Psychology

IB TOPIC: Brain And Behavior

Sub-Topic 1: LOCALIZATION- Theory that certain functions of a brain correspond to certain

functions of the brain; in that specific area of the brain control different functions carried
out by the brain.

NAME OF RESEARCH- Draganski et al

DATE OF RESEARCH- 2004
AIM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY: find out whether the human brain can really change
structure in response to environmental demands. Specifically, this study investigated how
juggling impacted the brain, since the activity is related to the coordination of movement.
DETAILS/PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY: volunteers were randomly allocated into one of two
groups: jugglers and non-jugglers. No juggling experience. First brain scan during the start of
the experiment. Juggler group spent 3 months learning how to juggle. Second brain scan. 3
more months instructed not to practice juggling. Third brain scan. The control group carried
on with their lives.
sample design- random sampling design.
sample- self-selected sample
scan- MRI(Magnetic Resonance imaging)
OUTCOMES/IMPACT- First brain scan showed no difference. Second brain scan the juggler
group had more grey matter in their mid-temporal area(cortex) in both hemispheres-
implicated in coordination of movement. Third scan the difference in the grey matter
reduced, but the amount of grey matter in the juggler group was still greater than the
control group. Hence, the findings were brain changes in participants who trained better
were more pronounced. Correlation was found between juggling and grey matter in the
mid-temporal region.
ADVANTAGES- Standardized MRI scans, matching samples, and you can change the
experimental design to a long-term study.
DISADVANATGES-s ample size was too small. No mention of age group and gender.
Extraneous variables such as the brain size of the jugglers. Non-juggler correlation as it does
not prove that due to juggling one has good brain.

NAME OF RESEARCH- Maguire et al

DATE OF RESEARCH- 2000
AIM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY: investigation of the spatial memory present in the brains of
London taxi drivers.
DETAILS/PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY: participants- 16 right-handed male licensed taxi
drivers. Their average pre-licensing training time was 2 years and the average experience as
a taxi driver was 14.3 years. All taxi drivers had healthy medical profiles. For the control
group subjects below 32 and above 62 years were excluded, as well as subjects who were
female, left-handed or had any health issues. Total 20 healthy right-handed male subjects
who did not drive a taxi.
scan- MRI(Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
Quasi-experiment- Researchers did not randomly assign people to be wither taxi drivers or
controls.
OUTCOMES/IMPACT- Increased brain matter volume in the brains of taxi-drivers as
compared to control subjects in the posterior hippocampus. Redistribution of grey matter
from the anterior to posterior hippocampus in the brains of the taxi drivers. Results
obtained are therefore correlational and cause-and-effect inference cannot be made. Grey
matter volume in the posterior hippocampus correlated positively and significantly with
experience as a taxi-driver(r=0.6, p<0.05) and a reverse relationship with grey matter
volume in the anterior hippocampus (r=-0.6, p<0.05).
ADVANTAGES-
DISADVANATGES-

Sub-Topic 2: NEUROPLASTICITY- Making and breaking of synaptic connections between

neurons. Reasons for this change are both Genetic(normal pre-programmed development
of the brain) and environmental(for example- injury, brain damage or simply learning new
skills.)

The above studies can be used for neuroplasticity as well.

Sub-Topic 3: NEUROTRANSMITTERS- The transferal of messages is known as

neurotransmission. They are chemical messenger, which are synthesized in the neuron and
moved to the axon terminal to be stored. They are only released when a neuron has a
certain threshold of excitation received from other neurons, and of the sum excitation
exceeds this threshold, the neuron “fires”- generates a brief pulse called action potential.
Through this a neurotransmitter is released from the axon terminal into the synaptic gap.
There are two types of neurotransmitters: Excitatory and Inhibitory. Excitatory
neurotransmitters allow the impulse to across the synapse. Producing simulating effects on
the brain. Inhibitory neurotransmitters stop the impulse from crossing the synapse.
Producing calming effects.
Neurotransmitters are affected by Antagonist and Agonist. Agonists are chemicals that
enhance the action of a neurotransmitter. Antagonists are chemicals that counteract a
neurotransmitter preventing a signal from being passed further.

