The Jewish Study Bible

JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY

TANAKH TRANSLATION
 CONTRIBUTORS

Yairah Amit: fudges Shimon Bar-Efrat: First and Second Samuel

Ehud Ben Zvi: The Twelve Minor Prophets Edward Breuer: Post-medieval jewish Interpretation
Yaakov Elman: Classical Rabbinic Interpretation Esther Eshel: The Bible in the Dead Sea Scrolls
Steven E. Fassberg: Languages of the Bible Michael V. Fox: Proverbs Nili S. Fox: Numbers
Stephen A. Geller: The Religion of the Bible Leonard J. Greenspoon: jewish Translations of the Bible
Daniel Grossberg: Lamentations Mayer Gruber: job
Jonathan Klawans: Concepts of Purity in the Bible Jon D. Levenson: Genesis
Bernard M. Levinson: Deuteronomy Peter Machinist: Ecclesiastes
Carol Meyers: joshua Hindy Najman: Ezra, Nehemiah, Early Nonrabbinic Interpretation
Jordan S. Penkower: The Development of the Masoretic Bible Stefan C. Reif: The Bible in the Liturgy
Adele Reinhartz: Ruth, jewish Women's Scholarly Writings on the Bible
David Rothstein: First and Second Chronicles Baruch J. Schwartz: Leviticus
Avigdor Shinan: The Bible in the Synagogue Uriel Simon: The Bible in Israeli Life
Benjamin D. Sommer: Isaiah, Inner-biblical Interpretation
S. David Sperling: Modern jewish Interpretation David Stern: Midrash and Jewish Interpretation
Elsie Stern: The Song of Songs Marvin A. Sweeney: Jeremiah, Ezekiel
Jeffrey H. Tigay: Exodus Hava Tirosh-Samuelson: The Bible in the jewish Philosophical Tradition
Barry D. Walfish: Medieval jewish Interpretation Lawrence M. Wills: Daniel
Elliot R. Wolfson: The Bible in the jewish Mystical Tradition Ziony Zevit: First and Second Kings

Adele Berlin: Introduction: What Is The jewish Study Bible? [with Marc Zvi Brettler); Psalms [with
Marc Zvi Brettler); Esther; Introduction to the Essays [with Marc Zvi Brettler]; Historical and
Geographical Background to the Bible [with Marc Zvi Brettler); Textual Criticism of the Bible [with
Marc Zvi Brettler); The Modem Study of the Bible [with Marc Zvi Brettler); Reading Biblical Poetry

Marc Zvi Brettler: Introduction: What Is The jewish Study Bible? [with Adele Berlin]; Torah;
Nevi'im; Kethuvim; Psalms [with Adele Berlin); Introduction to the Scrolls; Introduction to the
Essays [with Adele Berlin]; Historical and Geographical Background to the Bible [with Adele
Berlin]; Textual Criticism of the Bible [with Adele Berlin); The Canonization of the Bible; The Modern
Study of the Bible [with Adele Berlin)
THE EWISH
STUDY BIBLE
Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler
EDITORS

Michael Fishbane
CONSULTING EDITOR

Jewish Publication Society

TANAKH Translation

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
 OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
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or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.

Jewish Publication Society TANAKH translation copyright© 1985, 1999

by the Jewish Publication Society
 Contents

Maps and Diagrams viii

Introduction: What Is The Jewish Study Bible? Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler ix
Preface to the 1985 JPS Edition xiii
Alphabetical Listing of the Books of the Bible xvii
Hebrew Transliteration xviii
Guide to Abbreviations and Terms
Abbreviations Used for the Books of the Bible xix
Abbreviations and Terms Used in the Footnotes to the Translation xix
Abbreviations Used in the Annotations, Introductions, and Essays xx

TORAH Introduction by Marc Zvi Brettler 1

Genesis Introduction and An notations by Jon D. Levenson 8

Exodus Introduction and Annotations by Jeffrey H. Tigay 102
Leviticus Introduction and Annotations by Baruch f. Schwartz 203
Numbers Introduction and An notations by Nili S. Fox 281
Deuteronomy Introduction and Annotations by Bernard M. Levinson 356

