10.

Propulsion characteristics gas turbine [1]

Significant progress has been made in enhancing the thermal efficiency

of simple-cycle gas turbines for ship propulsion over the years, R&D
seeking to improve part-load economy and reduce the fuel cost penalty
compared with diesel engines. In 1960 marine gas turbines had an efficiency of around 25 per cent
at their rated power, while second
generation aero-derivatives were introduced in the 1970s with
efficiencies of around 35 per cent. Subsequent advances—design
refinements, new materials and cooling techniques, and the
appropriate matching of higher compressor pressure ratios—have
resulted in some large simple-cycle turbines achieving efficiencies of
over 40 per cent, Figure below.

More complex gas turbine cycles can deliver specific fuel

consumptions closely approaching the very flat curve characteristics
of larger diesel engines. Part-load efficiency can be improved in a
number of ways, notably through the intercooled recuperated (ICR)
cycle which uses the exhaust gas to heat the combustor inlet (Figure
below). This method was chosen for the WR-21 gas turbine (detailed
in the Rolls-Royce section below) which has achieved a 42 per cent
thermal efficiency across 80 per cent of the operating range.

260
The ICR cycle and other performance/efficiency-enhancing solutions were examined by Mitsubishi
Heavy Industries, taking as an example its own MFT-8 aero-derived gas turbine developed for
marine use (see below). The Japanese designer investigated various methods of improving the
thermal efficiency and power output to similar levels as those of the diesel engine, focusing on six
gas turbine cycle configurations (Figure below):

— Simple cycle: the standard layout comprising compressor, turbine and combustor.
— Intercooled cycle: as for the simple cycle but with an intercooler added to increase performance
through a reduction of high pressure compressor power.
— Intercooled recuperated cycle: as for the intercooled cycle but with a remunerator installed to
recover heat from the gas turbine exhaust to the combustor inlet.

261
— Reheat cycle: as for the simple cycle but with a reheat combustor added downstream of the high
pressure turbine.
— Intercooled reheat cycle: a combination of intercooled and reheat cycle configurations.
— Combined cycle: a bottoming steam turbine cycle added to a simple cycle gas turbine.

Although atmospheric pressure variation, an important consideration for aero gas turbines, is
relatively small for marine units operating at sea level both temperature and humidity can vary
significantly. Both of these parameters influence the specific heat of the air as a working fluid
within the gas turbine. Atmospheric variations can have a significant effect on thermal efficiency
and specific fuel consumption. Increased air temperature, in particular, reduces efficiency and
lowers fuel economy; relative humidity has a less significant influence, though at high inlet
temperatures an increase in humidity will have an adverse effect on specific fuel consumption.

The performance of real cycles can be unambiguously expressed in terms of

the specific fuel consumption, i.e. fuel mass flow per unit net power output.
To obtain this the fuel/air ratio must be found. In the course of calculating the
net output per unit mass flow of air the temperature at inlet to the
combustion chamber (T02) will have been obtained; and the temperature at
outlet (T03), which is the maximum cycle temperature, will normally be
specified. The problem is therefore to calculate the fuel/air ratio/required to
transform unit mass of air at T02 and f kg of fuel at the fuel temperature tf to
(1+f) kg of products at T03 . Since the process is adiabatic with no work
transfer, the energy equation is simply

262
where mi is the mass of product i per unit mass of air and hi its specific enthalpy.
Making use of the enthalpy of reaction at a reference temperature of 25 °C, ΔH25, the equation can
be expanded in the usual way to become

where Cpg is the mean specific heat of the products over the temperature range 298 K to T03 . ΔH25
should be the enthalpy of reaction per unit mass of fuel with the H20 in the products in the vapour
phase, because T03 is high and above the dew point. For common fuels ΔH25 may be taken from
tables, or alternatively it may be evaluated from the enthalpies of formation of the reactants. It is
usual to assume that the fuel temperature is the same as the reference temperature, so that the
fourth term on the L.H.S. of the equation is zero. The term will certainly be small because f is low
(~ 0.02) and Cpf for liquid hydrocarbon fuels is only about
2 KJ/kg K. Finally, we have already discussed in the previous section, 'Variation of specific heat', the
calculation of the mean specific heat of the products Cpg as a function of f and T, so we are left with
an equation from whichfcan be obtained for any given values of T02 and T03 .
Such calculations are too lengthy to be undertaken for every individual cycle calculation-
particularly if dissociation is significant because then the FΔΗ25 term must be modified to allow for
the incompletely burnt carbon and hydrogen arising from the dissociated C02 and H20. It is usually
sufficiently accurate to use tables or charts which have been compiled for a typical fuel
composition. Figure below shows the combustion temperature rise (T03 - T02) plotted against
fueljair ratio
for various values of inlet temperature (T02), and these curves will be used for all numerical
examples in this book.
The reference fuel for which the data have been calculated is a hypothetical liquid hydrocarbon
containing 13,92 per cent Hand 86,08 per cent C, for which the stoichiomdric fuel/air ratio is 0,068
and ΔΗ25 is
-43 100 KJ/kg. The curves are certainly adequate for any kerosene burnt in dry air. Methods are
given whereby the data can be used for hydrocarbon fuels which differ widely in composition from
the reference fuel, or where the fuel is burnt in a reheat chamber, i.e. not in air but in the products
of combustion from a previous chamber in the cycle.

263
The data for Fig. above have been calculated on the assumption that the fuel is completely burnt,
and thus !]le abscissa could be labeled 'theoretical fuel/air ratio'. The most convenient method of
allowing for combustion loss is by introducing a combustion efficiency defined by

264
This is the definition used in this book. An alternative method is to regard the ordinate as the
theoretical ΔT for a given f and define the efficiency in terms of the ratio: actual ΔT/theoretical ΔT.
Neither definition is quite the same as the fundamental definition based on the ratio of actual
energy released to the theoretical quantity obtainable. (ηb differs from it because of the small
additional heat capacity of the products arising from the increase in fuel needed to produce the
given temperature.) But in practice combustion is so nearly complete-98-99 per cent-that the
efficiency is difficult to measure accurately and the three definitions of efficiency yield virtually the
same result.
Once the fuel/air ratio is! mown, the fuel consumption mf is simply f x m
where m is the air mass flow, and the specific fuel consumption can be found directly from

Since the fuel consumption is normally measured in kg/h, while WN is in kW per kg/s of air flow, the
SFC in kg/kW h is given by the following numerical equation.

If the thermal efficiency of the cycle is required, it must be defined in the form 'work output/heat
supplied' even though the combustion process is adiabatic and
in the thermodynamic sense no heat is supplied. We kmow that if the fuel is burnt under ideal
conditions, such that the products and reactants are virtually at the same temperature (the
reference temperature 25 °C), the rate of energy release in the form of heat will be

where mf is the fuel flow and Qgr,p is the gross (or higher) calorific value at constant pressure. In
the gas turbine it is not possible to utilize the latent heat of the H20 vapour in the products and the
convention of using the net calorific value has been adopted in most countries. Thus the cycle
efficiency may be defined as

With the units used here, the equivalent nmne1ical equation becomes

or, using the above numerical equation for SFC

Qnet,p is sensibly equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the enthalpy of reaction ΔH25 referred
to earlier, and the value of 43.100 KJ/kg will be used for all numerical examples.
When referring to the thermal efficiency of actual gas turbines, manufacturers often prefer to use
the concept of heat rate rather than efficiency. The reason is that fuel prices are normally quoted

265
in terms of pounds sterling (or dollars) per megajoule, and the heat rate can be used to evaluate
fuel cost directly. Heat rate is defined as (SFC x Qnet,p), and thus expresses the heat input required
to produce a unit quantity of power. It is normally expressed in kJ /kW h, in which case the
corresponding thermal efficiency can be found from 3600/(heat rate).

EXAMPLE
Determine the specific work output, specific fuel consumption and cycle efficiency for a heat-
exchange -cycle, Fig. below, having the following specification:

Since T01 = Ta and P01 = Pa• and γ= 1,4, the temperature equivalent of the compressor work is.

From equation

Turbine work required to drive compressor per unit mass flow is

266
Since γ = 1,333 for the expanding gases, the temperature equivalent of the total turbine work is
From equation

Total turbine work per unit mass flow is

Remembering that the mass flow is to be assumed the same throughout the unit, the specific work
output is simply

(It follows that for a 1000 kW plant an air mass flow of 7·3 kg/s would be required.) To find the
fuel/air ratio we must first calculate the combustion temperature rise (T03 – T05).

Hence

267
From Fig above, for a combustion chamber inlet air temperature of759 K and a combustion
temperature rise of (1100 -759) = 341 K, the theoretical fuel/air ratio required is 0,0094 and thus

The specific fuel consumption is therefore

Finally, the cycle efficiency is

[1]References and Further Reading

1)Pounder’s Marine Diesel Enginess & Gas Turbine Edited by Doug Woodyard
2) Introduction to Marine Engineering, Second Edition by D. A. Taylor, MSc, BSc, CENG,
FIMarE, FRINA Marine Consultant, Harbour Craft Services Ltd, Hong Kong Formerly Senior
Lecturer in Marine Technology, Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
3)Gas Turbine handbook – Principles and Practices 3rd Edition by Tony Giampaolo, MSME,
PE

268
D. Heat cycle, thermal efficiency and heat balance of the following

1. Diesel cycle:

Diesel cycle is modified from of Otto cycle and heat addition process is replaced
from constant volume type to constant pressure type. In a piston cylinder arrangement
heat addition with piston at one position allows very little time for heat supply in Otto
cycle. By having heat addition at constant pressure the sufficient time is available for heat
supply in Diesel cycle.

Compression ignition engines work based on diesel cycles.

Thermodynamic process constituting Diesel cycle are as given below.

1 – 2 = Adiabatic compression, (- ive work, Wcompr)

2 – 3 = Heat addition at constant pressure (+ive heat, Qadd)

3 – 4 = adiabatic expansion, (+ive work, Wexpn)

4 – 1 = Heat rejection at constant volume (- ive heat, Qreject)

Figure: p – V and T – S representation for Diesel cycle

p – V and T – S representations for the cycle are in figure

269
Thermodynamic analysis of the cycle for unit mass of air shows;

Heat added = cp ( T3 – T2)

Heat rejected = cv ( T4 – T1)

V1
r
Let us assume; Compression ratio, V2

V3

Cut of ratio, V2

V4
Expansion ratio = V3

Air standard efficiency for Diesel cycle may be given as,

heat added - heat rejected

diesel 
heat added

cp T3  T2   cv T4  T1 

cp T3  T2 

1  T  T  
diesel  1   4 1 
  T3  T2  

Using perfect gas equation and governing equation for thermodynamic process 1 -2 ;

p1V1 p2 V2

T1 T2

270
And
p1V1  p2 V2

 1
T2  V1 
 
T1  V2 
Combining above two, we get

T2  1
 r 
T1

 T2 = T1 . r - 1

V3 T3

Also as V2 T2

T3

Or T2

Or T3 = T2 . 

Or T3 = T1 . r - 1 . 

Also for adiabatic process 3 – 4 combining the following:

p3V3 p4 V4
 and p3V3  p4 V4
T3 T4

 1
T3  V4 
 
T4  V3 
We get,

 1
T3  V4 V2 
  
T4  V2 V3 
Or

 1
V V 
 1  2 
 V2 V3 

 1
T3  r 
 
T4   

271
   1
T4  T1 . .r  1 
r  1

T4 = T1 . 

Substituting T2, T3 and T4 as function of T1, 1, ,  in the expression for air standard
efficiency of diesel cycle.

1    1 
diesel  1    1 
  r    1 

1 .     1
diesel  1   1  
Or  .r    1 

Thus diesel cycle efficiency depends upon r,  and .

For air as working fluid the variation of diesel cycle efficiency with compression ratio for
varying cut – off ratios is given in figure.

Figure: Diesel cycle efficiency vs. compression ratio

272
 Mean effective pressure for diesel cycle can be obtained by ratio of area enclosed
on P – V diagram (work) and length of P – V diagram (volume). Assuming clearance
volume to be unity i.e. V2 = 1

Net work = Area of diagram

p3V3  p4 V4 p V p V
  p2  V3  V2   2 2 1 1
 1  1

Substituting in terms of cut off ratio and compression ratio:

p2   p4 .r   p2  p1r 
  p2    1
 1

Or

Net work=
p2
 -1

    1  r 1 .  r   1 
Area of P - V diagram
Mean effective pressure = Length of P - V diagram

{ .    1  r 1     1} 
p2 1

 -1  r  1

Or

p1 .r      1  r 1 .     1

 m.e.p diesel 
  1 r  1

dual cycle and derive efficiency of m.e.p.

273
2. Dual cycle:

It is also called ‘mixed cycle’ or ‘limited pressure cycle.’ Dual cycle came up as a
result of certain merits and demerits associated with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle due to
heat addition occurring at constant volume an dat constant pressure respectively.

Dual cycle is the combination of Otto cycle and Diesel cycle in which heat addition
takes lace partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure.

Thermodynamic processes involved in Dual cycle are given as under.

1 – 2 = Adiabatic compression, (- ive work, Wcompr)

2 – 3 = Heat addition at constant volume (+ive heat, Qadd , V)

3 – 4 = Heat addition at constant pressure (+ive heat, Qadd, p)

4 – 5 = Adiabatic expansion, (+ive work, Wexpn)

5 – 1 = Heat rejection at constant volume (- ive heat, Qreject)

Figure: p – V and T – S representations of Dual cycle

Let us assume the following for thermodynamic analysis:

274
Clearance volume = Unity

V1
r
Compression ratio, V2

V4

Cut – off ratio, V3

p3

Pressure ratio during heat addition, p2

For unit mass of air as working fluid throughout the cycle.

Total Heat added = Heat added at constant volume ( 2 – 3) + Heat added at constant
pressure ( 3 – 4)

Qadd  c T3  T2   c T4  T3 

Qrejected  cv T5  T1 
Heat rejected,

Air standard efficiency for Dual cycle can be given as;

Heat added - Heat rejected

dual 
Heat added

c T3  T2   c p T4  T3   cv T5  T1 


c T3  T2   c p T4  T3 

c T5  T1 
 1
c T3  T2   c p T4  T3 

275
  1
T5  T1 
Or T3  T2   T4  T3 

From gas laws applied to process 2 – 3,

p3 p2

T3 T2

p2
T2  T3 
Or p3

T3
T2 


For process 3 – 4

V4 V3

T4 T3

V4
T4  T3 
Or V3

T4   .T3

For adiabatic process 4 -5

 1
T4  V5 
 
T5  V4 

T4
T5   1
 V5 
 
Or  V4 

T4 .  1
T5 
r  1

Substituting T4

276
 T4 . 
T5 
Or r  1

For adiabatic process 1 -2

 1
T2  V1 
 
T1  V2 

T2
T1 
Or r  1

Substituting for T2

T3
T1 
 .r  1

Substituting for T1, T2, T4, T5 in expression for efficiency.

1   .   1 
dual  1   1  
r    1   .    1 

For unity cut off ratio i.e. absence of 3 -4 process, cycle becomes equal to Otto cycle.

1
  1, dual  1   1
 otto
i.e. for r

For the pressure ratio  being unity cycle gets modified to Diesel cycle.

1    1 
  1, dual  1  .  diesel
i.e. for  .r  1    1 

Mean effective pressure of dual cycle can be obtained as follows:

Net work = Area enclosed in P – V diagram

277
 p4 V4  p5V5 p2V2  p1V1
 p3  V4  V3   
 1  1

p3   p5 .r  p2  p1 .r
 p3    1 
Or   1

Making suitable substitutions for p1, p2 and p5, it gets modified as

p3  .    1    1  r 1 .  .   1

Net work=
   1

Substituting for mean effective pressure

Area of diagram
 m.e.p dual 
Length of diagram

 p3  .    1    1  r .  .  1  
 1 
1 
  
 r  1     1 


Substituting p3 as function of p1

or

p1 .r   .    1    1  r 1 .  .   1 
 m.e.p.dual 
  1  1

Efficiency for regenerative gas turbine cycle

Regenerative gas turbine cycle:

In earlier discussions it is seen that for the maximization of specific work output the
gas turbine exhaust temperature should be equal to compressor exhaust temperature.
The turbine exhaust temperature is normally much above the ambient temperature. Thus
their exist potential for tapping the heat energy getting lost to surroundings with exhaust
gases. Here it is devised to use this potential by means of a heat exchanger called
regenerator, which shall preheat the air leaving compressor before entering the

278
combustion chamber, thereby reducing the amount of fuel to be burnt inside combustion
chamber (combustor).

Regenerative air standard gas turbine cycle shown ahead in figure has a
regenerator (counter flow heat exchanger) through which the hot turbine exhaust gas and
comparatively cooler air coming from compressor flow in opposite directions. Under ideal
conditions, no frictional pressure crop occurs in either fluid stream while turbine exhaust
gas gets cooled from 4 to 4’ while compressed air is heated from 2 to 2’. Assuming
regenerator effect veness as 100% the temperature rise from 2 – 2’ and drop from 4 to 4’
is shown on T – S diagram.

Figure: Regenerative air standard gas turbine cycle.

h2'  h2
 ,
Regenerator effectiveness h4  h2 where ‘h’ refers to specific enthalpy values.

Thus thermodynamically the amount of heat now added shall be

279
   1 Qadd , regen  m  h3  h2' 

Where as without regenerator the heat added;

Qadd  m  h3  h2 

Here it is obvious that, Qadd, regen < Qadd

This shows as obvious improvement in cycle thermal efficiency as every thing else remains
same. Network produced per unit mass flow is not altered by the use of regenerator.

regen 
 h3  h4    h2  h1 
Air standard cycle thermal efficiency,  h3  h '2 

T3  T4   cp T2  T1 
regen  cp
cp T3  T2' 

Thus regenerative gas turbine cycle efficiency approaches to Carnot cycle efficiency at r = 1
which is because in the limiting situation the cannot cycle requirement of total heat
addition and rejection at maximum and minimum cycle temperature is satisfied. Variation
of efficiency with cycle pressure ratio for regenerative cycle is shown in figure for fixed ‘t’
values.

Cycle efficiency is seen to decrease with increasing pressure ratio till pressure ratio
  -1 
 
 2 
becomes equal to r = t . In earlier discussions it has been shown that at this pressure
ratio value the specific work output becomes maximum. Same specific work output
variation is true for this case too. For further higher values of pressure ratio the heat
exchanger shall cool the air leaving compressor and lower the cycle efficiency than simple
cycle efficiency.

280
 This is because of which the constant ‘t’ line are not extended beyond the point
where they meet efficiency curve for simple cycle.

Figure: Efficiency vs. pressure ratio for regenerative gas turbine gas turbine cycle

Thus it can be concluded that for getting improvement in efficiency by

incorporating regenerator the pressure ratio ‘r’ appreciably less that the optimum one for
maximum specific work output should be used. Also maximum turbine inlet temperature
should be used.

For ideal heat exchange in regenerator with 100% effectiveness,

Upon substitution it yield T2’ = T4

regen 
T3  T4   T2  T1 
T3  T4 
T  T 
regen  1  2 1
T3  T4 

From thermodynamic process

281
   1 
T2 T3  
 
  r
T1 T4

T2  T1 T1

or, T3  T4 T4

T2  T1 T1 T3
 
or, T3  T4 T3 T4

Also we know

T3
 t;
T1

  1 
 
  
T2  T1 r

Or T3  T4 t

Substituting in expression for efficiency,

  1
r
  
regen  1
t

Thus the expression for regenerative cycle efficiency shows that efficiency of regenerative
gas turbine cycle depends upon maximum temperature e(T3) in cycle and efficiency
increases with increasing ‘t’ value or turbine inlet temperature (T3) at constant cycle
pressure ratio. Also the efficiency decreases with increasing pressure ratio for fixed ‘t’
value, contrary to the behaviour of efficiency shown in case of simple gas turbine cycle
where efficiency increases with increasing pressure ratio.

