3.

GAS TURBINE[1]

1. Major Turbine Components

Courtesy of General Electric Company. . The LM2500 is ISO base load rated at 23
megawatts. This cross section of the LM2500 includes the six stage power turbine.

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This section briefly describes the following major components of the GE turbine:

 Air inlet system

 Compressor
 Combustion section
 Turbine
 Exhaust system
 Support systems
 Base and supports

2. Air Inlet System

The air inlet system is specifically designed to modify the quality of air under various temperature,
humidity, and contamination situations and make it more suitable for use.

3. Compressor

The gas turbine compressor is typically an axial flow design that efficiently compresses a large volume of
air. The compressor can consist of up to 18 individual stages operating in series.

Compressors are either the axial design (with up to 19 stages) or the centrifugal design (with one or two
impellers). In the axial compressor designs, beam and cantilever style stator vanes are utilized.
Cantilever style stator vanes are used in compressors where stage loading is relatively light. Compressor
pressure ratios have increased significantly over the past forty years with the aero-derivative
consistently leading the way to higher levels. Pressure ratios, which were 5:1 at the start of World War II
have increased to 12:1 for the newer industrial gas turbines. Through the use of increased stage loading
(variable geometry and dual-spool techniques), compressor pressure ratios of most recent aero-
derivatives have been increased to greater than 30:1 . This advancement in the state of the art is a
prime contributor in the overall increase in simple-cycle thermal efficiency to 35% for aero-derivative
gas turbines. To achieve similar efficiencies the industrial gas turbines have had to use regenerators and
other forms of waste heat recovery.

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Typical materials used in the compressor are listed in Table

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186
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4. Combustion Section

The combustion system consists of liners into which fuel is added and burned with a portion of the
compressed air. The excess compressed air is used to cool the products of combustion.

Fuel is injected into each liner by fuel nozzles that atomize the fuel for good burning.

The fuel is ignited initially by electric igniters. Once the fire is started, the combustion process is self-
sustaining as long as fuel and air are available.

Combustor design is a complex task, often referred to as a “black art.” The combustor design took two
distinct configurations fairly early in the evolution of the gas turbine.

Internal structure of high pressure turbine blade showing the cooling distribution throughout the core of
the blade airfoil and root.

Three high pressure turbine blades, conventional ( equiaxed), columinar grain ( directional solidifi ed),
and single crystal.
This concept of growing the grain structure continuously along the blade’s long, most highly stressed axis
is called directional solidify cation. The single crystal blade has no grain boundaries because

the entire part is grown as a single crystal.

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These are the can-annular combustor and the annular (including the single combustor) combustor
sections.
There are generally two types of can-annular combustors: one is the more efficient straight flow-
through; the other is the reverse flow combustor.

A combustor outlet view of one of the nine combustors in the, 25.5 megawatt, FT8 aero-derivative gas
turbine. Flame temperature at the center of the combustor approaches 3,000°F. The small cooling holes
enable a fl ow of compressor air to continuously cool the combustor liner walls.

The advantage of the reverse flow combustor, as used in the heavy industrial gas turbine, is that this
design facilitates the use of a regenerator, which improves overall thermal efficiency. A further
distinctive design approach within the can-annular concept is a single fuel nozzle and multi-fuel nozzles
per combustion chamber. In theory, a large number of fuel nozzles provide better distribution of the
fuel gas (or greater atomization of the liquid fuel particles) and more rapid and uniform burning and
heat release.
But the problems of equally distributing fuel to each fuel nozzle significantly limit the number of fuel
nozzles employed

Courtesy of Solar Turbines Incorporated. Comparison of the low NOx and standard fuel injectors for the
Centaur 50 gas turbine. SoLoNOx™ is Solar’s designation for it’s low NOx emission engine configuration.

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5. Turbines

The turbine consists of typically three to four stages. Each stage consists of a stationary row of nozzles
where the high-energy gases are increased in velocity and directed toward a rotating row of buckets
(airfoils) attached to the turbine shaft. The high velocity gases push against the buckets, converting the
gases kinetic energy into shaft power.

Varying the amount of fuel injected into the combustion liners changes the energy from the combustion
system, available to drive the turbine.

Turbine nozzle and blade design was, and still is, a function of the performance match between the
turbine and the compressor, and the strength and temperature resistance of available materials.
Present production gas turbines (aero-derivative, heavy industrial, and hybrids) use an impulse-reaction
turbine design. Turbine blade designs in the aero-derivative unit use high aspect ratio (long, thin) blades
incorporating tip shrouds to dampen vibration and improve blade tip sealing characteristics . The heavy
industrial machine incorporates a low aspect ratio (short, thick) blade with no shroud.

Where long thin airfoils have been used, lacing wire has been employed to dampen vibration as shown
in below Figure. Improvements in metallurgy and casting techniques have allowed designers to
eliminate mid-span shrouds and lacing wires.

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Note the hollow 1st stage turbine blade indicating blade cooling and the corrosion on both the 1st and
the 2nd-stage blades

The large cross-sectional area of blades and vanes in heavy industrial turbines does not resist sulfidation
corrosion attack, but can tolerate more corrosion than the thin, high aspect ratio, turbine blades of the
aero-derivative machine.
The heavy industrial machine of comparable horsepower pumps more fuel and approximately 50% more
air than the aero-derivative unit. As a result, the turbine is exposed to a greater quantity of the elements
that cause sulfidation corrosion (that is, it is exposed to more airborne salts and more fuel borne sulfur
because it is pumping more air and consuming more fuel). This increased exposure to the elements that
cause sulfidation corrosion, to a degree, negates the advantage that might have been assumed from the
large cross-sectional area of the blade and nozzle airfoils.

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Trent gas turbine fi rst stage turbine nozzle vane segment. Note the cooling holes in the airfoil mid-span
and in the outer platform upstream of the airfoil.

Turbine blades are subject to stresses resulting from high temperatures, high centrifugal forces, and
thermal cycling. These stresses accelerate the growth of defects or flaws that may be present in the
material.
This is the basis for the demand for materials that can withstand high temperatures without losing their
resistance to centrifugal forces, vibration, thermal cycling, oxidation, or corrosion. Typical super-alloy
materials used in the turbine are listed in Table.

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Bearings

The last major hardware difference between the aero-derivative and heavy and hybrid industrial gas
turbines is in bearing design.
The aero-derivatives use anti-friction roller and ball bearings while the heavy and hybrid industrials use
hydrodynamic bearings. The use of anti-friction bearings in the aero-derivative gas turbines is a
carryover from the flight engine application. In flight engines, where weight is a major concern, rotor
weights are small and well within the loading capabilities of ball and roller bearing design.

Exhaust System

The exhaust system is an internally insulated diffuser duct that directs the gas turbine exhaust flow from
the power turbine exit to the HRSG or into a bypass stack, for a simple cycle turbine.

The exhaust system gradually diffuses the exhaust flow for maximum pressure recovery of the exhaust
flow thereby enhancing turbine performance.

Support Systems

Support systems consisting of lube oil, cooling water, ignition and fuel system, hydraulic oil, fire
protection, and wash water are covered in more detail later.

6. Base and Supports

Turbine Base

The base that supports the gas turbine is a structural steel fabrication of welded steel beams and plate.
Its prime function is to provide a support upon which to mount the gas turbine.

Lifting trunnions and supports are provided, two on each side of the base in line with the two structural
cross members of the base frame. Machined pads on each side on the bottom of the base facilitate its
mounting to the site foundation. Two machined pads atop the base frame are provided for mounting
the aft turbine supports.

Turbine Supports

The typical GT has rigid leg type supports at the compressor end and supports with top and bottom
pivots at the turbine end. Figure shows the major components discussed above. This figure is for a GE
7FA gas turbine but is typical of most gas turbines.

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 Typical Gas Turbine Major Sections

Gas Path

The gas path is the path by which gases flow through the gas turbine from the air inlet through the
compressor, combustion section, and turbine, to the turbine exhaust. When the turbine starting system
is actuated and the clutch is engaged, ambient air is drawn through the air inlet plenum assembly,
filtered and compressed in a multistage, axial flow compressor. For pulsation protection during startup,
compressor bleed valves are open and the variable inlet guide vanes are closed. When the high speed
relay actuates, the bleed valves begin operation automatically and the variable inlet guide vane actuator
energizes to position the inlet guide vanes for normal turbine operation. Compressed air from the
compressor flows into the annular space surrounding the combustion chambers, it then flows into the
spaces between the outer combustion casings and the combustion liners, and enters the combustion
zone through metering holes in each of the combustion liners.

Fuel from an off base source is provided to flow lines, each terminating at the primary and secondary
fuel nozzles in the end cover of the separate combustion chambers.

On liquid-fueled machines, the fuel is controlled prior to being distributed to the nozzles to provide an
equal flow into each liquid fuel distributor valve mounted on each end cover and each liquid fuel line on
each secondary nozzle assembly.

On gas-fueled machines, the fuel nozzles are the metering orifices that provide the proper flow into the
combustion zones in the chambers. The nozzles introduce the fuel into the combustion zone within each
chamber where it mixes with the combustion air and is ignited by one or more of the spark plugs. At the
instant fuel is ignited in one combustion chamber, flame is propagated through connecting crossfire
tubes, to all other combustion chambers where it is detected by four primary flame detectors, each
mounted on a flange on the combustion casings.

The hot gases from the combustion chambers flow into separate transition pieces attached to the aft
end of the combustion chamber liners and flow from there to the three stage turbine section. Each

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stage consists of a row of fixed nozzles and a row of turbine buckets. In each nozzle row, the kinetic
energy of the jet is increased, with an associated pressure drop, which is absorbed as useful work by the
turbine rotor buckets, resulting in shaft rotation used to turn the generator rotor to generate electrical
power. After passing through the third stage buckets, the gases are directed into the exhaust diffuser.
The gases then pass into the exhaust plenum and are introduced to atmosphere through the exhaust
stack.

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7. Starting System
Starting systems fall into two categories: those that drive the gas generator directly and those that drive
the gas generator through an intermediate gearbox. Starters may be diesel or gas engine, steam or gas
turbine, electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic (air or gas).
The starter satisfies two independent functions: the first is to rotate the gas generator until it reaches its
self-sustaining speed, and the second is to drive the gas generator compressor to purge the gas
generator and the exhaust duct of any volatile gases prior to initiating the ignition cycle. The starting
sequence consists of the following
• engage starter
• purge inlet and exhaust ducts
• energize ignitors
• switch fuel on.
The primary function of the starting system is to accelerate the gas generator from rest to a speed point
just beyond the self-sustaining speed of the gas generator (Figure 6-1). To accomplish the starter must
develop enough torque to overcome the drag torque of the gas generator’s compressor and turbine,
any attached loads including accessories loads, and bearing resistance.
The single shaft gas turbines with directly attached loads (such as electric generators) represent the
highest starting torque as the driven load must also be accelerated from rest to a speed sufficiently
above gas generator self-sustaining speed. Two shaft gas turbines (consisting of the gas generator and
the driven load connected to the free power turbine) represent the lowest starting torque
requirements. In this case only the gas generator is rotated. Another function of the starting systems is
to rotate the gas generator, after shutdown, to hasten cooling. The purge and cool-down functions have
lead to utilization of two-speed starters. The low speed is used for purge and cooling and the high speed
is used to start the unit. When sizing the starter, the designer should keep in mind that the gas
generator must move 3 to 5 times the volume of the exhaust stack to insure purging any residual gas
from that area. Also control system programmers and operators should be aware that the purge time,
within the start cycle, is necessary for safe operation.
Gas generators are started by rotating the compressor. This is accomplished in a number of ways:
• Starter directly connected to the compressor shaft
• Starter indirectly connected to the compressor shaft via the accessory gearbox
• Impingement air directed into the compressor or compressor turbine.

Devices used to start gas generators include electric (alternating current and direct current) motors,
pneumatic motors, hydraulic motors, diesel motors, and small gas turbines.

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A typical starting cycle for a gas turbine. Note that the time from starter ‘on’ to engine ‘idle’ is measured
in seconds. This could be as little as 10 seconds for an aero-derivative gas turbine to 30 seconds for a
heavy frame industrial gas turbine.

8. Ignition System
Ignition is one part of the gas turbine system that is often taken for granted. That is until a problem
develops. Even when a problem does develop the ignition system is not the first item checked. One
reason is that this system has developed into one of the most reliable systems in a gas turbine package.
The other reason is that ignition is only required during start-up. Once the unit has accelerated to self-
sustaining speed the ignition system can, and usually is, de-energized.
Experience has shown that the ignition system should not be energized until the gas generator has
reached cranking speed, and remained at that speed long enough to purge any volatile gases from the
engine and exhaust duct. As soon as the igniters are energized, fuel can be admitted into the combustor.
These two distinct functions are often implemented simultaneously, and are commonly referred to as
“pressurization.”
To add to their dependability, it is standard practice to install two igniters in each engine. An igniter is
installed on each side of the engine, although not normally 180 degrees apart. This design approach
holds for all combustor designs (i.e. the annular design, canannular design, or single “stand-alone”
design combustor). In the canannular combustor design the flame propagates from “combustor can to
combustor can” via interconnecting flame tubes (also referred to as cross-over tubes). Also, for
redundancy, the ignition system consists of two identical, independent ignition units (exciters) with a
common electrical power source. During the start cycle each igniter discharges about 1.5 - 2 times per
second with an electrical energy pulse of 4 to 30 joules (depending on combustor size, fuel, etc.)

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9. Lubrication Systems
General

Lubrication systems in gas turbines must address two requirements: one is to provide lubrication
between the rotating and stationary bearing surfaces and the other is to remove heat (cooling effect)
from those surfaces. Lube oil system designs must consider bearing types, rpm, load, temperature, and
oil viscosity.
Bearing types fall into two main categories: hydrodynamic bearings and anti-friction bearings.
Lubrication in a hydrodynamic bearing converts sliding friction into fluid friction. While fluid friction is
considerably lower, it still consumes power and produces heat. Therefore, besides providing the fluid
wedge that separates the surfaces, lubrication oil also removes the heat from that area.
Anti-friction bearings work on the principal of rolling friction.
The shaft load is directly supported by the rolling elements and races in metal-to-metal contact.
Furthermore, the high unit pressures between the rolling element and the inner and outer races
prohibit the formation of an unbroken oil film. Therefore, the role of the lubrication oil is slightly
different. Lubrication oil is still required to remove heat from the bearing area, and it reduces the sliding
friction between the rolling elements and the cage that maintains the position of the
rolling elements. The engine service and the type of bearing selected by the engine designer, dictates
the type of lubrication oil used in the system.
Most heavy frame gas turbines, which incorporate hydrodynamic bearings, use mineral oil while the
aero-derivative gas turbines, which incorporate anti-friction bearings, use synthetic oil.
Mineral oils are manufactured (distilled) from petroleum crude oils and are generally less expensive
than synthetic lubricants.
Synthetic lubricants do not occur naturally but are “built up” by reacting various organic chemicals, e.g.,
alcohols, ethylene, etc., with other elements. Synthetic lubricants are used primarily in very high
temperature applications (less than 350°F and 175°C) or where its fire-resistant qualities are required.

Lubrication Oil Application

Bearings in gas turbines are lubricated, almost without exception, by a pressure circulating system.
Pressure circulating lubrication consist of a reservoir, pump, regulator, filter, and cooler. Oil in the
reservoir is pumped under pressure through a filter and oil cooler to the bearings and then returned to
the reservoir for re-use

Rolls-Royce Marine Spey machinery arrangement for a waterjet-powered fast ferry

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Rolls-Royce MT30 in mechanical drive package (dimensions in mm)

10. Monitoring system

One or more industrial gas turbines or gas turbine-generator power plants are operated by a control
system which preferably employs a programmed digital computer in a hybrid control system
arrangement. The control system operates in a gas turbine control loop arrangement preferably to
control fuel flow and thereby provide load and loading rate control over the turbine and generator or
other load unit and further provide speed, surge and temperature limit control with nonlinear control
loop characterization. In power plant applications, the preferred computer provides generator control
actions and it interfaces with the operator preferably through a central operator's panel to provide
extended power plant management and operational benefits.