NEVI'IM In troduction by Marc Zvi Brettler 451

Joshua Introduction and Annotations by Carol Metprs 462

Judges Introduction and Annotations by Yairah Amit 508
First Samuel In troduction and Annotations by Shimon Bar-Efrat 558
Second Samuel Introduction and Annotations by Shimon Bar-Efrat 619
First Kings Introduction and Annotations by Ziony Zevit 668
Second Kings Introduction and Annotations by Ziony Zevit 726
Isaiah Introduction and Annotations by Benjamin D. Sommer 780
Jeremiah Introduction and Annotations by Marvin A. Sweeney 917
Ezekiel Introduction and An notations by Marvin A. Sweeney 1042
-v-
The Twelve Minor Prophets Introductions and Annotations by Ehud Ben Zvi 1139
Hosea 1143 Nahum 1219
Joel 1166 Habakkuk 1226
Amos 1176 Zephaniah 1234
Obadiah 1193 Haggai 1243
Jonah 1198 Zechariah 1249
Micah 1205 Malachi 1268

KETHUVIM Introduction by Marc Zvi Brettler 1275

Psalms Introduction and Annotations by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler 1280
Proverbs Introduction and Annotations by Michael V. Fox 1447
Job Introduction and Annotations by Mayer Gruber 1499

The Scrolls Introduction by Marc Zvi Brettler 1563

The Song of Songs Introduction and Annotations by Elsie Stern 1564
Ruth Introduction and Annotations by Adele Reinhartz 1578
Lamentations Introduction and Annotations by Daniel Grossberg 1587
Ecclesiastes Introduction and Annotations by Peter Machinist 1603
Esther Introduction and Annotations by Adele Berlin 1623

Daniel Introduction and Annotations by Lawrence M. Wills 1640

Ezra Introduction and Annotations by Hindy Najman 1666
Nehemiah Introduction and Annotations by Hindy Najman 1688
First Chronicles Introduction and Annotations by David Rothstein 1712
Second Chronicles Introduction and Annotations by David Rothstein 1765

ESSAYS Introduction by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler 1827

Jewish Interpretation of the Bible

Inner-biblical Interpretation Berzjamin D. Sommer 1829
Early Nonrabbinic Interpretation Hindy Najman 1835
Classical Rabbinic Interpretation Yaakov Elman 1844
Midrash and Jewish Interpretation David Stern 1863
Medieval Jewish Interpretation Barry D. Walfish 1876
Post-medieval Jewish Interpretation Edward Breuer 1900
Modern Jewish Interpretation S. David Sperling 1908

The Bible in Jewish Life and Thought

The Bible in the Dead Sea Scrolls Esther Eshel 1920
The Bible in the Synagogue Avigdor Shinan 1929

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 The Bible in the Liturgy Steja11 C. Reif 1937
The Bible in the Jewish Philosophical Tradition Hava Tirosh-Samuelson 1948
The Bible in the Jewish Mystical Tradition Background by the editors 1976
The Glorious Name and the Incamate Torah by Elliot R. Wolfson 1979
The Bible in Israeli Life Uriel Simon 1990
Jewish Women's Scholarly Writings on the Bible Adele Reinhartz 2000
Jewish Translations of the Bible Leonard f. Greenspoon 2005

Backgrounds for Reading the Bible

The Religion of the Bible Step/ten A. Geller 2021
Concepts of Purity in the Bible Jonathan Klawans 2041
Historical and Geographical Background to the Bible Adapted by Adele Berlin
and Marc Zvi Brettler 2048
Languages of the Bible Steven E. Fassberg 2062
Textual Criticism of the Bible Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler 2067
T he Canonization of the Bible Marc Zvi Brettler 2072
The Development of the Masoretic Bible Jordan S. Penkower 2077
The Modern Study of the Bible Adapted by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler 2084
Reading Biblical Poetry Adele Berlin 2097

Tables and Charts

Weights and Measures 2105
Timeline 2106
Chronological Table of Rulers 2110
Calendar 2114
Table of Biblical Readings 2115
Chapter and Verse Differences 2118

