616917

research-article2015
Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach OnlineFirst, published on November 11, 2015 as doi:10.1177/1941738115616917
SPHXXX10.1177/1941738115616917Li et alSports Health

vol. XX • no. X SPORTS HEALTH

[ Athletic Training ]

Wearable Performance Devices

in Sports Medicine
Ryan T. Li, MD,† Scott R. Kling, MD,† Michael J. Salata, MD,† Sean A. Cupp, MD,†
Joseph Sheehan, ATC, CSCS,† and James E. Voos, MD*†

Context: Wearable performance devices and sensors are becoming more readily available to the general population and
athletic teams. Advances in technology have allowed individual endurance athletes, sports teams, and physicians to monitor
functional movements, workloads, and biometric markers to maximize performance and minimize injury. Movement sensors
include pedometers, accelerometers/gyroscopes, and global positioning satellite (GPS) devices. Physiologic sensors include
heart rate monitors, sleep monitors, temperature sensors, and integrated sensors. The purpose of this review is to familiarize
health care professionals and team physicians with the various available types of wearable sensors, discuss their current
utilization, and present future applications in sports medicine.
Evidence Acquisition: Data were obtained from peer-reviewed literature through a search of the PubMed database.
Included studies searched development, outcomes, and validation of wearable performance devices such as GPS,
accelerometers, and physiologic monitors in sports.
Study Design: Clinical review.
Level of Evidence: Level 4.
Results: Wearable sensors provide a method of monitoring real-time physiologic and movement parameters during training
and competitive sports. These parameters can be used to detect position-specific patterns in movement, design more
efficient sports-specific training programs for performance optimization, and screen for potential causes of injury. More
recent advances in movement sensors have improved accuracy in detecting high-acceleration movements during competitive
sports.
Conclusion: Wearable devices are valuable instruments for the improvement of sports performance. Evidence for use of
these devices in professional sports is still limited. Future developments are needed to establish training protocols using data
from wearable devices.
Keywords: wearable devices; GPS; accelerometers; sensors; sports performance

T
here is a growing trend in the athletic and health care
environment to monitor human physiologic function and
performance during real-time activities. Recently, portable
and wearable sports devices incorporating sensor technology
have benefited from increased media and commercial exposure
as effective tools to assess physical activity in the general
population. This has been driven by the increased availability,
lower cost, and advancements of personal computing devices
such as smart phones and digital watches. Pedometers, heart
rate monitors, portable electrocardiogram monitors, and
accelerometers have been incorporated into personal devices to
be used in a variety of applications (Table 1). These
applications are diverse and range from ambulatory monitoring
in the elderly population for falls, development of exercise
programs to combat childhood obesity, and monitoring of
military personnel on the battlefield.3,21,22,26,35,46,55
Athletes present a growing niche for the use of wearable
sensor technology. Advances in technology have allowed
individual endurance athletes, sports teams, and physicians to
monitor player movements,33 workloads,41,58 and biometric

From the †Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University Hospitals Case Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
*Address correspondence to James E. Voos, MD, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University Hospitals Case Medical Center, 11100 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106
(email: james.voos@uhhospitals.org).
The following authors declared potential conflicts of interest: Michael J. Salata, MD, is a paid consultant for Smith & Nephew Endoscopy and James E. Voos, MD, is a paid
consultant for Stryker.
DOI: 10.1177/1941738115616917
© 2015 The Author(s)

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 Li et al Mon • Mon 2015

Table 1. Wearable devices used in sports medicine

Wearable Device Functional Mechanism

Movement sensors
Pedometer
Accelerometer/gyroscope
GPS
Physiologic sensors
Heart rate monitor
Temperature monitor
Integrated sensors
“Step” recorded each instance the vertical acceleration of a spring-loaded lever arm exceeds
the force sensitivity threshold
Acceleration causes deflection of a seismic mass between 2 electrodes, causing a change in
capacitance
Signal transmissions from multiple orbiting satellites are acquired by a ground-based receiver;
the relative delay is used to calculate the speed and position of the receiver
1. Electrical activity from the heart recorded by electrodes in a chest strap
2. Peripheral pulse detected by optical-sensing technology in a wristband
1. Ingestible capsule transmits readings to external data log system
2. Armband measures skin convective heat flux in temperature
Multimodal platforms that incorporate components of movement and physiologic sensors

GPS, global positioning satellite.