1 T1 T
regen  1   1   1  min
At r = 1, t T3 Tmax

282
Efficiency for reheat gas turbine cycle

Reheat gas turbine cycle:

Reheat gas turbine cycle arrangement is shown in figure. In order to maximize the
work available from the simple gas turbine cycle one the of the option is to increase
enthalpy of fluid entering gas turbine and extend its expansion

Figure: Reheat gas turbine cycle

Up to lowest possible enthalpy value. This can also be said in terms of pressure and
temperature values i.e. inject fluid at high pressure and temperature into gas turbine and
expand upto lowest possible pressure value. Upper limit at inlet to turbine is limited by
metallurgical limits while lower pressure is limited to near atmospheric pressure in case of
open cycle. For further increasing the net work output the positive work may be increased
by using multistage expansion with reheating in between. In multistage expansion the
expansion is divided into parts and after part expansion working fluid may be reheated for
getting larger positive work in left out expansion. For reheating another combustion
chamber may be used.

283
 Here in the arrangement shown ambient air enters compressor and compressed air
at high pressure leaves at 2. Compressed air is injected into combustion chamber for
increasing its temperature upto desired turbine inlet temperature at state 3. High
pressure and high temperature fluid enters high pressure turbine (HPT) for first phase of
expansion and expanded gases leaving at 4 are sent to reheat combustion chamber), the
fluid leaves at state 5 and enters low pressure turbine (LPT) for remaining expansion upto
desired pressure value. Generally temperature after reheating the expansion processes
within similar pressure limits goes upto state 4’. Thus Reheating offers an obvious
advantage of work output increase since constant pressure lines on T-S diagram diverge
slightly with increasing entropy, the total work of the two stage turbine is greater than

that of single expansion from state 3 to state 4’, i.e.,

T3  T4   T5  T6   T3  T4'  . Here
it may be noted that the heat addition also increases because of additional heat supplied
for reheating. Therefore, despite the increase in net work due to reheating the cycle
thermal efficiency would not necessarily increase. Let us now carry out air standard cycle
analysis.

Net work output is reheat cycle,

Wnet , reheat  WHPT  WLPT  WC

WHPT  m  h3  h4  , WLPT  m  h5  h6  , WC  m  h2  h1 
Wnet ,reheat  m  h3  h4    h5  h6    h2  h1 
Wnet ,reheat  mc p T3  T4   T5  T6   T2  T1 

Assuming T3 = T5

284
Wnet , reheat  m c p  2T3  T4   T6  T2  T1 

 2T T   T   T 
Wnet , reheat  m c pT1  3  4    6    2  1 

 T1 T1   T1   T1 

 /  1
T3 T  r
 t ; pressure ratio , r   2   ;
Here
T1  T1  r1

 1/  
 T5   r  T 
    3 
Or,  T6   r1   T6 

 Wnet .reheat   
 1
T4 T3   T6 T3    
    2t  .        r  1  
 mc pT1    T3 T1   T3 T1   

 Wnet ,reheat 
   w then
Let  mc pT1 

     1 
 
r1          
  1 
 t   
w   2t  
  1      t  r  1
  r    
  r      
 
  
 1 
 
 
dw  1  t 1 
 0     0
  r  2  1    1 

dr1
 1  r 
   .r11 /     

dw 1 1
Equating to zero, 2 1/     1 
 r 1/   r12 1/  
dr1 r1  
  . r1 / 
r 1

or, r1  r  r2

285
 Thus expansion pressure ratio for high pressure turbine and low pressure turbine
should be same for maximum work output from the cycle. With such optimum division
the expression for work output and efficiency can be given as,

    
 
w   2t   1     1    r 1/   1 
t t
  r  2    r  2  
 

Let, r 1/   c then,

Wnet ,reheat  2t  
  2t     c  1 
mc pT1  c 
Wnet ,reheat  2t 
 2t   c  1
mc pT1  c 

Efficiency for reheat cycle

Wnet ,reheat
reheat 
m  h3  h2   m  h5  h4 
Wnet ,reheat

mc p T3  T2   T5  T4 
Wnet ,reheat
reheat 
 T T   T T  
mc pT1  3  2    5  4  
 T1 T1   T1 T1  

Let us simplify denominator first,

286
  T T   T T  
 mcpT1  3  2    5  4  
 T1 T1   T1 T1  

T3
T5  T3 and t
We know T1

 T   T  
 mcpT1  t  2    t  4  
 T1   T1  

T2 T  1/ 2
Also  r  1/   ; 3   r 
T1 T4

Substituting,

  1
  T T  
 mc pT1  t  r     t  4  3  
 
   T3 T1  
   1  
 

 t 
 mc pT1 2t  r      1  
  
 r  2  

 t 
 mc pT1 2t  c  
Denominator  c

Substituting in expression for efficiency for optimum division of pressure ration;

287
 Wnet ,reheat
reheat 
 t 
mc pT1 2t  c  
 c
 2t 
2t   c  1
 
c
reheat
 t 
2t  c  
 c

Example

A four stroke SI engine has the compression ratio of 6 and swept volume of 0.15m.
Pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression are 98 kPa and 60oC.
Determine the pressure, volume and temperatures at all salient points if heat supplied to
it is 150kJ/kg. Also find out entropy change, work done, efficiency and mean effective
pressure of cycle assuming cp=1kJ/kg.K.cv=0.71 kJ/kg.K. Also plot the cycle on T-S
diagram.

Figure:

Solution:

SI engines operate on Otto cycle. Consider working fluid to be perfect gas.

288
 cp
  1.4
Here c

cp  c  R  0.29kJ / kg.K.

Given: P1  98 kPa

T1  60  273.15  333.15K
Q23  150 kJ / kg

V1 0.15  V2
r  6
Compression ratio, V2 V2

Therefore V2 = 0.03 m3

Total cylinder volume = 0.18 m3 = V1

From perfect gas law, PV = mRT

P1V1
m  0.183kg.
RT1


From state 1 to 2 by PV  cons tan t

289
 
  V 
p1V1  p2 V2 orp2  p1   1   1204.03 kPa.
 V2 

P1V2 P2 V2
 yields, T2  682.18K
Also T1 T2

From heat addition process 2 – 3,

Q2 3  mc T3  T2 
150  0.183  0.71 T3  682.18 
T3  1836.65K

Also from

P3V3 P2 V2
 , P3  3241.64 kPa
T3 T2

For adiabatic expansion

3  4, P3V3  P4V4

And V4 = V1

P3 .V3
P4   263.85 kPa
Hence V1

290
 P3V3 P4 V4
 ; T4  896.95K
And from T3 T4

Entropy change from 2-3 and 4-1 are same, and can be given as,

 0.183  0.71 ln 
T4 896.95 
S3  S2  S4  S1  mc ln 
T1  333.15 

Entropy change S32  S41  0.1287 kJ / K.

Q41  mc  T4  T1 

Heat rejected,

 0.183  0.71 896.95  333.15 

Q41  73.25kJ

 Q23   Q41   150  73.25

Net Work

Net Work = 76.75 kJ

Net work
Efficiency 
Heat added

291
 76.75
  0.5117 or   51.17%
150

Work 76.75
   511.67 kPa
Mean effective pressure Volume change 0.15

m.e.p  511.67 kPa

Ans.

Example

1
kPa at
In a Diesel engine during the compression process, pressure is seen to be 138 8 the
7 1
th
of stroke and 1.38 MPa at 8 the of stroke. The cut-off occurs at 5 of stroke. Calculate
thermal efficiency to be half of ideal efficiency, mechanical efficiency as 0.8, calorific value
of fuel = 41800 kJ/kg and =1.4. Also find fuel consumption bhp/hr.

Solution:

As given

7
VA  V2   V1  V2 
8

292
Figure:

And also
pAVA  pB .VB

1/ 
 V A   pB 
  
Or  VB   p A 

1/ 1.4

 
1380 

 138 

VA
 5.18
VB

Also substituting for VA & VB

7
V2   V1  V2 
2  5.18
1
V2   V1  V2 
8

293
It gives r = 19.37

V1
 19.37
V2 Compression ratio = 19.37

  V1  V2  
  volume
As given: Cut off occurs at  15 

V1  V2 
V3     V2
Or  15 

V3
  2.22
Cut off ratio, V2

1    1
 1
Air standard efficiency for Diesel cycle r 1 .    1 

= 0.6325

air s tan dard  63.25%

Overall efficiency = air standard efficiency x 0.5 x 0.8

= 0.6325 x 0.5 x 0.8

=0.253 or 25.3%

294
 75  60  60
bhp / hr 
Fuel consumption 0.253  41800  102

= 0.255 kg

Compression ratio  19.32%

Air s tan dard efficiency  63.25%
Fuel consumption, bhp / hr  0.255 kg
Ans.

Example

In an IC engine using air as working fluid, total 1700 kJ/kg of heat is added during
combustion and maximum pressure in cylinder does not exceed 5 MPa. Compare the
efficiency of following two cycles used by engine:

cycle in which combustion takes place isochorically.

Cycle in which half of heat is added at constant volume and half at constant pressure.

Temperature and pressure at the beginning of compression are 100oC and 103 kPa.
Compression and expansion processes are adiabatic. Specific heat at constant pressure
and volume are 1.003 kJ/kg.K and 0.71 kJ/kg.K.

Solution

295
Figure:

1  2  3  4  cycle  a 
1  2' 3' 4' 5  cycle  b 

cp
   1.4
Here c

and R = 0.293 kJ/kg, K

Let us consider 1 kg of air for perfect gas,

PV  mRT

mRT1
V1 
Or p1

1  0.293  373.15

103
V1  1.06m 3

500  V3
p3V3  mRT3 orT3   17064.8V2
At state 3, 1  01.293

For cycle (a) and also for cycle (b)

296
 T3'  17064.8 V2'

(a) For Otto cycle

Q23  c T3  T2  ; given Q23  1700 kJ / kf

1700  0.71 T3  T2 

Or T3  T2  2328.77, or T2  T3  2328.77

From gas law

p2 V2 p3V3

T2 T3
p2 .V2 500  V2
 ,as V2  V3 
T3  2328.77  T3

p2 5000

Or T3  2328.77  T3

Substituting T3 as function of V2

p2 5000

17064.8V2  2328.77  17064.8V2 

297
 5000 17064.8V2  2328.77 
p2 
Or 17064.8V2 

Also
p1V1  p2 V2

5000 17064.8V2  2328.77 

103  1.06   .  V21.4 
1.4

Or 17064.8V2 

Upon solving it yields

381.4V2  17064.8 V22.4  2328.77 V21.4

V2  44.7 V22.4  6.1V21.4
44.7 V21.4  6.1V20.4  1  0
V21.4  0.136V20.4  0.022  0

Or

By hit and trial it yields V2 = 0.18 m3

V1 1.06
r   5.89
Thus compression ratio V2 0.18

Otto cycle efficiency, otto  50.83%

(b) For mixed or Dual Cycle

298
Given:

cp  T4'  T3'   cv T3'  T2'  

1700
 850
2

Or
T3'  T2'  1197.2

Or
T2'  T3'  1197.2

P2' V2' P3' V2'

 '
Also T2' T3

P2' V2' 5000V2'

 
T3'  1197.2  T3'

P2' 5000

Or T3  1197.2  T3'
'

Also we had seen earlier that

T3'  17064.8V2'

P2' 5000

17064.8V2  1197.2  17064.8V2' 
'

299
 5000 17064.8V2'  1197.2 
P2' 
Or 17064.8V  '
2

For adiabatic process 1  2',

P1V1  P2' V2'

1.4  350.78 
103  1.06    V2'  .  5000 
1.4

 V2' 
Or

111.75V2  5000V2'2.4  350.78 V2'1.4

Or 1  44.74V2'1.4  3.14V2'0.4

Or V2'1.4  0.07V2'0.4  0.022  0

By hit and trial

V2'  0.122m3

Therefore upon substituting V2’

300
 P2'  2124.75 kPa
T3'  2082 K
T2'  884.8 K

From constant pressure heat addition

cp T4'  T3'   850

1.003 T4'  2082   850

T4'  2929.5 K

P4'V4' P3'V3'
 here p3'  p4' and V2'  V3' 
Also T4' T3'

0.122  2929.5
V4' 
Or 2082

V4'  0.172 m3

Using adiabatic formulations

 1
 V5  T 
 '   4'  hereV5  V1 
 V4   T5 

301
 0.4

T5  2929.5  
0.172 

Or  1.06 

T5  1415.4K

Heat rejected in process

5  1,Q51  c T5  T1 

 0.711415.4  373.15

Q51  739.99kJ

1700  739.99
 0.5647 or 56.47%
Efficiency of mixed cycle = 1700

otto cycle  50.83%; mixed cycle  56.47%

Ans.

Example

In an air standard Brayton cycle the minimum and maximum temperature are 300 K and
1200 K, respectively. The pressure ratio is that which maximizes the net work developed
by the cycle per unit mass of air flow. Calculate the compressor and turbine work, each in
kJ/kg air, and thermal efficiency of the cycle. [U.P.S.C. 1994]

Solution:

302
Maximum temperature, T3 = 1200 K

Minimum temperature, T1 = 300 K

Optimum pressure ratio for maximum work output,


 T  2 1
rp   max 
 Tmin 

 T  2 1
rp   3 
 T1 
rp  11.3
 1
P2 T P  
 rp  11.3, For process1  2, 2   2 
P1 T1  P1 
1.4 1
T2  300 .  11.3  1.4

T2  600.21 K

For process 3-4,

 1  1
T3  P3   P  
   2  ,  T4  599,79K
T4  P4   P1 

Q23  cp T3  T2   602.79 kJ / kg

Heat supplied,

WC  cp . T2  T1   1.005   600.21  300 

Compressor work,

WT  cp . T3  T4   1.005 1200  599.79   603.21kJ / kg

Turbine work
303
 Net work W  WC 603.21  301.71
 T   0.5002
Thermal efficiency = Heat supplied Q23 602.79

Compressor work = 301.71 kJ/kg, Turbine work = 603.21 kJ/kg, Thermal efficiency = 50.02%
Ans.

Example

A gas turbine unit receives air at 1 bar, 300 K and compresses it adiabatically is 6.2 bar.
The compressor efficiency is 88%. The fuel has a heating value of 44186 kJ/kg and the
fuel-air ratio is 0.017 kg fuel/kg of air. The turbine internal efficiency is 90%. Calculate the
work of turbine and compressor per kg of air compressed and thermal efficiency. For
products of combustion CP = 1.147 kJ/kg K,  = 1.333.

Solution

Gas turbine cycle is shown by 1-2-3-4 on T – S diagram.

Given:

P1 = 1 bar, P2 = P3 = 6.2 bar F/A ratio = 0.017

T1 = 300 K turb = 90%

Heating value of fuel = 44186 kJ/kg

304
Figure

For process 1-2 being isentropic,

 1
T2  P2  
 
T1  P1 
T2  505.26 K

T2  T1  505.26  300 
,0.88 
Considering compressor efficiency, compr =
T2  T1 T2  300 

Actual temperature after compression, T2  533.25K

During process 2-3 due to combustion of unit mass of air compressed the energy balance
shall be as under,

mf
Heat added =  Heating value

(m a  
 m f ).CP ,comb .T3  ma .C p , air .T2 
m   mf  
or  f   44186    1  
 .CP ,comb .T3   C p ,air  533.25 
=  ma   ma  

305
 mf
 0.017, Cp,comb  1.147 kJ / kg.K , Cp,air  1.005kJ / kg.K
Here, ma

Upon substitution

(0.017  44186) = ((1 + 0.017)  1.147  T3) – (1.005  533.25)

T3 = 1103.37 K

For expansion 3-4 being

n 1
T4  P4  n
 
T3  P3 
0.33

T4  1103.37  
1  1.33

 6.2 

T4 = 701.64 K

Actual temperature at turbine inlet considering internal efficiency of turbine,

T3  T4 1103.37  T4 

turb  ; 0.90 
T3  T4 (1103.37  701.64)

Compressor work, per kg of air compressed =

CP.air . T2  T1 

WC  1.005   533.25  300 

WC  234.42 kJ/kg of air

Compressor work = 234.42 kJ/kg of air

306
Ans.

Cp ,comb . T3  T4 

Turbine work, per kg of air compressed =

= 1.147  (1103.37 – 741.81)

Turbine work = 414.71 kJ/kg of air

Ans.

WT  414.71kJ / kg of air

Network = WT – WC = (414.71 – 234.42)

Wnet = 180.29 kJ/kg of air

Heat supplied = 0.017  44186 = 751.162 kJ/kg of air.

Wnet 180.29
  24%
Thermal efficiency = Heat supplied 751.162

Thermal efficiency = 24%

Ans.

Example

In a Brayton cycle gas turbine power plant the minimum and maximum temperature of the
cycle are 300 K and 1200 K. The compression is carried out in two stages of equal pressure
ratio with intercooling of the working fluid to the minimum temperature of the cycle after
the first stage of compression. The entire expansion is carried out in one stage only. The

307
isentropic efficiency of both compressors is 0.85 and that of the turbine is 0.9. Determine
the overall pressure ratio that would give the maximum network per kg working fluid.
Take  = 1.4.

Figure: Arrangement and T-S representation

308
 P2 P4
 , T3  300K , isen,c  0.85
Given: T5 = 1200 K, T1 = 300 K, P1 P3

P2 P4 P P P4
isen ,T  0.9, As  , so 4  2   rp
P1 P3 P3 P1 P1

 1
T2  P2  
 
T1  P1 
For process, 1-2,

 1
T2
T1
 rp   2

 1
 1
T4  P4  
 
T3  P3 
 
 rp 2

For process 3-4,

 1
T4
T1
 
 rp 2

 1
T5  P4  
 
T6  P1 
For process 5-6,

 1
T5
 rp   
or, T6 
T5
 1
T6
r p


Compressor work, WC  WC1  WC 2

309
 =
 
Cp T2  T1  Cp T4  T3  
Cp T2  T1   Cp T4  T1 
=

Using Isentropic efficiency of compressor,

T2  T1 T4  T3 T4  T1
isen ,c   
T2  T1 T4  T3 T4  T1

Thus,

T2  T1  T4  T1 
WC  C p .  Cp
isen ,c isen ,c

Cp   2
(  1)
  (21) 
 rp .T1  T1    rp .T1  T1  
   

= isen ,C    

 21 
2c p .T1  rp  1
 
WC   
isen ,c
=

WT  cp . T5  T6 
Turbine work,

T5  T6
isen ,T 
Using isentropic efficiency of turbine, T5  T6

310
  
 1 
WT  c p . T5  T6  . isen ,T  c p .T5 .isen , T  1   1 
 r  
 p 

Network, Wnet  WT  WC

 21 
  2c p .T1  rp  1 
 1   
 c p .T5 .isen , T  1   1    
 r   isen , c
 p 

Differentiating net work with respect to rp.

