van der Waals
dispersion forces and dipole-dipole interactions.
However, unique to carboxylic acids, hydrogen bonding can occur between two molecules to
produce a dimer.
Carboxylic acids tend to have strong odours, especially those that are volatile. Common odours
can be found in vinegar, which contains ethanoic acid, and rancid butter, which contains
butanoic acid.
Esters of carboxylic acids tend to have pleasant odours, so they are usually used to make
perfumes.
The acids with more than 10 carbon atoms are wax like solids, and their odour diminishes with
increasing molar mass and resultant decreasing volatility.
 Preparation of carboxylic acids
Oxidation of alcohols or aldehydes
Primary alcohols and aldehydes can be oxidised to carboxylic acids in acidic solution by potassium dichromate (VI).
Primary alcohols are oxidised to carboxylic acids via aldehydes. Below is an example of ethanol;
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72−
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻 + [𝑂] 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻𝑂 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂2 𝐻
In this reaction, ethanol is first oxidised to ethanal and the oxidation continues to produce the ethanoic acid.

Hydrolysis of nitriles
The hydrolysis of nitriles, which are organic molecules containing a cyano group, leads to carboxylic acid formation.
These hydrolysis reactions can take place in either;
◦ Acidic solutions
◦ Basic solutions
Acidic hydrolysis of nitriles
The nitrile is heated under reflux with dilute hydrochloric acid.
For example, with ethanenitrile and hydrochloric acid you would get ethanoic acid and ammonium chloride.
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑁 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙

Ethanoic acid is only a weak acid and so once it gains the hydrogen ion, it does not loose it easily.

Basic hydrolysis of nitriles

The nitrile is heated under reflux with sodium hydroxide solution.
For example, with ethanenitrile and sodium hydroxide, a sodium salt is formed and ammonia gas is given off as well.

𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑁 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝐻3

To get a free carboxylic acid in this case, the final solution is acidified with a strong acid such as dilute hydrochloric acid
or dilute sulphuric acid.
The ethanoate ion in the sodium ethanoate will react with hydrogen ions to give the carboxylic acid.
 Chemical reactions of carboxylic acids
Carboxylic acids undergo reactions to produce derivatives of the acid. The most common derivatives formed are
◦ Salts
◦ Acyl chlorides
◦ Esters

Carboxylic acids reactions to form salts

Carboxylic acids reacts with metals, alkalis and carbonates to form salts.
Consider the reaction of a carboxylic acid and magnesium;
2𝑅𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑀𝑔(𝑠) → 𝑅𝐶𝑂𝑂 − 2 𝑀𝑔2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 (𝑔)
Consider the reaction of a carboxylic acid sodium carbonate;
2𝑅𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) → 2𝑅𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
The evolution of carbon dioxide from this reaction is used to distinguish carboxylic acids from alcohols and phenols.
Consider the reaction of a carboxylic acid and sodium hydroxide;
𝑅𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑅𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
Carboxylic acids reaction to form acyl chlorides
Carboxylic acids are converted to acyl chlorides by their reaction with phosphorous pentachloride (𝑃𝐶𝑙5 )
or by sulphur dichloride oxide(𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑙2 ).

So, every one mole of HCl is produced from every one mole of acid used.
If the carboxylic acid in the reaction above is ethanoic acid and it reacts with phosphorous pentachloride
the resulting product will be ethanoyl chloride.
Consider the reaction of benzoic acid and sulphur dichloride oxide which gives benzoyl chloride;
𝐶6 𝐻5 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑠) + 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑙2 (𝑙) → 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝐶𝑂𝐶𝑙(𝑙) + 𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔)
Carboxylic acids reaction to form esters (Esterification)
Carboxylic acids undergo a reaction with alcohols in the presence concentrated sulphuric acid to form an
ester and water.
This reaction is called esterification.
Consider the reaction of ethanoic acid and ethanol and the ester group formed is circled in red:

If benzoic acid undergoes a chemical reaction with ethanol in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid,
ethyl benzoate and water are produced.
The reverse of esterification is ester hydrolysis.
 Acidity
Carboxylic acids can dissociate in aqueous solution into carboxylate ions and protons.
Two factors which influence the ionisation of an acid are:
The strength of the bond being broken
The stability of the ions being formed
The strengths of weak acids are measured on the pKa scale. The smaller the number on this scale, the stronger the acid is.
Three compounds are compared with their pKa values;
Table 18.2.1: pKa values for different compounds