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More specifically, as regards temperature monitoring and limit control, process temperature sensors are
arranged and located to detect both normal and abnormal gas turbine operating conditions. In a
preferred arrangement individual sensors are operatively associated in one-to-one relationship with
each combustor in a multiple combustor arrangement. Means are provided for automatic review of
each reading thereby obtained and for determining alarm and control actions as a function of detected
deviations of individual readings from a predetermined reasonability criterion to thereby provide
flexibility of control and reliable, safe operation of the gas turbine within design limits.

11. Maintenance Planning

Advance planning for maintenance is a necessity for utility, industrial and cogeneration plants in order
to minimize downtime. Also the correct performance of planned maintenance and inspection provides
direct benefits in reduced forced outages and increased starting reliability, which in turn reduces
unscheduled repair downtime. The primary factors which affect the maintenance planning process are
shown in Figure and the owners' operating mode will determine how each factor is weighted.
Parts unique to the gas turbine requiring the most careful attention are those associated with the
combustion process together with those exposed to high temperatures from the hot gases discharged
from the combustion system.

They are called the hot-gas-path parts and include combustion liners, end caps, fuel nozzle assemblies,
crossfire tubes, transition pieces, turbine nozzles, turbine stationary shrouds and turbine buckets.

The basic design and recommended maintenance of GE heavy-duty gas turbines are oriented toward:
_ Maximum periods of operation
between inspection and overhauls

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_ In-place, on-site inspection and
maintenance
_ Use of local trade skills to disassemble,
inspect and re-assemble
In addition to maintenance of the basic gas turbine, the control devices, fuel metering equipment, gas
turbine auxiliaries, load package, and other station auxiliaries also require periodic servicing.
It is apparent from the analysis of scheduled outages and forced outages (Figure) that the primary
maintenance effort is attributed to five basic systems: controls and accessories, combustion, turbine,
generator and balance-of-plant.

The unavailability of controls and accessories is generally composed of short-duration outages, whereas
conversely the other four systems are composed of fewer, but usually longer-duration outages.
The inspection and repair requirements, outlined in the Maintenance and Instructions Manual provided
to each owner, lend themselves to establishing a pattern of inspections. In addition, supplementary
information is provided through a system of Technical Information Letters. This updating of information,
contained in the Maintenance and Instructions Manual, assures optimum installation, operation and
maintenance of the turbine. Many of the Technical Information Letters contain advisory technical
recommendations to resolve issues and improve the operation, maintenance, safety, reliability or
availability of the turbine.
The recommendations contained in Technical Information Letters should be reviewed and factored into
the overall maintenance planning program.
For a maintenance program to be effective, from both a cost and turbine availability standpoint, owners
must develop a general understanding of the relationship between their operating plans and priorities
for the plant and the manufacturer's recommendations regarding the number and types of inspections,
spare parts planning, and other major factors affecting the life and proper operation of the equipment.

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[1]References and Further Reading
1)Pounder’s Marine Diesel Enginess & Gas Turbine Edited by Doug Woodyard
2) Introduction to Marine Engineering, Second Edition by D. A. Taylor, MSc, BSc, CENG, FIMarE, FRINA
Marine Consultant, Harbour Craft Services Ltd, Hong Kong Formerly Senior Lecturer in Marine
Technology, Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
3)Gas Turbine handbook – Principles and Practices 3rd Edition by Tony Giampaolo, MSME, PE

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4. Marine Boiler[1]

1. Boiler Types and Classifications

There are two general types of boilers: ''fire-tube'' and ''water-tube''. Boilers are classified as "high-
pressure" or "low-pressure" and "steam boiler" or "hot water boiler." Boilers that operate higher than
15 psig are called "high-pressure" boilers.

A hot water boiler, strictly speaking, is not a boiler. It is a fuel-fired hot water heater. Because of its
similarities in many ways to a steam boiler, the term ''hot water boiler'' is used.

 Hotwater boilers that have temperatures above 250° Fahrenheit or pressures higher than 160
psig are called ''high temperature hot water boilers''.
 Hotwater boilers that have temperatures not exceeding 250° Fahrenheit or pressures not
exceeding 160 psig are called ''low temperature hot water boiler''s.

Heating boilers are also classified as to the method of manufacture, i.e., by casting (cast iron boilers) or
fabrication (steel boilers). Those that are cast usually use iron, bronze, or brass in their construction.
Those that are fabricated use steel, copper, or brass, with steel being the most common material.

Steel Boilers

'''Steel boilers''' are generally divided into two types: ''firetube'' and ''water-tube''.

Fire-tube Boilers

In fire-tube boilers, combustion gases pass through the inside of the tubes with water surrounding the
outside of the tubes. The advantages of a fire-tube boiler are its simple construction and less rigid water
treatment requirements.

The disadvantages are the excessive weight-per-pound of steam generated, excessive time required to
raise steam pressurebecause of the relatively large volume of water, and inability to respond quickly to
load changes, again, due to the large water volume.

The most common fire-tube boilers used in facility heating applications are often referred to as ''scotch''
or ''scotch marine'' boilers, as this boiler type was commonly used for marine service because of its
compact size (fire-box integral with boiler section).

The name "fire-tube" is very descriptive. The fire, or hot flue gases from the burner, is channeled
through tubes that are surrounded by the fluid to be heated. The body of the boiler is the pressure
vessel and contains the fluid. In most cases, this fluid is water that will be circulated for heating
purposes or converted to steam for process use.

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 Fire-tube Boiler Gas Flow'''

Every set of tubes that the flue gas travels through, before it makes a turn, is considered a "pass." So, a
three-pass boiler will have three sets of tubes with the stack outlet located on the rear of the boiler. A
four-pass boiler will have four sets and the stack outlet at the front.

Fire-tube boilers are:

 Relatively inexpensive
 Easy to clean
 Compact in size
 Available in sizes from 600,000 btu/hr to 50,000,000 btu/hr
 Easy to replace tubes
 Well suited for space heating and industrial process applications

Disadvantages of fire-tube boilers include:

 Not suitable for high pressure applications 250 psig and above
 Limitation for high capacity steam generation

Water-tube Boilers

In a water-tube boiler, the water is inside the tubes and combustion gases pass around the outside of
the tubes. The advantages of a water-tube boiler are a lower unit weight-per-pound of steam generated,

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less time required to raise steam pressure, a greater flexibility for responding to load changes, and a
greater ability to operate at high rates of steam generation.

Water-tube Boiler'''

A water-tube design is the exact opposite of a fire-tube. Here, the water flows through the tubes and is
encased in a furnace in which the burner fires. These tubes are connected to a steam drum and a mud
drum. The water is heated and steam is produced in the upper drum.

Large steam users are better suited for the water-tube design. The industrial water-tube boiler typically
produces steam or hot water primarily for industrial process applications, and is used less frequently for
heating applications. The best gauge of which design to consider can be found in the duty in which the
boiler is to perform.

Water-tube boilers:

 Are available in sizes far greater than a fire-tube design , up to several million pounds-per-hour
of steam
 Are able to handle higher pressures up to 5,000 psig
 Recover faster than their fire-tube cousin
 Have the ability to reach very high temperatures

Disadvantages of the water-tube design include:

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 High initial capital cost
 Cleaning is more difficult due to the design
 No commonality between tubes
 Physical size may be an issue

2. Boiler fittings

Just installing a boiler on a ship doesn’t guarantee efficient working of a boiler. There are several
mountings and attachments required to be fitted on the boiler to ensure its safety and quality
performance. The article describes a comprehensive list of boiler mountings without which a boiler
cannot operate on a ship.

Boiler operation can be carried out safely and efficiently by only using the mountings described below:

1) Main steam Stop Valve: The steam generated in the boiler is supplied to the main system through
this v/v. It is normally non-return type of valve.

2) Auxiliary steam Stop Valve: If there is separate steam line provided for small auxiliary system, it is
supplied through this valve. The valve is smaller in size and usually of a non-return type.

3) Safety valve: In the event of unsafe excessive pressure inside the boiler, the safety valve comes in
action to release the overpressure. The lifting pressure of the valve is set prior to its installation and
locked in the presence of a surveyor so that it not changed later on. Safety valves are generally installed
in pairs.

4) Water level gauge glass: Gauge glasses are also fitted in pairs for manually checking the water level
inside the boiler drum. It is on the basis of the boiler pressure that the construction of the gauge glass is
decided.

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5) Air release valve or boiler vent: This valve is fitted in the headers, boiler drum etc, to avoid
imploding of boiler when it is depressurized or when initially raising the steam pressure.

6) Feed check and control v/v: This valve controls the supply of steam supply as per the demand and
is fitted in both main and aux steam line after the stop valve. They are non-return valves with a visible
indication of open and close position.

7) Pressure gauge connection: This pressure gauge can be fitted in super heater, boiler drum and
wherever it is necessary to read the pressure reading.

8) Blow down valve: It is used to empty the boiler completely for maintenance purpose or for water
treatment of boiler when the chloride level becomes very high.

9) Scum blow down valve: It’s a shallow dish type arrangement fitted at the normal water level which
allows the blow down of floating impurities, oil foaming etc from the water surface.

10) Sampling connection: Generally, a sampling water cock arrangement is also fitted with cooler in
series so that water sample can be collected at any time for feed water analysis.

11) Whistle valve: If there is a provision for steam whistle in the ship, then steam is supplied directly
from the boiler through a small bore type non-return valve known as whistle valve.

12) Low Level alarm: A device used to initiate audible warning at low water level condition.

13) Soot blowers: Required to blow the soot and the combustion products from the tube surfaces. It is
operated by steam or compressed air.

14) Automatic feed water regulator: Device which is essential to ensure appropriate water level in all
load conditions and is fitted in the feed line. Multiple element feed water control system is used in
boilers with high evaporation rate.

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3. Steam drum

In the early designs the drums were riveted or solid forged from a single ingot, but for modern boilers
the drum is generally fabricated from steel plate of differing thicknesses and welded. The materials used
are governed by classification society rules. Test pieces must be provided.

The cylindrical drum is normally constructed from four plates. Two dished End plates, a thick wall tube
plate ( thicker to accommodate the holes drilled in it without increased stress) and completed with a
thinner wrapper plate.

Construction takes the form of rigidly clamping the descaled, bent wrapper and tube plates together. In
addition test pieces cut from the original material are attached to the construction in such away that the
longitudinal weld extends either sided of the join. These pieces are later removed and shaped test
shapes cut out from specified areas including across the weld.

The longitudinal weld is critical ( taking twice the circumferential stress) and is normally carried out by
specialized automatic machinery using submerged arc techniques.

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The dished end pieces are accurately aligned and welded.

On completion the construction is cleaned and non-destructive testing- such as x-ray photography,
carried out. Final machining is carried out and any stub pieces and doublers attached. The now complete
drum is heat treated at 600 to 650'C.

The final process is hydraulic testing to classification requirements. Natural circulation within a boiler is
due to the differing specific gravities of the water at the differing temperatures, the steam drum
provides a reservoir of cool water to give the gravitational head necessary for natural circulation. Cool
water entering the steam drum via the feed lines provides the motive effect for the circulation
distributing it to the down comers.

Also the space within the drum provides for the separation of the steam and water emulsions formed in
the water walls and the generating tubes. Water droplets entrained with the separated steam are
removed by separating components fitted in the drum as well as the perforated baffle plates fitted at
the water line.

The space above the water line provides for a reserve steam space needed to maintain plant stability
during maneuvering conditions.

Also fitted are the chemical injection distributing pipe and the scrumming plate.

The smaller the drum is made, the less thickness of material that is required. However, the limitation to
how small is that sufficient space must be allowed for the separation of water from the steam before
passing out to the super heater space otherwise dryers must be used. Also, due to the smaller reserve of
water, larger fluctuations in water level occur during maneuvering.

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4. Water circulation

Positive circulation of water through heated tubes is provided by a number of external down comers
taking water from the steam drum and feeding it to a circular header at the base of the boiler. This
header then distributes the water to the water wall tubes, through which it rises upon heating to enter
the annular water space arranged around the flue pipe. From here the water passes up through the
numerous generating tubes to enter finally the cylindrical steam drum at the top of the boiler

Refractory material is used to protect the furnace floor and the bottom header from radiant heat.

At the top of the furnace the water wall tubes curve over to protect the annular water space from the
direct heat of the flame .

Of welded construction, the boiler has a number of flat surfaces which require support. Stays are fitted
in the steam drum and in the annular water space, which together with a number of stay tubes provide
the necessary support.

Manholes provide internal access to steam and water spaces, with bolted panels giving access to the gas
spaces.

A flanged skirt enables the boiler to be secured in place, with additional support from bulkheads etc . to
anti-rolling lugs welded to the upper part of the boiler.(see Fg. Water tube boiler above).

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5. Gas circulation

These consist of auxiliary boilers so arranged that they can receive the heat required for the generation
of steam either from the main engine exhaust gases, or by the burning of oil in the boiler furnace . In
most cases the oil firing can be used in conjunction with the exhaust gases to support or even replace
them . A suitable by- pass line with a change -over valve will be fitted so the main engine exhaust gases
can be diverted from the a boiler when required .
From the combustion chamber the gases pass through smoke tubes , which consist of plain and stay
tubes-the latter being necessary to support the flat tube plates.
After leaving the tubes, the gases enter the smoke box, and then the uptakes.
Two types of tubes are used : Plain and stay tubes
In many cases gas/air heaters are fitted to increase the boiler efficiency.

These consist of some form of exhaust gas heat exchanger mounted in the main engine uptake .
However the output of these units is directly dependant upon the main engine output and so it is
necessary to provide an additional oil fired boiler to supplement or supplant the steam produced by the
exhaust gas unit when the main engine is operating at low load conditions, or when it is stopped . In
many cases a convenient arrangement is to use the drum of the oil fired boiler as a steam receiver for
the exhaust gas heat exchanger. This gives the advantages that only a single steam drum with its
associated mountings is required , and that the oil fired boiler is kept in stand-by condition ready for
immediate oil firing to support or replace the heat from the main engine exhaust gases .

Composite boiler

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6. Operating modes

There are many different modes of boiler plant operation. The one normally dealt with is “normal
operation” when the plant is generating steam (vapor) or heating water (fluid) and all the operator need
do is monitor it in the event something goes wrong. The other modes of operation require an operator
act to change the condition of the plant.No book can provide a specific set of instructions to perform
those activities because every boiler plant is different.

7. Expansion tank

A hot water system will also have a means to add water, usually directly from a city water supply. Most
have a water pressure regulator that adds water as needed to keep the pressure above the setting of
the regulator. A relief valve (not the boiler’s safety valve) is also provided to drain off excess water.

Older systems can be modified and added to the extent that the expansion tank is no longer large
enough to handle the full range of expansion of a system. In some newer installations were not designed
to handle the full expansion of the system. Those systems require automatic pressure regulators to keep
pressure in the system as the water shrinks when it cools and the relief valve to dump water as it
expands while the system heats up. The tank should be large enough, however, to prevent the constant
addition and draining of water during normal operation.

A good tight system with a properly sized expansion tank should retain its initial charge of water and
water treatment chemicals to simplify system maintenance

8. Superheating and steam

As shown on the diagram , if dry saturated steam is further heated at constant pressure, its temperature
increases, and thus it stores more energy without increasing the boiler scantlings. The onset of
condensation is also delayed , the steam having to drop to the evaporation temperature corresponding
to the pressure . However superheating alone also gives some disadvantages; these are as follows :

During the superheating process, the steam must be free to expand, thus the specific volume of the
steam increases as the amount of superheat increases.