1 2
dWnet   1 2cp .T1    1  21 
 cp .T5 .isen , T .   .rp


isen ,c  2 
. .rp
drp   

d Wnet
0
drp
Putting,

1 2  1 
cp .T1
cp .T5 .isen , T rp 
 .rp 2

isen , c

2
3 1 
2 T1  T1  31 
rp   rp   
T5 .isen ,cisen T  T5 .isen ,c .isen , T 

2
 T1  31 
rp , opt   
 T5 .isen ,c .isen , T 

Substituting known values,

311
 21.4

   311.4   13.6
300
rp , opt 
 1200  0.85  0.90 

Overall optimum pressure ratio = 13.6

Example

An air compressor has eight stages of equal pressure 1.35. The flow rate through the
compressor and its’ overall efficiency are 50 kg / s and 82% respectively. If the air enters
the compressor at a pressure of 1 bar and temperature of 313 K, determine;

(i) State of air at the exit of compressor

(ii) Polytropic or small stage efficiency

(iii) Efficiency of each stage

(iv) Power required to drive the compressor assuming overall efficiency as 90%.

[ U.P.S.C., 1992]

Solution:

(i) Theoretically state of air at exit can be determined by the given stage pressure ratio of
1.35. Let pressure at inlet to first stage be P1 and subsequent intermediate pressure be
P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, P8 and exit pressure being P9. Therefore,

P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9
        1.35
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8

P9
 1.35   11.03
8

Or P1

312
Theeoretically, the temperature at exit of compressor can be predicted considering
isentropic compression of air ( = 1.4)

 1
T9  P9   0.4
   11.03  1.4
T1  P1 

T9 = 621.9 K

Considering overall efficiency of compression 82% the actual temperature at compressor

exit can be obtained.

T9  T1
 0.82
T9,actual  T1

T9 , actual = 689.71 K

Let the actual index of compression be ‘n’ , then

n 1
 T9, actual   P9  n
  
 T1   P1 

 689.71   11.03 nn1

   
 313 

n = 1.49

Ans: State of air at exit of compressor, Pressure = 11.03 bar, Temperature = 689.71 K

(ii) Let polytropic efficiency be polytropic for compressor, then;

313
 n 1   1 1
 
n    polytropic

1.49  1  1.4  1  1
   
1.49  1.4  polytropic

polytropic  0.8688 or 86.88%

Ans: Polytropic efficiency = 86.88%

(ii) Stage efficiency can be estimated for any stage. Say first stage.

 1
T P  
 2  2 
T1  P1 
Ideal state at exit of compressor stage

T2 = 341.05 K

Actual temperature at exit of first stage can be estimated using polytropic index 1.49

n 1
T2 , actual  P2  n
 
T1  P1 

T2, actual = 345.47 K

314
 T2  T1   341.05  313 
s , 1    0.8638 or 86.38%
Stage efficiency for first stage,
T 2, actual - 1   345.47  313 

Actual temperature at exit of second stage,

n 1
T3, actual  P3  n
 
T2, actual  P2 

T3, actual = 381.30 K

Ideal temperature at exit of second stage

 1
T3 P  
 3 
T2, actual  P2 

T3 = 376.43 K

T3  T2, actual 376.43  345.47

s ,2  
T3, actual  T2, actual 381.3  345.47
Stage efficiency for second stage,

s ,2  0.8641 or 86.41%

Actual temperature at exit of third stage,

n 1
T4, actual  P4  n
 
T3, actual  P3 

T4,actual = 420.85 K

Ideal temperature at exit of third stage,

315
  1
T4 P  
 4  , T4  415.47 K
T3, actual  P3 

T4  T3, actual  381.3 

s ,3  
T4, actual  T3, actual  420.85  381.3 
Stage efficiency for third stage,

= 0.86396 or 86.40%

Stage efficiency = 86.4%

Ans:

(iv) From steady flow energy equation,

9 9
WC   dw   dh,
1 1 and dh = du + pdv + vdp

dh = dq + vdp

for dq =0 in adiabatic process.

dh = vdp

9
WC   vdp
1

Here for polytropic compression

Pv1.49 = constant i.e. n = 1.49

316
  n 1

 n    P  n

Wc    mRT1    1
9

 n  1   1
P
 

 1.49 1

 1.49    11.03  1.49

     
 1.0 
50 0.287 313 1
 0.49  
 

Wc = 16419.87 kJ/s

Due to overall efficiency being 90% the actual compressor work =Wc  0.90

WC, actual = 14777.89kJ/s

Ans: Power required to drive compressor = 14777.89kJ/s

8. A thermodynamic cycle has following processes occurring sequentially;

Adiabatic compression from 1 to 2

Constant volume heat addition from 2 to 3 (explosion)

Adiabatic expansion from 3 to 4

Isothermal heat rejection from 4 to 1

Obtain expression for air standard cycle efficiency considering compression ratio of ‘r’ and
expansion ration of ‘e’.

317
Solution

Let us analyse for 1 kg of air,

Given,

V1 V
 r , 4  e; V2  V3 , T1  T4
V2 V3
V1 r
 , For process 4-1, P1V1  PV
4 4  RT1
V4 e

Heat added =
cv (T3  T2 )

 V4 
4 4 In 
PV 
Heat rejected in isothermal process, 4-1 =  V1 

Figure:

Network = heat added – heat rejected

e
Wnet  cv (T3  T2 )  PV
4 4 In  
r

e
cv (T3  T2 )  PV
4 4 In  

Network
 r
Efficiency, Heat added cv (T3  T2 )

318
 e
RT1 In  
  1 r
cv (T3  T2 )

R
cv 
As, (  1) , substituting in expression for efficiency,

e
(  1).T1 In  
  1 r
(T3  T2 )
e e
(  1)In   (  1)In  
  1  r   1 r
 T3 T2   T3 T2 
     
 T1 T1   T4 T4 

 1
T3  V4 
   e 1
T4  V3 
For process 3-4,

 1  1
T2  V1  T V 
   2  1   r  1
T1  V2  T4  V2 
For process 1-2,

Substituting in expression of 

e
(  1) In  
  1   1 1 
r
(e  r )
Ans

319
Example

In a gas turbine installation at air is supplied at 1 bar, 27 C into compressor having

compression ratio of 8. The air leaving combustion chamber is heated upto 1100 K and
expanded upto 1 bar. A heat exchanger having effectiveness of 0.8 is fitted at exit of
turbine for heating the air before its inlet into combustion chamber. Assuming polytrophic
efficiency of the compressor and turbine as 0.85 and 0.90 determine cycle efficiency, work
ratio and specific work output of plant. Take cp = 1.0032 kJ/kg. K for air.

Solution

  1.4, poly,c  0.85, poly,T  0.90

Using polytropic efficiency the index of compression and expansion can be

obtained as under,

Let compression index be nc

 nc  1     1 
    
 nc    . poly ,c 
c  1.506

Let expansion index be nT,

 nT  1    poly ,T .(  1) 
  
 nT    
n T  1.346

320
Figure T-S representation

For process 1-2

nc 1
T2  P2  nc
 
T1  P1 
1.506 1
T2
  8  1.506
300
T2  603.32
T3  1100 K
nT 1
T4  P4  nT
 
T3  P3 
1.346 1
T4  1  1.346
 
1100  8 
T4  644.53 K

HE = Heat exchanger

C=Compressor

CC= Combustion chamber

T = Turbine

321
Figure: Layout of regenerative cycle

Using heat exchanger effectiveness

T5  T2
  0.8 
T4  T2
T5  603.32
0.8 
 644.53  603.32 
T5  636.28 K

qadd  c p (T3  T5 )
Heat added in combustion chambers,

qadd  1.0032(1100  636.28)

qadd  465.204 kJ/kg

WC  c p T2  T1   1.0032  603.32  300  304.29 kJ/kg

Compressor work,

WT  c p T3  T4   1.0032 1100  644.53  456.93 kJ/kg

Turbine work,

322
 WT  WC 456.93  304.29
  0.3281 or 32.81%
Cycle efficiency = qadd 456.204

WT  WC
 0.334
Work ratio, W T

Specific work output =

WT  WC  152.64 kJ/kg

Cycle efficiency = 32.81%, Work ratio = 0.334,

Specific work output = 152.64 kJ/kg.
Ans .

Example

A gas turbine plant has air being supplied at 1 bar, 27 C to compressor for getting
compressed upto 5 bar with isentropic efficiency of 8 5%. Compressed air is heated upto
1000 K in combustion chamber where also occurs a pressure drop of 0.2 bar.
Subsequently expansion occurs to 1 bar in turbine.

Determine isentropic efficiency of turbine, if thermal efficiency of plant is 20%. Neglect

the air property variation throughout cycle. Take  = 1.4.

Solution

T1 = 300 K, P1 = 1 bar, P2 = 5 bar, C = 0.85, T3 = 1000 K

For process 1-2,

323
  1
T2  P2   (1.4-1)
    T2  300 (5) 1.4
T1  P1 
T2  475.15 K
T2  T1
c  0.85 
T2  T1
T2  506.06 K

For process

 1 1.4 1
T4  P4  
 1  1.4
   
T3  P3   4.8 
1.4 1
 1  1.4
T4'  1000   
 4.8 
T4'  638.79 K

WC  c p T2  T1   1.0032  (506.06  300)  206.72, kJ/kg

Compressor work per kg, .

WT  c p T3  T4   1.0032  1000  T4  , kJ/kg

Turbine work per kg,

Wnet  WT  WC  206.72  1.0032(1000  T4 ) , kJ/kg

Net output,

qadd  c p T3  T2   1.0032(1000  506.06)  495.52 kJ/kg

Heat added,

Wnet 206.72  (1.0032  (1000  T4 )

  0.20 
Thermal efficiency,
qadd 495.52

324
 T4  892.73 K

T3  T4 (1000  892.73)
T  
Therefore, isentropic efficiency of turbine, T3  T4' (1000  638.79)

T  0.2969 or 29.69%

Turbine isentropic efficiency = 29.69%

Ans.

Example

A gas turbine plant has air supplied at 1 bar, 27 C for being compressed through pressure
ratio of 10. Compression of air is achieved in two stages with perfect intercooling in
between at optimum pressure. The maximum temperature in cycle is 1000 K and
compressed air at this temperature is sent for expansion in two stages of gas turbine. First
stage expansion occurs upto 3 bar and is subsequently reheated upto 995 K before being
sent to second stage. Fuel used in combustion chamber has calorific value of 42,000 kJ/kg.
Considering cp = 1.0032 kJ/kg. K throughout cycle determine, net output, thermal
efficiency and air fuel ratio when air flows into compressor at 30 kg/s. Take insentropic
efficiency of compression and expansion to be 85% and 90% respectively.

Solution

325
Figure: Layout and P – V diagram

For perfect intercooling the pressure ratio of each compression stage = 10  3.16

 1
1.4 1
T2'  P2  
   T2'  (3.16) 1.4
 300  416.76 K
T1  P1 
For process 1-2’,

Considering isentropic efficiency of compression,

T2'  T1 416.76  300

c  0.85  
T2  T1 T2  300

For perfect intercooling, T3 = T1 = 300 K T2 = 437.76 K

326
For process 3-4,

1.4 1
T4'  P4  1.4 1.4 1
   T4'  300  (3.16) 1.4  416.76 K
T3  P3 

T4'  T3
c  0.85 
Again due to compression efficiency, T4  T3


T4  437.36 K

WC  2  c p  (437.36  300)  275.59 kJ/kg

Total compressor work,

T5 = 1000K, For expansion process 5-6’

 1
T6'  P6  
 
T5  P5 
1.4 1
 3  1.4
T6'  1000     708.93 K
 10 

T5  T6
Considering expansion efficiency, 0.90 = T5  T6'

 T6 = 738.04 K

T7 = 995 K

327
For expansion in 7-8’,

 1
P 
Tg ' 
 8 
T7  P7 
1.4 1
 1  1.4
Tg '  995    726.95 K
3

T7  T8
 T8  753.75 K
T7  Tg '
Considering expansion efficiency, 0.90 =

c p (T5  T6 )  c p (T7  T8 )
Expansion work output per kg air =

WT  1.0032 1000  738.04    995  753.75

WT  514.85 kJ/kg

c p T5  T4   c p T7  T6 
Heat added per kg air =

qadd  1.0032 1000  437.36    995  738.04 

qadd  822.22 kJ/kg

822.22
mf   0.01958
Fuel required per kg of air, 42000

1
 51.07
Air-fuel ratio = 0.01958

WT  WC  239.26 kJ/kg
Net output =

328
Output for air flowing at 30 kg/s, 239.26  30 = 7177.8 kW

WT  WC 239.26
  0.2909 or 29.09%
Thermal efficiency = qadd 822.22

Thermal efficiency = 29.09%, Net output=7177.8 kW,

A/F ratio = 51.07.
Ans.

Example

A regenerative-reheat cycle has air entering at 1 bar, 300 K into compressor having
intercooling in between the two stages of compression. Air leaving first stage of
compression is cooled upto 290 K at 4 bar pressure in intercooler and subsequently
compressed upto 8 bar. Compressed air leaving second stage compressor is passed
through a regenerator having effectiveness of 0.80. Subsequent combustion chamber
yields 1300 K at inlet to turbine having expansion upto 4 bar and then reheated upto 1300
K before being expanded upto 1 bar. Exhaust from turbine is passed through regenerator
before discharged out of cycle. For the fuel having heating value of 42000 kJ/kg determine
fuel-air ratio in each combustion chamber, total turbine work and thermal efficiency.
Consider compression and expansion to be isentropic and air as working fluid throughout
the cycle.

Solution

T1 = 300 K, P1 = 1 bar, P2 = P3 = 4 bar, T3 = 290 K, T6 = 1300 K, P6 = P4 = 8 bar, T8 = 1300

K, P8 = 4 bar

329
For process 1-2,

 1
T2  P2  
   T2  445.79 K
T1  P1 

For process 3-4,

 1
T4  P4  
   T4  353.51 K
T3  P3 

330
Figure: Layout and T-s diagram

For process 6-7,

 1 1.4 1
T7  P7  
 4  1.4
     T7  1066.43 K
T6  P6  8

For process 8-9,

 1 1.4 1
T9  P9  
 1  1.4
   T9  1300     874.83K
T8  P8  4

T5  T4 T5  353.51

T9  T4  874.83  353.51
In regenerator, effectiveness = 0.80 =

T5 = 770.56 K

WC  c p T2  T1   c p T4  T3 
Compressor work per kg air,

WC = 209.97 kJ/kg

WT  c p T6  T7   c p T8  T9 
Turbine work per kg air,

WT = 660.85 kJ/kg

qadd  c p T6  T5   c p T8  T7 

Heat added per kg/air,

qadd  765.45 kJ/kg

331
 765.45
 0.0182
Total fuel required per kg of air = 42000

Network,
Wnet  WT  WC  405.88 kJ/kg

Wnet 450.88
   0.5890 or 58.9%
Cycle thermal efficiency, Vadd 765.45

c p (T6  T5
 0.0126
Fuel required per kg air in combustion chamber 1, = 42000

c p T8  T7 
 0.0056
Fuel required per kg air in combustion chamber 2, = 42000

Fuel-air ratio in two combustion chambers = 0.0126, 0.0056

Total turbine work = 660.85 kJ/kg
Cycle thermal efficiency = 58.9%
Ans.

Example

A Stirling engine operates between temperature limits of 700 K and 300 K with
compression ratio of 3. During heat addition process total 30 kJ/s heat is added. The
regenerator efficiency is 90% and the pressure at beginning of compression is 1 bar. The
number of cycle per minute is 100. Considering specific heat at constant volume as 0.72
kJ/kg. K determine the brake output. Take R = 29.27 kJ/kg.K. Also determine stroke
volume.

Solution

Work done per kg of air

= R(T2 – T1) In r

= 29.27 (700 – 300) In 3

332
 W = 12862.55 kJ/kg

Heat added per kg of air

 RT2 In r+ 1-  cv . T2  T1 

  29.27  700  In 3  1  0.9   0.72   700  300 

q  22538.27 kJ/kg .

30
For 30 kJ/s heat supplied, the mass of air/s = 22538.27

= 1.33  10-3 kg/s

1.33  103
 1.33  104 kg/cycle
Mass of air per cycle = 100

Brake output = 12862.55  1.33  10-3 = 17.11 kW

Figure: Stirling cycle

333
 mRT 1.33  10   29.27  300
4

  0.0116 m 3
Stroke volume, V = P 1  10 2

Brake output = 17.11 kW

Stroke volume = 0.0116 m 3
Ans.

Example

A gas turbine installation operates with fixed maximum and minimum temperatures T3
and T1 respectively. Show that the optimum specific output shall be obtained at same
overall pressure ratio for each of following arrangement. Also give expression for this
pressure ratio for air as working fluid throughout.

(i) there is single stage compression followed by two stages of expansion in turbine. The
expansion ratio in two stages is equal and reheat at inlet to the maximum temperature in
second stage of expansion.

(ii) there occurs compression in two stages of equal compression ratio with intercooling
upto the minimum cycle temperature at inlet to second stage of impression followed by
single stage expansion in turbine.

Take isentropic efficiency of compressor and turbine stages as C and T respectively.

Solution

Let the overall pressure ratio be r.

For arrangement (i)

334
Figure: Layout and T-s diagram for (ii) arrangement

In compressor,

 1
 1
T2  P2  

  r
T1  P1 
 1

T2  T1 .r
 1
 

T2  T1  r  1
  T2  T1 1  
T2  T1  c 
 

Let expansion ratio in turbine stages be rT  r

For first stage expansion

335
  1
T4  P4  
 
T3  P3 
 1
1 
T4  T3  
 rT 

Isentropic efficiency of turbine,

T3  T4
T   T4  T3  T T3  T4 
T3  T4
  
  1 
T4  T3 1  T  1   1 
  r  
  T 

For second stage expansion T5 = T3

 1  1
T5  P5   1 
  T6  T3 .  
T6  P6   rT 

T5  T6
T 
Isentropic efficiency, T5  T6

T6  T5  T T5  T6 
     
  1    1 
T6  T5 1  T  1   1    T3 1  T  1   1  
  r     r  
  T    T 

Network per kg of air

336
   
Wnet  c p T3  T4   c p T5  T6   c p T2  T1  
         1
 
   1    1   r  
Wnet  c p T3  T3 1  T  1   1    T3  T3 1  T  1   1    T1 1    T1 
   r     r    c  
   T    T    

 1
   

 1
 c p  2T3 .T  1   1
1  T . r
Wnet
  1 c 
  r 2  

Differentiating with respect to r.

1 3 1
dWnet  1  T1    1  
 T3 .T  r
2
 .r
dr  2  c   

dWnet
0
Substituting it equal to zero. dr

2  
 
  . .T  3   1 
 r=  c T 3
 T1 

Optimum pressure ratio

For arrangement (ii)

337
Figure: Layout and T-s representation for (ii) arrangement

In compressor the stage pressure ratio,

rc  r

 1
 1
T2  P2  

  , T2  T1 .(rc )
T1  P1 
For first stage compressor,

 1
 
T2  T1  rc   1 
c  ,  T2  T1 1  
T2  T1  c 
Isentropic compression efficiency,  

For second stage compressor, Ta = T1

338
  1
Tb  Pb    1
  Tb  T1  rc  
Ta  Pa 

 1
 
Tb  Ta  rc   1 
c  ,  Tb  T1 1  
Tb  Ta  c 
Isentropic efficiency of compression,  

For expansion in turbine,

 1
T3  P3   T3
   T4   1
T4  P4  r  

T3  T4
T 
Isentropic expansion efficiency, T3  T4

  
 1 
T4  T3 1  T  1   1 
  
   r  

Network per kg of air,

  
Wnet  cp T2  T1   cp Tb  Ta   cp T3  T4  
   1

 
 1
       
  rc  1   rc   T   c T  T  1    1  1  
c p T1  1    T1  T1  1  
  1 p  3 3  T

 1 
 
  c   c      r

 
      
=

Differentiating Wnet with respect to ‘r’ and equating it to zero we get

339
 dWnet 3(  1)  T . . 
 0 yields,  r  2   3 T c 
dr  T1 

2  
 
 T . .  3   1 
r  3 T c 
Ans.   T1 

Hence it is proved that the optimum pressure ratio remains same for both arrangement as
shown here.