Compounds pKa

Ethanoic acid 4.76

Phenol 10 Ethanoic acid Phenol Ethanol

Ethanol 16
The acidity of carboxylic acids compared to alcohols is explained by the relative stabilisation of the
carboxylate ion by the delocalisation of electron.
When an alcohol donates its proton, it becomes a negative ion called an alkoxide ion, 𝑅𝑂− .When a
carboxylic acid donates its proton, it becomes a negatively charged ion, 𝑅𝑂𝑂− , called a carboxylate
ion.
A carboxylate ion is much more stable than the corresponding alkoxide ion because of the existence of
resonance structures for the carboxylate ion which disperse its negative charge.
Only one structure can be drawn for an alkoxide ion, but two structures can be drawn for a
carboxylate ion.
When two or more structures that differ only in the positions of valence electrons can be drawn for a
molecule or ion, it means that its valence electrons are delocalized, or spread over more than two
atoms.
Ethanoic acid has pKa = 4.74, alcohols have pKa ~ 16, so carboxylic acids are about 1011times more
acidic than alcohols.
The difference lies in the fact that the carboxylate anion has the negative charge spread out over two
oxygen atoms, whereas the alcohol has the negative charge localized on a single oxygen atom
Substituent Effects on Acidity
Some atoms or groups, when attached to a carbon, are electron-withdrawing, as compared with a hydrogen atom in the same
position.
Any substituent that stabilizes a negative charge will enhance the dissociation process, and therefore result in a stronger acid.
For example, consider ethanoic acid and its substitution with chlorine.

Ethanoic acid Chloroethanoic acid Di-chloroethanoic acid Tri-chloroethanoic acid

pKa = 4.7 pKa = 2.86 pKa = 1.26 pKa = 0.64
The acidic strength as shown by the pKa values, increases from ethanoic acid to tri-chloroethanoic acid.
This is because chlorine has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen, the electrons in the Cl−C bond are drawn further from the
carbon than the electrons in the corresponding H−C bond.
Thus, chlorine is considered to be an electron-withdrawing group. This effect is called the inductive effect, in which a substituent
affects a compound’s distribution of electrons.
Similarly, chloroethanoic acid, in which the strongly electron-withdrawing chlorine replaces a hydrogen atom, is about 100
times stronger as an acid than ethanoic acid and nitroethanoic acid is even stronger.
An even greater effect is found in trichloroethanoic acid shown in the structures above, whose acid strength is about the
same as that of hydrochloric acid.
There are a number of such effects, and atoms or groups may be electron withdrawing or electron-donating as compared
with hydrogen.
The presence of such groups near the 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 group of a carboxylic acid often has an effect on the acidity.
In general, electron-withdrawing groups increase acidity by increasing the stability of the carboxylate ion.
In contrast, electron-donating groups decrease acidity by destabilizing the carboxylate ion.

For example, the methyl group, 𝐶𝐻3 is generally regarded as electron-donating.

This explains why ethanoic acid, 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻, is about 10 times weaker as an acid than methanoic acid, 𝐻𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻.
Reactions of acyl chlorides
Hydrolysis
Ester formation
Amide formation
Acyl chlorides are the most reactive of the carboxylic acid derivatives and therefore can be readily converted
into other carboxylic acid derivatives.
Consider the two different acyl chlorides:

Hydrolysis
Acyl chlorides reacts rapidly (hydrolysis) with water to produce the corresponding carboxylic acid and
hydrochloric acid.
Consider the reaction of ethanoyl chloride and water to produce ethanoic acid and hydrochloric acid.

When silver nitrate is added to the solution of the products, it gives an immediate white precipitate of silver
chloride.
This is the test that distinguish acyl chlorides from other organic halogens compounds.
Only acyl chlorides react directly with silver nitrate solution to give an immediate precipitate of silver
chloride.
Ester formation
Acyl chlorides react readily with alcohols and phenol to produce esters.
For example the reaction of ethanoyl chloride and propan-1- ol to give propyl ethanoate and hydrochloric acid.
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝐶𝑙(𝑙) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻(𝑙) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂 − 𝑂 − 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3 (𝑙) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
When phenol reacts with acyl chlorides, it is dissolved in alkaline solution (sodium hydroxide or pyridine) to remove the 𝐻𝐶𝑙
produced and an ester is formed.
Consider the reaction of benzoyl chloride and phenol:

For every one mole of −𝑂𝐻 in the acyl chloride that reacts, also one mole of 𝐻𝐶𝑙 is produced.

Amide formation
Acyl chlorides reacts with ammonia, primary and secondary amines to produce amides.
The chlorine atom is very easily replaced by other things. For example, it is easily replaced by a−𝑁𝐻2 group to make an amide.
Ethanoyl chloride reacts violently with a cold concentrated solution of ethylamine.
A white solid product is formed which is a mixture of N-ethylethanamide (an N-substituted amide) and
ethylammonium chloride.