NAME OF RESEARCH- Fisher Aaron and Brown

DATE OF RESEARCH- 2005
AIM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY: to suggest the central role of dopamine(an excitatory
neurotransmitter that is involved in our desire to get things done(motivation)) in the brain
response to loved ones.(effect of dopamine on loved ones)
DETAILS/PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY: participants- Ten men and seven women who were
currently “intensely in love” (but not with each other). Mean age was 21 years and the
mean reported duration of being in love was 7 months.
Sampling- self-selected sample, since the participants were recruited through word of
mouth as well as through flyers.
Scan- fMRI(functional magnetic resonance imaging scanner)
Steps done for the study:
1. For 30 seconds each participant viewed a photograph of his/her loved one
2. Then they were given a 40-second filler activity, which was to count back from a
given number.
 3. For 30 seconds participants viewed a photograph of an emotionally neutral
acquaintance.
4. Then a 20-second filler activity, which was counting back from a number.
These 4 steps were repeated six times; hence, the total procedure lasted for 720 seconds(12
minutes).
OUTCOMES/IMPACT- In response to viewing photographs of their loved ones, activation
was observed in dopamine-rich neural systems, primarily the ventral tegmental area(VTA)
and caudate nucleus.(Both these regions form the key part of the so-called dopaminergic
pathway-a system that generates and transmits dopamine and increases dopamine-related
activity in the brain)
ADVANTAGES-
DISADVANATGES-

NAME OF RESEARCH- Freed et al

DATE OF RESEARCH- 2001
AIM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY: Studied the role of dopamine in Parkinson’s
disease(degenerative disorder that mainly effects the motor functions of the nervous
system)
DETAILS/PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY: participants- 40 patients who were 34-75 years old
and had severe Parkinson’s disease, with the mean duration of 14 years.
Sample- random sampling
Design- Independent measures design
Scan- PET(positron emission tomography)
The experimental group received a transplant of nerve cells. The control group underwent
sham surgery. In the experimental group, nerve tissue containing dopamine-producing
neurons was taken from embryos aborted 7-8 weeks after conception and transplanted into
the patients’ putamen- a structure of the limbic system involved in movement regulation.
All surgeries were performed with the patient awake. Local anesthesia was administered to
the skin of the forehead and four holes were drilled through the frontal bone. In the control
group, holes were drilled in the skull but the dura(a thick membrane that surrounds the
brain) was not penetrated. MAKING THE PROCEDURE NOT IDENTICAL. (ETHICS)Several
measures were taken both before and after the surgery: clinical observations and
interviews, and brain scans. All patients were followed up longitudinally. The protocol of the
study and the consent form describing the risks and potential benefits were approved by
the ethics committee. A separate written informed consent form was used for the women
who donated fetal tissue from abortions.
OUTCOMES/IMPACT-
1. Irrespective of the age group, PET scans revealed increasing growth of dopamine-
producing cells in the putamen.
2. A reduction of symptoms by 28% was found in the patients in the transplant group,
but only the younger ones(aged 60 or younger), No improvement was registered in
the older sub-group of patients(aged over 60).
Overall conclusion, transplantation of dopamine-producing neurons in the putamen of
patients with severe Parkinson’s disease results in some clinical benefit in younger but not
older patients. Less response to treatment of the older patients despite successful growth of
dopamine neurons may be attributed to lower neuroplasticity of the brain.
ADVANTAGES-
DISADVANATGES-

NAME OF RESEARCH- Leyton

DATE OF RESEARCH- 2014
AIM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY: role of alcohol(exogenous agonist) on the brain’s reward
system
DETAILS/PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY: participants- 26 healthy social drinkers
Scan- PET(positron emission tomography)
The researcher categorized the drinkers based on their risk of alcoholism based on personal
traits and having a lower intoxication response to alcohol- that is they did not feel as drunk
despite having the same amount as other drinkers. Each participant underwent a PET scan
after drinking either juice and then later alcohol. In each condition they were asked to drink
three drinks in 15 minutes.
OUTCOMES/IMPACT- Those who were considered “high risk” for alcohol showed
significantly greater activity in the nucleus acumens. Hence, the researchers argued that
alcohol is an agonist for dopamine, connecting a dopamine receptor site and causing the
neurons to fire. It was hypothesized that people with a potential for alcoholism have a
greater response to the agonist than those at low risk.
ADVANTAGES-
DISADVANATGES-