Translations of Primary Sources 2120

Glossary 2122

Index 2143

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 Maps and Diagrams

The table o f nations 27

The geography of the ancestral narratives 32
Probable exodus route according to the Bible 130
The structure of the Tabernacle 164
The conquest of Canaan 469
The Levitical cities 498, 1728
Important cities mentioned in the book of Judges 516
Sites mentioned in connection with the Benjaminite War 555
The activity of Samuel 564
Wanderings of the Ark of the Covenant 569
The kingdom of Saul 576
David's early career and his flight from Saul 591
The kingdom of David 628, 1735
Solomon's twelve administrative districts 68o
The Temple and palace of Solomon 684
The divided monarchy 701, 1784
Places associated with the Elijah narratives 712
Places associated with the Elisha narratives 729
Assyria and Israel and Judah 756, 1810
Places associated with Sennacherib's invasion of Judah 762, 853, 1816
Babylonia and Judah ca. 6oo BCE 776, 1006, 1824
Places mentioned in the oracles against the nations 811, 1016, 1088, 1178, 1239
Tribal territories in the restored Israel 1134
The Temple of Solomon 1769
The kingdom of Solomon 1776

Color Maps follow the last page of the Index

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 Introduction: What Is "The Jewish Study Bible"?

MORE THAN TWENTY-FIVE CENTURIES have passed since an anonymous Jewish poet wrote an
elaborate and lengthy prayer that included this exclamation:
0 how I love your teaching!
It is my study all day long (Ps. 1 19.97).
These two themes-the love for Torah (teaching) and dedication to the study of it-have
characterized Jewish reading and interpretation of the Bible ever since. The love is the impe­
tus for the study; the study is the expression of the love. Indeed the intensity with which
Jews have examined this text through the centuries testifies both to their love of it-a love
combined with awe and deep reverence-and to their intellectual curiosity about it. That tra­
dition of impassioned intellectual engagement continues to the present day.
The tradition of biblical interpretation has been a constant conversation, at times an argu­
ment, among its participants; at no period has the text been interpreted in a monolithic fash­
ion. If anything marks Jewish biblical interpretation it is the diversity of approaches em­
ployed and the multiplicity of meanings produced. This is expressed in the famous rabbinic
saying: "There are seventy faces to the Torah" (Num. Rab. 13.15 and parallels), meaning that
biblical texts are open to seventy different interpretations, with seventy symbolizing a large
and complete number. Thus, there is no official Jewish interpretation of the Bible. In keeping
with this attitude, the interpreters who contributed to this volume have followed a variety of
methods of interpretation, and the editors have not attempted to harmonize the contribu­
tions, so an array of perspectives is manifest. In addition, we do not claim any privileged sta­
tus for this volume; we can only hope that it will find its place among the myriad Jewish in­
terpretations that have preceded and will follow. We hope that Jewish readers will use this
book as a resource to better understand the multiple interpretive streams that have in­
formed, and continue to inform, their tradition. We also hope that The Jewish Study Bible will
serve as a compelling introduction for students of the Bible from other backgrounds and tra­
ditions, who are curious about contemporary academic Jewish biblical interpretation.
Jews have been engaged in reading and interpreting the Bible, or Tanakh, since its incep­
tion. Even before the biblical canon was complete, some of its early writings were becoming
authoritative, and were cited, alluded to, and reworked in later writings, which themselves
would become part of the Bible. Jewish biblical interpretation continued in various forms in
early translations into Greek and Aramaic, in the Dead Sea Scrolls, in rabbinic literature, and
in medieval and modern commentaries; it continues in the present. We therefore have kept
in mind two overarching goals in the commissioning and editing of the study materials in
this volume. The first goal is to convey the best of modern academic scholarship on the
Bible, that is, scholarship that reflects the way the Bible is approached in the university. This
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 desire comes from a strong conviction that this approach does not undermine Judaism, as
leading figures of previous generations had argued, but can add significant depth to Jewish
belief and values. The second goal is to reflect, in as broad a fashion as possible, the range of
Jewish engagement with the Bible over the past two and a half millennia. The breadth of this
engagement, as well as its depth, should not be underestimated. In fact, as a group, the con­
tributors reflect divergent Jewish commitments and beliefs, which infuse their commen­
taries. They employ state-of-the-art scholarship and a wide range of modem approaches; at
the same time, they are sensitive to Jewish readings of the Bible, to classical Jewish interpre­
tation, and to the place of the Bible in Jewish life. In this respect they are actually quite "tra­
ditional," in that Jewish interpreters have a long history of drawing on ideas and methods
from the non-Jewish world in which they lived and incorporating them into Jewish writings.
Although there is no single notion of Jewish biblical interpretation, our contributors share
some commonalities:
• They view the Tanakh as complete in itself, not as a part of a larger Bible or a prelude to

the New Testament. For all of them, the Tanakh is "the Bible," and for this reason The Jewish
Study Bible uses the terms "Tanakh" and "the Bible" interchangeably.
• We avoid the term "Hebrew Bible," a redundancy in the Jewish view. Jews have no