markers13,44 in attempts to maximize performance and minimize
injury. Monitoring these variables may allow for the
identification of biomechanical fatigue and early intervention in
an attempt to prevent injury during training and competitive
matches. Monitoring may also facilitate the development of
improved training regimens to optimize athlete performance.
The purpose of this review article is to familiarize health care
professionals and team physicians with the various available
types of wearable sensors, discuss their current utilization, and
present future applications in sports medicine. Knowledge of
these devices is important in counseling patients in the safe
employment of these devices and potential limitations
Movement Sensors
Pedometers
Pedometers are the simplest and arguably the most commonly
used form of movement sensor. A “step” is recorded each time
the vertical acceleration of the lever arm exceeds the force
sensitivity threshold of the pedometer.6 Many fitness
recommendations and corporate health programs are based on
achieving a recommended number of daily steps.5,56 Adherence
to step counts is more likely to correlate with an increased
likelihood in meeting age-appropriate physical activity
guidelines.30 Pedometers have also demonstrated utility in
pediatric and obese populations to promote active
lifestyles.29,34,50 These findings show that pedometers may have
some value as a first-line tool in tracking levels of fitness.
While pedometers have been shown to have acceptable
reliability and validity for step-count monitoring in the
ambulatory setting, the application is unproven in competitive
sports. Pedometers have limited use in quantifying athletic
movements because of their inability to perceive changes of
direction and are poor indicators of energy expenditure.7,57
Accelerometers/Gyroscopes
Accelerometers and gyroscopes have demonstrated promise in
the realm of personal fitness by giving the user access to
advanced performance data and the ability to quantifiably alter
exercise programs. These devices are composed of 2
components: a mechanical movement-sensing device and a
microchip that interprets signals from the mechanical device.
Technological progress and the development of
microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices have allowed
multiple transducers to be packaged together, giving a single
sensor the ability to perceive movement in multiple
dimensions.40,51
An additional benefit of accelerometers is the ability to
estimate energy expenditure by integrating vertical acceleration
over time.19,32 Energy expenditure is a crucial parameter for
assessing the intensity of a training regimen. Accelerometer-
based energy estimation in elite Australian football players was
comparable with more time-intensive video analysis.60
Because of their low-cost design and portability, accelerometry
has driven the development of portable wristband devices that
have seen a significant rise in personal fitness in recent years.
Devices such as the FitBit (FitBit Inc; www.fitbit.com), Jawbone
Up (Jawbone; jawbone.com/up), Nike Fuelband (Nike; www
.nike.com/us/en_us/c/nikeplus-fuel), and Microsoft Band
(Microsoft; www.microsoft.com/microsoft-band/en-us) provide