NAME OF RESEARCH- Rasmussen and Dadar (DOUBT)

DATE OF RESEARCH- 1979
AIM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY: Understanding the role of the neurotransmitter in the
formation of memory(antagonist)
DETAILS/PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY: Gave participants a scopolamine tablet and asked
them to either learn a series of numbers or to solve a maze task. In the second condition,
participants were given a placebo as a control. In the number series condition Verbal
declarative memory was being tested. In the maze task condition spatial memory was being
tested.
OUTCOMES/IMPACT- No difference between the control group and the number series
condition group(AcH(Acetylcholine) antagonist group). Concluding that AcH does not play a
key role in the encoding of declarative memory. Participants in the scopolamine group made
more errors and took longer to solve the maze. Concluding that scopolamine plays a key
role in the encoding of spatial memory.
ADVANTAGES-
DISADVANATGES-

Sub-Topic 4: HORMONES AND BEHAVIOUR- are chemical messengers, they are released
into the bloodstream and travel with blood to reach their destination. They can regulate
long-term ongoing processes such as growth, metabolism, digestion, and reproduction.
Hormones are released by endocrine glands.
Oxytocin is one such hormone. It is produced in the hypothalamus and released into the
blood by the pituitary gland. It plays a role in sexual reproduction, childbirth, and social
bonding. It is often referred as “the love hormone”, “bonding hormone” and “the cuddle
hormone”. For example, oxytocin is released from stimulation of nipples during
breastfeeding, and this helps to establish a stronger bond between the mother and the
child. It is also released with every kiss or hug.

NAME OF RESEARCH- Kosfeld et al

DATE OF RESEARCH- 2005
AIM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY: investigated if oxytocin increases trust in humans.
DETAILS/PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY: participants- 128 healthy male students(mean age 22
years),
Sample- random sampling
Subjects were randomly allocated into either the oxytocin group or placebo group.
Substances were administered via intra-nasal spray. The researchers designed a trust game
with real monetary stakes. Game subjects were paired anonymously and played the role of
either investor or trustee. Each round of the game(each with a new partner).
1. The experimenter gives both the investor and the trustee an endowment of 12
monetary units.
2. The investor needs to decide how much of that to send to the trustee(there are 4
options: 0, 4, 8, 12). The experimenter triples whatever is sent to the trustee.
3. Trustee decides how much of the now available money to send back to the investor.
They will only interact once during this experiment, so they have the temptation of keeping
the wholesome with them. For trust to be developed the investor needs to overcome the
aversion towards risk. They played the game 4 times in the same role, each time paired
randomly with a new partner. At the end of the experiment the total earned monetary units
were exchanged for real money.
OUTCOMES/IMPACT- Trust in those participants were higher who received a dose of
oxytocin was higher than in the control group. The median transfer of investors was 10 in
the oxytocin group and 8 in the control group. 45% of the subjects in the oxytocin-group
showed the maximum trust level(12 monetary units), whereas only 21% in the placebo
group showed maximum trust level.
Researchers suggested two alternative explanations for this finding.
• Oxytocin reduces risk aversion in general
• Oxytocin increases people’s trust in other humans.
To clarify, a follow up study was designed where the independent group of subjects played
the game this time against a random mechanism(software). This time no difference was
observed in this experiment between the oxytocin and placebo groups. The median transfer
was eight monetary units in both conditions. Hence, the researchers concluded that
oxytocin specifically affects trust in interpersonal interactions.
ADVANTAGES-
DISADVANATGES-