Low boiler pressure would not give sufficient pressure drop through the superheater, the turbine
nozzles, and turbine for efficient operation.

The lower evaporation temperature corresponding to the low pressure limits the opportunity for feed
heating in the system.

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It can therefore be seen that neither raising the pressure , nor increased amounts of superheat, provide
on their own a suitable means of increasing the thermal efficiency of the plant; instead there has been a
general increase in boiler pressure coupled with the use of higher superheat temperatures. The higher
pressure keeps the final volume of the steam delivered to the turbine within reasonable limits, giving
the higher evaporation temperatures required for the fuller use of feed heating.

Finally the higher pressure gives the necessary pressure drop required for the proper steam flow
through the superheater, etc. It also enables the pressure drop through the turbine to be arranged so
that the steam temperature at any stage is always above the corresponding evaporation temperature;
condensation is therefore prevented from taking place until the final rows of the low pressure turbine .

Su perhea ter in a D-type boiler

In a water tube boiler, the water flowing through the tubes conducts the heat away so rapidly that the
tube metal temperatures lie much closer to the water temperature than to the gas temperature . Steam
, however, due to its lower specific heat cannot conduct heat away from the tube metal so quickly ,
therefore superheater tubes tend to work at higher metal temperatures than those containing mainly
water, e.g. screen, water wall, and generating tubes. However, for superheat temperatures up to about
455°C, no serious metallurgical problems arise and ordinary mild steel tubes can be used . For superheat
temperatures above this value, alloy steels containing small amounts of chrome and molybdenum ar e
necessary in quantities graded to suit the operating conditions. This greatly increases the cost of the
superheater, and also presents difficulties in welding the tubes; this is necessary as, at these elevated
temperatures, expanding the tubes into the headers proves unsatisfactory.
However, even with the use of alloy steels the temperatures must be kept within certain limits, and at
the present time superheat temperatures in the order of 560°C form the upper limits for marine use .
Thus it is necessary to provide some form of superheat control in order to keep the temperature below
455°C so that mild steel tubes can be used , or within the limits required for the alloy steel being used .

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When the operating superheat temperature is well below the limit for mild steel , sufficient control can
be achieved by the position of the superheater within the boiler where, other factors being equal, the
more row s of tubes pl aced between the furnace and the superheater, th e lower will be the steam
temperature.
With this form of control fluctuations of temperature , caused by changes in load, can only be kept in
check by the rate of manoeuvring. This means that as operating temperatures are increased undue
limitations are imposed upon the manoeuvring rat e and so some further means of control become
necessary.
This can be achieved by various method s:
By using dampers to control the flow of gases over the superheater.
De signing the boiler with two se pa rate furnaces so that the superheat temperature can be controlled
by the amount of fuel burnt in the individual furnaces.
By the use of an atternperator. These can be air or water cooled , and are fitted in circuit between
primary and secondary superheaters.
Another method, occasionally used where the superheater is well protected from direct radiant heat , is
to allow some of the steam to make a reduced number of passes through the superheater by means of a
by-pass valve fitted to the superheate r header .

All of these method s are used basic all y to protect the superheater ; i.e . by preventing the metal
temperatures from re aching too high a level.
Another form of control, known as de-superheating, is necessary to provide lower temperature steam
for use in auxiliary machinery, or where limitations are imposed on the steam temperature to be used in
an astern turbine . Two main forms of de-superheater are in general use ; one is a surface type, similar
in construction to an attemperator. The other consists of a water spray, either mounted in a separate
chamber, or directly in the steam line. The latter is used in a few cases to control the steam temperature
entering a turbine casing.
The reason for using a de-superheater, instead of taking saturated steam directly from the boiler, is to
give additional protection to the superheater by providing some circulation of superheated steam-even
when the turbine throttle is closed-so preventing the superheater tubes from overheating.
A final reason for the control of superheat temperatures is that in the combustion of residual oil, certain
impurities (mainly sodium and vanadium salts) cause bonded deposits to form on the superheater
tubes. One way of reducing these deposits is to prevent the hot gases which leave the furnace from
coming into direct contact with the superheater.
This is done by placing rows of screen tubes to reduce the gas temperature, and in many modern boilers
by placing the superheater remote from the furnace. In addition with multi-loop superheaters using high
superheat temperatures, the final superheat section uses parallel flow, so preventing the hottest gas
and steam temperatures coming into contact with each other.

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9. Soot blower

In order to maintain the gas side heating surfaces of a boiler in a clean condition
and so prevent an undue build-up o f deposit s which can lead to corrosion and/ o r uptake fire s, soot
blowers are fitted .
Soot blowers consist of two main parts, the head o r chest , and one or more nozzles attached to a tube
or spindle made of heat-resistant steel. An operating mechanism fitted in the chest rotating and, in
some cases, retracting the nozzles as required .
The efficiency of the blower depends upon the conversion of pressure energy in the blowing medium to
kinetic energy; this results in a high velocity jet of fluid impinging upon the sooted surfaces .
Although in a few cases the soot blowers operate with compressed air, the
majority of marine soot blowers use steam.
Superheated steam is normally used to maintain dry conditions, and also to ensure that the superheater
is not starved of steam while blowing is in progress.
Soot blower steam lines should be sloped so as to be self-draining to a suitable drain valve. These are
often automatic to ensure they remain full open when the steam is shut off, closing when the steam is
turned on, but not until sufficient steam has been allowed to blow through in order to warm the lines.
The reason for leaving the drain full open, when the master valve supplying steam to the soot blowers is
closed, is to prevent any leakage past this valve leading to a build-up of pressure, which would force
steam to leak past the blower seal rings and so cause corrosion of the blower nozzles.
When air or high pressure steam is being used, a double shut off valve is fitted in addition to the seal
rings to ensure the air or steam only enters each soot blower as it actually commences its blowing
sequence

Soot blower

The general arrangement of a high pressure, automatically operated soot blower is shown in
diagrammatic form in Fig. It is operated by an electric motor driving through a reversing gear box. The
motor is started in its correct sequence from a central control consol, moving the blower through its
correct blowing procedure until a cam arrangement in the gear box switches it off, and as it does so it
gives a signal for the next blower to start.
A handle can be fitted to the square at the end of the operating screw to enable the blower to be
operated manually.

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The type shown is retractable, so first the operating screw extends the nozzle to its blowing position. As
it comes towards the end of its travel, the cam opens the double shut off valve, allowing steam to pass
through to the blower chest, where the seal rings have now moved to a position which allows the steam
to enter the admission ports in the sliding spindle.
The steam passes along this spindle to the convergent divergent nozzle where the expansion process
taking place results in a high velocity
steam jet.
A guide pin moving in a slot causes the nozzle to be rotated through its blowing arc while the steam is
on.
To prevent high pressure steam eroding tubes in high temperature regions of the boiler, restriction or
orifice plates, fitted in the steam supply passage to the individual soot blowers, reduce the pressure as
required.
Cooling air is sometimes supplied to the wall box tube. This air is normally taken from the forced
draught fan discharge before the air heater.

10. Economizers

Economizers are used to increase boiler efficiency, being placed in the uptakes to lower the temperature
of the ex ha us t gases, an d in so doing heat up the incoming feed water as it passes through the
economizer on its way to the steam drum.

Economizer

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A typical economizer consists of two or more solid-forged mild steel headers, to which are connected
series of tubes. These may be attached to the headers either by expanding and bell-mouthing, or by
welding, usually by mean s of stub tubes.
The economizer shown in Fig. consists of a number of multi-loop tube
elements enabling the feed water to make several passes across the gas stream as it passes through the
economizer.
The materials used for the various economizer section s are governed by the minimum metal surface
temperatures required to reduce corrosive attack . These metal temperatures in turn are a function of
the feed temperature , being in general some 5°C higher than that of the water passing through the
tube.
For feed temperatures above 138°C plain , solid-drawn mild steel tubes may be used, but it is usual to
weld mild steel fins or studs onto the tubes so as to extend their heat exchange surface. If the feed
water temperature lies between 115°C to 138°C cast-iron gills arc used . These completely cover the
mild steel tubes, thus protecting them from corrosive attack.
The tubes are supported by vertical tube plates forming the sides of the uptake. In some cases
additional intermediate tube support plate s are fitted with in the uptake.
A relief valve must be fitted to the economizer if it can be isolated from the boiler.
In many cases this is not possible since the feed check, and feed regulator are placed on the inlet to the
economizer, which then forms an integral part of the boiler.
Air vents must be provided for the release of air when filling the economizer, or when raising steam.
Drain valves fitted to the lower headers enable the economizer to be emptied of water when required.
Efficient soot blowing arrangements must be provided so as to keep the heat exchange surfaces free
from soot. This is important not only in the interests of efficiency, but also to reduce the possibility of an
uptake fire starting in sooty deposit s.
Suitable access and the necessary fittings and drains should be provided for the water washing of the
uptake heat exchanger s when the boiler is shut down.

Finned tube economizer

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11. Air Heaters
Reasons for their use
These are fitted for three main reasons
 To increase efficiency by recovery of heat from flue gases ( except where bled steam
heaters are in use, these increase overall plant efficiency but by a different method)
 Accelerate rate of combustion
 Avoid effect of cold air impinging on boiler surface

Additionally the air heater forms a convenient way to warm through a boiler in standby using steam
from a secondary source.

For Air heaters which remove heat from the flue gas and transfer it to the air a limit must be placed on
the amount of heat remove to ensure that the dew point is not reached before the gas is expelled from
the funnel. Failure to do this can lead to the formation of acids which attack sensitive parts of the
system. For this reason all gas/air tube or regenerative type heaters have a low load by pass
arrangement.

For water tube boilers gas air heaters are only considered where the temperature at inlet to economiser
is greater than 200oC. Due to greater heat transfer efficiency between gas/water economisers are
preferred to gas/air exchangers.

Types of air heaters

Lungstrom gas/air heater (regenerative)

The drum contained within the cylindrical casing is formed into segments into which are placed
removable ( for cleaning) baskets, consisting of vertical plates (to give minimum resistance to flow) The
drum slowly rotates, about 4rev/min, driven via a flexible coupling,gear train, clutch and thrust bearing
by one of two electric motors; one mounted on top the other below.

As the drum rotates a segment will enter the gas side, here it removes heat from the gas, it continues to
rotate until entering the air side where it will give up its heat to the air. The heat transfer is very

218
efficient, however, soot and corrosive deposits quickly build up in the mesh and hence an effective soot
blowing method is essential. This normally takes the form of an arm , pivoted at the circumference of
the drum with a single nozzle at the other end. This sweeps across the drum rather like a record arm.
One of these arms are fitted top and bottom.

Gas leakage to the air side is prevented by the air being at a higher pressure and by fine radial clearance
vanes fitted in the drum segments.

By passes for both air and gas sides are fitted to prevent fouling with the reduced gas flow and
temperature, also during manoeuvring when the possibility of different gas/air flow rates occurring
leading to high metal temperatures and possible fires.
Failure by uptake fires is not uncommon with this as in most gas/air heater designs.

The main advantages are considered to be very high efficiencies, small foot print relative to a tubular
heat exchanger and ease of maintenance with replaceable relatively cheap baskets

Tubular gas/air heater

Shown above is the horizontal tube type air heater which was less susceptible to choking with soot than
the vertical types sometimes found with older scotch boilers.
To aid cleaning water washing was sometimes carried out to aid the sootblowers

Bled steam air heater

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The use of individual banks and 'U' tubes allow for ease of isolation when these become perforated
without large loss of heating surface. The tubes were expanded into the headers and made of cupro
nickel with copper fins.

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12. Steam to steam generation
These can be used in conjunction with higher pressure water tube boilers to provide low pressure
saturated steam for auxiliary purposes. High pressure steam from the water tube boiler is supplied to
heating coils placed below the water level in the steam to steam generator and so producing low
pressure steam in the generator shell. The steam to steam generar has its own separate feed water
system, so protecting the feed system of the high pressure boiler against contamination by aerated and
possibly dirty auxiliary drain returns. This is especially important where steam heating is used in cargo
tanks or oil fuel heaters, with the ever present risk of the return drains being contaminated with oil
From leaking heating coils.
If oil should enter the steam to steam generator it would only cause a reduction in the evaporation rate
due to fouling of the heating coils, and would not lead to tube failure as cold happen if the oil enters a
directly fired boiler. However the cost of this arrangement is greater than by supplying th low pressure
steam from the high pressure boiler via pressure reducing valves , and if necessary a desuperheater.
Thus a steam to steam generator would only be fitted if the risk of oil contamination is considered to
outweight this higher initial cost.

There are two basic designs of steam to steam generators in general use, small vertical units, and larger
horizontal ones, a typical layout of which is shown in Fig . below.

Steam to steam generator

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The heating coils consist of solid drawn copper, cupro-nickel or mild steel depending upon the operating
conditions involved. The tubes are attached to the header by expanding and bell mouthing. The high
pressure steam is supplied to the upper part of this header, and then passes through the U-tubes until
its latent heat is give up , so producing low pressure steam from the water in the generator shell. This is
of welded construction , having a cylindrical form with dished ends so avoiding the need to fit internal
stays.

Mountings similar to those of a boiler are fitted , the safe y valve being able to handle either the normal
maximum evaporation, or that produced by the failure of a heating tube. Internal access is provided by a
manhole in the top of the shell, and provision is made for the complete removal of the tube stack. The
type shown has an evaporation rate of 12000 kg/hr at a pressure of 1000 kN/m2 when the heating coils
are supplied with 15000 kg/hr of saturated steam at a pressure of 2100 kN/m2

13. Combustion of Fuel in Boilers

The combustion of a residual fuel oil in a boiler furnace takes in a number of stages, which are described
as follows.
The oil is first heated in steam or electric fuel oil heaters. This reduces its viscosity and makes it easier to
pump, filter, and finally to atomize.
However it must not be overheated at this stage, otherwise a process known as 'cracking' occurs,
leading to carbon deposits, and the formation of gas in the fuel oil lines, etc. The gas, due to its large
volume, reduces the mass of oil passing through the burners, which in turn leads to a possible reduction
in the steaming rate of the boiler owing to the reduced amount of fuel actually burnt.
This gasification can also cause instability in the combustion process itself, resulting in a fluctuating
flame formation.
The heated oil is now passed through the burners where it is atomized; this process breaks it up into a
fine spray of droplets, so presenting a very large surface area of oil to the combustion processes. The
droplets formed are of two main types, i.e. very fine particles consisting of the lighter fractions of the
fuel, which form a fine mist, and slightly larger droplets formed by the heavier fractions of the resistant
fuel.

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Combustion in a boiler furnace

The burner also imparts rotational energy to the fuel so that it leaves the burner tip as a hollow, rotating
cone formed of fine droplets of oil.
The combustion stage itself can now commence, and in a boiler furnace a type of combustion often
referred to as a 'suspended flame' is used . For this a stream of oil particles and air enters the
combustion zone at the same rate at which the products of combustion leave it.
The actual flame front therefore remains stationary, while the particles pass through it, undergoing the
combustion process as they do so. The combustion zone itself can be sub-divided into two main stages;
these are referred to as the primary and secondary flames.

14. Burners
Most boilers get their heat for the hot water or steam from the combustion of fuel which requires a
burner. There are some devices for combustion that aren’t called burners, including stokers but all of
them combine the fuel with air to form a combustible mixture so the air and fuel react to produce
combustion products and heat. The purpose of the burner is to control the mixing of fuel and air so the
combustion occurs smoothly and uniformly within the furnace of the boiler.