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vol. XX • no. X
data on a number of physiologic and movement parameters
such as heart rate, caloric expenditure, sleep tracking, and steps
that are then relayed wirelessly to a personal user account.
Accelerometers generate more accurate analyses of athletic
movements with higher sampling rates and more accurate
measurements.11,20,31,36,37 A series of studies in swimming have
concluded that triaxial accelerometers are valuable in assessing
stroke mechanics to optimize performance.5,8 Similar
accelerometer-based systems have been used to perform
time-motion analysis for rowing, tennis, and golf.1,16,45
Accelerometer data have been used during Australian football
matches to show positional differences in physical demands
between positions and varying levels of competition.4
Global Positioning Satellite
Global positioning satellite (GPS) devices are an alternative to
accelerometers in measuring positional data in athletics. GPS
devices require signal transmission from multiple GPS satellites
orbiting the earth. Signals from the satellites, each with
on-board atomic clocks, are acquired from GPS receivers that
synchronize the signals to determine the speed and position of
the receiver.12 The performance of GPS devices is improved,
particularly in the team sport setting, by employing a stationary
ground-based reference receiver in addition to wearable
receivers to refine timing errors from each satellite, with
accuracy up to 1 meter.43
GPS has been used to monitor the speed and position of
athletes in football, orienteering, cross-country skiing, and field
hockey.17,27,28 The most well-documented use of GPS in
professional sports has been with Australian football and
rugby.14,15,24,33,41,49,59
Devices such as the Vivofit and Vivoactive (Garmin; www
.garmin.com/vivofit), Polar M400 (Polar Electro Inc; www
.polarm400.com), and Surge (FitBit Inc; www.fitbit.com/surge)
have incorporated GPS technology in wearable devices for
individual users. These devices are capable of displaying data
such as mileage, steps, pace, caloric expenditure, altitude, and
speed to the user in real time. In addition, data are then
tabulated in software programs to allow the user to track their
performance.
GPS has also been used to modify training regimens to
improve athlete performance.33 GPS devices have been used to
collect both training and match time-motion data on 10
midfielders from an Australian Football League team. The study
classified different drills into 3 groups based on training
intensity, as measured by the distance traveled in certain
velocity ranges. Additionally, higher intensity drills using the
entire field more closely resembled competitive match play.33
GPS systems have been used to correlate fitness tests and
on-field performance, as well as determining energy
requirements for specific player positions.41,59
Several commercially available GPS systems for sports
medicine have been introduced to the market with the ability to
monitor an entire team. Catapult (Catapult; www.catapultsports.
com) and GPSports (GPSports; gpsports.com) are examples of
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SPORTS HEALTH
systems that have been shown to produce reliable
measurements of movement.23,47,48 The validity and reliability of
GPS systems for court-based sports with shorter travel distance
and greater intensities is still unproven.10
Physiologic Sensors
Heart Rate Monitoring
Sensors that determine physiologic response to changes in
competition and training are also crucial in promoting improved
performance and decreased injury. Heart rate is a useful
indicator of physiological adaptation and intensity of effort.
Standard heart rate monitors comprise a transducer worn
around the chest that transmits to a wireless wrist display.
Newer heart rate monitors have been developed using optical
sensor devices, such as a wrist band or smart phone, that detect
heart rate directly from the wrist or fingertip. While arguably
more cumbersome, there are data to suggest the chest strap
devices are still more accurate at higher heart rates and less
susceptible to motion artifact.54 Newer commercially available
heart rate monitors such as those produced by Polar Electro
(Polar Electro Inc; www.polar.com/us-en) and Suunto (Suunto;
www.suunto.com) are also capable of measuring heart rate
variability, which has been shown to be an important indicator
of fitness.
Heart rate monitors are often used as important tools for the
measurement of exercise intensity. There is a linear relationship
between heart rate and VO2 over a large range of submaximal
intensities.53 Consequently, VO2 and energy expenditure may be
extrapolated from heart rate. Because of this relationship,
portable heart rate monitors have become the most common
method of estimating exercise intensity. Heart rate monitors
have also been used in conjunction with kinematic analysis to
determine physiologic response and metabolic demand
experienced during competition in a number of sports,
including basketball, rugby, and soccer.26,38
Temperature/Heat Flux Sensors
Monitoring of core body temperature is important in conditions
where hyperthermia is a concern, such as high temperature/
humidity climates and indoor facilities without air conditioning.
There is additional concern for abnormal core temperature
changes during an athlete’s initial acclimation to sporting
activity. Accurate monitoring of core body temperature has
presented a significant challenge in sports medicine. Core
temperature can be assessed during athletic activities.44 External
temperatures have been shown to be an unreliable proxy for
core body temperature.18,42 Newer commercial temperature
sensors have circumvented this fact using a telemetric core
temperature sensor relying on an ingestible capsule that
transmits data systems using radiofrequency.39,52 Designs for
temperature sensors all suffer from separate limitations. Cold
water and food ingestion affect the validity and reliability of
ingestible sensors.52 Armbands and skin-based dermal
temperature sensors may cause skin irritation and have poor
3
 Li et al
reliability when assessing temperature and estimating energy
expenditure in high-intensity exercise.9
Integrated Sensors
Multimodal integrated sensors have been developed for use in
team and individual fitness activities. The manufacturers
Catapult and Zephyr incorporate GPS technology with a
number of variable sensing elements to obtain physiologic and
movement profiles in athletes.2,48,58 The Catapult device is a
small sensor placed most commonly between the shoulder
blades and can be secured onto a jersey or protective gear. The
Zephyr devices incorporate a respiratory rate monitor in
addition to an electrocardiogram monitor.25 The Zehphyr
BioPatch is designed as a wireless device that attaches to
disposable electrocardiography electrodes and provides
continuous monitoring. While relatively small, the Zephyr
device requires a strap applied around the chest and over the
shoulder, which can be cumbersome when safety gear such as
shoulder pads are worn over the top. The straps are required
for accurate measures of respiration and heart rate.
Conclusion
The development of wearable sensor technology has had a
significant impact on athlete monitoring in sports medicine.
Wearable sensors provide physicians, coaches, and training staff
with a method of monitoring real-time physiologic and
movement parameters during training and competitive sports.
These parameters can be used to detect position-specific
patterns in movement, design more efficient sports-specific
training programs for performance optimization, and screen for
potential causes of injury, such as concussion and fatigue.
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