NAME OF RESEARCH- Scheele et al

DATE OF RESEARCH- 2012
AIM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY: investigated if oxytocin modulated social distance between
men and women.
DETAILS/PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY: participants- 86 heterosexual men, some of them
were single, others were in a stable monogamous relationship.
Design- double-blind independent measures design, a researcher administered either
oxytocin or a placebo intra-nasally.
Subjects participated in two independent tasks.
First task- “stop-distance paradigm”- subjects were positioned at one end of the room with
their toes on the mark on the floor, while an attractive female experimenter was positioned
on the other side of the room. The subjects were then required to move slowly towards the
female experimenter and stop at a distance that made him slightly uncomfortable(too
close). The experimenter maintained the same appearance over all the trials.
Second task- “approach/avoidance task”- subjects viewed a series of pictures on the screen
with their head positioned on a chin rest at the viewing distance of 50cm. Pictures were
flashed for 2 seconds each. There were 4 types of pictures shown in random order: positive
social(attractive women), positive non-social(beautiful non-social), negative
social(mutilations), and negative non-social(dirt). All participants had a joystick, and if they
liked the picture, they were instructed to pull the joystick, which resulted an increase in the
pictures size. Conversely if they did not like it, they pushed the joystick which reduced the
picture’s size. This way approach or avoidance was simulated.
OUTCOMES/IMPACT- In the first task the oxytocin simulated men in a monogamous
relationship, but not single ones, to keep a greater distance between themselves and an
attractive woman. Concluding that, ‘oxytocin caused men in a relationship to “stay away
from” an attractive woman who was not his partner.’.
In the second task, the only group of pictures affected by oxytocin and relationship status
was the positive social group(pictures of attractive woman). Specifically, participants who
received oxytocin had slower reaction time(that is, pulled the joystick more reluctantly) in
response to these pictures, but only if they were in a relationship. Concluding that, ‘oxytocin
selectively inhibits approach to certain stimuli- attractive women- in men who are in a
stable relationship, but not in single men.’
Overall, it was seen that selectively influencing men in a relationship to keep greater
distance from attractive women they do not know, oxytocin may promote fidelity.
ADVANTAGES-
DISADVANATGES-

Sub-Topic 5: PHERMONES AND BEHAVIOUR- chemicals that carry, ‘stimulation’. Chemical

communication, mainly in mating behavior.

NAME OF RESEARCH- Hare et al

DATE OF RESEARCH- 2017
AIM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY: investigated if androstadiene (AND) and
estratetraenol(EST)- the best-known candidates for human sex-pheromones – signal gender
and affect mate perception
DETAILS/PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY: participants- heterosexual participants
Design- repeated measures design, double-blind experiment
The study was conducted in a real- life setting and accounted for a wider range of behaviors.
The participants completed two computer-based tasks twice on two consecutive days.
While completing the task, on one of the days they were exposed to the putative
pheromone(AND or EST) masked with clove oil, and on the other days they were exposed to
a control scent(clove oil only). Substances were administered by a cotton ball taped under
the nose throughout the task.
The design was counter balanced(some participants had the pheromone on the first day,
some vice versa).
The first computer-based task involved showing the participants five “gender neutral facial
morphs”, and participants had to indicate the gender(male or female).
In the second task participants were shown opposite-sex photographs and asked to rate
them for attractiveness on a scale of 1 to 10.
OUTCOMES/IMPACT- Results of the first tasked revealed no difference in gender assigned
to the morphed faces in the pheromone versus control condition.
Results in the second task revealed no difference in the average attractiveness ratings of
opposite- sex photographs.
Hence, concluding that AND and EST do not act as signals of gender or of attractiveness,
which means that they do not qualify as sex pheromones. The gender of the experimenter
has no effect on the results.
ADVANTAGES-
DISADVANATGES-

Sub-Topic 5: GENES AND BEHAVIOUR: GENETIC SIMILARITY-

(Outline of the overarching principle) According to the third principle of the biological level
of analysis (BLA), behavior is innate and inherited because it is genetically based (we are
predisposed to a specific behavior due to genetics).
(Description and importance of Genetics) It is argued that people have a genetic
predisposition, and they are segments of DNA inherited by the offspring of the parent.
Genes are considered responsible for the development of the behavioral characteristics,
which in result, helps in the understanding of how genetics and environment contribute to
individual variations in human behavior, where the premise is that the inheritance of DNA
influences behavior. It cannot be said that one single gene is responsible for a specific
behavior- but is a building block. Therefore, genetics alone does not affect behavior;
environmental factors such as culture, diet, etc. also influence the development of behavior
in an organism.
Genes are complex but it is unlikely that a single gene is responsible for such complex
behaviors as depression or schizophrenia. There is also no causal relationship between a
single gene and a specific behavior. It is thought that what is inherited is the gene that can
lead to the development of the specific behavior and not the behavior itself. This means
that an individual may have a genetic predisposition to a behavior but without appropriate
environmental stimuli, the behavior will not be manifested.