Example

In a gas/steam combined cycle power plant exhaust from gas turbine leaves at 420 K and
generates steam in heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) at 6 MPa and 400 C. Ambient
air at 1 bar, 17C enters the compressor operating a pressure ratio of 10. Turbine inlet
temperature of gas turbine is 1400 K. The steam turbine operates with condenser
pressure of 15 kPa. Consider air as working fluid throughout gas turbine cycle and
combined cycle output of 37.3 MW. Determine the overall efficiency, mass flow rate of
cp ,air  1.0032 kJ/kg .K
steam per kg of air. Take

Solution

340
Figure: Layout and combined T-s diagram (approximate representation)

 1


T2  P2  1.4 1
   T2  290   10  1.4  559.9 K
T1  P1 
In a gas turbine cycle,

T3 = 1400 K.

 1
 1.4 1
T4  P4 
 T4  1400  
1 1.4
   725.13
T3  P3   10 

341
 WC  cp T2  T1   1.0032   559.9  290   270.76 kJ/kg
Compressor work per kg,

WT  cp T3  T4   677.03 kJ/kg

Turbine work per kg,

qadd  cp T3  T2   842.79 kJ/kg

Heat added in combustion chamber per kg,

Wnet , GT  WT  WC  406.27 kJ/kg air

Net gas turbine output,

Heat recovered in HRSG for steam generation per kg of air

qHRSG  cp T4  T5   306.11 kJ/kg

At inlet to steam turbine,

ha  3177.2 kJ/kg, sa  6.5408 kJ/kg.K

For expansion in steam turbine, sa  sb

Let dryness fraction in state b be x.

sb  6.5408  s f at 15 kPa  x.s f g at 15 kPa

x  0.7976
hb  h f at 15 kPa  x.h fg at 15 kPa  2118.72 kJ/kg

hc  h f at 15 kPa  225.94 kJ/kg, vc  0.001014 m3 / kg

At exit of condenser,

hd  hd  hc  vc .  6  103  15   102
At exit of feed pump,

hd  606.88 kJ/kg

Heat added per kg of steam = ha  hd  2570.32 kJ/kg

qHRSG
Mass of steam generated per kg of air =  ha  hd 

= 0.119 kg steam per kg air

342
 Wnet ,ST   ha  hb    hd  hc 
Net steam turbine cycle output,

Wnet ,ST  677.54 kJ/kg

Wnet ,ST  0.119  80.63 kJ/kg air

Steam cycle output per kg of air =

Total combined cycle output =

W net ,GT  Wnet ,ST   486.9 kJ/kg air

cc 
W net ,GT  Wnet ,ST 
 0.5777 or 57.77%
Combined cycle efficiency, qadd

Wnet , GT
GT 
In the absence of steam cycle, Gas turbine cycle efficiency, qadd

GT  0.4821 or 48.21%

Thus, the efficiency is seen to increase in combined cycle upto 57.77% as compared to gas
turbine offering 48.21% efficiency.

Overall efficiency = 57.77%

Steam per kg of air = 0.119 kg steam/kg air
Ans.

16. In an I.C. engine operating of the dual cycle (limited pressure cycle), the temperature
of the working fluid (air) at the beginning of compression is 27C. The ratio of the
maximum and minimum pressures of the cycle is 70 and the compression ratio is 15. The
amounts of heat added at constant volume and at constant pressure are equal. Compute
the air standard thermal efficiency of the cycle. State three main reasons why the actual
thermal efficiency is different from the theoretical value?

343
Solution

T1  27 C  300K
P4 P3
  70
P1 P1

V1 V
 15  1
Compression ratio, V2 V3

Heat added at constant volume = Heat added at constant

Q23  Q34

m.cv (T3  T2 )  m.c p . T4  T3 

(T3  T2 )   . T4  T3 

Figure.

For process 1-2;

344
  1
T2  P2  
 
T1  P1 
 1
T2  V1 
 
T1  V2 
T2
  15 
0.4

300
T2  866.25 K

And


 P2   V1 
       15 
1.4

 P1   V2 
P2  P1 .  15 
1.4

P2  44.3 P1

For process 2-3

P2 T2

P3 T3
44.3P1 866.25

70.P1 T3
T3  1368.79 K

Using equal additions for processes 2-3 and 3-4,

(T3  T2 )   (T4  T3 )

(1368.79 – 866.25) = 1.4 (T4 – 1368.79)

T4 = 1727.75 K

345
For process 3-4

V3 T3

V4 T4

V3 V1 T3
 
V1 V4 T4

1  V1   1368.79 
    
15  V4   1727.75 

V1
 11.88
V4
V5
 11.88
V4

During process 4-5

  1
P4  V5  T V 
   or, 4   5 
P5  V4  T5  V4 
P4 T
  11.88  or, 4   11.88 
1.4 0.4

P5 T5
1727.75
T5   642.03 K
11.88 0.4

Heat rejected
1
Air standard thermal efficiency = Heat added

346
 mcv T5  T1 
 1
mc p T4  T3   mcv T3  T2 

 1
T5  T1 
 . T4  T3   T3  T2 
 642.03  300 
 1
1.4   1727.75  1368.79    1368.79  866.25 

Air standard thermal efficiency = 65.97%

Air standard thermal efficiency = 65.97%

Ans.

Actual thermal efficiency may be different from theoretical efficiency due to following
reasons;

(a) Air standard cycle analysis considers air as the working fluid while in actual cycle it is
not air throughout the cycle. Actual working fluid which are combustion products do not
behave as perfect gas.

(b) Head addition does not occur isochorically in actual process. Also combustion is
accompanied by inefficiency such as incomplete combustion, dissociation of combustion
products, etc.

(c) Specific heat variation occurs in actual processes where as in air standard cycle analysis
specific heat variation is neglected. Also during adiabatic process theoretically no heat loss
occurs while actually these processes are accompanied by heat losses.

References

1) Flanagan, G. T. H. (2013). Marine Boilers, Elsevier Science.

2) Morton, T. D. (2003). Reeds Vol 9: Steam Engineering Knowledge, Bloomsbury

Academic.

347
3. Marine steam boiler and steam turbine. [1]

Rankine cycle

Conversion of heat into work is described by the rankine cycle. Power source for the cycle is an
external heat, what is supplied to a closed loop with some carrier medium (mostly clean water).

The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is limited by the high heat of

vaporization of the working fluid. Also, unless the pressure and
temperature reach super critical levels in the steam boiler, the
temperature range the cycle can operate over is quite small: steam
turbine entry temperatures are typically around 565°C and steam
condenser temperatures are around 30°C. This gives a theoretical
maximum Carnot efficiency for the steam turbine alone of about 63%
compared with an actual overall thermal efficiency of up to 42% for a
modern coal-fired power station. This low steam turbine entry
temperature (compared to a gas turbine) is why the Rankine (steam)
cycle is often used as a bottoming cycle to recover otherwise rejected
heat in combined-cycle gas turbine power stations.

348
The working fluid in a Rankine cycle follows a closed loop and is
reused constantly. The water vapor with condensed droplets often seen
billowing from power stations is created by the cooling systems (not
directly from the closed-loop Rankine power cycle) and represents the
means for (low temperature) waste heat to exit the system, allowing for
the addition of (higher temperature) heat that can then be converted to
useful work (power). This 'exhaust' heat is represented by the "Qout"
flowing out of the lower side of the cycle shown in the T/s diagram
below. Cooling towers operate as large heat exchangers by absorbing
the latent heat of vaporizationof the working fluid and simultaneously
evaporating cooling water to the atmosphere. While many substances
could be used as the working fluid in the Rankine cycle, water is usually
the fluid of choice due to its favorable properties, such as its non-toxic
and unreactive chemistry, abundance, and low cost, as well as
its thermodynamic properties. By condensing the working steam vapor
to a liquid the pressure at the turbine outlet is lowered and the energy
required by the feed pump consumes only 1% to 3% of the turbine
output power and these factors contribute to a higher efficiency for the
cycle. The benefit of this is offset by the low temperatures of steam
admitted to the turbine(s). Gas turbines, for instance, have turbine entry
temperatures approaching 1500°C. However, the thermal efficiencies of
actual large steam power stations and large modern gas turbine
stations are similar.

Rankin cycle is actually a practical example of Carnot cycle. There are two main differences to
Carnot cycle. The heat addition in the boiler or reactor is isobaric and also rejection in the
condenser is isobaric. Both processes in the theoretical Carnot cycle are isothermal.

349
Rankine cycle

As presented on the TS diagram shown on Figure ., there are four main stages in the Rankine cycle.

Stage 1-2: the working medium in liquid state is pumped from lower to higher pressure. The pump
stage requires some input of energy.

Stage 2-3: the preassurised liquid medium enters boiler in the point 2. Here it is heated at constant
pressure to dry saturated steam. The heating stage requires energy from an external heat source.

Stage 3-4: the dry saturated steam expands in a turbine and transfers its energy. This process
decreases the temperature and pressure of the steam and some condensation may occur. Output
work is generated.

Process 4-1: the wet steam enters condenser in the point 4. Here it is condensed at a constant
temperature and changes state to saturated liquid.

Work of the pump is defined as difference of enthalpies in the point 2 and point 1 from the
diagram.

w pump  i2  i1 [J/kg]

Input heat entering the cycle in the boiler is defined as difference of enthalpies in the point 3 and
point 2 from the diagram.

qin  i3  i2 [J/kg]

350
Work of the turbine is defined as difference of enthalpies in the point 3 and point 4 from the
diagram.

wturbine  i3  i4 [J/kg]

Waste heat leaving the cycle in the condenser is defined as difference of enthalpies in the point 4
and point 1 from the diagram.

qwaste  i4  i1 [J/kg]

Each value of enthalpy h1 - h4 for water steam cycle can be calculated from IS chart or from steam
tables.

There are two most important factors affecting efficiency of the Rankine cycle – the working
medium and used materials. Maximum pressure of the working medium in liquid state cannot
reach super critical levels (22 MPa for water). Maximum temperatures are limited by the creep
limit of turbine blades (typically 400 – 650 °C for stainless steel) and condenser temperatures
(typically around 30 °C). These temperatures give a theoretical Carnot efficiency about 63% while
modern coal-fired power stations reach real efficiency about 42%.

The pump used in stage 1-2 pressurizes the working medium from the condenser in liquid state
instead of gaseous state, because pumping of the liquid medium through the cycle requires much
less energy then compression of the gas. All the energy used for pumping the working medium
through the complete cycle is lost. Using the condensation of the medium, the work required by
the pump consumes only 1% or 3% of the turbine power. The condenser significantly contributes
to higher efficiency of the real cycle.

Work of the turbine and pump and input heat defines the thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle.

Wturbine  W pump
 therm 
Qin

Also most of the energy used for vaporization of the working medium in the boiler in stage 2-3 is
lost to the cycle. Condensation that can run up in the turbine is limited to about 10% in order to
minimize the erosion of turbine blades and the rest of vaporization energy is rejected from the
cycle through the condenser.

351
The working medium in the Rankine cycle is constantly reused in a closed loop. Clean water is
usually used in the Rankine cycle, while different substances could be also used, because of its
favorable thermodynamic properties, availability, low costs and nontoxic and nonreactive
chemistry. Some organic fluids such as acetone or toluene allow usage of Rankine cycle with low
temperature heat sources (70 – 120 °C) such as solar thermal collectors. The cycle is then called
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC). The name means only marketing strategy but no special physical
principle. Efficiency of the cycle in this case is much lower as a result of the smaller temperature
range, but this is balanced with low costs of earning heat at these low temperatures.

Relatively low temperatures on the turbine entry (compared with a gas turbine) are also the
reason for common usage of the Rankine cycle as the final cycle in combined-cycle gas turbine
power stations.

Steam superheating

The easiest way to avoid this issue is the steam superheating. Original finishing point of the
heating process (stage 2-3) is located just on the curve of saturated steam. Additional heating
(superheating) process 3-3’ shifts the diagram more to the right and evokes production of drier
steam during expansion 3’-4’.

352
Real Rankine cycle with superheating

This process is commonly utilized in steam power stations as the final stage of the heating process
in the upper most part of the boiler.

Steam reheating

Different way to prevent the vapor from condensation during long expansion is steam reheating.
In this case, two turbines work in series. Steam from the boiler enters the first turbine, expands
during stage 3’-4’, is reheated in the boiler during stage 4’-5 and expands in the second (low
pressure) turbine during stage 5-6. More of the heat flow in the Rankine cycle with reheating
occurs at higher temperature, what again increases the efficiency of the cycles.

Fig. : Real Rankine cycle with reheating

MARINE STEAM POWER PLANT HEAT BALANCE

Steam Plants have been around for over 100 years, and paved the way for modern shipping. Steam
plants work by heating water past its boiling point, until it’s superheated, then driving it through
multiple turbines to produce electricity and thrust.

The Steam-Water Cycle is as follows:

353
1. Boiler – A boiler contains the heating element of the system; fire generated by burning fuel, and
applies it to the medium, water, in order to boil the water.

2. Throttle Box – This is the means to control the output of the boiler. In this project I will be using
set values to calculate the heat balance.

3. High Pressure (HP) Turbine – The HP Turbine is where the superheated steam from the boiler is
directed to, in order to generate a spinning action of the blades of the turbine. The more nozzles
open, the greater the flow, the greater the power.

4. Low Pressure (LP) Turbine – The LP Turbine is where the now less-superheated steam travels
through after the HP Turbine.

5. Condenser (Main/Auxiliary) – The Condenser is where the steam is dumped after the LP Turbine.
It interacts with a cooling medium (usually Seawater) and heat transfer occurs, cooling the steam
into water. In this project, a Low Pressure Condenser will be used (Vacuum).

6. Condensate Pump – The means of pumping the condensed steam through the remainder of the
system.

7. Air Ejector – Air Ejectors remove the non-condensable gases from the system and helps to draw
and maintain vacuum.

8. First Stage Heater – Heats the water for hotel loads, auxiliary loads, and miscellaneous loads.

9. DC Heater – The DC Heater (aka De-aerating Feed Tank) acts as a holding tank for the incoming
water to the boiler, removes non-condensable gas, and heats the water more.

10. Feed Pump – The Feed Pump serves as the driving force of the water into the boiler. Its
discharge pressure must be greater than that of the boilers in order to have flow.

11. Economizer – Acts as a reheat to the system so it won’t cause a shock to the system with the
entrance of cold water to the boiler

12. Boiler – Back to the beginning of the cycle.

A heat balance is all the calculations required for an engine room. These calculations include the
mass flows and enthalpies throughout the plant and at certain times other variables such as
temperature and pressure are necessary. The idea is to complete the heat balance with a mass
balance.

I will design as if we will not lose anything (heat, water or steam). Essentially, what goes in will
theoretically come out.

System energy efficiency as well as energy efficiency and energy-loss coefficient of various devices
are analyzed and calculated for a naval steam power plant. It is found that the major portion of
energy loss occurs at the boiler in the marine steam power plant, the same as in a stationary steam
plant. It has been shown that the energy efficiency of the whole system could be increased if

354
suitable economizers or air heaters were arranged in the rear part of the boiler flue gas and a one
stage bleeding steam drawn for the main stream turbine was used as a supplementary source for
the low pressure steam net.

Performance Evaluation of Boilers

The performance parameters of boiler, like efficiency and evaporation ratio reduces with time due
to poor combustion, heat transfer surface fouling and poor operation and maintenance. Even for a
new boiler, reasons such as deteriorating fuel quality, water quality etc. can result in poor boiler
performance. Boiler efficiency tests help us to find out the deviation of boiler efficiency from the
best efficiency and target problem area for corrective action.

Boiler Efficiency
Thermal efficiency of boiler is defined as the percentage of heat input that is effectively utilised to
generate steam. There are two methods of assessing boiler efficiency.

1) The Direct Method: Where the energy gain of the working fluid (water and steam) is compared
with the energy content of the boiler fuel.

2) The Indirect Method: Where the efficiency is the difference between the losses and the energy
input.

a. Direct Method This is also known as ‘input-output method’ due to the fact that it needs only the
useful output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency can
be evaluated using the formula

Parameters to be monitored for the calculation of boiler efficiency by direct method are :

• Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr.

• Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr.

2 o
• The working pressure (in kg/cm (g)) and superheat temperature ( C), if any
o
• The temperature of feed water ( C)

355
• Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV) in kcal/kg of fuel

Where, h – Enthalpy of saturated steam in kcal/kg of steam

g
h - Enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg of water
f

Example
Find out the efficiency of the boiler by direct method with the data given below:

– Type of boiler : Coal fired

– Quantity of steam (dry) generated : 8 TPH
2 0
– Steam pressure (gauge) / temp : 10 kg/cm (g)/ 180 C
– Quantity of coal consumed : 1.8 TPH
0
– Feed water temperature : 85 C
– GCV of coal : 3200 kcal/kg
2
– Enthalpy of steam at 10 kg/cm pressure : 665 kcal/kg (saturated)
– Enthalpy of feed water : 85 kcal/kg

It should be noted that boiler may not generate 100% saturated dry steam, and there may be some
amount of wetness in the steam.

Advantages of direct method:

 Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers

 Requires few parameters for computation

 Needs few instruments for monitoring

Disadvantages of direct method:

 Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is lower

356
  Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels

b. Indirect Method
There are reference standards for Boiler Testing at Site using indirect method namely British
Standard, BS 845: 1987 and USA Standard is ‘ASME PTC-4-1 Power Test Code Steam Generating
Units’.
Indirect method is also called as heat loss method. The efficiency can be arrived at, by subtracting
the heat loss fractions from 100. The standards do not include blow down loss in the efficiency
determination process. A detailed procedure for calculating boiler efficiency by indirect method is
given below. However, it may be noted that the practicing energy mangers in industries prefer
simpler calculation procedures.
The principle losses that occur in a boiler are:

• Loss of heat due to dry fluegas

• Loss of heat due to moisture in fuel and combustion air
• Loss of heat due to combustion of hydrogen
• Loss of heat due to radiation
• Loss of heat due to unburnt

In the above, loss due to moisture in fuel and the loss due to combustion of hydrogen are
dependent on the fuel, and cannot be controlled by design.
The data required for calculation of boiler efficiency using indirect method are:

• Ultimate analysis of fuel (H , O , S, C, moisture content, ash content)

2 2

• Percentage of Oxygen or CO in the flue gas

2

0
• Flue gas temperature in C (T )
f

0
• Ambient temperature in C (T ) & humidity of air in kg/kg of dry air.
a

• GCV of fuel in kcal/kg

• Percentage combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels)

• GCV of ash in kcal/kg (in case of solid fuels)

Solution :
Theoretical air requirement

357
Actual mass of air supplied/ kg of fuel (AAS) = {1 + EA/100} x theoretical air

m = mass of dry flue gas in kg/kg of fuel

m = Combustion products from fuel: CO + SO + Nitrogen in fuel + Nitrogen in the actual mass of
2 2
air supplied + O in flue gas. (H O/Water vapour in the flue gas should not be considered)
2 2
0
C = Specific heat of flue gas (0.23 kcal/kg C)
p

Where, H – kg of H in 1 kg of fuel
2 2
0
C – Specific heat of superheated steam (0.45 kcal/kg C)
p

Where, M – kg of moisture in 1kg of fuel

0
C – Specific heat of superheated steam (0.45 kcal/kg) C
p
* 584 is the latent heat corresponding to the partial pressure of water vapour

0
C – Specific heat of superheated steam (0.45 kcal/kg C)
p

358
vii Percentage heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted loss

The actual radiation and convection losses are difficult to assess because of particular emissivity of
various surfaces, its inclination, air flow pattern etc. In a relatively small boiler, with a capacity of
10 MW, the radiation and unaccounted losses could amount to between 1% and 2% of the gross
calorific value of the fuel, while in a 500 MW boiler, values between 0.2% to 1% are typical. The
loss may be assumed appropriately depending on the surface condition.