Bible but the "Hebrew Bible." (Some Christians use "Hebrew Bible," a sensitive substitute
for "Old Testament," to distinguish it from the Greek Bible, or New Testament.)
• They take seriously the traditional Hebrew (Masoretic) text of the Bible.

• They take cognizance of and draw upon traditional Jewish interpretation, thereby plac­

ing themselves in the larger context of Jewish exegesis.

• They point out where biblical passages have influenced Jewish practice.

• They call attention to biblical passages that are especially meaningful in the life of the

Jewish community.
Just as there is no one Jewish interpretation, there is no authorized Jewish translation of
the Bible into English. In fact, translation has always been less important in Jewish commu­
nal life than in Christian communities, because public liturgical readings from the Bible have
always been in Hebrew, a language understood until recent centuries by many within the
community. For Jews, the official Bible is the Hebrew Masoretic Text; it has never been re­
placed by an official translation (like the Vulgate, for instance, which is the official Bible of
the Roman Catholic Church). Nevertheless, because many Jews since postbiblical times did
not understand biblical Hebrew, translations into vernacular languages were made. For con­
temporary English-speaking Jews, the best and most widely read Jewish translation is the
most recent one commissioned and published by the Jewish Publication Society, begun in
1955 and completed in 1982, with revisions to the earlier books incorporated in the 1985 edi­
tion, and with a revised and corrected second edition in 1999· That second edition of the
translation (NJPS Tanakh) serves as the basis for this volume.
There is no single way to read through the Bible-this is reflected in the variety of orders
found for the biblical books in manuscripts and rabbinic texts. In fact, some may prefer first
to read background material about the Bible, and only then to read the text. For this reason,
we have taken an expansive approach in offering numerous essays that explore many as­
pects of the Bible and its intepretation. Some of these are of the type found in other study
Bibles, exploring issues such as canon, the history of the biblical period, and modem meth­
ods of studying the Bible. Others reflect the specific interests of The Jewish Study Bible, includ­
ing essays on the history of the Jewish interpretation of the Bible, Jewish Bible translation,
midrash, and the Bible in the Jewish philosophical, mystical, and liturgical traditions. Each
essay is self-standing, and there is often overlap between them. As a whole, however, they
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 KETH UVI M
Terminology and Content
THE VAGUE TERM KETHUVIM, " WRITINGS, " reflects the variety of material collected in this
canonical division, ranging from historical works (e.g., Chronicles), prayers (Psalms), wis­
dom works (e.g., Job), and apocalyptic prophecy (the second half of Daniel). It is likely that
the various books now in this section entered the canon for quite different reasons: Psalms
was used for prayers, the Song of Songs was probably first canonized as an ancient erotic
poem used in wedding ceremonies, while the books of Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes may
have been placed together in the canon because all three belong to a category of writing
known as wisdom literature. Most likely the books now in Kethuvim came together and
were viewed as authoritative and ultimately canonized toward the end of the Second Tem­
ple period, after the canonical section Nevi'im was closed, and thus the books now com­
prising Kethuvim were assembled together, despite their differences, into a single group.
The wide variety of the ordering of these books found in manuscripts and canonical lists
also reflects the fact that Kethuvim was canonized later than Torah, which has a fixed
order, and Nevi'im, where there is only slight variation in the order of the books.
An early order, where the books are largely arranged in what the Rabbis understood to
be their chronological sequence (from Ruth to Chronicles), is found in the Babylonian
Talmud (b. B. Bat. 1 5a). No surviving manuscripts, however, have this order. Most sources
divide Kethuvim into three parts; however, unlike "the former prophets" and "the latter
prophets," no names are extant for each part.
The first section is composed of the three large books Psalms, Proverbs, and Job, either
in that order, or in the order Psalms, Job, and Proverbs. Psalms is always the first book,
suggesting that in some early sources (e.g., Luke 24-44 and the Dead Sea Scrolls) Psalms
may be the title for the entire collection of Kethuvim.
These three large books are typically followed by five smaller books called /wmesh
megillot, "the five scrolls." These books were likely copied together (much like the pro­
phetic collection the Twelve) so that individual short scrolls would not get lost. Many
orders exist for these books. The NJPS translation follows one common order, which
arranges these books in the order in which they are read in the liturgical year: Song of
Songs (Passover in the early spring), Ruth (Shavuot in the late spring), Lamenta tions (the
INTRO DUCTION KETHUVIM
fast of the ninth of Av in the summer), Ecclesiastes (Sukkot in the fall), and Esther (Purim
in the late winter). Another common manuscript order arranges these books according to
their attributed dates of authorship: Ruth (period of judges), Song of Songs (by Solomon
as a youth), Ecclesiastes ( by Solomon when he was old and jaded), Lamentations (by Jere­
miah after the destruction of the Temple), and Esther (by Mordecai, during the Persian
period).
The last collection is of three historical texts: Daniel (which also contains apocalyptic
prophecy), Ezra-Nehemiah, which narrates the history of the early postexilic period, and
Chronicles, which very selectively retells history from Adam through the Cyrus declara­
tion of 538 BCE. This is the order found in the NJPS translation, which follows some manu­
scripts and most printed editions. It is a strange order, since Ezra-Nehemiah is a logical
continuation of Chronicles, quite literally beginning where Chronicles ends, with the
Cyrus declaration. It is thus not surprising that most manuscripts have Ezra-Nehemiah as
the final book of the Bible.
Finally, it is noteworthy that Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah are each viewed by Jewish
tradition as a single book. Like Samuel and Kings (see "Nevi'im," p. 451), only under the
influence of the Septuagint did some manuscripts and early printed versions of the Bible
divide these books into two.

