Pathology test( 1)

1
I. Pathology - the study of the nature and characteristics of diseases.

ii. Aetiology - the study of the causes of diseases.

iii. Pathogenesis - the process by which a disease develops and progresses.

IV. Pathophysiology - the study of Abnormal changes in body functions that accompany a particular
disease or syndrome.

Subfields/branches of pathology:
1. Anatomical pathology - the study of disease based on the examination of organs and tissues.

2. Clinical pathology - the study of disease based on laboratory tests and diagnostics.

3. Forensic pathology - the study of disease related to legal matters.

4. Surgical pathology - the study of disease based on examination of tissues removed during surgery.

5. Molecular pathology - the study of disease based on molecular and genetic factors.

Explanation of two branches:

- Anatomical pathology focuses on the physical examination of tissues and organs to diagnose diseases
and conditions, such as through biopsies and autopsies.

- Clinical pathology involves the analysis of bodily fluids and other samples for diagnostic purposes, such
as blood tests and microbiology.

2
Cellular adaptation refers to changes made by a cell in response to adverse environmental changes.

Five ways a cell can respond to non-lethal cell damage:

1. Hypertrophy - an increase in cell size.

2. Hyperplasia - an increase in the number of cells.

3. Atrophy - a decrease in cell size.

4. Metaplasia - a reversible change in which one cell type is replaced by another.

5. Dysplasia - abnormal changes in cell size, shape, or organization.

3
inflammation is defined as acute or chronic based on how long the immune system takes to repair the
body Acute inflammation is a rapid response to cell injury it’s a short term inflammation that can last for
some days , while chronic inflammation is a prolonged and persistent response it’s a long term
inflammation can last for months or years.

b
The five cardinal signs of inflammation are redness, swelling, heat, pain, and dysfunction.

c
The steps involved in tissue healing and repair include hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and
remodeling.

4
Homeostasis is the ability of an organism to maintain internal stability and balance for the body to
survive and function well.

b
The two feedback mechanisms in homeostasis are negative feedback and positive feedback

Feedback mechanism Examples

Negative feedback maintain stability and bring the Body temperature regulation, sweating, shivering,
body back to set point. vasolidation

Positive feedback amplifies the initial stimulus, Child birth, blood clotting
pushing the system further away from equilibrium

5
Hypersensitivity is an exaggerated immune response to an antigen.

b
The priming dose is the initial exposure to an antigen that sensitizes the immune system, while the
shocking dose is a subsequent exposure that triggers a hypersensitivity reaction.

c
 IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSIYIVITY DELAYED HYPERSENSITIVITY

Rapid onset of symptom Delayed onset of symptom

Mediated by antibodies Mediated by T cells

Histamine release is common Granuloma formation may occur

Allergies are examples Contact dermatitis is an example

Ige involvement T cells and cytokines play a role

Soluble antigen Soluble/cell bound antigen

6.
A neoplasm is an abnormal and excessive growth of tissues. that forms a mass or tumor.

b
Distinguishing features between benign and malignant tumors

BENING TUMOR MALIGNANT TUMOR

Do not invade surrounding issues They can metastasize

They are Non cancerous They are Cancerous

They have slower growth They have faster growth

They are encapsulated They aren’t encapsulated

Borders are smooth ,regular,and distinct Borders are irregular, fuzzy and spiky

7
i. Oedema - the accumulation of excess fluid in tissues.

ii. Ischaemia - insufficient blood supply to tissues.

iii. Shock - a life-threatening condition of inadequate blood flow to organs.

IV. Infection - the invasion and multiplication of pathogens in the body.

v. Thrombosis - the formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel.

vi. Embolism - the obstruction of a blood vessel by a clot or foreign material that has traveled from
another part of the body.

TEST 2
Cell injury sequence of event that occurs when stresses exceed ability of cell to adapt

Pathology is the branch of science that deals with study of diagnosis and diseases

Pathogen are organism causing diseases to its host

Pathophysiology - the study of Abnormal changes in body functions that accompany a particular
disease or syndrome.

TYPES OF CELL INJURY

Cell injury by mitochondria damage

 Abnormal calcium homostasis

 DNA and membrane damage

 Necrosis

 ER stress

 Oxidation stress

Some are reversible whiles others aren’t

Factors causing cell injury

Oxygen deprivation

Chemical agent and drug

Physical agent

Infectious agent

Immunological reaction

Genetic derangement

Nutritional imbalance

Inflammation is the body defense mechanism by which the immune system recognize and remove
harmful and foreign stimuli and begin healing process
 Cardinal signs of inflammation
Redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function

Causes
Exposure to toxin

Auto immune response

Untreated infection

Auto inflamatory disorder

Hypoxia insufficient supply of oxygen to the body tissue

Causes
Anemia

Asthma

Bronchitis

Copd

Congestive heart failure

Pulmonary embolism

How hypoxia cause cell injury

Cellular function cannot be maintained

Level of ATP drops

Necrosis the death of a body tissue

Coagulative necrosis is the most common type of necrosis which is observed when blood flows to a
tissue it get disrupted

Main form of necrosis

Gaseous necrosis

Fibrinoid necrosis

Fat necrosis

Gangrenous necrosis
Apoptosis a type of cell death in which a series of molecular steps in a cell leas to it death, Apoptosis is a
active process it requires energy while necrosis is a passive process no energy in needed

Hyperplasia

Hypotrophy

Atrophy

Metaplasia

Hypertrophy is an increase in cell size is enough cell undergo atrophy the entire organ will decrease in
size

Agent

Toxin

Mutagens

Drugs

Allergen

Trauma

Genetic mutations

 Agent refers to organism that cause diseases such as virus, bacteria, fung,i protozoa

 Toxin are injurious substance that influence diseases delopment

 Genetic mutation occurs when harmful change to gene also know as pathogenic variant affect
genes or when you have the wrong amount of genetic materials.