Example: The following are the data collected for a typical oil fired boiler.
Find out the efficiency of the boiler by indirect method and Boiler
Evaporation ratio.

Type of boiler : Oil fired

• Ultimate analysis of Oil

C : 84.0 % H : 12.0 %
2
S : 3.0 % O : 1.0 %
2

• GCV of Oil : 10200 kcal/kg

2
• Steam Generation Pressure : 7kg/cm (g)-saturated
• Enthalpy of steam : 60 kCal/kg
o
• Feed water temperature : 60 C
• Percentage of Oxygen in flue gas: 7
• Percentage of CO in flue gas : 11
2
0
• Flue gas temperature (T ) : 220 C
f

359
 0
• Ambient temperature (T ) : 27 C
a
• Humidity of air : 0.018 kg/kg of dry air

Solution
Boiler Efficiency
i. Heat loss due to dry flue gas : 9.14%

ii. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H in fuel : 7.10 %
2

iii. Heat loss due to moisture present in air : 0.322 %

iv. Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted loss : 2%

Boiler Efficiency =100- [9.14+7.10+0.322+2]

= 100 – 18.56 = 81 (app)

Evaporation Ratio = Heat utilised for steam generation/Heat addition to the steam
= 10200 x 0.83/ (660-60)
= 14.11

Turbine fficiency of the State Line

The Efficiency of the State Line, “Eb”, is a way to solve for the Basic Efficiency of the Main
Propulsion Turbine Hear for Non-Extraction Operation. It is solved from either using Figure below
Main Propulsion Turbine Basic Efficiency or by using the following equation.

360
[1]References and further reading
1. Steam Boiler Operation by James J.Jackson,Prentice-Hall Inc,New Jersey, 1980.

2. Boilers by Carl D.Shields, McGraw Hill Book Company,U.S, 1961.

3. Industrial Heat Generation and Distribution -NIFES Training Manual Issued For CEC – India
Energy Bus Project

4. Industrial Boilers by David Gunn and Robert Horton, Longman Scientific & Technical, New
York

361
E. Refrigerators and refrigeration cycle

1. Introduction

A refrigeration system can be built with only the four essential components :

1. Evaporator

2. Compressor

3. Condenser

4. Expansion valve

Other system controls and components will, however, be necessary for safety,
maintenance and control purposes. Figure 7 shows components associated with the
compressor and Figure 8 shows some of the frequently used circuit components. Any
pressure vessel in the circuit, depending on its size, may require a safety pressure relief
device.

Figure 7

362
Figure 8

2. Thermostats

Since the purpose of a refrigeration or air-conditioning system is to reduce or maintain

temperature, a thermostat is usually fi tted to stop the equipment or reduce its capacity
when the required condition is reached. The following types are in use:

1. Movement of a bimetallic element

2. Expansion of a fl uid

3. Vapour pressure of a volatile fluid

The above produce a mechanical effect which can be used directly to operate an electric
switch or modulate the pressure of an air jet (pneumatic system).

4. Electric resistance

5. Electronic – various types

363
These last two produce an electric signal which must be measured and ampli-

filed to operate the controlled device.

In order to prevent excessive cycling, a differential of say 2 K should be incorporated.

3. Humidistats

Where the equipment is required to maintain a predetermined level of humidity, a

humidistat may be used instead of, or in addition to, a thermostat. The function will
normally be to operate an electrical switch. Mechanical humidistats employ materials
which change dimension with humidity, such as animal hair, plastics, cellulosics, etc. These
can work a switch directly.
Electronic humidistats generally depend on the properties of a hygroscopic salt. The signal
has to be measured and amplified.

4. Pressure switches
The pressure in the condenser side of the system must always be limited to a maximum
allowable value, and a pressure control is used to stop the compressor if necessary. High-
pressure cut-outs , Figure 9 , are fitted to all but the smallest of systems. Where a
compressor is fitted with a shut-off valve, the pressure connection should be upstream of
the valve. The compressor outlet pressure is brought to one side of a bellows or
diaphragm, and balanced by an adjustable spring. A scale on the control indicates the
pressure setting to commercial accuracy and is checked on commissioning the system.

364
Figure 9

If the spring pressure is overcome, the switch will open and stop the compressor. The cut-
out can also operate a warning. The cut-out point only needs to be some 2 bar higher than
the expected summer operating pressure but there is a tendency to set such controls
much higher – sometimes as much as 8 bar above summer pressures. At this setting, the
user will not get a warning of abnormal running until the fault has reached serious
proportions.

Since excess pressure indicates malfunction of part of the system – usually a condenser
fault or incorrect closure of a valve – the high-pressure switch should be reset manually,
not automatically. Where the refrigeration system is providing an essential service which
should not be interrupted, one high-pressure switch may be set at a warning level and
operate an alarm, without stopping the compressor. A second switch, set somewhat
higher, will stop the equipment if this warning is ignored and if excessive pressures are
reached. All high-pressure cut-outs should be checked at least once a year, for correct
setting and operation. Abnormally low suction pressures will lead to high discharge

365
temperatures, owing to the high compression ratio, and possible malfunction of other
components. Air cooling coils may frost excessively, or water chillers freeze. A low-
pressure cut-out switch is usually fi tted to stop the compressor under these
circumstances. Settings may be 0.6–1.0 bar below the design evaporator pressures, but
depend very much on the type of system. The cut-out setting should be above
atmospheric pressure if possible to avoid the ingress of air through any leaks.

Abnormally low pressure may not be an unsafe condition and the low pressure switch may
be automatic reset, closing again at a pressure corresponding to a temperature just below
that of the load. If a plant has been shut down long enough for all pressures to equalize
and is then restarted, the suction pressure will pull down below normal until the liquid
refrigerant has begun to circulate. Under such circumstances the low pressure switch may
operate. This is a normal occurrence, but may require the addition of a delay timer to
prevent frequent starting of the compressor motor. A low-pressure switch can also be
used in conjunction with a thermostat and a solenoid valve in the pump-down circuit. In
this method of control, the thermostat does not stop the compressor but de-energizes the
liquid line solenoid valve to stop the supply of refrigerant to the evaporator. The
compressor continues to run and pumps down the evaporator until stopped by the low
pressure switch. When the thermostat again calls for cooling, it opens the solenoid valve,
liquid enters the evaporator and the low-pressure switch will close again to restart the
compressor. This method is used to ensure that the evaporator is kept clear of liquid when
the plant is off. If there is any leak at the solenoid valve, it will cause the compressor to
restart periodically to remove the surplus liquid from the coil (see Figure 10). Pressure
switches are also made in miniature encapsulated versions, mainly pre-set for use in
integrated control circuits.

366
5. Oil pressure switches

All compressors except the smallest have mechanical lubrication and will fail if the oil
pressure falls because of a pump fault or oil shortage. Where an oil pump is used a cut out,
which will stop the compressor in the event of inadequate

Figure 10

6. Pressure gauges

Direct indication of the operating conditions of a compressor is by pressure gauges at

suction, discharge and oil delivery. Such gauges are mounted on or near the compressor.
Since the pressure losses along the discharge and suction lines are comparatively small on
most systems, these pressures will also approximate to the conditions in the condenser
and evaporator, and the equivalent saturation temperatures will be the condensing and
evaporating temperatures. To indicate these temperatures for the common refrigerants,
pressure gauges will have further calibrations showing these equivalent temperatures.

367
Gauge mechanisms are mostly of the bourdon tube type, having a flattened tube element,
which distorts under pressure change. Gas pulsations from the compressor will be
transmitted along the short connecting tubes and may lead to early failure of the needle
mechanism. These can be damped by restricting the tube with a valve or orifice, or oil
filling the gauge as shown in Figure 9.5 , or both. Gauge needles should not be allowed to
flicker noticeably from gas pulsations. Pressure transducers are now used for integrated
control circuits.

7. Solenoid & evaporator pressure regulation valves

Electrically operated shut-off valves (Figure 11) are required for refrigerant and other
circuits. These take the form of a plunger operated by a solenoid and working directly on
the valve orifi ce or through a servo. The usual arrangement is to energize the solenoid to
open the valve and de-energize to close. Sizes up to 50 mm bore tube connections are
made. Beyond this, the solenoid acts as a pilot to a main servo (Figure 12). Solenoid valves
are used in refrigeration and air-conditioning systems for refrigerant lines, oil pressure
pipes (to control oil return and capacity reducers), and water and compressed air lines.

Figure 11

368
Figure 12

Evaporator pressure regulation (EPR) valves (Figure 12) can be used in the suction line, and
their function is to prevent the evaporator pressure falling below a predetermined or
controlled value, although the compressor suction pressure may be lower.

The application of a EPR valve is to:

1. Prevent damage to a liquid chilling evaporator which might result from freezing of the
liquid.

2. Prevent frost forming on an air cooling evaporator, where this is close to freezing point,
or where a temporary malfunction cannot be permitted to interrupt operation.

3. Permit two or more evaporators, working at different load temperatures, to work with
the same compressor.

369
4. Modulate the evaporator pressure according to a varying load, controlled by the load
temperature.

5. Act as a solenoid valve, controlled by a pilot solenoid valve.

The simplest EPR valve is spring-loaded, balancing the thrust of the spring, plus
atmospheric pressure, on one side of a diaphragm or piston, against the inlet or
evaporator pressure. For working pressures below atmospheric, a helper spring is fitted
below the diaphragm. Slight variations will result from changes in atmospheric pressure,
but these are too small to materially affect a refrigeration control system.

A service gauge is usually fitted adjacent to the valve or as part of the valve assembly, to
facilitate setting or readjustment. Above about 40 mm pipe size, the basic EPR valve is
used as a pilot to operate a main servo valve. Other pilot signals can be used on the same
servo and many control functions are possible. Figure 12 shows a main servo controlled by
an electric pilot which responds to a signal from a controller to maintain a constant load
temperature to a high level of accuracy. The constant pressure pilot prevents the
evaporator temperature becoming too low and the solenoid pilot is for on/off.

8. Hot-gas by-pas valves

Where a compressor does not have any capacity reduction device and on–off switching
will not give the degree of control required by the process, the cooling capacity can be
regulated by injecting discharge gas back into the suction (see Figure 8). It has the effect of
keeping the evaporator pressure constant, regardless of the load, and can have a wide
range of capacity reduction, down to 10% of full load. It is a constant pressure valve,
balancing the suction pressure against a pre-set spring. They may be either direct or pilot
operated. They are often equipped with an external equalizer which works just like an
externally equalized expansion valve. Injecting the hot gas upstream of the evaporator
enables the expansion valve to open and admit more cool refrigerant which maintains gas
velocity in the evaporator and aids oil return.

370
Note the solenoid valve in Figure 8. If the system is set up with a pump down, then this
solenoid must be wired in parallel with the pump down solenoid in order to achieve pump
down. This control method is wasteful of energy.

9. Shut-off valves

Manual stop valves are required throughout a circuit to permit isolation during

partial operation, service or maintenance (see Figure 13 and Figure 14).

Figure 13

Figure 14

371
Small valves which are to be operated frequently have a packless gland, either a
diaphragm or bellows, and a handwheel.

Valves of all sizes which are only used occasionally will be sealed with ‘ O ’ rings. As a
safeguard against leakage, they have no handwheel fitted and the stem is provided with a
covering cap which is only removed when the valve is to be operated. The stem will have fl
ats for operation by a spanner. Most such valves can be back-seated to permit changing
the ‘ O ’ rings. Valves should not be installed with the stem downwards, as any internal
dirt will fall into the spindle thread.

Under low-temperature conditions, ice will form on the spindle and will be forced into the
gland if the valve is operated quickly. Under such circumstances, the spindle should be well
greased, or the ice melted off first. Service stop valves on small compressors will usually
carry a connection for a pressure cut-out or gauge, or for the temporary fitting of gauges
or charging lines when servicing. The valve backseats to close off this port while gauges are
being fitted. Valve seats are commonly of soft metal or of a resistant plastic such as PTFE.

Ball valves, Figure 14, are sometimes used for secure isolation of sections of circuits and
they give less pressure drop when open.

10. Filter-driers

With the halocarbons, it is essential to reduce the water content of the refrigerant circuit
to a minimum by careful drying of components and the fitting of drying agents in the
system. The common form of drier is a capsule charged with a solid desiccant such as
activated alumina or zeolite (molecular sieve), and located in the liquid line ahead of the
expansion valve. These capsules must have strainers to prevent loss of the drying agent
into the circuit, and so form an effective filter-drier to also protect the valve orifice from
damage by fine debris,Figure 15

372
Figure 15
.

Large driers are made so they can be opened, and the spent drying agent removed and
replaced with new. Small sizes are throwaway. Driers may also be

used in the suction line. Suction line filter-driers are a temporary installation to clean up a
system after repairs, and should be removed if the pressure drop becomes 1K greater than
when new.

11. Sight glasses

Sight glasses can be used to indicate whether gas is present in a pipe which should be
carrying only liquid. The main application in refrigeration is in the liquid line from the
receiver to the expansion valve. Close to the expansion valve is best because observation
here can determine liquid presence at the valve, and being downstream of the filter drier,
it can be used to indicate the need for filter change. If the equipment is running correctly,
only liquid will be present and any gas bubbles seen will indicate a refrigerant shortage.

Sight glasses for the halocarbons are commonly made of brass, and should have solder
connections, . For ammonia, they are made of steel or cast iron.

373
Figure 16
Since the interior of the system can be seen at this point, advantage is taken

in most types to insert a moisture-sensitive chemical which will indicate an

excess of water by a change of colour. When such an indication is seen, the

drier needs changing or recharging, and the colour should then revert to the

‘ dry ’ shade.

12. Suction accumulators

Suction line accumulators are sometimes inserted in halocarbon circuits, to serve the
purpose of separating return liquid and prevent it passing over to the compressor. Since
this liquid will be carrying oil, and this oil must be returned to the compressor, the outlet
pipe within the separator dips to the bottom of this vessel and has a small bleed hole, to
suck the oil out (see Figure 17 a ). A version with a heating coil through which hot gas is
passed can speed the evaporation of trapped liquid,Figure 17 b.

374
Figure 17

13. Suction-to-liquid heat exchangers

Cold gas returning from the evaporator to the compressor can be used to precool the
warm liquid passing from the condenser to the expansion valve, using a suction-to-liquid
heat exchanger (Figure 18). In cooling the liquid and reducing its enthalpy, a greater
refrigerating effect will be obtained. This gain is offset by the superheating of the suction
gas and the resultant reduction of mass flow into the compressor. The overall effect of
fitting a suction-to-liquid heat exchanger in terms of thermodynamic efficiency will vary
with the refrigerant and the operating conditions.

The suction-to-liquid heat exchanger will supply the suction superheat necessary for safe
operation of a direct expansion evaporator, and the coil superheat may be less, giving
more efficient use of the evaporator surface. The phial should be located before the heat

375
exchanger, in which case the superheat setting is reduced. It can be located after the heat
exchanger, but an external equalizer is then necessary to allow for the gas pressure drop
through the exchanger.

Figure 18

14. Condenser pressure regulators

Systems are normally designed to work satisfactorily during maximum ambient

conditions, and the condenser will be sized for this. In colder weather, the condensing
temperature and pressure will fall and the resulting lower pressure difference across a
thermostatic expansion valve may lead to malfunction. A drop of pressure difference to
half the normal figure may reduce mass flow below that required, and it will be necessary
to prevent the condenser pressure from falling too low.

With air-cooled condensers and water cooling towers it is possible to reduce the air flow
by automatic dampers, fan speed control, or switching off fans, where two or more are
fitted. The control should work from pressure but can be made to work from temperature.

Water-cooled condensers can be fi tted with a directly controlled water regulating valve
operated by condenser pressure, or may have a three-way blending valve in the water
circuit. A condenser pressure regulator can be in the form of a pressure-operated bleed
valve in a bypass across the condenser, to divert hot gas to the receiver. The valve
diaphragm is balanced by a pre-set spring and will open the bypass if the condensing
pressure falls. A similar effect can be obtained by a pressure operated valve between the
condenser and the receiver, to restrict the flow and allow liquid to accumulate in the
376
condenser, reducing its efficiency. For operating economy, it is important that such valves
are not set at too high a pressure.

Where evaporative condensers and water cooling towers have only one fan (or fan drive
motor), coarse control can be effected by on–off switching. The time lag will then depend
on the mass of water in the circuit, and the sensing element needs to have a wide
differential to prevent frequent motor starts.

Towers should have thermostatic control of the fan to prevent water freezing on the
packing in winter. An integrated control circuit with an electronic expansion valve can be
arranged to permit the condensing pressure to fall, providing the valve can pass the
refrigerant flow required to meet the load. This gives lower compressor energy costs. In
all forms of condenser pressure control, the minimum maintained pressure should be the
lowest which will give satisfactory operation, in the interests of running economy. An
indication of the relative electricity costs for a 350 kW air-conditioning plant is given in
Tabl.

15. Relief valves

Under several possible conditions of malfunction, high pressures can occur in parts of the
system and mechanical relief devices are advised or mandatory. The requirements which
must be observed are detailed in European Safety Standard EN378 (2008) and the Institute
of Refrigeration Safety Codes. The standard form of relief valve is a spring-loaded plunger
valve. Plunger-type relief valves, if located outdoors, should be protected from the ingress
of rain, which may corrode the seat. Steel valves, when installed, should have a little oil
poured in to cover the seat as rust protection. To prevent overpressure within a
compressor, a relief valve or bursting disc is often fitted between the inlet and discharge
connections.

377
16. Strainers

Piping circuits will usually contain a small quantity of dirt, scale and swarf, no matter what
care is taken to keep these out. A strainer is fitted in the compressor suction to trap such
particles before they can enter the machine. Such strainers are of metal mesh and will be
located where they can be removed for cleaning. In some configurations two strainers may
be fitted.

As an extra safeguard, on new compressors a fabric liner may be fitted inside the mesh
strainer to catch fine dirt which will be present. Such liners must be removed at the end of
the running-in period, as they create a high resistance to gas flow. Oil strainers may be of
metal mesh and within the sump, in which case the sump must be opened for cleaning.
Self-cleaning disc strainers are also used,

the dirt falling into a drain pot or into the sump itself. There is an increasing

tendency to provide replaceable fabric oil fi lters external to the compressor

body, following automobile practice.