To make ethanamide from ethanoyl chloride, ethanoyl chloride is added to a concentrated solution of
ammonia in water.
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝐶𝑙 + 𝑁𝐻3 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐻2 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
The hydrogen chloride produced reacts with excess ammonia to give ammonium chloride.
 Ease of hydrolysis of carboxylic acids derivatives
There are three types of halogen compounds which are alkyl chlorides, aryl chlorides and acyl
chlorides.
Acyl chlorides - these contain a −𝐶𝑂𝐶𝑙 group, e.g. ethanoyl chloride,𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝐶𝑙, or benzoyl chloride,
𝐶6 𝐻5 𝐶𝑂𝐶𝑙.
Alkyl chlorides: These have a chlorine attached to a carbon chain, e.g. chloroethane, 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝐶𝑙
Aryl chlorides: These have a chlorine attached directly to a benzene ring, e.g. chlorobenzene, 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝐶𝑙.
Any hydrolysis reaction which happens involving any of these chlorides can be thought of as
nucleophilic substitution.
Consider the following compounds; ethanoyl chloride, chloro ethane and chlorobenzene.
The ease of hydrolysis of halogen compounds rely on the degree of electron deficiency of the carbon
atom which is bonded to the halogen, chlorine.
In acyl chloride, the carbon atom is bonded to both chlorine and oxygen atoms which are highly electronegative and they withdraw
electron from the carbon atom.

Therefore, the acyl chloride can readily attract nucleophiles, (𝑂𝐻 − ).

In alkyl chlorides (chloro ethane), the carbon atom to which the chlorine atom is bonded is electron deficiency since the electrons are
being withdrawn by the chlorine atom.

Therefore, the alkyl chloride can attract nucleophiles like 𝑂𝐻 − but not more than acyl chlorides.
So ethanoyl chloride is more reactive than ethane chloride.
In aryl chlorides (chlorobenzene), the lone pair of electrons on the chlorine atom interacts with the benzene ring and there is
resonance.
So, because of resonance, a cloud of delocalised electrons will result and it increases the 𝐶 − 𝐶𝑙 bond strength and decreases the
polarity of the bond.
Hence, the chlorine atom in chlorobenzene cannot be removed easily as a result the chloro benzene is
almost unreactive.

Therefore acyl chlorides are the most reactive and easily hydrolysed followed by alkyl chlorides and aryl
chlorides are the least hydrolyse
 Acid and base hydrolysis of esters
Esters are neutral compounds, unlike the acids from which they are formed.
They undergo hydrolysis reactions to give carboxylic acids and alcohols or phenol.
However, they undergo two types of hydrolysis that is acid and base hydrolysis.
An example of an ester

Acid hydrolysis
Acidic hydrolysis is the reverse of esterification and it is a slow reaction.
To speed up the reaction, the ester is heated with a large excess of water containing a strong-acid catalyst like dilute hydrochloric acid or
dilute sulphuric acid.
Like esterification, the reaction is reversible and does not go to completion.
Consider the reaction of ethyl ethanoate and water to give ethanoic acid and ethanol;
𝐻+
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3 (𝑙) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
Remember that in acidic hydrolysis, water splits the ester bond.
The H from water joins to the oxygen atom in the O-R’ part of the original ester and give an alcohol, and the OH of water joins to the
carbonyl carbon atom, R - C = O, and gives the carboxylic acid.

Base hydrolysis
In this hydrolysis, a base such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide is used to hydrolyse an ester.
The carboxylic acid formed by the hydrolysis reacts with the excess base to form a carboxylate salt and an alcohol.
So, the formation of the carboxylate salt removes the carboxylic acid from the equilibrium mixture.
Therefore, the ester hydrolysis in the presence of a base can proceed to completion.
Consider the reaction of propyl ethanoate and sodium hydroxide in aqueous solution to give sodium ethanoate and propanol.
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂 − 𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻

This mixture is relatively easy to separate, provided an excess of sodium hydroxide solution has been used, there will not be any
ester left
The alcohol formed can be distilled off, which is an easy process.
Esters are therefore hydrolysed more effectively in basic than in acidic solution.
However, the base is used up in the reaction hence it is not acting as a catalyst but rather a reagent.
Since soaps are prepared by the base hydrolysis of fats and oils, base hydrolysis of esters is called saponification.
Saponification is the process of making soaps.
In a saponification reaction, the base is a reactant, not simply a catalyst and the reaction goes to completion.