There are several components of a burner and variations in construction that are designed to assist in
this function

The burner has to control the mixing of the fuel and air in a manner that ensures complete and stable
combustion. Stability of combustion requires the burner produce a fuel rich mixture right at the upper

223
explosive limit where the burning begins and that mixing point has to be stable as described in the
chapter on combustion.

If the burner fails to produce a stable ignition point the flame front will shift around in the furnace
producing pulsations that disturb the process and make it worse.

The quality of the burner is indicated by noise, as the quality of mixing gets worse the noise gets louder
and some burners are so bad that flame spurts out any open inspection port. Resolving that mixing
problem is not a simple matter, it’s a combination of engineering and art with many solutions achieved
solely by trial and error. It’s not uncommon for a service technician to try several combinations of
burner tips, diffusers, and burner adjustments to resolve an unstable ignition problem, sometimes
taking days or weeks.

During startups many owners and operators get frustrated with a new boiler because the startup takes
so much time to resolve an unstable combustion problem and, despite the fact that the problem is
solved, will never trust the boiler as much as they would if the problem never occurred. It’s not
uncommon and it’s not something that’s predictable so if it happens . Unless the owner accepts
something less than reliable operation out of a new boiler it will always be more reliable than an older
one.

It’s the nature of burners that a deviation in any one part can produce several conditions inconsistent
with good combustion all of which can be due to several things. Many times an operator unwittingly
does something that alters a burner’s performance without being aware of it and the owner pays the
price in higher fuel costs for long periods before the deviation is discovered and corrected.
Understanding what the many adjustments on a burner do is one way of preventing such things
happening.

Burners on multiple burner units are typically fitted with a register, a set of bent damper blades that
form a circle around the burner inlet (Figure below). Some are independently set with a locking bolt or
screw on each blade while others are fitted with linkage attached so the blades turn uniformly and the
flow of air to each burner can be adjusted while maintaining an even flow of air around the burner.

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Burner registers will not only serve as a means to throttle air flow they also deflect the air to create a
swirl in the air. That produces additional turbulence for better mixing. Sometimes two registers are
employed, one to supply air around the outside of the fire and one for air supplied to the center, around
the diffuser. When they are used, dual registers typically produce swirls in the opposite direction for
better mixing. Another function of the burner registers and diffuser is flame shaping.
Modern package boilers have very small furnaces and older sterling boilers have short furnaces. To
prevent flame impingement on the furnace walls the burner register and diffuser position combinations
help shape the flame.
On some boilers the registers are modulated along with the air and fuel controls to alter the shape of
the flame for different loads.
You probably won’t see a burner register throttled down for better mixing today because we’ve learned
that rapid mixing makes for quick burning, hotter fires and more NOx production.
The register burner is being replaced by the axial flow burner which is designed to minimize turbulence
but ensure even distribution of air to the flame front. The original concept of the axial flow burner was
developed in England included creation of a venturi throat for each burner that not only improved air
flow distribution but also provided a means of measuring the air flow at each burner to allow final
tuning of air distribution through them (Figure below).

Venturi burner with flow sensing ports

One advantage of the venturi is it creates a large static pressure to velocity pressure conversion at the
burner inlet, most which is recovered in the diverging section. The velocity conversion tends to balance
the air flow through each burner to improve air distribution on multiple burner boilers.
Control of air flow, including shutting off burners on axial flow units is achieved by a damper that forms
a sliding sleeve at the inlet of the venturi. Most low NOx burners applied to single burner boilers can’t
benefit from the venturi design so other means are used to improve air distribution.
Large single burner and multiple burner boilers normally have one air supply with the air flowing to the
burner distributed within a windbox. The windbox receives the air from the forced draft fan and
provides sufficient space around the burners for the air to be distributed evenly. At least that was
supposed to be the idea. Several installations was not really provided adequate air distribution in the
windbox, especially between burners, so the fires were not truly uniform.

A gas burner can be premix or post-mix. While most boiler burners are post-mix, where the gas and oil
mix after they enter the furnace, premix burners are available. Many operators think of a premix burner
as hazardous, after all we make a combustible mixture outside the furnace!.
Many operators that moved from firing process equipment to the boiler plant are comfortable with
premix burners because they have a lot of experience with them. As long as the mixture isn’t heated
above the ignition temperature it can’t burn and premixing permits a low cost arrangement of multiple

225
burners which is frequently necessary for good heat distribution in processing equipment. There aren’t
many boiler applications with premix burners so I won’t spend any more time on them than this. Your
understanding of combustion and the instruction manual should be all you need to operate a premix
burner.
Of the post-mix gas burners there are two choices which are normally identified as atmospheric burners
or power burners.
Atmospheric burners do not normally have fans or blowers to deliver the combustion air to the burner
and seldom have induced draft fans. Lacking the power of the fan to introduce and help mix the fuel and
air, atmospheric burners use some of the gas pressure for that process.

Oil Burners
Fuel oil is introduced into a burner using a burner
tip which is normally mounted on the end of what we
call an oil gun (Figure below).

Oil gun

The design and arrangement of the tip and gun is dependent on the type of atomizing system. Pressure
atomizing burners have one or more tips on the end of a pipe positioned in the burner at the point
where the oil has to be injected to develop the air/fuel mix.
Pressure differential, air atomizing and steam atomizing burners need two pipes, one to convey the oil
to the tip and another to supply the air or steam or return the oil from the tip. Traditionally the two
pipes are concentric with the oil supply down the center pipe and the annular space between the two
providing the passage for air, steam or return oil but (like the one in the figure) some manufacturers
provide two separate pipes running side by side.
The tip introduces the oil into the furnace in a way that makes it possible for the oil and air to mix and
burn.
To ensure the oil and air mix and burn completely a fuel oil burner tip provides a means for “atomizing”
the oil. Atomization is breaking the oil up into tiny droplets (not as small as an atom but small enough)
so the air can mix in between all the droplets for complete burning.

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15. Water Level Indicators

The demand that at least two water level indicators must be fitted to each boiler. In practice the usual
arrangement consists of two direct reading water level gauges mounted on the steam drum, and a
remote reading indicator placed at a convenient control position.

Every boiler must have at least two independent means of indicating the water level. These indicators
must be placed in a position where they can be easily and clearly seen by the operator. Scotch boilers
must have the two indicators placed one to each side.
Some small, vertical low-pressure boilers may have three test cocks, placed vertically one above the
other in way of the normal water level, together with one gauge glass. However no boiler whose
working pressure is above 820 kNrrn ", or with a diameter in excess of 1,8 m, is allowed to use test cocks
as a means of indicating water level.
In most cases marine boilers make use of two indicators in which the water level is clearly visible. For
pressures up to 1750 kN/m2 these usually take the form of tubular-type water level gauges, while for
pressures above this value some form of plate-type gauge glass is used.

The general arrangement of a tubular gauge glass is shown in Fig. below.

Tubul ar type water level gauge

227
It consists of two gun-metal bodies, the glass tube fitted between them, being held in place and sealed
at each end by nuts tightened onto soft, tapered sealing rings .
Isolating cocks are fitted to the steam and water connections, while a drain cock fitted at the lower end
allows for blowing through the glass to test it. In some cases, gun-metal cocks having tapered plugs
stemmed with asbestos are used. These are not only difficult to keep tight, but also are liable to seize
up, and in most cases the more efficient asbestos sleeve-type cocks are used.
The gauge may be fitted directly to the boiler shell, and while this is recommended, in some cases-
especially with Scotch boilers-in order to clear the smoke box, etc. it is fitted to an external pipe, or
alternatively to a hollow or solid column, the ends of which are then connected to the boiler shell by
pipes. Isolating cocks or valves, fitted where these pipes are attached to the shell, give the advantage of
a double shut off. This enables maintenance to be carried out on the gauge glass cocks while the boiler
is still steaming.
A ball valve is fitted to the lower end of the gauge in order to shut off the water in the event of the glass
fracturing. Otherwise, as water is blown out, the reduction in pressure causes it to flash off into large
volumes of scalding steam, with possible injury to boiler-room personnel. Although steam will escape at
the other end , it will not be subject to this great increase in volume. and thus the mass of steam
blowing out is limited.
However, in some cases restricting orifices are fitted in the steam end, only allowing a greatly reduced
quantity of steam to blowout in the event of failure-just sufficient to indicate fracture .
Plugs are fitted in the gun-metal bodies to allow for the renewal of the glass tube, and for cleaning the
various passages.
Plate-glass guards should be fitted to prevent injury in the event of the glass tube shattering. especially
when blowing through.
Difficulty is often experienced with this type of glass in ascertaining whether it shows completely empty
or completely full of water. It is good practice to place a board, painted with diagonal black and white
stripes, behind the glass . If it is full of water, refraction will cause the stripes to appear bent to the
opposite angle. If no board is fitted, a pencil, or similar object can be used to the same effect.
Finally the handles of the steam and water cocks must lie vertically downwards when in the full open
position, while the drain cock handle must be in this position when closed. This is to prevent Vibration ,
etc . causing the cocks to move to such a posit ion that a false indication of the water level could result.

Low Water Alarms

The classification societies demand that these should be fitted to reduce the risk of damage in the event
of a loss of water in the boiler due to a burst tube or failure of the feed supply.
In some cases they are mounted inside the steam drum, but many are mounted externally. Various
types are available, either steam or electrically operated. Some versions also incorporate high water
level alarms

Remote reading type water level indicator

Difficult y is often experienced in observing the water level as indicated by the direct reading water level
gauges mounted on the steam drums of water tube boilers.
Thus it is usually considered necessary to provide an additional means of indicating
the water level at some point convenient to the starting plat form or control room .
This can be done by a remote reading indicator such as the (Igema) gauge shown in Fig.below.

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 Igerna type remote reading water level indicator

This consists basically of a U- tube, the two legs connected to the steam drum as shown. Red indicating
fluid , which is insoluble in water, fills the lower end and remain s there since its density is greater than
that of the water.
Above this fluid the two legs of the U-tube are filled with water ; one being kept filled to a constant head
by mean s of steam condensing in the unlagged condenser.
The level in the other leg corresponds to that in the steam drum. Thus the head s supported by the
indicating fluid vary . As the water level in the drum rises so it tends to balance the constant head, and
the indicating fluid rises in the glass . The opposite happen s when the drum water level falls, the level of
the indicating fluid in the glass also falling.
The sharp contrast between the red indicating fluid and the water enables the operator to see the
indicated water level at a glance . A completely empty or full glass is immediately obvious.
When taking the boiler out of service , shut off the remote indicator by first closing the gauge isolating
valve (3) , then the steam isolating valve ( 1), an d finally the water isolating valve (2).
When opening up , first open the steam valve (1 ), then the water valve (2), and finally the gauge
isolating valve (3) .
If the remote indicator is connected to the same balance connection s as one of the direct reading water
level gauges , it is important that the remote indicator is isolated before the water level gauge is blow n
through . Otherwise water may be drawn out of the legs of the U-tube so causing a false water level to
be indicated by the remote reading gauge.
After cleaning, etc. the following procedure should be carried out to refill the indicator. First close the
isolating valves ( 1) and (2) on the boiler , and the regulating screw (4) . Remove all filling plugs. Then
pour in the indicating fluid through the indicator filling plug (5) until the lower part of the U-tube is
completely filled, fluid overflowing at the filling plug.
Close the gauge isolating valve (3) and replace the filling plug (5) . Then slowly pour distilled water into
the water filling plugs (6) on top of the dirt traps until it overflows. Replace the filling plugs. Fin ally pour
water into the top filling plug (7), until again it overflows; the plug is then replaced.
The remote reading gauge glass should now show completely red . Leave it in this condition until full
boiler pressure has been raised .

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When the boiler is under steam open the steam valve ( 1), then the water valve (2) followed by the
gauge isolating valve (3) . Leave for about 15 minutes to settle down , then crack open the regulating
screw (4) and slowly bleed off excess indicating fluid, dropping the level about 6 mm a t a time , with
about fifteen minutes between , until finally the level of indicating fluid at the centre of the glass
corresponds to the water level at the centre of the direct reading water level gauge glass.
Although subjected to boiler pressure, the remote indicator glass is not at high temperature and very
rarely gives trouble. However, the apparatus .should be cleaned out about once every six months. The
indicator should be isolated , drained, and the flushed through with clean water. The indicator must
never under any circumstances be blown through either with steam or water.
The glass is illuminated from behind, access to these light s being obtained by removing the sheet metal
casing at the back of the gauge.

16. Safety Valves

These are fitted to protect the boiler from the effects of overpressure . The DOT demand that at least
two safety valves are fitted to each boiler, but in pr act ice it is usual to fit three safety valves-two on the
steam drum, and o ne o n the super heater out let header. T his latter valve must be set to lift before the
drum safety valves so as to ensure a flow of steam through the superheater under blow off conditions. it
is normally of the same basic type fitted on the drum.

Pressure Relief Valves

''Pressure relief'' is simply a dumping of excess fluid safely into the atmosphere. The excess fluid is that
which would cause pressureto exceed the safety limit. The relief/safety valve is the most widely used
piece of equipment in this category. However, liquid seals and rupture discs may also be used.

There are two basic kinds of relief valves: self-operated and pilot-operated. The spring-type relief valve is
the most widely used. The pilot-operated type is also frequently used, and it offers more precise
operation. The pilot-operated type is more frequently used as pressures become higher and capacities
greater.

Pressure relief valves are designed to open automatically at a pre-determined set pressure level of
system pressure and to achieve a rated relieving capacity at a specified pressure and temperature above
the setpoint (overpressure) before re-closing at a pressure below the opening point (blowdown). The
simplest and most reliable type of pressure relief valve, even some four-hundred years on from the first
design, is the spring-loaded design where a spring force opposes the system pressure acting on the valve
disc. When the system pressure rises above the level of the spring force, the valve opens. This valve type
may also be fitted with a bellows for better emission control performance.

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Spring-Type Pressure Relief Valve'''

Bellow Spring-Type Relief Valve'''

231
17. Feed water system
Feed Check Valves

These are fitted to give final control over the entry of feed water into the boiler. They must be screw
down, non-return valves so that, in the event of a loss of feed pressure, the boiler water cannot blow
back into the feed line.
Main and auxiliary feed checks are fitted. The main check is often fitted to the economizer inlet header;
if not, like the auxiliary check, it will be mounted directly on the steam drum.
Extended spindles are usually fitted so the checks can be operated from a convenient position . Care
must be taken to ensure the valve can be operated easily and quickly, and that a positive indication of
the open and closed positions for the valve is given.

Boiler Feed Water Regulator

The water level in a boiler is critical. If it is too low, damage may result from overheating; too high and
priming can occur with resultant carry-over of water and dissolved solids into super heaters, steam lines,
etc.
Automatic feed regulators are therefore fitted to control the flow of water into the boiler and maintain
the water level at its desired value.
They are fitted in the feed line, before the main feed check . In most cases they use a float or thermal
means of operation and thus must have a direct connection to the steam and water spaces as required .
The regulator can be attached directly to the boiler shell, or alternatively mounted in an external
chamber with balance connections to the steam drum, or boiler shell.
In the case of water tube boilers with their high evaporation rate and small reserve of water the control
of the water level is so critical that the classification societies demand that some form of automatic feed
regulator must be fitted .

Water Level Indicators

The DOT demand that at least two water level indicators must be fitted to each boiler. In practice the
usual arrangement consists of two direct reading water level gauges mounted on the steam drum, and a
remote reading indicator placed at a convenient control position.

Low Water Alarms

The classification societies demand that these should be fitted to reduce the risk of damage in the event
of a loss of water in the boiler due to a burst tube or failure of the feed supply.
In some cases they are mounted inside the steam drum, but many are mounted externally. Various
types are available, either steam or electrically operated. Some versions also incorporate high water
level alarms.