(Intelligence) is an aspect of behavior that has been studied in relation to genetics. Earlier it
was questioned whether intelligence was attributed to genetic or environmental factors.
Since intelligence is difficult to define, IQ tests have been developed and are now used in
psychology research.

Intro- The influence of environment has been seen in adoption studies where genes do not
have a big influence or impact on one’s behavior on the adopted child’s behavior. Siblings
reared in one environment with 50 percent similar genes, it is seen that the environment
does need to create an impact and influence on behavior and perspectives.
NAME OF RESEARCH- Bouchard and McGue
DATE OF RESEARCH- 1981
AIM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY: To determine how much of intelligence is attributed to
genetics and environment
DETAILS/PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY: conducted a meta-analysis- statistical synthesis of
data that yields a quantitative summary of pooled results.
Reviewed 111 studies of intelligence correlations between siblings.
MZ twins share 100% of their genes because they develop from the same egg. DZ twins
share 50% of genes just like siblings and just like parents with their biological children, there
is no similarity between adopting parents and their adopted children.
MZ twins have a perfect correlation of 1 (irrespective of whether they are reared together
or apart), DZ twins, siblings, and parents with their biological children have the second
largest correlation, and adopting parents and offspring have a correlation of zero.
OUTCOMES/IMPACT- Was seen that environment contributes to the variability of IQ, so MZ
wins reared together are expected to have a higher correlation than MZ twins reared apart
due to the exposure to a common environment.
MZ twins reared together do not have a perfect correlation of the IQ scores. This shows the
influence of individual environments on the development of IQ.
Genes have its own strong influence on behavior. This correlation has been shown in
identical twin studies or MZ twin studies; however, the nurture-environment does have its
own influence on behavior.
ADVANTAGES-
• Both statistical data and qualitative data.
• Data is authentic, since twin genetics are scientific.
DISADVANATGES-
• small in sample size and rare due to the uniqueness of their target group. Implies
fewer opportunities for replication.
• Not representative of the general population. Not generalizable to a wider
population.
• Similar physical features of the twins might elicit similar responses from the
environment.

NAME OF RESEARCH- Kendler et al

DATE OF RESEARCH- 2015
AIM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY: demonstrate the additive influence of genetics and
environment on the development of intelligence: adopting into a higher-SES family results in
an increase in IQ, but this increase will be higher or lower depending on the genetic
inheritance of the child.
DETAILS/PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY: design- sample of sibling pairs in which one of the
siblings was home-reared and the other one was adopted away.
The complete national Swedish register of male-male siblings was searched, identifying 436
male sibling sets where one of their members was reared by adoptive parents.
IQ scores were taken from the Military Conscription Register. The data also included the
educational attainment of both biological and adoptive parents.
Since the demand for child adoption in Sweden is considerably larger than the children
available for adoption, so potential adoptive parents were carefully screened.
The mean educational level was significantly higher in the adoptive parents as compared to
biological parents. There was a modest correlation of (r = 0.18) between the education level
of adoptive and biological parents. Signifying effects of selective placements.
OUTCOMES/IMPACT- It is seen that cognitive ability is environmentally malleable: as there
was a 5-point IQ increase on average by age 18. This is supported by the correlation
between cognitive ability of adopted children and education levels of adoptive parents
supports this conclusion.
Results also suggest heritability of intelligence: that is evident from the correlation between
cognitive ability of adopted children and the educational level of biological parents.
Additive influence of environment and genetics: the largest IQ scores were observed in
adopted children from well-educated biological families adopted into well-educated
families.
ADVANTAGES-
DISADVANATGES-