Authorship
THESE BOOKS COME FROM widely diverse time periods. Many show clear linguistic signs
of being p ostexilic; for example, there is clear late Aramaic influence on Ecclesiastes, and
Greek influence on Daniel (see the introductions to these books). In fact,.historical refer­
ences in Daniel would place its composition in the 2nd century BCE. Lamentations is
clearly from the exilic period (586-538) or very shortly thereafter. Many attributed Ruth to
the preexilic period, but it is increasingly being seen nowadays as a postexilic work.
Psalms is a collection, containing some psalms which are considered among the earliest of
biblical literature (e.g., Ps. 68), and others that are dated on the basis of language or
content to the exilic or postexilic periods (Pss. 135; 145). Rabbinic literature attributes
many of the works now found in Kethuvim to traditional figures; thus Jeremiah is consid­
ered the author of Lamentations, and Solomon is considered the author of Ecclesiastes. In
the case of Song of Songs, an attribution of Solomonic authorship was even secondarily
added as the first verse of the composition. These attributions, however, are not histori­
cally accurate; rather, they reflect a late biblical and early rabbinic desire to enhance these
books by connecting them to figures who are central in tradition. Linguistic and other in­
ternal evidence, which is investigated in the introductions to each of the books in Kethu­
vim, is a more reliable way of dating these books.