CHARGING CONNECTION

In order to admit the initial refrigerant charge into the circuit, or add further if required, a
charging connection is required. The safest place to introduce refrigerant is ahead of the
expansion valve, which can then control the flow and prevent liquid reaching the
compressor. The usual position is in a branch of the liquid line, and it is fitted with a shut-
off valve and a suitable connector with a sealing cap or flange. A valve is needed in the
main liquid line, just upstream from the branch and within reach.

17. Check valves

Non-return or check valves can be found in the following positions:

1. On reversible heat pump circuits, to prevent fl ow through expansion valves which are
not in service on one cycle

2. On hot gas circuits, to prevent the gas entering another evaporator

378
3. Where several compressors discharge into one condenser, to prevent liquid condensing
back to an idle compressor

4. Where two or more evaporators work at different pressures, to prevent suction gas
flowing back to the colder ones

18. Liquid refrigerant pumps

Where separate evaporators are used in low-temperature cold rooms, and blast freezers,
for example, liquid pumps can be used to circulate refrigerant from the suction separator
(or ‘ surge drum ’ ), through the evaporator(s) and back. In the separator, remaining liquid
falls back and is recirculated, while vapour goes to the compressor (see Figure 19). Liquid
pumps are also used for spray

Figure 19

Figure 20

379
chillers. The liquid pump shown in Figure 20 has a strainer at inlet and a second mesh to
prevent particles from entering the shaft drillings which feed liquid to the bearings. These
pumps are used mainly for ammonia systems, and are also supplied for CO 2 .

References

1) Dossat, R. J. and T. J. Horan (2002). Principles of Refrigeration, Prentice Hall.

2) Harbach, J. A. (2005). Marine Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, Cornell Maritime Press.

3) Hundy, G. H., A. R. Trott, et al. (2008). Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning, Elsevier

Science.

380
F. Lubricants [1]

1.Marine Lube Oil Properties

Lube oil is a one of the essential elements for operating any kind of machinery on board
ship. Lube oil is responsible for lubrication and cooling of the parts which are operating
relative to each other, giving rise to frictional and other types of stresses on the
machinery. Without the use of lube oil, we cannot imagine any machinery operation on
ship.

Different types and grades of lube oils are available for machinery, depending upon the
working condition, operation, and requirements of the machinery itself. When it comes
to marine engines, it is very critical to select the best grade of lube oil that can be used
as crank case oil or cylinder oil. The lube oil is selected based on the properties which will
improve the engine operation and reduce the wear down rate and hence
the maintenance cost of the machine.

Important Properties of Lube Oil

The following are the most common and required properties of the lube oil used for
marine machinery:

Alkalinity

The lube oil alkalinity plays an important part in marine engines. When fuel burns, the
fumes carry sulphuric acid which can cause acidic corrosion. For a trunk piston engine or
four stroke engines, the main lube oil is responsible for piston and liner lubrication; hence
it comes directly in contact with the combustible fuel. Therefore alkalinity of lube oil is
important for controlling acidic corrosion.

For two stroke engines, separate grade of lube oil is used as cylinder oil and its alkalinity
depends on the engine fuel grade (HFO or LSFO).

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Oxidation resistant

Lube oil is always in contact with air and thus oxygen presence in oil is inevitable.
Moreover, at high temperature of the oil, the oxidation rate increases. A er 85
degree C temperature, the increase in every 10 degree C of oil oxidation rates doubles
itself leading to sludge formation, acid production and bearing corrosion. Hence additives
are added to maintain keep these things in check. Lube oil temperature is controlled by
passing it through lube oil cooler.

Load carrying capacity

It is also one of the important characteristics of lube oil which mainly depends upon the
viscosity of the oil. The load subjected to different internal parts of the marine engine is
very high; hence the load carrying capacity must be enough to withstand the pressure
inside the engine. If this is not achieved then oil will be forced out and metal to metal
contact will result in wiping out and wear down of the machine.

Thermal conductivity

The internal parts of marine engine are always in movement producing heat energy. This
heat energy has to be carried away or else it might lead to wear down due to thermal
stresses. The lube oil must cool down the internal parts to avoid such a situation and must
have a good thermal conductivity.

Detergency

Detergency of the oil is obtained by adding some metallic based additives which will
prevent the build up of small deposits in the metal surface. In two stroke engine, the
cylinder oil detergency is very important as it removes the deposits from the ring pack area
and keeps the combustion space as clean as possible

382
Disperency

It is the property of the lube oil which prevents impurities to mix up with itself and keeps
them suspended on the surface. This makes it easy for the separator or clarifier to remove
it from the oil.

High Flash Point

The flash point is the minimum temperature at which the oil vaporizes to give an ignitable
mixture of air. The flash point should always be on the higher side so that in case of
increase in temperature of the oil, re hazard can be avoided. ormally for marine engine
lube oils, the ash point is always higher than 220 C.

Low Demulsification Number

It is not practically impossible to completely avoid contamination of oil with water. The
low demulsification number of the oil helps in easy separation of water from the oil in the
separator or when stored in the settling tank.

Fuel remains one of the highest single cost factors in running a ship
and also the source of the most potent operating problems. The reason
for this is that new refining techniques, introduced as a result of political developments in
the Middle East in 1973/74, have meant that fluid
catalytic cracking and vis breaking have produced a more concentrated residual fuel of
very poor quality. This residual fuel is the heavy fuel oil traditionally supplied to ships as
bunkers and used in the majority of motor ships of a reasonable size for the main engine.
Despite the high cost of these poor quality residual fuels owners generally
have no alternative but to burn them, though some still prefer to use even more expensive
intermediate grades produced as a result of mixing residual fuel oil with distillate.
The problems are reflected in the effects on the engine in terms of
wear and tear and corrosion resulting from harmful components in
the fuel. It is the duty of the ship’s engineer to be aware of these
harmful constituents, their effect on the operation of the engines and
the solutions available to counter the harmful properties

PROBLEMS WITH HEAVY FUELS

The problems of present and future heavy residual fuels can be
categorized as:
1. Storage and handling.
2. Combustion quality and burnability.
3. Contaminants, resulting in corrosion and/or damage to engine
components: for example, burnt out exhaust valves.
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2.Lubricant testing

Lubricants are a valuable indicator of the overall functioning and

wear of machinery. Under normal engine operating conditions the
deterioration of a lubricant takes place slowly, but severe conditions
and engine malfunctions promote faster degradation. Monitoring
lubricants in service and analysing the results determine not only
their condition but that of the engine and auxiliary machinery they
serve. All the major marine lubricant suppliers offer used lube oil
testing services to customers, with results and advice transmitted by email, fax or post to
owner and ship from specialist laboratories. The range of analyses undertaken on engine
lubricant samples submitted typically embraces checks on:
 Water content: even in small quantities, water is always undesirable in a lubricant
since it can act as a contaminant. A check on the water content will indicate defects
in the engine, purifier and other auxiliary machinery. Where water is present,
testing determines whether it is fresh or sea water.
 Insoluble products: lubricants in an engine are contaminated by a number of
insoluble products. Monitoring their presence provides a very good indication of
the engine’s operating condition or the effectiveness of the purifier or filter; it also
safeguards against breakdowns since a sudden increase in the insoluble products
present indicates a malfunction.
 Viscosity: a measure of the ability of a lubricant to flow, viscosity cannot be used in
isolation to assess a lubricant’s condition but it yields useful information in
conjunction with other determining factors, such as the level of oxidation or
contamination by fuel, water or other elements.
 Flash point: the temperature at which the application of a flame will ignite the
vapours produced by an oil sample under standard conditions. Below a certain
value there is a high risk of very serious incidents in service, including crankcase
explosion. The flash point must therefore be monitored very carefully.
 Base number (BN) or (TBN total base number) or alkalinity reserve: during the
combustion process the sulphur contained in the fuel can produce acidic products
that can damage the engine; this acid must be neutralized to avoid extensive
corrosive wear of the cylinder liner or piston rings. Neutralization is the role of
specific additives in the lubricant, the amount and type of which are measured by
the BN which represents the alkalinity reserve. Close monitoring of the BN in
service is essential to ensure that the lubricant still has sufficient alkalinity reserve
to perform correctly.
 Wear metal elements: monitoring changes in metal elements (measured in ppm)
provides vital information on how patterns of wear develop inside the machinery.
Regular monitoring detects any sudden increase in a wear element, such as iron or
copper, which would indicate that excessive wear was occurring.
The correct interpretation of results dictates analyses on a regular basis so that curves can
be plotted and extrapolated to indicate trends.
Any measurement that deviates significantly from the curves must be investigated further;
adopting a historical approach to analyses can minimize the risk of machinery malfunction

384
and breakdown. When machinery manufacturers offer no specific recommendations, Lub
Marine suggests the following as average sampling periods:
Main engine…………………………..3/6 months
Diesel genset…………………………6/12 months
Hydraulic system……………………….12 months
Turbocharger…………………………….6 months
Gearing………………………………….12 months
Air and gas compressors………………12 months

3. Interpretation of test result

Typical values for standard fuels are given in Table below.

Typical value for standard fuels

The following is the fuel oil specification of a leading low speed diesel engine
manufacturer. The properties are considered the worst in each case that can be burnt in
the particular engine.

Diesel oil requirements according to ISO 8217/1996.2005.

There is a subdivision consisting of four categories: DMX. DMA. DMB and DMC

385
Fuels can be divided into ten different fuel classes. The viscosity at 50oC range from 30 to
700cSt this is often expressed in centistokes; sometimes in mm2 per second.

386
387
The lubricating oil viscosity is divided into a number of grades. Each grade contains the
viscosities between two limits.

The analysis results of such samples provide information with regard to the properties of
the lubricating-oil after a specified number of operating hours and therefore the state of
maintenance of the diesel engine.
By consistently checking the lubricating-oil, severe damage to the engine can be avoided.
Examples:

1 The alkaline additive shows a decrease. The alkaline additive in the lubricating-oil,
which neutralizes acids, indicated with the B.N or T.B.N. value (B.N. - Base
Number, T.B.N. Total Base Number) has been saturated by the acids in the fuel.
2 The metal -particle content increases. The content of, for instance, aluminium
particles increases. This is found if the bearing caps have contact with an
aluminium compound, this is indicative of worn bearing caps.
When there is a significant increase in the number of aluminium particles, the
engine should be stopped to inspect the bearings.
3 The viscosity decreases; the lubricating-oil is diluted. Lubricating-oil has a certain
viscosity, flow. When the viscosity gradually increases, this is usually the result

388
 of ageing of the lubricating oil. The lubricating-oil oxidises with the air and
thickens. If the viscosity decreases, this is usually due to dilution with fuel.
It is, for instance, possible for fuel to leak into the lubricating-oil near the fuel
pumps. The drain pipe of the fuel pump drain may be defective. The lubricating
properties deteriorate, which results in engine corrosion.
4 The water content in the lubricating-oil increases. This is indicative of cooling
water leakage.
The lubricating properties decrease, which cause rust formation on the white
metal parts of the engine.

4. Microbial contamination of fuels and lubricants

Shipboard microbial fouling and corrosion have become more commonplace and will probably
continue to increase due to fuel oil formulation and handling trends, polluted harbour waters and
regulatory pressures.

Naval architects and shipbuilders are advised to design systems that are less conducive to
harbouring micro-organisms and more readilysampled and decontaminated if problems are
experienced.

Comprehensive onboard test kits are available for detecting and quantifying microbial
contamination and for monitoring the success of anti-microbial measures.

Microbial contamination can manifest itself in the infection of fuel, lubricants, cooling water and
bilge and ballast waters. The results can be: engine damage (pistons and cylinder liners may wear
faster, and filters and fuel injection nozzles become plugged, sometimes within a few hours); fuel
tank pitting corrosion and accelerated localized pitting; and general wastage corrosion of bilge
pipes, tank bottoms and hulls.

In some cases, internal and external microbial attack has led to rapid ship structural perforation. Of
special concern is the possibility that certain strains of bacteria may endanger the health of the
crew, as would the incorrect handling and application of hazardous chemical biocides in remedial
treatment operations. Various kinds of microbes are encountered: bacteria; moulds; and fungi and
yeasts. Bacteria come in two types: aerobic, which use oxygen to oxidize their food; and anaerobic,
which cannot tolerate oxygen.

One anaerobic strain, termed sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB), is

particularly virulent and produces corrosive sulphide.

Bacteria produce biosurfactants which break down the oil/water interface, promoting
emulsions that are detectable when the fuel is tested for water separation. If the infection
is severe and longstanding the aerobic bacteria consume all the oxygen and problems with
SRB may result.

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Microbes need water and a food source to survive, ingredients provided by the
hydrocarbons and chemical additives in oil. A temperature between 15∞C and 40∞C is
also required. Warm engine rooms offer an ideal breeding ground. Laid-up tonnage or
ships in intermittent service are most vulnerable to attack because
microbes dislike movement. Dormant fuel systems may be aggravated by ondensation
and water leakage.

Various strategies are available for reducing the problems but solutions must be safe and
environmentally acceptable. The details needed to build these strategies into full working
protocols will depend on individual circumstances, the time available and access to
antimicrobial agents.

There are many different microbiological problems which need to be met with specific
tailored solutions but there are certain common principles of good practice which can be
implemented:
 Physical prevention: preventing ingress of inoculating microbes, particularly those
already adapted to growth in relevant environments. Avoid spreading
contamination from passing clean fluids through contaminated pipes and filters
and into dirty tanks. Minimize the conditions which encourage microbial growth
and water.
 Physical decontamination: settling, heat, filtration and centrifugal procedures all
aid decontamination, the choice of process depending on equipment and time
constraints.
 Chemical prevention: protecting against minor contamination,
coupled with good housekeeping to prevent rather than cure infection.
 Chemical decontamination: a wide range of chemical biocides is available. Only a
few are appropriate to each specific application (there is no universal eradication
fluid). All are toxic and must only be used with due regard to health and safety and
environmental impact.
Microbial problems in the shipping industry were originally mainly
confined to distillate fuels and lubricants but areas of attack have
recently spread to residual fuels and bilge, ballast and potable waters.
Specialists cite the following contributory factors:
 Lower levels of shipboard manning and less experienced personnel have
undermined stringent housekeeping regimes.
 Adverse trading conditions have led to ships being laid up or
deployed intermittently, fostering long and undisturbed incubation
periods for opportunist micro-organisms.
 Marine pollution legislation under the Marpol 73/78 regulation which restricts the
pumping of bilges has led to water laying stagnant for longer periods.
 Environmental restrictions on the use of toxic biocidal chemicals within bilges and
fuels exacerbate the problems associated with microbial contamination.
 Lack of knowledge of the factors which cause microbial contamination and
accurate diagnosis of the operational problems being experienced.
 Shortcomings in the design of tanks, bilges and pipe systems whose configuration
should foster effective water draining and subsequent treatment.

390
There will always be an initial source of shipboard fuel contamination, such as a shore
tank, dirty pipeline, road tanker or polluted tank wash water. Airborne contamination via
tank breathers is less likely. Once infestation has occurred, particular circumstances may
encourage microbial proliferation onboard. Further inoculation is then immaterial as the
key aggravating factors are water and warmth.
Water accumulates in tanks when there is no drain or water scavenge system, where the
drain is not at the lowest point in the tank, and where draining procedures are not
enforced. Tanks in the engine room or other warm locations and tanks receiving
recirculated distillate fuel from injectors are ideal for incubating microbes. Double bottom
tanks, due to their lower temperatures, are less prone to microbial proliferation.
The following visual symptoms of fuel microbial contamination are
given as a guide:
 Aggregation of microbes into a biomass, observed as discolouration, turbidity and
fouling.
 Biosurfactants produced by bacteria promote stable water hazes and encourage
particulate dispersion.
 Purifiers and coalescers, which rely on a clean fuel/water interface, may
malfunction.
 Tank pitting.
Operational indications of fuel microbial contamination are:
 Bacterial polymers may completely plug filters and orifices within a few hours.
 Filters, pumps and injectors foul and fail.
 Non-uniform fuel flow and variations in combustion may accelerate
piston ring and cylinder liner wear rates, and affect camshaft torque.
When heavily infected fuel is used all or some of these phenomena will confront the ship’s
engineers within a few hours. Initially, they will probably be faced with filter plugging, fuel
starvation, injector fouling and malfunctioning of any coalescer in use.
The extent of the contamination must first be established by the following procedure:

1. Clear glass sample bottles rinsed with boiling water should be used to take drain
or bottom samples from service, header and
storage tanks.
2. Microbial contamination in a sample will be apparent as a haze in the fuel from
the presence of sludge. This sludge readily
disperses in the fuel when the sample is swirled; at this time sticky ‘cling film’ flakes may
be seen adhering to the wall of the bottle. The water will be turbid and there may be some
bottom sludge; if this is black, SRB are present and they will be an added corrosion hazard.
3. The engineer can now evaluate the various fuel locations and instigate an
emergency strategy by using the cleanest fuel. If only heavily contaminated fuel is
available it should first be allowed to settle for as long as possible and then drawn off from
the top to a clean tank, preferably via a filter, purifier, centrifuge or coalescer.
Using a biocide at this stage (see section below) is usually not advisable due to a tendency
to block filters with the dislodged biofilms.
4. At the earliest opportunity, drain or bottom samples should be taken and the
supplier’s retained sample forwarded for microbiological examination. This will identify, by
sophisticated ‘fingerprinting’, whether or not the bunkers supplied were contaminated.

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The standard methods for curing heavily contaminated fuels involve the use of biocides
which may be toxic and incur disposal problems.
Careful handling is necessary. Once a biocide has been added, the dead biomass must be
allowed to settle before drainage and filtration.
The careful monitoring of filters is also required to prevent blockage by the dead microbes.
In expert hands, biocides eliminate the microbial menace but using an incorrect biocide
can exacerbate the problem rather than effect a remedy. The choice of biocide is therefore
important. Prevention is better than cure and the source of the infections should be
identified to prevent their recurrence.

5. Lube oil contamination

Lubricant operating temperatures of crankcase oils in wet engines are normally sufficient
to control and prevent infestation. Any problems are usually associated with ships which
have shut down their lubricant system, allowing temperatures to drop and water to
accumulate.
There are many thousands of types of microbes but only a few are able to grow in
lubricating oils at the elevated operational temperatures in use. Provided the plant
treatment equipment is functional, the purifier heater temperature is maintained and the
water content kept at a minimum, the lubricating oil system will be both environmentally
and nutrient deficient. Such conditions will prevent microbes from establishing
themselves. Should heavy contamination of the system occur, however, this self-regulating
mechanism will be unable to prevent microbial proliferation (Figure below). Fortunately,
the symptoms of microbial contamination will not occur immediately, allowing engineers
to implement remedial physical and/or chemical decontamination programmes.

392
Interactive problems associated with microbial corrosion

The visual symptoms of microbial contamination of lubricants are:

 Slimy appearance of the oil, the slime tending to cling to the crankcase doors.
 Rust films.
 Honey-coloured films on the journals, later associated with corrosion pitting.
 Black stains on whitemetal bearings, pins and journals.
 Brown or grey/black deposits on metallic parts.
 Corrosion of the purifier bowl and newly machined surfaces.
 Sludge accumulation in the crankcase and excessive sludge at the purifier
discharge.
 Paint stripping in the crankcase.
Operational symptoms of microbial contamination in lubricants are:
 Additive depletion.
 Rancid or sulphitic smells.
 Increase in oil acidity or sudden loss of alkalinity.
 Stable water content in the oil which is not resolved by the purifier.
 Filter plugging in heavy weather.