Blow Down Valves

These are fitted to the water drum to enable water to be blown from the boiler in order to reduce the
density. When the boiler is shut down these valves can be used to drain it. They usually consist of two
valves mounted in series, arranged so that the first valve must be full open before the second can be
cracked open; i.e. sufficient to give the required rate of blow down. In this way the seating of the first
valve is protected from damage, so reducing the risk of leakage when the blow down valves are closed.

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These blow down valves discharge into a blow down line leading to a ship-side discharge valve.

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18. Condenser

A condenser is a vessel in which a vapour is deprived of its latent heat of vaporization and so is changed
to its liquid state, usually by cooling at constant pressure. In surface condensers, steam enters at an
upper level, passes over tubes in which cold sea water circulates, falls as water to the bottom and is
removed by a pump (or flows to a feed tank).

The construction of condensers is similar to that of other tubular heat exchangers, with size variation
extending up to the very large regenerative condensers for main propulsion steam turbines. Some
smaller condensers may have U tubes for a two-pass flow and free expansion and contraction of tubes.

The cooling water for straight tube condensers, circulates in one or two passes, entering at the bottom.
With a scoop, there is one pass flow. A water box, of cast iron or steel, is fitted at each end (one end
with U tubes) of the shell.
Sandwiched between the flanges of the boxes and the shell are admiralty brass (70% Cu, 29% Zn, 1% Sn)
tube plates. These are drilled and when soft-packing is used, counter bored and tapped.
Tubes may be of cupro-nickel (70% Cu, 30% Ni) or aluminium brass (76% Cu, 22% Zn, 2% Al) and of 16-20
mm outside diameter. Straight tubes can be expanded into the tube plates at both ends , expanded at
the outlet end and fitted with soft packing at the other, or fitted with soft packing at both ends . An
expansion allowance, provided where tubes are expanded into tube plates at both ends, may take the
form of a shell expansion joint. Tubes are prevented from sagging by a number of mild steel tube
support plates. A baffle plate at the entrance to the steam space, prevents damage from the direct
impact of steam on the tubes.
Access doors are provided in the water box end covers of very large condensers for routine inspection
and cleaning, with one or more manholes in the shell bottom for the same purpose.

Corrosion by galvanic action is inhibited by zinc or mild steel sacrificial anodes or alternatively,
impressed current protection may be used. Dezincification of brasses may be prevented by additives,
such as 0.04% arsenic, to the alloy.
Tube failure is likely to be caused by impingement, that is corrosion/erosion arising from entrained air
in, or excessive speed of, circulating water.
Failure could otherwise be from stress/ corrosion cracking or dezincification of brass tube. Defective
tubes can be plugged temporarity.

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Diagram of a typical water-cooled surface condenser

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19. Level control
Gauge Glass

A gauge gauge is used at many places on a ship. Gauge glass is a kind of a level indicator which shows
the amount of fluid in a tank or any other storage place on a ship. . Gauge glass are mainly used in boiler
of the ship.

A gauge glass has two different compartments – top side and bottom side, connected to two different
sections of a boiler. The top side of the gauge glass is connected to the steam side of the boiler and the
bottom side is connected to the water side of the boiler. The pressure on both sides will equalize and
the level of water can be seen in the gauge glass.

Modern high-pressure water tube boiler

A modern high-pressure, high-temperature water tube boiler holds a small quantity of water and
produces large quantities of steam. Very careful control of the drum water level is therefore necessary.
The reactions of steam and water in the drum are complicated and require a control system based on a
number of measured elements.

When a boiler is operating the water level in the gauge glass reads higher than when the boiler is shut
down. This is because of the presence of steam bubbles in the water, a situation which is accepted in
normal practice. If however there occurs a sudden increase in steam demand from the boiler the
pressure in the drum will fail.

Some of the water present in the drum at the higher pressure will now 'flash off and become steam.
These bubbles of steam will cause the drum level to rise. The reduced mass of water in the drum will
also result in more steam being produced, which will further raise the water level. This effect is known
as "swell', A level control system which used only level as a measuring element would close in the feed
control valve—when it should be opening it.

236
When the boiler load returns to normal the drum pressure will rise and steam bubble formation will
reduce, causing a fall in water level. Incoming colder feed water will further reduce steam bubble
formation and what is known as 'shrinkage' of the drum level will occur.

The problems associated with swell and shrinkage are removed by the use of a second measuring
element, 'steam flow'. A third element, 'feed water flow', is added to avoid problems that would occur if
the feed water pressure were to vary.

Boiler water level control

A three element control system is shown in Figure . The measured variables or elements are 'steam
flow', 'drum level' and 'feed water flow'. Since in a balanced situation steam flow must equal feed flow,
these two signals are compared in a differential relay. The relay output is fed to a two-term controller
and comparator into which the measured drum level signal is also fed. Any deviation between the
desired and actual drum level and any deviation between feed and steam flow will result in controller
action to adjust the feed water control valve. The drum level will then be returned to its correct
position.

A sudden increase in steam demand would result in a deviation signal from the differential relay and an
output signal to open the feed water control valve. The swell effect would therefore not influence the
correct operation of the control system. For a reduction in steam demand, an output signal to close the
feedwater control valve would result, thus avoiding shrinkage effects. Any change in feed water
pressure would result in feed water control valve movement to correct the change before the drum
level was affected.

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20. Boiler Starting and Operating Instructions

Before starting the boiler, the operator should be familiar with the burner, boiler, and all controls and
components. Instructions for adjusting major components should be reviewed prior to firing. The wiring
diagram should also have been studied, along with the firing sequence.

Verify supply of fuel and proper voltage. Check for blown fuses, open circuit breakers, dropped out
overloads, etc. Check reset of all starters and controls having manual reset features. Check the lockout
switch on the programmer and reset if necessary.

The boiler should be filled with water to the proper operating level using water of ambient temperature.
Be sure that treated feedwater is available and used. In heating applications, the entire system should
be filled and vented. On a steam boiler, open the test valve to vent air displaced during filling. Leave the
test valve open until the escape of steam is noted after the burner is operating.

Prior to firing a boiler, be sure that discharge piping from safety valves or relief valves, and discharge
piping from all blowdown and drain valves, is piped to a SAFE point of discharge.

Check all linkage for full and free movement of the damper and metering valves and cams. The check
can be done by loosening the linkage at the damper motor connecting arm and manipulating the linkage
by hand.

Check for rotation of all motors

Before operating the boiler feed pump or oil supply pump, ensure all valves in the line are open or
properly positioned. For safety reasons, perform a final pre-startup inspection, especially checking for
any loose or incomplete piping or wiring or any other situations that might present a hazard.

Air injectors

An air ejector which has been commonly used, is shown schematically in Figure below . The unit
comprises a stack of U-tubes contained in a fabricated mild steel condenser shell on which is mounted a
single element two stage air ejector.
The condensate from the main or auxiliary condenser is used as the cooling medium, the condensate
circulating through the tubes whilst the air and vapour passes through the shell. The high velocity
operating steam emerging from the main condenser and the mixture discharges into the inter (or first
stage) condenser.
Most of the steam and vapour is condensed when it comes into contact with the cool surface of the
tubes, falls to the bottom of the shell and drains to the main or auxiliary condenser. The remaining air
and water vapour are drawn into the second stage ejector and discharged to the after (or second stage)
condenser.
The condensate then passes to the steam drains tank and the non-condensables are discharged to the
atmosphere through a vacuum retaining valve.

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Three stage air ejector with internal diffusers

Vacuum pumps

Vacuum pumps (Figure below) intentionally produce a vacuum by removing air from the piping system,
both the original air on start-up and air that manages to leak in. Condensate flows to the vacuum system
which is operating as the lowest pressure in the system and is pumped out to the boiler feed tank or
deaerator.

239
The system shown in Figure is a common one that produces a vacuum by pumping water through a
water jet that acts as an ejector to pump the air out of the system

Vacuum pumps for condensate system

The Nash Vacuum pump was installed in 1991, and is representative of equipment found on modern
merchant ships. The purpose of the vacuum pump is to create and maintain the vacuum on the main
condenser, and it can be used as a back-up and alternative to the main air ejectors.
The vacuum pump has two-stage rotor which is turned by an external motor. One portion of the rotor
lies within a first-stage chamber that is formed by the casing, the other portion of the rotor lies within
the second stage chamber. Both pump stages function identically. The operation of the vacuum pump is
shown in the illustration below. Pumping is made possible by the fact that the axis of the casing is offset
from the axis of the rotor. The offset in the second stage is diametrically opposite the offset in the first
stage.
Water is admitted to the first stage chamber through a passage in the cone, and acts as a seal liquid.
Additional seal water is fed directly to the vacuum pump from the heat exchanger to seal clearances in
the vacuum pump.
The Air/water vapor mixture from the condenser is drawn in through the air inlet. A spray nozzle in the
cone forms the seal water into a spray pattern through which the air/water vapor mixture must pass. At
the point, most of the water vapor condenses. Then, the pumped gasses and seal water are discharged
through the first stage discharge passage to the second stage at increased pressure. Finally the air and
seal water is ejected at atmospheric pressure through the air discharge to the separator.
In the separator, the seal water drops from the air stream to the bottom, and the air vents out the top.
An automatic float switch and make-up solenoid valve, and an overflow loop maintain the proper level
of seal water.

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After it passes through the pump and separator, the seal water is circulated through a heat exchanger,
and then back to the pump.

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Pumps

In most hot water systems, the system circulating pumps are electric motor-driven, end suction
centrifugal pumps. In steam systems, the condensate return pumps are typically electric motor-driven,
end suction, centrifugal or turbine-type pumps.

Feedwater pumps are generally electric motor-driven, multiple-stage, end suction centrifugal pumps.
The shutoff head of the pump must be greater than the steam or hot water system operating pressure.

1)Casing are of vertically split, ring section design employing a O-ring.

2) Impeller are enclosed, single suction, radial flow design for optimum hydraulic and efficiency.
3) Stuffing Boxes are designed to withstand maximum discharge pressure and are adequately sized to
accommodate various mechanical seals and packed box arrangement.

Gland steam condenser

After removal of the oxygen, the condensate is passed through a gland steam condenser, which further
heats the condensate. The gland steam condenser is a heat exchanger in which the turbine gland steam
is condensed and drained to the atmospheric drain tank. The condensate after getting heated is then
passed through a low pressure heater, which uses bled steam from the turbine. The main aim of using
all these condensers and heat exchangers is to prevent wastage of heat from the system and thus
increase the feed water temperature to assist in the de-aeration process.

Low Pressure Heaters and Drain Cooler

1 The LP heaters shall be horizontal and U-tube type with integral drain cooler.
However, heater(s) in condenser neck may be of U- tube or straight type and may or may not be
provided with drain cooler as per standard practice of the OEM.

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2 Shell shall be of rolled steel as per ASTM A-516 Gr. 70. Water box channel shall be of carbon steel as
per ASTM A-516 Gr. 70 and welded to tube sheet.

3 Design pressure: Tube side - CEP shut off head at 51.5 Hz and full vacuum;
Shell side - Not less than maximum extraction steam pressure with minimum design pressure of 3
kg/cm2 (g) and full vacuum.

Drain coolers

The gland steam condenser, drains cooler and low-pressure feed heater are all heat exchangers of the
shell and tube type
The drains cooler receives the exhaust drains from various auxiliary services and condenses them: the
condensate is returned to the feed system. The circulating feedwater passes through straight tubes
arranged in tube plates in the drains cooler.
Baffles or diaphragm plates are fitted to support the tubes and also direct the flow of the exhaust drains
over the outside surface of the tubes

Feed system drains cooler

High Pressure Heaters

1 The HP heaters (1x100% or 2x50% strings) shall be of horizontal and U-tube type with desuperheating,
condensing and drain cooling sections.

2 Heater shell shall be made of carbon steel as per ASTM-516 Gr. 70 and water box channel as per ASTM
A-266 class-II and shall be welded to tube sheet.

3 Tube Side Design Pressure: With feed regulating station located at upstream of HPHs and no isolating
valve provided at inlet of economizer, tube side design pressure shall be worked out corresponding to

243
105% of discharge pressure for emergency point of BFP operation . The HPHs shall be designed for full
vacuum also.

4 Shell Side Design Pressure: Shell side design pressure shall not be less than maximum extraction steam
pressure and full vacuum. For heaters taking extraction from CRH line, the maximum expected HPT
exhaust pressure shall also be taken into account.

Turbo feed pumps.

Another type of feed pump often used on package boiler installations is known as an 'electro feeder'.
This is a multi-stage centrifugal pump driven by a constant speed electric motor. The number of stages is
determined by the feed quantity and discharge pressure.
Steam turbine-driven feed pumps are usual with high-pressure water tube boiler installations. A typical
turbo-feed pump is shown in Figure below

Turbo-feed pump

The two-stage horizontal centrifugal pump is driven by an impulse turbine, the complete assembly
being fitted into a common casing. The turbine is supplied with steam directly from the boiler and
exhausts into a back-pressure line which can be used for feed heating.
The pump bearings are lubricated by filtered water which is tapped off from the first-stage impeller. The
feed discharge pressure is maintained by a governor, and overspeed protection trips are also provided.

Hydraulic balance mechanism

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To control the axial movement of the rotating assembly, a balance piston (Figure below) is arranged to
counteract the effect of the thrust of the turbine and impellers. The arrangement keeps the rotating
assembly in its correct position under all conditions of loading. Water at the approximate pressure of
the pump discharge passes from the last stage of the pump between the impeller hub and the balance
restriction bush C into the annular space B dropping in pressure as it does so. The pressure of water in
the chamber B tends to push the balance piston towards the turbine end.
When the thrust on the balance piston overcomes the turbine and the impeller thrust, the gap A
between the piston and balance ring widens and allows water to escape. This in turn has the effect of
lowering the pressure in chamber B allowing the rotating assembly to move back towards the pump
end.
Theoretically this cycle will be repeated with a smaller movement each time until the thrust on the
balance piston exactly balances the other axial forces acting on the assembly. In practice the balancing
of the forces is almost instantaneous and any axial movement of the shaft is negligible.

Hydraulic balance

De-aerator

The de-aerator completes the air and vapour removal process begun in the condenser. It also functions
as a feed heater, but in this case operates by direct contact. The feedwater is heated almost to the point
of boiling, which releases all the dissolved gases which can then be vented off.
One type of de-aerator is shos4n in Figure below.

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De-aerator

The incoming feedwater passes through a number of spray valves or nozzles: the water spray
thus provides a large surface area for contact with the heating system. Most of the feedwater will then
fall onto the upper surface of the de-aerating cone where it is further heated by the incoming steam.
The feedwater then enters the central passage and leaves through a narrow opening which acts as an
eductor or ejector to draw steam through with the feed. The feedwater and condensed steam collect in
the storage tank which forms the base of the de-aerator. The heating steam enters the de-aerator and
circulates throughout, heating the feedwater and being condensed in its turn to combine with the
feedwater. The released gases leave through a vent connection and pass to a vent condenser or
devaporiser. Any water vapour will be condensed and returned. The devaporiser is circulated by the
feedwater before it enters the de-aerator.
The de-aerator feedwater is very close to the steam temperature at the same pressure and will, if
subjected to any pressure drop, 'flash-off into steam. This can result in 'gassing', i.e. vapour forming in
the feed pump suction. To avoid this problem, the de-aerator is mounted high up in the machinery
space to give a positive suction head to the feed pumps.
Alternatively a booster or extraction pump may be fitted at the de-aerator outlet.