Fats and oils

Fatty acids are carboxylic acids consisting of a long hydrocarbon chain at one end and a carboxyl group (-COOH) at the other end.
They are generally represented as RCOOH. Fatty acids are naturally found in plants and animals and they are a source of energy in
the diet.
There are two groups of fatty acids: saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids.
Saturated fatty acids – these are fatty acids which contain carbon-carbon single bonds called saturated fatty acids, examples
include stearic acid (𝐶17 𝐻35 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻) and palmitic acid (𝐶15 𝐻31 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻). These are solids at room temperature called fats.
Unsaturated fatty acids – these are fatty acids which contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms, examples include
oleic acid (𝐶17 𝐻33 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻). These are liquids at room temperature called oils.
Long chain fatty acids always exist as triglycerides and are found in fats and oils.
Triglycerides are esters of fatty acids and are formed by combining fatty acids with glycerol.
Consider a triglycerol given below:

Soap formation: saponification

When a triglyceride is hydrolysed in a basic medium, the products of the reaction are glycerol and the salts of the respective fatty acids.
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids.
So, when triglycerides in fat or oil react with aqueous NaOH or KOH, they are converted into glycerol and the salts of the respective fatty acids (soap).
The R groups represents carboxylic acid chains.
Below is the hydrolysis of a triglyceride:
This is called alkaline hydrolysis of esters and since this reaction leads to the formation of soap, it is called the Saponification process.
This process has been done many years ago, especially in the rural areas, where animal fats were boiled with water and the ashes of a wood fire, which
contained potassium carbonate a base.
The soap formed remains in suspension form in the mixture, it is then precipitated as a solid from the suspension by adding common salt to the
suspension. This process is called salting out of soap.

Soap action
The soap molecule has two parts: a polar group −𝐶𝑂𝑂− 𝑁𝑎+ and a non-polar group (R-hydrocarbon part).
The polar group is called the head and the non-polar group is called the tail. Thus, the soap molecule has a polar head and a non-polar hydrocarbon tail.
The polar head is hydrophilic in nature (water loving) and the non-polar tail is hydrophobic (water repelling) in nature.
Soap is an excellent cleanser because of its ability to act as an emulsifying agent.
An emulsifier is capable of dispersing one liquid into another immiscible liquid.
This means that while oil which attracts dirt, do not naturally mix with water, soap converts oil or grease or dirt into a suspension of tiny droplets in water
and can then be removed.
However, though soaps are excellent dirt removers, they do have disadvantages. As salts of weak acids, they are converted by mineral acids into free fatty
acids:
These fatty acids are less soluble than the sodium or potassium salts and form a precipitate or soap scum.
For this reason, soaps are ineffective in acidic water. Also, soaps form insoluble salts in hard water, such as water containing magnesium, calcium, or iron.
 Uses of carboxylic acids and esters
Uses of esters
Esters that have fragrant odours are used as a constituent of perfumes, essential oils, artificial food flavourings
and cosmetics.
Esters are used as an organic solvent for paints and varnishes. They are used to manufacture sunburn lotions, nail
polish removers and glues.
Esters are also used in the production of polyester like Terylene. The long-chain polyester molecules are
unreactive and have great tensile strength. Therefore, they are used to make polyester threads in the production
of synthetic fabrics.
Nitrate esters, such as nitro-glycerine, are known for their explosive properties
Polyesters are used to make plasticisers in the manufacture of plastics.
Methyl ester is a biodiesel
As for large esters, they are used in the production of soaps and detergents. Soaps and detergents are used to
remove impurities from surfaces of human skin, clothes and other solids when dissolving in water.
Uses of carboxylic acids
Carboxylic acids make up a series of fatty acids which are extremely good for human health.
The omega-6 and omega-3 are essential fatty acids which are not produced by the body.
Manufacturing of soaps need higher fatty acids. Soaps are usually sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids such as stearic acid.
Food industry uses many organic acids like citric acid and lactic acid for the production of soft drinks, food products etc. For example, acetic acid is used in
making vinegar used in food preparation.
Carboxylic acids such as benzoic and sorbic acid are used as preservatives.
In pharmaceutical industry organic acids are used in many drugs such as aspirin, phenacetin. Ascorbic acid is used for the manufacture of medicines based
on vitamin C.

Fig 18.2.1: Products manufactured by carboxylic acids

Acetic acids are often used as a coagulant in the manufacturing of rubber. Organic acids find huge application in making dye stuff, perfumes and rayon.
They are used in the manufacture of soaps, detergents, shampoos, cosmetics and metal cleaning products (Oleic acid). Manufacture of toothpaste (Salicylic
acid).
Assessment Exercise 9.1 Carboxylic acids
1. Describe the formation of carboxylic acid from:
a. Nitriles [3]
b. Alcohols [3]

2. Explain the relative ease of hydrolyis of acyl chlorides, aryl chlorides and alkyl chlorides.[10]
3. Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid and is a medication used to treat pain, fever, or
inflammation. Consider the structure of Aspirin:

a. Identify any two functional group that are present in Aspirin.[2]

b. Draw the structures of the two organic compounds that can be used to make aspirin.[4]