393
  Persistent demulsification problems.
 Reduction of heat transfer in coolers.

Microbial growth occurs in the water associated with the lubricant, and the phenomenon
is therefore characteristic of crankcase oils in wet engines, particularly those with water-
cooled pistons. Lubricant infection can be identified by slimy film formation on the
crankcase doors. There may also be a rancid odour and white metal parts may be stained
black. As the problem progresses, filters choke up, organic acids are formed and the oils
tend to emulsify.
If sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) are present—a problem particularly associated with
laid-up tonnage—copious pitting of ferrous and non-ferrous metals may occur (Figure
below).
Since micro-organisms feed upon the additives within the oil the lubricity of the oil may be
impaired and its viscosity altered; and there is a greater resultant acidity and increased
potential for emulsification and corrosion. Hydrogen sulphide may also be produced as a
byproduct.
Serious corrosion problems will result within weeks of the initial contamination if these
factors occur at the same time.
Sources of contamination within the lubricant are the fuel, cooling water and seawater.
Cooling water in particular has featured as a common contaminant of crankcase oil at
engine operating temperatures, since the use of chromates as corrosion inhibitors is
banned. The use of chromates also acted as an effective anti-microbial biocide.
Prevention is better than cure and it is known that microbial growth is retarded by
extreme alkaline conditions. To date, there have been no microbial problems reported
with medium speed engines during operation when using highly alkaline lubricants of BN
12 to 40. At elevated temperatures lubricating oils tend to be self-sterilizing.
Unfortunately, however, there still remains the possibility of infestation from
contaminated bilges and tank tops which may inadvertently leak into the oil system.

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Anaerobic corrosion by sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB)

Since the majority of operational microbial problems in lubricating oils arise due to
infection from cooling water, seawater from cooler leaks and overflows of contaminated
bilges, the effectiveness and efficiency of plant treatment are important remedial
measures.
The following procedures are recommended to avoid microbiological
problems:
 Ensure that the water content of crankcase oil does not rise above 0.5 per cent by
weight.
 Check that purifier suction is as near to the bottom of the sump as possible.
 Maintain a minimum oil temperature after the purifier heater of 70oC or higher for
at least 20 seconds and/or 80oC for 10 seconds.
 Circulate the volume of oil in the sump via the purifier at least once every eight to
ten hours.
 Regularly check that coolant corrosion inhibitor concentrations are at the
manufacturer’s recommended values.
 Monitor the microbial population of the cooling water and prevent water leaks into
the oil system.
 Test for microbial contamination of the oil system and monitor whether the oil
after the purifier is sterile.
 Prevent ingress of contaminated bilge water.
 Inspect storage tanks and regularly check for water.

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Lubricating-oil absorbs many substances in the engine which adversely affect the quality
and reduce lubrication and cooling of the engine.
These substances are, among other things:
-water, from leaking cooling water and water vapour from the air precipitation
in the engine;
-fuel, usually from leaking fuel pumps. The seals of the fuel pump and gear
drives of the cam shaft are not optimal;
-metal particles, from wear of the moving parts such as bearings, shafts, pistons,
piston rings and cylinder liners. Due to orrosion or cavitations’ metal particles
from pipe walls, heat exchangers and pumps can also be launched.
-combustion products. Especially in four-stroke trunk piston engines there is
always some 'deposition' along the piston rings of carbon particles; sulphuric
acid, from the sulphur in the fuel, and other combustion by-products on the
piston rings;
-coolants, similar to water leakage this is due to leaking cooling systems;
-carbon particles from the lubricating-oil itself.
When lubricating-oil is used for cooling, and when a certain temperature,
approximately 400 0 C, is exceeded, the lubricating-oil begins to decompose
and carbonise;
-oxidation products of the lubricating-oil. Due to air exposure lubricating-oil may
oxidise.
This produces long chained compounds which thicken the lubricating-oil;
-dirt particles such as sealant materials, sand, glass droplets and fine dust.

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6. Lubricating-oil analysis

In the larger diesel engines is customary to regularly take samples

of the lubricating-oil and have them checked in laboratories.
The analysis results of such samples provide information with regard to the properties of
the lubricating-oil after a specified number of operating hours and therefore the state of
maintenance of the diesel engine.
By consistently checking the lubricating-oil, severe damage to the engine can be avoided.

Examples:
1 The alkaline additive shows a decrease.
The alkaline additive in the lubricating-oil, which neutralizes acids, indicated with the B.N
or T.B.N. value (B.N. - Base Number, T.B.N. Total Base Number) has been saturated by the
acids in the fuel.

2 The metal -particle content increases.

The content of, for instance, aluminium particles increases. This is found if the bearing
caps have contact with an aluminium compound, this is indicative of worn bearing caps.
When there is a significant increase in the number of aluminium particles, the engine
should be stopped to inspect the bearings.

3 The viscosity decreases; the lubricating-oil is diluted.

Lubricating-oil has a certain viscosity, flow.
When the viscosity gradually increases, this is usually the result of ageing of the lubricating
oil.
The lubricating-oil oxidizes with the air and thickens. If the viscosity decreases, this is
usually due to dilution with fuel.
It is, for instance, possible for fuel to leak into the lubricating-oil near the fuel pumps.
The drain pipe of the fuel pump drain may be defective. The lubricating properties
deteriorate, which results in engine corrosion.

4 The water content in the lubricating-oil increases.

This is indicative of cooling water leakage.
The lubricating properties decrease, which cause rust formation on the white metal parts
of the engine.

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7. Storage problems

The problems of storage in tanks of bunker fuel result from build-up of sludge
leading to difficulties in handling. The reason for the increase in sludge build-up is because
heavy fuels are generally blended from a cracked heavy residual using a lighter cutter stock
resulting in a problem of incompatibility. This occurs when the asphaltene or high
molecular weight compound suspended in the fuel is precipitated by the addition of the
cutter stock or other dilutents. The sludge which settles in the bunker tanks or finds its
way to the fuel lines tends to overload the fuel separators with a resultant loss of burnable
fuel, and perhaps problems with fuel injectors and wear of the engine through abrasive
particles.
To minimize the problems of sludging the ship operator has a number of options.
He may ask the fuel supplier to perform stability checks on the fuel that he is providing.
Bunkers of different origins should be kept segregated wherever possible and water
contamination kept to a minimum. Proper operation of the settling tanks and fuel
treatment plant is essential to prevent sludge from entering the engine itself. A detergent-
type chemical additive can be used to reduce the formation of sludge in the bunker tanks.

8. Bunkering procedures

Marine fuel oil is the residue after the crude oil has been processed at the refinery to
produce diverse high value products, such as gasolines, jet fuels, diesel and petrochemical
feedstocks.

Refineries traditionally created these products by a relatively simple

distillation process. But to satisfy increased demand additional processes—for example,
thermal and catalytic cracking—were introduced to use residues and heavier distillates as
feedstocks. The
volume of the final residue available for bunker fuel was thus reduced, concentrating the
impurities remaining.
Between the refinery and the delivery of the bunkers onboard, via
any intermediary storage that might be required, are many opportunities for the fuel to
become contaminated: sometimes so badly that it may damage the ship’s machinery and
associated systems. Especially threatening is the presence in the fuel of catfines resulting
from the catalytic cracking stage at the refinery in which the oil is heated over aluminium
silicate catalyst, a substance harder than metal.
Immediate and longer term risks to ship and machinery are associated with poor fuel
quality, including fire and explosion, loss of main engine power and/or auxiliary power
black-out, and difficulty in fulfilling charter party clauses with regard to ship speed, engine
power and specific fuel consumption.

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Among the key parameters of a fuel specification are:
 A maximum viscosity: this is required to be within the enginebuilder’s specified
limit; it is also a guide to the storage and handling properties of the fuel.
 A maximum density or specific gravity: dictated by the ship’s fuel treatment plant.
 A minimum flash point: dictated by safety regulations for the storage of fuel at sea.
 A maximum pour point: this limits the amount of heating required to store and
handle the fuel.
 A maximum water content.
 A maximum sulphur content: may be necessary to satisfy regional environmental
regulations but is also desirable to limit the corrosive products of combustion and
to ensure that the lubricants used in the engine can cope with these products.

Bunker fuel short delivery and quality disputes can be extremely contentious. In the event
of a dispute the conduct of measurement and sampling techniques will usually come
under close scrutiny, and it will be necessary for the ship’s interests to demonstrate that
proper procedures were carried out during the bunkering.
Diligent participation of both ship and supplier during measurement
and sampling is very important in preventing or resolving disputes, and the importance of
maintaining proper records and documentation before, during and after bunkering cannot
be overstated.
It is essential that prior to bunkering the chief engineer and any attending surveyor should
first check the bunker receipt to ensure that the fuel on the barge complies with that
ordered. The tanks of the receiving ship and the bunker barge should then be carefully
measured to ascertain the exact quantities on both vessels. If no surveyor is in attendance,
the task should be performed by either the chief or first engineer assisted by an engine
room rating. The engineer should preferably use his own sounding tape, thermometers,
hydrometers and temperature/volume correction tables. Water-finding paste should be
used on the measuring tape or sounding rod to check for free water. If found, the quantity
of free water should be deducted from the volume of fluids in the tank to arrive at the
correct oil volume.
On the receiving vessel, when sufficient empty tanks are available, many chief engineers
prefer to segregate fuels from different stemming: both to ease the calculation of the
quantity loaded and to eliminate as far as possible any problems with incompatibilities of
fuels produced from different crude feedstock’s.
Once the measuring has taken place the quantity onboard the barge should be
calculated using its calibration tables. Since the supply of fuel is often under Customs
control bunker tankers have officially approved calibration tables adorned with a variety of
stamps verifying their authenticity. The receiving ship’s representatives must therefore
ensure that the tables offered to them are suitably approved and declined if they are at all
suspect. Poor quality, unapproved tables may be encountered and even cases when no
tables are available. If no tables can be provided measures should be taken to obtain
them. If no tables can be found the fuel on the barge should be rejected, even if there is a
delivery meter onboard. The veracity of fuel meters should be regarded as suspect even
when meter correction factors and calibration certificates are present.
Transfer can commence provided that the quantity in the barge tanks is the same
as that on the bunker delivery receipt. Agreement must be reached on the rate of delivery

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and signals for the starting, stopping and slowing down of delivery. In Japanese ports an
interpreter is often provided to liaise between the supplier and the receiver.
It is now mandatory for vessels to have clearly laid down procedures for bunkering. This is
an extension of US Coastguard directives which required all tonnage visiting US ports to
display diagrams of their fuel loading, transfer and storage systems. For bunkering, these
rules required that a senior engineer officer be nominated as ‘in charge’ and the ranks of
his assistants to be given. Before bunkering, a detailed plan was to be prepared showing
how much of each type of oil was to be loaded or transferred, which tanks were to be
used, and the anticipated finishing ullages. A deck officer was to be nominated to maintain
the ship’s mooring and other arrangements during bunkering.
All deck scuppers were to be sealed and sawdust or other absorbent material provided.
Receptacles for spilled oil and oil-contaminated sawdust were to be at hand. Fire
extinguishers and hoses were to be deployed nearby and the fire main was to be
pressurized. The method of communication between the various participants was to be
given, with a back-up mode provided.
After all necessary pollution prevention precautions have been taken the valves of
the receiving ship’s bunkering lines can be set and delivery started. When the integrity of
the delivery hose and its connection to the ship’s system have been proven the rate of
delivery can be slowly increased to the agreed level.
If possible, during the delivery, a set of three samples of the fuel should be taken
using a small bore valve fitted to the ship’s loading connection and retained for any
necessary future analysis. Proprietary sampling devices which can be bolted to the loading
flange are available.
The best of these has a small bore pipe directed against the flow which leads
outside to three branches, each fitted with a valve. It is therefore possible to obtain three
continuous drip samples during loading to give an ‘average’ of the fuel quality.
The bunker barge normally provides samples of the fuel delivered and the officer in
charge of the operation should always attend to observe the samples being taken and
sealed. It is customary for the ship’s representative to sign the labels for the sample cans.
Both barge and receiving vessel then retain samples. The ship’s samples should be
retained for at least six months.
When the transfer has been completed and the hose blown through and
disconnected the tanks of both vessels should be re-measured to enable the quantity
transferred to be calculated. Any discrepancy between the ship and barge figures then
becomes a matter for negotiation or protest, depending on the magnitude involved.
Vigilance on the part of personnel at the time of stemming fuel, and during its
subsequent correct storage and centrifuge treatment, are essential in preventing or
mitigating future problems.
On a motor ship at least two centrifugal separators are usually installed for
removing water and other impurities from fuel. Under normal conditions only one of these
units operates as a separator on a continuous basis. When it is known, however, that the
fuel to be treated contains excessive particulate matter two centrifuges can be operated in
series. The first acts as a separator to remove water and particulate matter, and the
second as a clarifier to remove only particulate matter. In all cases, the throughput of the
centrifuges should be as low as possible to achieve the greatest dwell time in the bowl and
hence maximum separation efficiency.

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9. Lubricating-oil can be cleaned in various ways

Fine lubricating-oil filters in the supply pipes of lubricating-oil Pumps.

This is applied to all engine types. The mesh size determines the manner in which
filtering occurs.
In small diesel engines filters are renewed. In larger engines they are cleaned.
Centrifugal filters
In increasingly more engines, centrifugal filters are used alongside the regular fine
lubricating-oil filters. The centrifuge is driven by the lubricating-oil pressure and throws
dirt and water along the outer side. After a specified number of operating hours the
filters are manually
cleaned
Automatic fine-filters
These filters are periodically cleaned by an automatic back-flushing system
Magnetic elements or plugs
These plugs are mostly found in small engines.
They detain mostly iron particles. They require regular manual cleaning.
Lubricating-oil separators
The slightly larger diesel engines running on H.EO. often use centrifuges. They generally
operate automatically and in the larger types cleaning occurs automatically on a
periodic basis. This is called 'shooting'.

FUEL OIL TREATMENT

Low, medium and high speed diesel engines are designed to burn marine diesel oil (ISO
8217, class DMB or BS 6843, class DMB) while low speed and many medium speed engines
can also accept commercially available heavy fuel oil (HFO) with a viscosity up to 700 cSt
(7000 sec Redwood No. 1).
In order to ensure effective and sufficient cleaning of the HFO (removing water and solid
contaminants) the fuel oil specific gravity at 15∞C should be below 0.991. Higher
densities—up to 1.010—can be accepted if modern centrifugal separators are installed,
such as the systems available from Alfa-Laval (Alcap), Westfalia (Unitrol) and Mitsubishi (E-
Hidens II).
Alfa-Laval’s Alcap system comprises an FOPX separator, a WT 200 water transducer and
ancillary equipment including an EPC-400 control unit (Figure below). Changes in water
content are constantly monitored by the transducer which is connected to the clean oil
outlet of the separator and linked to the control unit. Water, separated sludge and solid
particles accumulate in the sludge space at the separator bowl periphery. When separated
sludge or water force the water towards the disc stack minute traces of water start to
escape with the cleaned oil and are instantly detected by the transducer in the clean oil
outlet.

401
Schematic diagram of Alfa Laval’s Alcap fuel treatment system based on its FOPX
centrifugal separator

The control unit reacts by triggering a sludge discharge or by allowing water to drain off
through a separate drain valve, thereby re-establishing optimum separation efficiency.
A number of benefits are cited for the Alcap system over conventional fuel cleaning
systems. Continuous optimum separation efficiency is achieved since water and sludge in
the bowl are never permitted to enter the disc stack. Only one Alcap FOPX separator is
required, a single-stage unit achieving the same and often higher separation efficiency
than a traditional two-stage configuration featuring two separators (a purifier followed by
a clarifier).
Manual cleaning separators are not recommended for attended or unattended machinery
spaces. Centrifugal separators should be selfcleaning, either with total discharge or with
partial discharge. The nominal capacity of the separator should be as recommended by the
supplier. Normally, two separators are installed for HFO treatment, each with adequate
capacity to comply with the fuel throughput recommendation.
The schematic representation of a heavy fuel oil treatment system approved by Wärtsilä is
shown in Figure 4.3, the company highlighting the following points in designing a particular
installation:
Gravitational settling of water and sediment in modern fuel oils is an extremely slow
process due to the small density difference between the oil and the sediment. To achieve
the best settling results, the surface area of the settling tank should be as large as possible,
with low depth, because the settling process is a function of the fuel surface area of the
tank, the viscosity and density difference.
The function of the settling tank is to separate the sludge and water contained in the fuel
oil, to act as a buffer tank and to provide a suitable constant fuel temperature of 50–70oC.
This can be improved by installing two settling tanks for alternate daily use.
Wärtsilä also advises the use of ‘new generation’ separators without gravity disc to treat
heavy fuels of up to 700 cSt/50oC viscosity and facilitate continuous and unattended
operation.
When using conventional gravity disc separators, two such sets working in series (purifier–
clarifier) are dictated. The clarifier enhances the separation result and acts as a safety
measure in case the purifier is not properly adjusted.

402
 The effective separator throughput should accord with the maximum consumption of the
diesel engine plus a margin of about 18 per cent to ensure that separated fuel oil flows
back from the daily tank to the settling tank.
The separators should be in continuous operation from port to port. To maintain a
constant flow through the separators individual positive displacement-type pumps
operating at constant capacity should be installed. The separation temperature is to be
controlled within +/–2oC by a preheater.
The fuel treatment system can be improved further by an automatic filtration unit installed
to act as a monitoring/safety device in the event of separator malfunction. Such a filtration
unit is particularly

Heavy fuel treatment plan layout approved by Wartsila for its low speed engines.

Recommended when conventional separators with gravity discs are deployed. Separators
can also be supported by homogenizers (see section below) in cases where possible
asphaltene sludge recipitation
due to unstable or incompatible fuels is anticipated or where the size of abrasive particles
has to be reduced.
The fuel oil heater may be of the shell and tube or plate heat exchanger type, with
electricity, steam or thermal oil as the heating medium. The required heating temperature
for different oil viscosities is derived from a fuel oil heating chart, (Figure below), based on
information from oil suppliers with respect to typical marine fuels with a viscosity index of
70–80. Since the viscosity after the heater is the controlled parameter the heating
temperature may vary, depending on the viscosity and viscosity index of the fuel. The

403
viscosity meter setting, reflecting the desired fuel injection viscosity recommended for an
engine by the engine builder, is typically 10–15 cSt.
To maintain a correct and constant viscosity of the fuel oil at the inlet to the main engine
the heater steam supply should be automatically controlled, usually based on a pneumatic
or electronic control system.

Alfa Laval believes that two-stage pressurized systems are preferable for fuel conditioning
(feeder and booster) systems, suggesting that single-stage systems can be difficult to
control and suffer from cavitation and gasification problems associated with high fuel
temperatures (120– 150oC). Its own two-stage system features a 4 bar low pressure
section, while the high pressure side ranges between 6–16 bar, depending on the
requirements of the enginebuilder. On the LP side are two pumps (one standby), an auto-
filter with back-up manual bypass filter, and a flow transmitter. There is also a mixing tank,
where fresh fuel is mixed with hot fuel returning from the engine. Oil from the day tanks is
fed to the system under pressure via LP supply pumps to eliminate any gasification and
cavitation problems.