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5. Propeller Shaft

Propeller shaft arrangement

1. Design features

Since the introduction of auxiliary power on sailing vessels by using a steam engine, ships have been
fitted with a propeller shah between propulsion engine and screw.
This is still the case today: nearly all seagoing vessels with a power output above 2000 kW,
approximately 90,000 vessels, use a propeller driven by a diesel engine for propulsion.
Numerous ships for inland-water navigation, including pleasure craft use propellers. Other propulsion
systems such as jet- propulsion are also used.
Every vessel requires a different propeller to achieve a maximum efficiency from the chemical (fuel)
energy supplied to the diesel engine. This depends, among other things, on its dimensions, hull shape,
and the desired speed, kind of transport, sea area and so forth.
To obtain a basic idea of marine propulsion, the subject is subdivided into three main areas.

1 Discussion of the most elementary issues, ship dimensions, hull shape, displacement, ship weight,
design draught, length between perpendiculars, block coefficient. Other topics are towing resistance,
comprising frictional, residual and air resistance, and the effects of these resistances in real terms

2 Elaborate discussion of marine propulsion and the flow conditions near the propeller. The wake
coefficient and the thrust coefficient will also be dealt with. The total engine output required for the
propeller is computed from the aforementioned effective towing resistance and the efficiencies
dependent on the various propellers and hull shapes. The operating conditions for a screw deduced
from propeller principles for fixed-pitch propellers are discussed. These conditions vary from
navigating in calm waters to conditions varying from light to heavy operating resistances, such as
fouling and heavy swell.

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3 This section contains a discussion regarding the significance of selecting the correct measurement for
the Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR), die maximum available continuous power and the
optimizing point for the propulsion engine. In this discussion, attention will be paid to the load curve
of the engine in relation to the design of the screw. The compilation of the accompanying load charts
is discussed in detail using a number of examples.
It is important to be aware of how various ship resistances affect the continuous service rating of the
engine.

Shaft Alignment Procedure

The shaft alignment procedure is not expected to start before the vessel stern blocks are fully welded
and all of the heavy stern structure is in place. Only then should the reference line for positioning the
shafts, bearings, main engine and gear box be established. This is not always the case, however. Some
yards do start the procedure much earlier, even during block stage, or without a fully welded stern area
of the vessel, or/and with no superstructure in place. These different practices will be addressed later in
the text and discuss possible consequences which such approaches in alignment procedure may yield,
along with solutions to the possible problems.
After the sighting through is finished, the established shafting reference line is further rectified (if
necessary) by a slope boring or inclination of the stern tube bearing.

248
Vessel is now ready for shafts to be put in place, propeller installation and system assembly (connecting
the engine and gearbox, where applicable).
When shafts are positioned in place, if necessary, the additional (temporary) bearings are used to assist
the assembly. Propeller is connected and, if required, the load is applied at the forward end of the tail
shaft to hold it in contact with the forward stern tube bearing before assembling. At this stage, it is
normal practice for the yard to verify pre-assembly alignment condition of the shafting by conducting a
so-called “Sag and Gap” procedure.
Sag and gap is verified between mating flanges, and has to comply with appropriate, analytically
obtained, values. If sag and gap is conducted in the dry dock, the yard should be able to fully control the
alignment, meaning that the measured values of sags and gaps should be verified quite accurately
against the analytically predicted values. If sag and gap is conducted on a waterborne vessel, then the
accuracy of analysis may be in question, as the hull deflection effect needs to be considered.
It is therefore desired to conduct as much of the alignment procedure as possible while the vessel is in
the dry dock. Accordingly, if plausible, the reaction verification and the bearing-shaft contact condition
should be verified when the vessel is in the dry dock. By doing so, the shipyard can ensure very good
control of the alignment procedure against the analysis. It is again important to highlight that the issue
of controlling the alignment is in direct relation to the completion of the structural work of the vessel.

Further verification of the alignment condition should proceed with the vessel afloat. On a waterborne
vessel, it is more difficult to ensure compliance with the calculated alignment, as the hull deflections are
difficult to predict accurately. However, with the controlled dry dock alignment, any deviation in bearing
reactions from calculated to measured values should be attributed to hull deflections.
The strongest argument that the opposition may have to the above proposed procedure is the builder’s
inability to ensure actual alignment compliance with theoretical requirements, even for the relatively
stable vessel condition in the dry dock. Therefore, if the shipyard finds the alignment conditions to be
“impossible” to control, what is the point of investing precious time into a procedure that fails anyhow?
Accordingly, opponents will argue further, the alignment shall be conducted by roughly following the
requirements, and only fine-tuned when the vessel is afloat and if the bearing reactions significantly
differ from the analytical predictions.
The general policy of the classification societies is to accept the procedures which result in a satisfactory
solution. The problem in the alignment case is that the complexity of the procedure provides insufficient
guaranty that initial nonconformance with alignment requirements (sighting through in particular) in the
dry dock can be eventually rectified to comply with requirements as the vessel is waterborne.
The propulsion shafting alignment procedure can be summarized in the following activities:
• Sighting through (bore sighting)
• Bearing slope boring or bearing inclination
• Engine bedplate pre sagging
• Sag and Gap
• Reactions measurements
• Bearing-shaft misalignment evaluation
• Shaft eccentricity (runout) verification
• Intermediate shaft bearing offset readjustment
The alignment verification is also part of the alignment procedure to which a separate Section in
these
Guidance Notes is dedicated. It consists of
• Crankshaft deflection measurements
• Engine bedplate deflections measurement
• Gear contact evaluation (where applicable)
• Gear-shaft bearings reaction measurements

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Sighting Through (Bore sighting)
The process of establishing the reference line is often called sighting through or bore sighting. The
procedure is conducted by optical instruments, laser or a piano wire
Sighting through procedure is commonly conducted as follows:
• Telescope, laser or piano wire is normally positioned in front of the after stern tube bearing.
• Reference line is defined so as to match the center line of the after stern tube bearing.
• Target points are then defined at the location of the intermediate shaft bearings, gearbox flange or
main engine flange.
• Target points are offset for values corresponding to the prescribed bearing offsets for the dry dock
condition.
• Shaft line bearings and gearbox or main engine are then positioned into place.
• Slope boring angles are marked. If bearing inclination is conducted instead of slope boring, the
inclination angle is applied to the S/T bearing and bearing is fixed in place inclined, ready for the
epoxy resin casting.
In order to prevent or minimize disturbances of the established bearing location, engine position and
S/T bearing inclination, the following is required:
• Temperature of the vessel’s structure must be stable and as even as possible. For that reason, bore
sighting is normally conducted in early morning hours before the sunrise.
• At this point of the vessel construction, the major welding work should be completed on the stern
block of the vessel. This is to prevent eventual structural deformation which may result from
excessive welding.
• Heavy structural parts and equipment shall be installed on the vessel (superstructure, main engine,
etc.).
If the above recommendations are fully complied with, at this stage of construction, no hull
deformations are expected to adversely affect the established pre-alignment condition. Later on, when
the vessel is launched, the initial alignment is expected to be disturbed by hull girder deflections as a
result of the buoyancy forces.

250
The alignment should not be accepted if verified in dry dock condition only. It should be verified for at
least one afloat condition.
Moreover, as per Rules, alignment needs to be satisfactory under all operating conditions (meaning for
hot and cold engine and ballast and laden vessel). It is, however, at the discretion of the attending
Surveyor to decide if the alignment can be accepted based on one or two sets of measurements only.
The Surveyor’s decision shall be made upon reviewing measurement compliance with respective
analysis and in the Surveyor’s confidence in shipyards’ practices, and satisfactory experience with
vessels of similar design.
Accordingly, it is important to know/predict the hull deflections as accurately as possible.
The bedplate sagging is supposed to rectify and diminish hull deflection influence on the engine
alignment. It is primarily meant to cancel out deflections that occur while the vessel is afloat, and
further reduces the influence of the hull’s hogging as the vessel gets loaded.
In order to allow some provision for corrections, the shaft line bearings, as well as the diesel engine or
gearbox, should not be chocked until the bearing condition is satisfactory in the afloat condition.
The final step in the alignment procedure is verification of the alignment condition, normally conducted
by measuring bearing reactions

Vessel in Dry Dock

251
Vessel Waterborne – Hull Deflections Affect the Propulsion

The Sag and Gap measurement is not a sufficient procedure for alignment verification and it cannot be
accepted as the sole means of alignment verification as the Sag and Gap accuracy is relatively low.
The Sag and Gap procedure, although not accurate, is a useful and fast way of confirming the alignment
condition prior to shafting assembly, and if larger discrepancies from analytical values are noticed, it can
indicate that the sighting through was significantly disturbed before the propulsion machinery
installation, or the analysis was erroneously conducted.

252
2. Shaft bearing

Shaft bearings are of two types, the aftermost tunnel bearing and all others. The aftermost tunnel
bearing has a top and bottom bearing shell because it must counteract the propeller mass and take a
vertical upward thrust at the forward end of the tail shaft. The other shaft bearings only support the
shaft weight and thus have only lowered half bearing shells.

253
An intermediate tunnel bearing is shown in Figure below.

3. Couple bolds
The elongation of a bolt when tightened, causes a reduction in cross sectional area. The relationship
between change in length and the change of cross sectional area is summarized by Poisson's Ratio. In a
clearance bolt, this is not a problem, but with a normal fitted bolt, positive contact between the
accurately machined bolt and the reamered hole is lost when the bolt is tightened.
An oversize bolt could of course be used and cooling of the shank — probably with liquid nitrogen -
would be necessary to cause contraction and reduction of cross sectional area before insertion. The
effect of low temperature and the possibility of the steel becoming brittle as the result of the cooling
must be considered.
Shaft coupling bolts are tightened to force the faces of the flanges together, so that friction between the
faces will provide some proportion of the drive.
However, fitted bolt shanks are also designed to take some load. A clearance bolt could provide the first
requirement but not the second. A normal fitted bolt when tightened and subjected to a reduction in
cross section, would also fail on the second count and probably be damaged by fretting. A tapered bolt
(Figure 8,9) could be used instead of a conventional coupling bolt (Figure 8.8) to obtain a good fit and
the required tightening.

254
Conventional coupling bolt

Tapered coupling bolt

The Pilgrim hydraulic bolt uses the principle embodied in Poisson's Ratio to Provide a calculated and
definite fitting force between bolt and hole. The bolt Fig. . is hollow and before being fitted is stretched
with hydraulic pressure applied to an inserted rod from a pressure cylinder screwed to the bolt head.
Stretching makes the bolt diameter small enough for insertion into the hole, after which the nut is
nipped up. Release of hydraulic pressure allows the bolt to shorten, so that (1) predetermined bolt load
is produced and (2) diametrical re-expansion gives a good fit of the shank in the hole. These bolts when
used in flange couplings and flange mounted propellers, have the advantage that they are easily
removed for inspection and maintenance.

255
Pilgrim type hydraulic coupling bolt

A complete plant can be fined with hydraulic bolts, which allows swift, simple and meticulous assembly
and disassembly between propeller shaft, the intermediate shafts and the flange of the (two-stroke)
engine flywheel.

A hydraulic connecting bolt.

256
4. Stern tube

The propeller, a part of the propulsion system of the ship, needs a power source to rotate it. A marine
diesel engine located inside the ship supplies the power to the propeller. Both the diesel engine and
propeller are very heavy: locating them both at the same place inside the ship would disturb the ship’s
stability. It is for this reason a stern tube along with a propeller shaft is used. The stern tube, as the
name suggests, is a hollow tube-like structure at the stern or rear part of the ship. A ship needs a
propeller to drive it forward against the waves. The propeller, located outside the ship, needs to be
connected to the engine inside the ship’s engine room.

The standard stern tube.

The standard stern tube is fitted aft and bolted to the propeller-frame boss.

257
The front section of the stern tube has an oil box, bolted to the stem-frame boss.
This allows thermal expansion/contraction of the stern tube and facilitates the
Installation of the stern tube.
Close tolerances of the stem tube are no longer required, and the stern tube can have a possible
machining tolerance of 5 mm.

stem-tube bearing

Stern-tube liners.

The stern tube is provided with forward and aft white-metal liners (pink).
If required, temperature sensors can be fitted
The stern tube and the oil space can be treated with epoxy resin.

With increased environmental awareness and new legislation, there has been a return to seawater
lubricated stern tube bearing systems. Improvements in water lubricated material technologies have

258
resulted in greater choice of materials which can now offer improved and predictable bearing wear life
with zero risk of oil pollution from the stern tube.

Seawater lubricated open system uses seawater as the lubrication medium in place of oil. The seawater
is taken from the sea, pumped through non-metallic shaft bearings and returns to the sea. No stern tube
oil is needed. There is no aft seal; only a forward seal to prevent seawater from entering into the engine
room. Proven materials and new designs of non-metallic bearings now offer performance similar to
metal shaft bearings.

259
 5. Stern tube seals

In most mid and large size merchant ships, an oil lubricated stern tube bearing system is applied. There
are various kinds of seal systems used, such as lip type or mechanical type for oil lubricated stern tubes.
The basic function is to prevent oil leakage from and seawater penetration into the stern tube. The most
popular oil lubricated seal is a lip type seal. The oil pressure in the stern tube is 0.03 Mpa (0.3 bar) higher
than seawater pressure and oil pressure in the #2/3 chamber is designed to be lower than seawater
pressure. One of the reasons to provide a piping line to the #2/3 seal chamber is to drain both leaking oil
and penetrated seawater from #2/3 seal chamber.

In the traditional seal system, stern tube oil is separated from seawater by plural sealing rings and some
quantity of oil and seawater leakage through the sealing rings is inevitable. There is an air chamber in
the aft stern tube seal and the stern tube oil is separated from seawater by this air chamber. We will
introduce various legacy designs of air seals. Then the mechanism of air seal, which is classified as
“constant air flow type”, is explained in detail. We will also show an example application of the air seal
to the pod propulsion.

Structure of lip type stern tube seal

260
 Separation of Oil and Seawater

According to our definition of an air seal, a mechanical face seal is provided to prevent seawater ingress
combined with a lip seal, which is provided to prevent oil leakage. In case of seawater ingress through
the face seal, it can be drained to a drain tank through a drainage pipe connected to the air chamber.
The air pressure in the air chamber is 0 Mpa (0 bar) because it is connected to the ambient air in the
engine room

Structure of lip type stern tube seal

Compressed air is supplied into an air chamber between two segment mechanical seals and the air
pressure is maintained constantly to be 0.03 Mpa (0.3 bar) higher than seawater pressure. Additional air
must be supplied to maintain the above constant air pressure when air leakage increases through the
segment seals and the air pressure between the seals decreases. The key concept of this seal is to keep
the air pressure constant and that is why it is classified as a constant air pressure type. The leaking oil
and seawater can be drained inboard through a drain pipe.

261
Air Pressure Type

The next types of air seals is a constant air pressure type. There is a constant air pressure in the space II
which is set at 0.01 Mpa (0.1 bar) below the ballast seawater pressure so that no air flows into the
seawater. In order to drain leaking oil and seawater, which has accumulated in the air chamber, to the
bilge, a solenoid valve is opened at certain intervals, with the pressure condition in the air chamber
remaining unchanged.
The main difference between the above two types of constant air pressure seals are that the air
pressure in the air chamber is higher or lower than seawater pressure.

262
 Airspace Seal

Water Lubricated Stern Tube Seal

EVK
KEMEL manufactures the EVK type water seal. The EVK type seal has many benefits for owners and

263
operators of vessels with water lubricated shafting. The EVK type seal is the easiest of the seals on the
market for installation and operation. The seal does not wear the propeller shaft sleeve.

The design of the KEMEL EVK type seal is very simple. Since it is a face type seal consisting of the seal
ring and the mating ring, it flexibly copes with complicated vibration and shaft deflection and shows
excellent sealing performance. All seal assemblies are supplied with an active seal and a spare seal
which is installed on the shaft ready for installation.