Wisdom Literature
ACCORDING TO MOST BIBLICAL SC H OLARS, the three books Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes
should be viewed together as wisdom literature. "Wisdom literature" describes works that
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KETHUVIM INTRODUCTION
do not focus on the nation Israel, on its great formative historical memories, such as the
exodus and conquest, on the Temple and Jerusalem, or on covenant as the central theolog­
ical notion binding together God, the people Israel, and the land of Israel. Wisdom books
are thus in some ways a departure from the concerns of other biblical books. They share,
rather, as their focus, reflection on universal human concerns, especially the understand­
ing of individual experiences and the maintenance of ordered relationships that lead both
to success on the human plane and to divine approval.
In more recent scholarship, the concept of "wisdom" has been criticized as too elastic
and amorphous. Indeed, the three wisdom books in this collection are remarkably differ­
ent from one another and do not form a clear unit: Proverbs, in contrast to Job, suggests
that the righteous are rewarded and do not suffer, while Ecclesiastes, in contrast to both
Job and Proverbs, is deeply skeptical of the utility of wisdom. In addition, "wisdom" is a
modern category, deriving from the beginning of the twentieth century, and thus Job,
Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes were not originally grouped together on generic grounds. They
nevertheless share a thematic interdependence. Proverbs provides a normative version of
a type of ancient Near Eastern thought that looked for pattern and repetition in nature and
in the moral life. In this tradition, the regular recurrence of natural phenomena could
provide an analogy to guide human beings in their social interactions:
Charcoal for embers and wood for a fire
And a contentious man for kindling strife. (26.21)
The inevitability of the natural occurrence is mirrored in the inevitability of the social one.
This kind of thinking then was extended to moral behavior, with the argument that good
behavior, like good farming practice, will be rewarded:
He who tends a fig tree will enjoy its fruit,
And he who cares for his master will be honored. (27.18)
Job and Ecclesiastes relate to this normative tradition in different ways. Job denies the in­
evitability of rewards for living an upright life and decisively refutes the idea that human
suffering is always deserved. Ecclesiastes treats the idea of inevitability in a still different
way, emphasizing the great power of God that may be seen through the natural repeti­
tions of seasons, tasks, and occupations. Human attempts to circumvent this power, or
even to understand it fully, are futile. The themes found in these wisdom texts are found
in other biblical texts as well, suggesting that the wisdom school did not have a narrow
sphere of influence. Additionally, the themes of the wisdom tradition are continued (with
significant changes, as wisdom and Torah become identified) in later postbiblical Jewish
works, such as the Apocryphal book of the Wisdom of (Ben) Sirach, which is also known
as Ecclesiasticus.

The Historical Books in Kethuvim

MANY OF THE BOOKS IN KETHUVIM (Ruth, Esther, Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Daniel chs
1-6) may be understood as historical books in the sense that they narrate a past. Much like
the historical texts now found in the Former Prophets (see p. 453), however, those found in
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KETHUVIM INTRODUCTION
grounds, serving ideological and perhaps esthetic purposes. Clearly artistic from a literary
point of view, these books are not simply entertainment: They narrate a past (sometimes a
fanciful past) in order to convey lessons relevant to the community. Ruth, a deceptively
simple pastoral tale, promotes the principles of (1esed, "loyalty," and of family continuity,
elevating it to the national level with the genealogy of David. Esther, a comic farce that
uses drinking parties as a major plot device, provides an etiology or origin for the festival
of Purim and shows that, despite dire threats to their security, Diaspora Jews can triumph
and succeed. Daniel chs 1-6, like Esther, models success in a foreign court and, unlike
Esther, stresses that Jews should be faithful to their religious beliefs and practices in the
Diaspora. The particular characteristics of these three very different books may be found
in the introductions to each book (pp. 1 578-79, 1623-25, and 164o-42).

Kethuvim as a Collection
THE OBSERVATIONS ABOVE SHOW THAT KETHUVIM is the most diverse collection of the
three canonical divisions. Even though various texts may be grouped together, e.g., as
wisdom literature or as historical texts, the individual works that comprise these cate­
gories (e.g., Job and Proverbs) have little in common. Kethuvim has no central theme or
idea, in the way that the Torah (or Hexateuch) might have the land promise and its fulfill­
ment as its center, or the Prophets as a whole might illustrate the significance of heeding
the mediated divine word. In fact, with the exception of Psalms and the five scrolls, which
have significant liturgical uses, Kethuvim has not received much attention within Jewish
tradition.
This lack of attention is quite unfortunate, for these books are among the most interest­
ing biblical books, and also among the most significant for understanding the Bible as a
whole and for following the development from biblical Israel to rabbinic Judaism. Since
this collection contains some of the latest books in the Bible (Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah,
Daniel, Ecclesiastes), it shows us how classical biblical ideas evolved and changed in the
late biblical period, as they began to develop into notions that would be much more famil­
iar to readers of Jewish texts beginning with the Hellenistic period (Apocrypha, Pseude­
pigrapha, and Dead Sea Scrolls) and continuing in early rabbinic literature.
[ MARC ZVI BRETTLER)

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