Sterntube Seal & Components

Seal for Bulkhead Opening

264
Where bulkhead openings for shafts are required to be watertight to protect adjoining spaces
against flooding, the Centrax bulkhead seal offers the optimum solution.

In an axially split housing made of aluminium which is mounted on the bulkhead opening are two
segmented carbon rings which run directly on the shaft.

Two garter springs and a sectioned thrust ring ensure proper contact of the sealing faces on the
shaft and on the housing sides.

Radial and axial shaft movements are taken up by the Centrax bulkhead seal without any problem.
There is practically no wear owing the very good self-lubricating property of the carbon rings. Aside
from standard design shown here there are special designs with greater radial and/or angular
movement available.

The Centrax bulkhead seal is a well proven product, in service with merchant and naval shipping.
Seal for Bulkhead Opening (Gas-Tight)

If a gas-tight and water-tight seal is required we can offer our Simplex-Compact bulkhead seal.

The design is based on forward Simplex-Compact seal. However, the two sealing rings face each
other, thus acting as a barrier chamber which is filled with oil.

This chamber is connected to a 4l oil tank and by means of the circulator a permanent lubrication
and cooling is provided. This seal can also be supplied completely radially and axially split.

For this seal to recess, pitch circle and outer diameters can be adapted to the dimensions required
to pass shaft flanges, coupling, bearings etc. through the bulk head.

265
6. Propeller

A propeller is a rotating fan like structure which is used to propel the ship by using the power generated
and transmitted by the main engine of the ship. The transmitted power is converted from rotational
motion to generate a thrust which imparts momentum to the water, resulting in a force that acts on the
ship and pushes it forward

A ship propels on the basis of Bernoulli’s principle and Newton’s third law. A pressure difference is
created on the forward and aft side of the blade and water is accelerated behind the blades.

The thrust from the propeller is transmitted to move the ship through a transmission system which
consists of a rotational motion generated by the main engine crank shaft, intermediate shaft and its
bearings, stern tube shaft and its bearing and finally by the propeller itself.

266
7. Material and Construction of Propeller

Marine propellers are made from corrosion resistant materials as they are made operational directly in
sea water which is a corrosion accelerator. The materials used for making marine propeller are alloy of
aluminium and stainless steel. Other popular materials used are alloys of nickel, aluminium and bronze
which are 10~15 % lighter than other materials and have higher strength.

The construction process of the propeller includes attaching a number of blades to the hub or boss by
welding or forging in one piece. Forged blades are highly reliable and have greater strength but are
expensive as compare to welded ones. A marine propeller is constructed by sections of helicoidal
surfaces acting together to rotate through water with a screw effect.

8. Types of Propeller

Propellers are be classified on the basis of several factors. The classification of different types of
propellers is shown below:

267
A) Classification by Number of Blades Attached:

Propeller blades may vary from 3 blade propeller to 4 blade propeller and sometimes even 5 blade
propeller. However, the most commonly used are 3 blades and 4 blade propellers.

3 blade propeller:

A 3 blade propeller has following characteristics:

– The manufacturing cost is lower than other types.

– Are normally made up of aluminium alloy.

– Gives a good high speed performance.

– The acceleration is better than other types.

– Low speed handling is not much efficient.

268
4 blade propeller:

A 4 blade propeller has following characteristics:

– The manufacturing cost is higher than 3 blade propellers.

– 4 blade propellers are normally made up of stainless steel alloys.

– Have better strength and durability.

– Gives a good low speed handling and performance.

– Has a better holding power in rough seas.

– 4 blade propeller provides a better fuel economy than all the other types.

5 blade propeller:

269
A 5 blade propeller has following characteristics:

– Manufacturing cost is higher of all.

– Vibration is minimal from all the other types.

– 5 blade propellers have better holding power in rough seas.

B) Classification By pitch of the blade:

itch of a propeller can be de ned as the displacement that a propeller makes for every full revolu on of
360 . The classification of the propellers on the basis of pitch is as follows.

Fixed Pitch Propeller:

The blades in fixed pitch propeller are permanently attached to the hub. The fixed pitch type propellers
are casted and the position of the blades and hence the position of the pitch is permanently fixed and
cannot be changed during the operation.

Fixed pitch propellers are robust and reliable as the system doesn’t incorporate any mechanical and
hydraulic connection as in Controlled Pitch Propeller (CPP). The manufacturing, installation and
operational costs are lower than controlled pitch propeller (CPP) type. The manoeuvrability of fixed
pitch propeller is also not as good as CPP.

270
Controllable Pitch Propeller:

In Controlled Pitch type propeller, it is possible to alter the pitch by rotating the blade about its vertical
axis by means of mechanical and hydraulic arrangement. This helps in driving the propulsion machinery
at constant load with no reversing mechanism required as the pitch can be altered to match the
required operating condition. Thus the manoeuvrability improves and the engine efficiency also
increases.

This drawback includes the possibility of oil pollution as the hydraulic oil in the boss which is used for
controlling the pitch may leak out. It is a complex and expensive system from both installation and
operational point. Moreover, the pitch can get stuck in one position, making it difficult to maneuver the
engine.

Advantages of controllable-pitch propellers

Controllable-pitch propellers are often used and have many advantages.
-It allows for rapid maneuvering, from full speed ahead) to full speed astern; the propulsion engine
continues to run in one direction at the same nominal speed) and can therefore be rapidly heavily
loaded.
-Every speed can be achieved without having to stop the engine.
- The average efficiency for ships with alternating loads) such as tugs) fishing boats and dredgers can be
improved by adjusting the position of the propeller blades to the load ('pitch').
-With the correct reduction gearing the engine speed can be reduced to a propeller speed which has the
highest efficiency. This is effected by placing an electric-shaft generator drive on the reduction
gearing.
-It is possible to substitute a damaged propeller blade under water, if required.

Disadvantages of controllable-pitch propellers

-Propeller efficiency is lower than with fixed-pitch propellers due to the relatively large hub, which
contains the mechanism for adjusting the blade pitch and the bearings.
- They are marc prone to damage by objects in the water than are fixed-pitch propellers.
-On average they arc three to four times more expensive than fixed-pitch propellers.
-The hydraulic system can fail and will then require maintenance.

271
The cast and machined hub prior to installation of the parts, such as the pitch-actuating blades.

A complete system for a controllable-pitch propeller of MAN-B&W.

A cross-section of a Wartsila Lips controllable·pitch propeller.

272
9. Traditional fixing

The traditional attachment of the propeller to the taper end of the propeller shaft is by means of a
keyed joint comprising a key and locking nut.
The taper is approximately 1:12, so the hub can be firmly affixed to the shaft. The key lock does not
serve to absorb the thrust; bur is used for security's sake. When complications arise, it must absorb the
entire torque.
The taper between the hub and the propeller shah must be able to absorb at least twice the torque of
the engine.
The keyed joint is in fact undesirable for the construction of the taper or conical connection.
In practice, hair cracks and fractures may occur in this location. In small propellers of, for instance,
pleasure craft, attention must be paid to this issue.

Propeller fixing without a key, a key-less joint

The key-less assembly is often used for large propellers. The torque of this conical connection should be
at least three times that of the diesel engine as this construction lacks the security of a keyed joint.
Large propellers are always hydraulically fitted to the shaft. This requires a meticulous working method.
As security a locking nut, protected from the corrosive seawater by a cap, is hydraulically attached to a
bolt at the shaft end.

273
Five-bladed, without key.

10. Coupling flange

A coupling flange consisting of two parts is clamped to the propeller by oil pressure.
A lubricating-oil pressure In excess of 2000 bar is pressed between the muff and the coupling flange by
means of the Injectors.
By increasing the oil pressure In the annular space C with the manual-hydraulic pump, the muff is
pushed up the conical section of the shaft in stages. Longitudinal placing of the coupling flange as well as
final push-up of the muff is marked on the shaft and the muff.

The hydraulic-coupling flange.

274
11. Gears and clutches
If gear transmission is used, the propeller speed can be independently selected from that of the diesel-
engine crankshaft.
Clearly, the speed chosen is such that it is optimal for both the diesel engine and the propeller
respectively, thus optimizing the total propulsion efficiency.
Gear transmission is also called transmission gearing. The ratio of engine speed to the propeller shaft
speed is greater than 1.

It often lies between 2 and 4.

In shaft generators, this is usually the reverse.

The P.T.O.-shaft frequently has a speed that, for instance, exceeds the speed of the medium-speed
diesel engine.

The shaft generator in this type of installation, for instance, has an RPM of 1500 and the diesel engine an
RPM of 750.
The RPM of the diesel is increased by a factor
1500/750=2 via the gear box.

Switch position I: Normal running at sea. Nominal output

275
Switch position 11: Extra power at sea.

Switch position Ill: Emergency operation at sea or in port during shifting alongside the quay

276
Single reduction gearing with PTO.

277
Two-stroke crosshead engine drive for the propeller shaft and shaft generator
Viewed from the engine
1 main engine with fixed rpm
2 flywheel/turning wheel
3 conical bolt clutch
4 two-speed gearing
5 shaft generator
6 flexible coupling
7 hydraulic clutch
8 In/ermedlate bearing
9 hydraulic clutch
10 oil-distribution ring for controllable-pitch propeller

Types of teeth
We distinguish three shapes:
1 straight teeth or spur teeth;
2 helical teeth;
3 teeth in V-shape.

Double helical teeth.

A large gear transmission with double helical teeth

278
Various versions of number and position of the driving shafts.

For medium-speed engine installations in large ships (as opposed to coasters or intermediate sized
vessels) reduction gears are needed to permit engines and propellers to run at their best respective
speeds. Their use also permits more than one engine to be coupled to the same propeller. Gearboxes
are available from manufacturers in standard sizes. Firms produce a standard range for different powers
of single and multiple input, single reduction gearboxes for medium- (or high-speed engines) in a
number of frame sizes. The input and output shafts for single input gears, may be either horizontally
offset, vertically offset or coaxially positioned. From the appropriate selection chart, using figures for
engine power, engine speed and reduction ratio (also Classification Society correction for ice if
applicable), the size and weight of the appropriate gearbox can be found.
Ship manoeuvring is of course improved with twin screws and this is an added safeguard against total
loss of power due to engine breakdown. The disposition of two engines and shafts can sometimes be
improved with the use of offset gearboxes. Normally twin screw propellers turn outward when running
ahead, i.e. when viewed from astern the port propeller turns anticlockwise and the starboard propeller
turns clockwise. (Inward turning propellers, tend to make the movement of the stern unpredictable
when manoeuvring and have given rise to other problems.)

279
12. Reverse reduction gearbox

Reversing with the use of a gearbox, after reducing engine speed as necessary, means that continually
starting on cold air is avoided and less compressed air capacity is required. Reverse/reduction
gearboxes, like straight reduction gears, are also obtainable in standard sizes, with manufacturers'
charts for selection. Gear lubrication is by a self-contained system on many sets.
There are various arrangements possible for the shafts in a reverse/reduction gearbox to suit the
required location of the engine input or drive shaft and the driven or output shaft. The sketch (Figure
below) shows a simplified, flat arrangement for ease of explanation.

Couplings

Couplings can be divided in elastic and flexible couplings. Both are frequently used.

Elastic couplings
The objective is to reduce torsional vibrations.

With the use of an elastic material, plate springs and/or with hydraulic damping, the vibrations between,
for instance, the engine and the reduction gearing, the reduction gearing and propeller, the engine and
the generator are reduced.
Damping ultimately achieves a reduction of the torsional vibrations in the crankshaft. Due to an increase
in the power density in diesel engines, vibration damping has become increasingly important.

The working principle is that a coupling with a minor torsional stiffness is placed between the engine
and the gearbox. Both fixed parts on the shafts acquire a certain angular rotation in relation to each
other due to the flexible section between them. In this manner, the rotation speed of the crankshaft,

280
which produces vibrations and therefore resonance in the system, is brought wel1 below the normal
engine speed range.
During start and acceleration and when stationary, there is a possibility of gear clatter. Gear clatter may
occur during torsional vibrations, where the torque moment is periodically negative. This, for instance,
could be the case in situations where the engine speed and consequently the power output of the diesel
engine is reduced and the propeller is, as it were, driven by the ship. Here the other toothed flank of the
cog is temporarily loaded.
There are also flexible frictional couplings that can prevent this problem by starring and stopping the
engine with a disengaged coupling. The coupling is only put in service at sufficiently high engine speeds
when gear clatter no longer occurs.

The various types of Vulcan flexible couplings

A narrow and a wide coupling

281
Examples of elastic couplings.

The flexible coupling between a low-speed two-stroke crosshead engine of MAN-S&W and the propeller
shafting

A flexible Centa coupling with two segments placed behind each other for maximum flexibility.

282
A Centa flexible coupling combined with a Wichita friction coupling working on compressed air

The conical coupling bolts of the mechanical coupling of MAN-S&W.

283
With coupled shafts, the conical ends of the bolts of one shaft slide In the holes of the other shaft. This
can only take place .when the shafts are stationary

A mechanical coupling of MAN-S&W. Type conical coupling bolts

13. Air operated clutches

Clutches which are not part of the gearbox, are usually air activated, with pads or linings which
make either radial or axial contact. The application force for the friction pads or linings, is supplied by
compressed air in a reinforced neoprene rubber tube. The compressed air is filtered and moisture is
removed by drains provided in the system. Air pressure is monitored and the low pressure alarm is
particularly important. Some form of rotary connection between the air supply pipe and the clutch is
necessary, with the valve controlling the air supply to the clutch tube being operated by hand or
remotely controlled by a solenoid or air pressure.
For a radial air operated clutch (Figure below) the compressed air expands an actuating tube
around the outside of the friction pads. Inward expansion of the tube forces the pads into contact with
the friction drum. The transmission of torque relies on the air pressure and loss of pressure would allow
slip.
The open construction of the clutch allows air access for pad cooling and the expanding tube
compensates for wear. Springs (not shown) are incorporated for disengagement of the clutch, which is
also assisted by centrifugal effect.
This type of clutch has been supplied in combination with a Geislinger coupling.

284
14. Axial air operated clutch

This type of clutch also uses a neoprene tube which is inflated by compressed air. Expansion of
the tube (Figure below) produces a sandwich action between friction pads and disc. The friction disc or
drum is spline mounted and therefore has axial float . The friction pads are also free to float axially;
being mated with teeth machined peripherally inside the casing.
Springs cause disengagement of the clutch when the tube is deflated. Clutches produced by
Wichita have a larger number of friction dies and pads than shown in Figure below, which is intended to
show the operating principle of axial air clutches.

285
15. Emergency operation

Failure of the air supply or other fault could render a clutch inoperative. to make provision for
this eventuality, an emergency driving plate or set of temporary coupling bolts is provided. The
emergency arrangement shown, is for a combined clutch and coupling.
Prolonged use of the emergency solid coupling arrangement can result in serious damage to
gear teeth. (The gear box of at least one medium-speed engined ship had to be expensively replaced
after six months operation with the emergency coupling arrangement.)

286
Bibliography
References and Further Reading Part 1
1)Pounder’s Marine Diesel Engines & Gas Turbine Edited by Doug Woodyard
2) Engineers Databook-Fourth Edition by Clifford Matthews- A John Wiley & Sons, Publications.
3) Nondestructive Test Methods by Nicholas J. Carino
Research structural engineer in the Structures Division at the National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Gaithersburg.
4) Diesel Engines for Ship propulsion and Power Plants by Kees Kuiken
5) Handbook of Diesel Engines Editors Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Mollenhauer.
6) Introduction to Marine Engineering, Second Edition by D. A. Taylor, MSc, BSc, CENG, FIMarE, FRINA
Marine Consultant, Harbour Craft Services Ltd, Hong Kong Formerly Senior Lecturer in Marine
Technology, Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
7) MAN B&W S50MC-C7 Project Guide Camshaft Controlled Two-stroke Engines.
8) Wartsila 6L32 Marine Diesel Engine Manual.
9)MAN – service Experience – Two –Stroke Engines

[1] References and Further Reading Part 2

1. Parsons, Sir Charles A., "The Steam Turbine", p. 7-8

2. Parsons, Sir Charles A., "The Steam Turbine", p. 20-22
3. Parsons, Sir Charles A., "The Steam Turbine", p. 23-25
4. "Steam Turbines (Course No. M-3006)". PhD Engineer. Retrieved 2011-09-22.
5. Energy and Environmental Analysis (2008). "Technology Characterization: Steam Turbines
(2008)"(PDF). Report prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. p. 13. Retrieved 25
February 2013.
6. Whitaker, Jerry C. (2006). AC power systems handbook. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis. p. 35.
7. Speed Droop and Power Generation. Application Note 01302. 2. Woodward. Speed
8. Roymech, http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Thermos/Thermos_Steam_Turbine.html
9. "Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics" Moran and Shapiro, Published by Wiley
10. Leyzerovich, Alexander (2005). Wet-steam Turbines for Nuclear Power Plants. Tulsa OK: PennWell
Books. p. 111.
11. www.bullardindustrialtech.com
12. C.J. Clarke and B. Carswell (2007). Principles of Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics (1st ed.). Cambridge
University Press. p. 226.
13. British patent 7143 of 1889.
14. Theodore Stevens and Henry M. Hobart (1906). Steam Turbine Engineering. MacMillan Company.
pp. 24–27.
15. Robert M. Neilson (1903). The Steam Turbine. Longmans, Green, and Company. pp. 102–103. .
16. Garrett Scaife (2000). From Galaxies to Turbines: Science, Technology, and the Parsons Family.
Taylor & Francis Group. p. 197.
17. Richard Nakka's Equation 12.
18. Robert Braeuning's Equation 1.22.
19. George P. Sutton (1992). Rocket Propulsion Elements: An Introduction to the Engineering of
Rockets (6th ed.). Wiley-Interscience. p. 636.

287
[1] References and Further Reading Part 3

1)Pounder’s Marine Diesel Enginess & Gas Turbine Edited by Doug Woodyard
2) Introduction to Marine Engineering, Second Edition by D. A. Taylor, MSc, BSc, CENG,
FIMarE, FRINA Marine Consultant, Harbour Craft Services Ltd, Hong Kong Formerly Senior
Lecturer in Marine Technology, Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
3)Gas Turbine handbook – Principles and Practices 3rd Edition by Tony Giampaolo, MSME, PE

[1] References and Further Reading Part 4

1. Marine Boiler by G.T.H.Flanagan, Publisher Butterworth-Heinemann
2. Reeds General Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers by Leslie Jackson and Thomas D.Morton
– Thomas Reed Publications.
3. Boiler Control Systems Engineering by G.F.(Jerry) Gilman
4. Boiler Operator’s Handbook by Kenneth E. Heselton Published by the Fairmont Press, Inc.
5. www.steamsteem.com
6. Marine Auxiliary Machinery By H.D.McGeorge 7th Edition - Publisher Butterworth-Heinemann.
7. Boiler and Thermic Fluid Heaters by Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia.
8. Aalborg marine Boilers.
9. Pentrain Pressure Relief valves – Engineering Handbook by Anderson Greenwood Crosby and Varec
Products.
10. Shipboard Water Treatment manual – Fourth Edition by Asiond Chemical, drew Ameroid marine
Division.

[1]References and Further Reading Part 5

1) ounder’s Marine Diesel Enginess & Gas Turbine Edited by Doug Woodyard
2) Engineers Databook-Fourth Edition by Clifford Matthews- A John Wiley & Sons, Publications.
3) Nondestructive Test Methods by Nicholas J. Carino
Research structural engineer in the Structures Division at the National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Gaithersburg.
4) Diesel Engines for Ship propulsion and Power Plants by Kees Kuiken
5) Handbook of Diesel Engines Editors Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Mollenhauer.
6) Introduction to Marine Engineering, Second Edition by D. A. Taylor, MSc, BSc, CENG, FIMarE, FRINA
Marine Consultant, Harbour Craft Services Ltd, Hong Kong Formerly Senior Lecturer in Marine
Technology, Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
7) MAN B&W S50MC-C7 Project Guide Camshaft Controlled Two-stroke Engines.
8) Wartsila 6L32 Marine Diesel Engine Manual.
9)MAN – service Experience – Two –Stroke Engines.
10)ΜΑΝ-Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion.

■ Teaching aids (A)

The list of teaching aids and references are recommendations only and are intended to
support the learning outcomes of the course.

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A2 Ship’s Drawings/ lan (GA, Shell expansion, Deck plan and Mid section)

IMO/ILO/WHO references (R)

CHECKS SHOULD BE MADE THAT THESE ARE THE LATEST EDITIONS AVAILABLE

R1 SOLAS (Consolidated Edition, 2009) Code IE110E ISBN 978-92-801-150

R2 ILO/IMO/WHO INTERNATIONAL MEDICAL GUIDE FOR SHIPS (3rd Edition) Code
I115E ISBN 978-92-415-47208
R3 INTERNATIONAL SHIP AND PORT FACILITY SECURITY CODE (ISPS Code) (2003
Edition) Code I116E ISBN 978-92-801-51497
R4 INTERNATIONAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT CODE (ISM Code) AND GUIDELINES ON
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ISM CODE (2010 Edition) Code IB117E ISBN 978-92-
801-51510
R5 CODE OF THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS AND RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
FOR A SAFETY INVESTIGATION INTO A MARINE CASUALTY OR MARINE INCIDENT
(Casualty Investigation Code) (2008 Edition) Code I128E ISBN 978-92-801-14980
R6 INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR FIRE SAFETY SYSTEMS (FSS Code) (2007 Edition)
Code IA155E ISBN 978-92-801-14812
R7 INTERNATIONAL CODE OF SAFETY FOR HIGH-SPEED CRAFT, 2000 (2000 HSC
Code) (2008 Edition) Code IA185E ISBN 978-92-801-42402
R8 INTERNATIONAL MARITIME DANGEROUS GOODS CODE (IMDG Code) 2008 Edition
(incorporating amendment 34-08) Code IG200E ISBN 978-92-801-42419
R9 GUIDELINES ON THE ENHANCED PROGRAMME OF INSPECTIONS DURING
SURVEYS OF BULK CARRIERS AND OIL TANKERS (2008 Edition) Code IA265E ISBN
978-92-801-14966
R10 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION FOR SAFE CONTAINERS, 1972 (CSC 1972) (1996
Edition) Code IA282E ISBN 978-92-801-14119
R11 CONVENTION ON FACILITATION OF INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAFFIC, 1965
(FAL 1965) (2006 Edition) Code IB350E ISBN 978-92-801-14676

R12 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION RELATING TO INTERVENTION ON THE HIGH SEAS

IN CASES OF OIL POLLUTION CASUALTIES (Intervention), 1969 (1977 Edition) Code
I402E ISBN 978-92-801-10708
R13 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON CIVIL LIABILITY FOR OIL POLLUTION DAMAGE,
1969 (CLC 1969) (1977 Edition) Code I410E ISBN 978-92-801-10713
R14 CONFERENCE ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN INTERNATIONAL COMPENSATION
FUND FOR OIL POLLUTION DAMAGE, 1971 (1972 Edition) Code I420B (E/F) ISBN
978-92-801-11965
R15 OFFICIAL RECORDS OF THE CONFERENCE ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN
INTERNATIONAL COMPENSATION FUND FOR OIL POLLUTION DAMAGE, 1971
(2011 Edition) Code I423E ISBN 978-92-801-10760
R16 INTERNATIONAL LEGAL CONFERENCE ON MARITIME CARRIAGE OF NUCLEAR
SUBSTANCES, 1971 (1972 Edition) Code I429B (E/F) ISBN 978-92-801-00174
R17 ATHENS CONVENTION RELATING TO THE CARRIAGE OF PASSENGERS AND
THEIR LUGGAGE BY SEA, 1974 (PAL 1974) (2003 Edition) Code IA436E ISBN 978-
92-801-41610
R18 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LIMITATION OF LIABILITY FOR MARITIME
CLAIMS, 1976 (2007 Edition) Code IA444E ISBN 978-92-801-14768
R19 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SALVAGE, 1989 (1989 Edition) Code I450E ISBN
978-92-801-12511
R20 OFFICIAL RECORDS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LIMITATION OF

289
LIABILITY FOR MARITIME CLAIMS, 1976 (1983 Edition) Code I448E ISBN 978-92-
801-11569
R21 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THE SUPPRESSION OF UNLAWFUL ACTS
AGAINST THE SAFETY OF MARITIME NAVIGATION, 1988 (2006 Edition) Code IA462E
ISBN 978-92-801-42297
R22 CIVIL LIABILITY FOR OIL POLLUTION DAMAGE (1996 Edition) Code I473E ISBN
978-92-801-13310
R23 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON LIABILITY AND COMPENSATION FOR
DAMAGE IN CONNECTION WITH THE CARRIAGE OF HAZARDOUS AND NOXIOUS
SUBSTANCES BY SEA, 1996 (HNS Convention) (2010 Edition) Code I479E ISBN 978-
92-801-14508
R24 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON CIVIL LIABILITY FOR BUNKER OIL POLLUTION
DAMAGE, 2001 (2004 Edition) Code I490M ISBN 978-92-801-00327
R25 MARPOL (Consolidated Edition, 2006) Code IC520E ISBN 978-92-801-42167
R26 MARPOL – HOW TO DO IT (2002 Edition) Code IA636E ISBN 978-92-801-41528
R27 POLLUTION PREVENTION EQUIPMENT UNDER MARPOL (2006 Edition) Code
IA646E ISBN 978-92-801-14706
R28 CONDITION ASSESSMENT SCHEME (CAS) (2006 Edition) Code I530E ISBN 978-92-
801-42075
R29 GUIDELINES FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ANNEX V OF MARPOL (2006 Edition)
Code IA656E ISBN 978-92-801-42235
R30 PROVISIONS CONCERNING THE REPORTING OF INCIDENTS INVOLVING
HARMFUL SUBSTANCES UNDER MARPOL (1999 Edition) Code IA516E ISBN 978-
92-801-60987
R31 LONDON CONVENTION 1972 AND 1996 PROTOCOL (2003 Edition) Code IA532E
ISBN 978-92-801-41559
R32 GUIDELINES ON THE CONVENTION ON THE PREVENTION OF MARINE POLLUTION
BY DUMPING OF WASTES AND OTHER MATTER, 1972 (2006 Edition) Code I531E
ISBN 978-92-801-51503

R33 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON OIL POLLUTION PREPAREDNESS, RESPONSE

AND CO-OPERATION, 1990 (OPRC) (1991 Edition) Code I550E ISBN 978-92-801-
12672
R34 OPRC-HNS PROTOCOL 2000 (2002 Edition) Code I556E ISBN 978-92-801-51367
R35 IMO/UNEP GUIDELINES ON OIL SPILL DISPERSANT APPLICATION INCLUDING
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS (1995 Edition) Code IA575E ISBN 978-92-
801-13327
R37 GUIDELINES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHIPBOARD MARINE POLLUTION
EMERGENCY PLANS (2010 Edition) Code IB586E ISBN 978-92-801-15185
R38 CRUDE OIL WASHING SYSTEMS (2000 Edition) Code IA617E ISBN 978-92-801-
50940
R39 BALLAST WATER MANAGEMENT CONVENTION (2004 Edition) Code I620M ISBN
978-92-801-00334
R40 BALLAST WATER MANAGEMENT CONVENTION AND THE GUIDELINES FOR ITS
IMPLEMENTATION (2009 Edition) Code I621E ISBN 978-92-801-15031
R42 PROCEDURES FOR PORT STATE CONTROL (2000 Edition) Code IA650E ISBN 978-
92-801-50995
R43 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE CONTROL OF HARMFUL ANTI-FOULING
SYSTEMS (AFS) ON SHIPS, 2001 (2005 Edition) Code IA680E ISBN 978-92-801-
41955
R44 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LOAD LINES, 1966 (2005 Edition) Code IB701E
ISBN 978-92-801-41948

290
R45 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON TONNAGE MEASUREMENT OF SHIPS, 1969
(1970 Edition) Code I713E ISBN 978-92-801-10906
R46 INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF SHIPS
CARRYING DANGEROUS CHEMICALS IN BULK (IBC Code) (2007 Edition) Code
IC100E ISBN 978-92-801-42266
R47 CODE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF SHIPS CARRYING
DANGEROUS CHEMICALS IN BULK (BCH Code) (2009 Edition) Code IC772E ISBN
978-92-801-15093
R48 INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF SHIPS
CARRYING LIQUEFIED GASES IN BULK (IGC Code) (1993 Edition) Code I104E ISBN
978-92-801-12771
R49 CODE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF SHIPS CARRYING
LIQUEFIED GASES IN BULK (GC Code) (1983 Edition) Code I782E ISBN 978-92-801- 11651
R50 NOISE LEVELS ON BOARD SHIPS (1982 Edition) Code I814E ISBN 978-92-801-
11347
R51 INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR APPLICATION OF FIRE TEST PROCEDURES (FTP
Code) (1998 Edition) Code IB844E ISBN 978-92-801-145
R52 GUIDELINES ON SURVEYS REQUIRED BY THE 1978 SOLAS PROTOCOL, THE IBC
CODE AND THE IGC CODE (1987 Edition) Code I858E ISBN 978-92-801-12221
R53 CODE ON ALARMS AND INDICATORS, 1995 (1996 Edition) Code IA867E ISBN 978-
92-801-14218

R54 INTERNATIONAL CODE ON INTACT STABILITY, 2008 (2009 Edition) Code IB874E
ISBN 978-92-801-15062
R55 PREVENTION OF CORROSION ON BOARD SHIPS (2010 Edition) Code I877M ISBN
978-92-801-00358
R56 CONVENTION ON THE INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS FOR PREVENTING
COLLISIONS AT SEA, 1972 (COLREG 1972) (Consolidated Edition 2003) Code IB904E
ISBN 978-92-801-41672
R57 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON STANDARDS OF TRAINING, CERTIFICATION
AND WATCHKEEPING FOR SEAFARERS, 1978 (STCW 1978) (2001 Edition) Code
IB938E ISBN 978-92-801-51084
R58 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON SEARCH AND RESCUE, 1979 (SAR 1979) (2006
Edition) Code IB955E ISBN 978-92-801-52067
R59 GUIDELINES ON FATIGUE (2002 Edition) Code I968E ISBN 978-92-801-51282
R60 IMO/ILO GUIDELINES FOR THE DEVELO MENT OF TABLES OF SEAFARERS’
SHIPBOARD WORKING ARRANGEMENTS AND FORMATS OF RECORDS OF
SEAFARERS’ HOURS OF WORK OR HOURS OF REST (1999 Edition) Code I973E
ISBN 978-92-801-60956
R61 INTERNATIONAL LIFE-SAVING APPLIANCES CODE (LSA Code) (2010 edition) Code
ID982E ISBN 978-92-801-15079
R62 ASSEMBLY RESOLUTIONS on CD, Version 9 (2010) Code D026E ISBN 978-92-801-
70320
R63 INTERNATIONAL HEALTH REGULATIONS (2005). SECOND EDITION (GENEVA,
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, 2008), ISBN 9789241580410
R64 COMPENDIUM OF MARITIME LABOUR INSTRUMENTS (2006 EDITION)
(INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE, GENEVA) ISBN 978-92-2-120612-5

291