From the mixing tank the fuel enters the HP section, where the flow rate is maintained at a
multiple of the actual fuel consumption rate so as to prevent fuel starvation at the

404
injectors. The HP section incorporates circulation pumps, heaters and a viscosity
transducer.
The transducer compares viscosity against a value set by the enginebuilder and sends a
signal to the controller allowing it to alter the fuel temperature by adjusting the flow of
heating medium (steam or thermal oil) to the heater. ‘Self-cure’ functions include pump
changeover to standby in the event of failure or too low pressure, and change from
viscosity to temperature control (or vice versa).

Fuel oil heating chart (MAN B&W Diesel)

A direct-coupled propulsion engine cannot operate unaided since it requires service

pumps for cooling and lubrication, and fuel/lube oil handling and treatment systems.
These ancillaries need electrical power which is usually provided by generators driven by
medium or high speed diesel engines. Many genset enginebuilders can now offer designs
capable of burning the same heavy fuel grade as the main engine as well as marine diesel
oil or blended fuel (heavy fuel and distillate fuel mixed in various proportions, usually

405
70:30) either bunkered as an intermediate fuel or blended onboard. ‘Unifuel’
installations—featuring main and auxiliary engines arranged to burn the same bunkers—
are now common.

Blenders
Blending is the mixing of two fuels, usually a heavy fuel and marine diesel oil. The intention
is to produce an intermediate-viscosity fuel suitable for use in auxiliary diesels. The fuel
cost savings for intermediate fuel grades are sufficient to justify the cost of the blending
plant. Furthermore no supply problems exist since the appropriate mixture can be
produced by the blender from available heavy and marine diesel oils.
The blending unit thoroughly mixes the two fuels in the appropriate proportions
before supplying it to a blended fuel supply tank.
Compatibility can be a problem and tests should be conducted on any new fuel
before it is used. Incompatible fuels may produce sludge or sediment. The cracked
residues presently supplied from many refineries are very prone to incompatibility
problems when blended with marine diesel oil.

Filters and strainers

Mechanical separation of solid contaminants from oil systems (fuel and lubricating) is
achieved by the use of filters and strainers. A strainer is usually a coarse filter to remove
the larger contaminating particles. Both are arranged as full flow units, usually mounted in
pairs (duplex) with one as a standby.
The strainer usually employs a mesh screen, an assembly of closely packed metal
plates or wire coils which effectively block all but the smallest particles. It is usually fitted
on the suction side of a pump and must be cleaned regularly or when the pressure
differentials across it become unacceptable. Where suction conditions are critical the
strainer will be fitted on the discharge side of the pump. When cleaning is undertaken the
other unit will be connected into the system by changeover valves or levers and oil
circulation will continue. The particles of dirt collect on the outside of the strainer element
or basket and can be removed by compressed air or brushing. A strainer should be cleaned
as soon as it is taken out of the system, then reassembled and left ready for use.
Magnetic strainers are often used in lubricating oil systems, where a large
permanent magnet collects any ferrous particles which are circulating in the system. The
magnet is surrounded by a cage or basket to simplify cleaning.
Fine filters, again in pairs, are used to remove the smallest particles of dirt from oil
before the oil enters the finely machined engine parts in either the fuel injection system or
the bearings of the rotating machinery. Fine filters are full-flow units which clean all the oil
supplied to the engine. The filtering substance may be a natural or synthetic fibrous
woollen felt or paper.
A steel division plate divides the steel pressure vessel into an upper and a lower
chamber. Dirty oil passes into the upper chamber and through the filter element, and then
the filtered oil passes down the central tube to the lower chamber and out of the unit. A
magnetic filter can be positioned as shown in the central tube. A spring-loaded bypass is
shown in the diagram, for lubricating oil filters only, to ensure a flow of oil should the filter
become blocked. The cartridge in the design shown is disposable although designs exist to

406
enable back-flushing with compressed air to clean the filter element as required. The filter
unit shown will be one of a pair which can be alternately in service.
In full-flow filtration systems all the oil passes through the filter on its way to the
engine. In a by-pass system most of the oil goes to the lubrication system and a part is by-
passed to a filter. A higher pressure drop across the filter can then be used and a slower
filtration rate.
A centrifugal filter can be used in a by-pass system where the oil passes through a
rotor and spins it at high speed (Figure bwlow) Dirt particles in the oil are then deposited
on the walls of the rotor and the clean oil returns to the sump. This type of filter cannot
block or clog and requires no replaceable elements. It must be dismantled for cleaning of
the rotor unit at regular intervals.

Two centrifugal lubricating oil filters mounted on a diesel engine

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[1]References and Further Reading
1)Pounder’s Marine Diesel Enginess & Gas Turbine Edited by Doug Woodyard
2) Engineers Databook-Fourth Edition by Clifford Matthews- A John Wiley & Sons,
Publications.
3) Nondestructive Test Methods by Nicholas J. Carino
Research structural engineer in the Structures Division at the National Institute of
Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg.
4) Diesel Engines for Ship propulsion and Power Plants by Kees Kuiken
5) Handbook of Diesel Engines Editors Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Mollenhauer

407
G. Technology of material[1]

1. Destructive and non-destructive testing of material

Destructive Testing (DT)

As the name suggests, destructive testing (DT) includes methods where your material is
broken down in order to determine mechanical properties, such as strength, toughness
and hardness. In practice it means, for example, finding out if the quality of a weld is good
enough to withstand extreme pressure or to verify the properties of a material.

These properties can’t be examined with non-destructive methods, as specimens of the

material must be extracted. Destructive testing is generally most suitable and economic
for mass produced objects, as the cost of destroying a small number of pieces is negligible.
The samples are put under different loads and stress. That way we can analyze in which
point your material eventually gives up and cracks. The results gained are then compared
to regulations and/or quality guidelines.

Destructive tests are best when used together with our non-destructive methods: this
combination gives the best information on materials and welds. Non-destructive tests
show if cracks, corrosion or other faults exist. Destructive tests in turn indicate how and
when the objects are in danger of breaking down or failing.

During the definition and implementation of the specimens to be used in destructive

testing, it must be taken into account the following points:

 The material of the specimens must be the same as the real material of the
substrates of the bonded joint.

408
  The thickness of the specimen must be as close to the actual thickness of the
substrates of the real bonded joint.

There are numerous standards which regulates and details the conditions, tools and steps
to follow for destructive testing

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection (FPI)

With fluorescent penetrant inspection (FPI), a fluorescent dye penetrant is smeared on a

surface to be checked for cracks. The surface is then cleaned off and placed under a black
light. Lines will be observed where the dye seeped into cracks.
The advantages of this method are that it is simple and requires no elaborate test
apparatus. The disadvantages are that it is applicable only to surface cracks, may only be
used on a relatively smooth surface (rough surfaces will give many false indications of
cracks), and is very operator-dependant. The human observer is the weak link in this
system. Studies show that crack detection capability varies widely from person to person.
These studies also show that a given person’s capability will vary from one day to
another. If the surface crack is in a residual compressive stress field, it will be very difficult
to detect because the crack faces will be pressed tightly together. This will make it difficult
for the dye penetrant to seep into the crack.

2. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

Magnetic particle inspection (MPU is similar to FPI, but it can be used only on ferrous
metals. With this method, a liquid containing magnetic particles is applied to the surface
being tested.
A magnetic field is then produced in the component by induction or passing an
electric component through it. Surface or near-surface cracks will disrupt the magnetic flux
lines and cause the magnetic particles to collect around them. MPI is more reliable than
FPI, especially for detecting cracks in residual compression and cracks which are filled with
foreign matter.
These may block the dye penetrant from entering the crack, but the magnetic field
is still disrupted. MPI also has limited capability to detect cracks just below the surface. In
general, MPI is superior to FPI and should be used when possible.

409
3. Radiography

Radiography utilizes penetrating radiation (typically xrays) to detect cracks. The basic
concept is that where less material exists, less radiation will be absorbed. The unabsorbed
radiation is measured after passing through the test article (Figure below). Radiography is
used to detect internal cracks or voids, but it is not good at detecting cracks oriented
perpendicular to the radiation beam. This is because there is very little difference in the
amount of absorbed radiation between parallel paths. It is also widely used to inspect
welds and determine whether two pieces have been joined together solidly or are merely
attached at the surface

Radiographic inspection for cracks

Radiography is often used to inspect welds

410
4. Ultrasonic Inspection

Ultrasonic inspection utilizes high-frequency sound waves which are reflected by

discontinuities. The return signal is measured and analyzed to detect cracks. A great deal
of energy is reflected at both surfaces of the component.
This creates two dead zones where acoustic reflections caused by cracks cannot be
distinguished from those caused by the component surfaces. The return signal for an
uncracked component will look like Figure below: Peak A represents the echo from the
front wall, and peak B represents the back wall echo. Crack A in Figure below would reflect
a portion of the signal and cause another peak between A and B. Crack B would reflect
some of the wave at an angle and, therefore, would not cause another peak. Its existence
could be deduced, however, because the back wall echo would be significantly curtailed.
Any increase in the return signal between these two peaks indicates a discontinuity in
the component. Crack C would be extremely difficult to detect, since it would have little
effect on the return signal because of its orientation.

Ultrasonic inspection is very accurate and can be used to inspect thick sections. It is limited
to detecting internal cracks away from specimen surfaces. It requires a flat surface through
which to apply the ultrasonic energy. Reference standards are required, making this
method unusable
for one of-a-kind inspections. For some materials, grain boundaries, precipitates, or other
internal in homogeneities reflect so much acoustic energy, that crack detection is
extremely difficult

Ultrasonic return signal for an uncracked component.

411
Effect of crack orientation on detectability:
(Aj crack reflects signal back to receiver; (6) crack deflects signal, reducing back wall echo;
(C) crack cannot be detected.

5. Eddy-Current Inspection

Eddycurrent inspection can be performed on materials that conduct electricity. This

method is based on the principle that cracks distort the eddy-currents which occur in a
sample when current is passed through a nearby coil. Both surface and near-surface cracks
may be detected reliably.
Perhaps the most important feature of eddy-current inspection is that it can be
automated. This improves accuracy significantly, and reduces cost if the inspections will be
done in volume. The negative aspects are that special machinery and reference standards
(showing the signals for cracked and uncracked parts) are necessary, making it impractical
for one-of-a-kind inspections

6. Hardness tests

Hardness is taken as the ability of a material to resist denting as caused by a load

bearing on the material using a dimensionally standardized probe. There are different
scales by which hardness is measured, the most common are the Brinell hardness number
and the Rockwell hardness number for a given Rockwell scale.
Material surfaces are sometimes hardened to reduce wear in mechanical latches,
sliding surfaces, and electrical contacts. The lubricity properties of polymers such as nylon
and Teflon are used to reduce friction in applications such as drawer slides where a plastic
material is used to rub against a hard metal surface.
The hardness of a material is often established by the surface treatment of the
material and is not always a bulk property of the base material. That is, the surface of steel
and aluminum and many other materials may be chemically or physically hardened to
improve the wear of the part under design.
The ability of a material to be surface hardened varies widely among materials,
with many materials lacking the ability to be surface hardened

412
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

One of the most popular hardness testing methods, Brinell Hardness Number is obtained
using a perfectly spherical hardened steel ball of 10 mm pressed against the test surface
using a static force of 3000 kg (=29.42 kiloNewton) for at least 10 seconds for steel and
measuring the diameters of the indentation left on the surface by means of a graduated
low power microscope. The result is either calculated using a given formula (see at the end
of this section).
The equipment generally consists of a manually operated hydraulic press holding the test
piece on a sturdy table and forcing a properly held ball indenter into the surface while
avoiding impact.
Simple as it looks, it is a precise testing method giving repeatable and meaningful results
but only when applied correctly.
The theory and practice of the method are presented in the most complete way in the
current Standard:
ASTM E 10, Standard Test Method for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials.
This Standard is prepared and maintained by the American Society for Testing and
Materials.
Note: Links to the Sources ASTM and ISO can be found at the end of this publication.
An International standard, issued by ISO – International Standards Organisation, available
on this subject is:
ISO 6506-1 Metallic Materials - Brinell Hardness Test. Part 1
- Test Method
The importance of learning and understanding Standards requirements cannot be
overemphasized.
It is also strongly recommended to study with attention the Operating Manual of the
equipment on hand and to take care of maintenance operations as advised by the
manufacturer.
Brinell Hardness Test is most often applied on iron and steel castings where its usefulness
is most advantageous as the results represents a sort of average surface hardness because
these materials are not uniform on the microscopic scale.
It can also be successfully applied to steel bars and plates, and to normalized forgings, that
is to forgings which were submitted to a homogenizing heat treatment, or to fully heat
treated ones.
Assuming that the surface is representative of sound metal, for ease of reading the
indentation diameters one should have it cleaned from paint, oil or grease, and lightly
ground with abrasive paper (180 grit).
The results obtained, even when the test was performed with utmost care, could be
wrong:

413
 • if the surface is not flat
• if the surface is covered with a thick scale
• if the tested material is too thin (less than 9.6 mm or 3/8 ") so that a mark
appears on the opposite side
• if the tested material is too hard (more than 450 HBS for steel ball or more than
650 HBW for tungsten carbide ball).

The letters HBS stand for Hardness Brinell with Steel ball, (HBW for tungsten carbide ball)
but the qualification should be completed by indicating also the ball diameter (10 mm) and
the applied force (load) (3000 kg).
The complete and meaningful designation is therefore expressed as: 450 HBS10/3000 or
450 HBS10/3000.
Note: ASTM Standardization News of February 2000 announces that in the next future a
change will take place, whereby steel balls for indenters will be substituted by tungsten
carbide balls for all the ranges, in a movement that
will align ASTM E 10 with ISO 6506.
In general one should not attempt to establish a Brinell Hardness Number if the diameter
of the indentation is smaller than 2.4 mm (24%) or larger than 6 mm (60% of a 10 mm
diameter ball).
One of the most useful features of Brinell Hardness Test derives from the observation that
if the ratio of Force F (in kg) to the square of Ball Diameter D (in mm) is kept constant, one
obtains an approximation of the same BHN (Brinell Hardness Number) as measured with
the standard parameters (10 mm ball and 3000 kg).
Therefore, with available equipment of special design, one can use the method with the
following pairs of Force and Ball Diameter for F/D2 = 30:

Force (kg) 3000 750 187,5 30

Ball Diameter(mm) 10 5 2,5 1

The application of these different parameters enlarges the scope of the method for
thinner or more delicate machine elements.
Until now applications were described for ferrous metals.
But the usability is extended to softer materials like copper or aluminum alloys with the
only condition of establishing a different ratio for F/D2, like 15, 5, 2.5, 1.25, 1.
It is evident that, to be understood, the test so performed MUST be qualified with the
indication of force and of ball diameter.
According to the above mentioned ASTM Standard E 10 the following ratios should be
used for the materials indicated:
For hard copper and aluminum alloys : F/ D2 = 15

414
For soft copper and aluminum alloys : F/ D2 = 5
For lead and other soft alloys : any one of the smaller values.
Although most of Brinell testing is performed with machines firmly standing on the floor,
there are a few portable instruments which have proven their usefulness, permitting to
take the test to very large and heavy raw metal parts.
This type of portable instrument performs the regular test and the results are therefore
perfectly acceptable as if they were obtained with the original equipment.
Other instruments though are based upon different physical principles and show a
translation of the value using some correspondence table which at best is approximate:
one should always beware of optimistic affirmations of manufacturers because translated
results from different instruments are generally not accepted as an alternative fulfillment
of contract requirement.

The formula used for calculating Brinell Hardness Number is as follows:

BHN = P/ π * D/2 *( D-SQRT( D2-d2))

where P = test load in kilograms

D = diameter of ball in millimeters
d = diameter of read impression in millimeters (or
average of two readings, mutually perpendicular)
SQRT= Square Root.

VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

Vickers Hardness is a very popular test, which is characterized by a square based diamond
pyramid indenter, exactly ground to a standard form with 136 degrees between opposite
faces and used to leave a mark in metal under a precisely applied force by taking care to
avoid impact: the diagonals of the impression have to be measured using a suitable
microscope and the results are either calculated using a given formula (see at the end of
this section) or looked up in Tables arranged for each of the forces (loads) used.
The theory and practice of the test is most authoritatively exposed in:
ASTM E 92 - Standard test method for Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials An
International standard, issued by ISO - International
Standards Organisation, available on this subject is:
ISO 6507-1 Metallic Materials - Vickers Hardness Test. Part 1 - Test Method
Note: for information on where to find, see at the end of this publication

415
The importance of learning and understanding Standards requirements cannot be
overemphasized.
The values found are designated by HV for Hardness Vickers, followed by the force (load)
in kg, or by DPH which means Diamond Pyramid Hardness and sometimes with the
number of seconds when the load was applied.
Commonly used loads are 5, 10, 30 and 50 kg, but the range can be enlarged if necessary.
In theory the hardness number should be independent of the force used, but in practice,
as differences can be found, one must always report the load used.
It is therefore similar to the Brinell test, but although overlapping, the typical applications
are different: therefore Vickers should not be used for cast iron which has a non uniform
structure, because the impression tends to be small, and unable to give a true average.
The smaller impression requires a smoother surface, to be read accurately.
Vickers hardness is applicable to soft and hard materials, to thick and thin specimens.
There is no danger to deform the indenter during normal operation, but sharp blows must
be avoided because the diamond tip could break and then give erroneous results.
Minimum thickness of at least ten times the depth of the indentation is to be observed,
but it is easier to reduce it, simply by selecting a lighter load. As usual no marks should be
seen on the opposite surface.
Many different types of Vickers hardness testers exist, from different manufacturers. As
with any precision instrument, the equipment should be regularly maintained following
the instructions, and the tip of the pyramid should be examined under a microscope at
regular time intervals.
For completeness we shall note that for testing very thin specimens or layers, (or even
single crystals or phases in a microstructure) a similar method has been standardized
which employs very light forces (loads) (from 1 g to 1 kg).
The theory and practice of this test can be found in:
ASTM E 384 - Standard Test Method for Microhardness of Materials.
It should be understood that these microhardness values cannot be interchanged with
regular Vickers Hardness values and that they do not represent bulk hardness of sizeable
chunks of materials.
The formula used for calculating the Vickers Hardness Number (or Diamond Pyramid
Hardness)

HVP = 1.8544 * P/ d2

where P = force (load) in kilograms

d = diagonal length of the impression in mm (millimeters)
(or, better, average of two readings, mutually perpendicular).

416
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTING

Rockwell Hardness is probably the most used hardness testing method because it is simple
and self contained, so that there is no need for a separate microscope reading. And its
values have a lot of meaning for practicing mechanics.
However, being so sensitive, it may also be prone to give incorrect results if conducted in a
sloppy way without paying due care to all the important details of the procedure.
The theory and practice of Rockwell Testing is most authoritatively exposed in:
ASTM E 18 - Standard Test Method for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell Superficial
Hardness of Metallic Materials.
An International standard, issued by ISO – International Standards Organisation is also
available:
ISO 6508-1 Metallic Materials - Rockwell Hardness Test.
Part 1 - Test Method
Note: for information on where to find, see at the end of this
publication.
The importance of learning and understanding Standards requirements cannot be
overemphasized.
The most striking feature of this method is that it is spread through 30 different scales,
making it one of the most versatile methods, as for any conceivable material and condition
there is certainly one combination of force and indenter applicable to the case.
But even limiting ourselves to the three most used scales, called A, B and C, it can be
affirmed that these are used for most applications.
The indenter is either a "spheroconical" diamond (called "Brale") shaped in conical form,
with an included angle of 120 degrees and with a smoothly rounded tip of 0.2 mm radius,
or a hardened ball of one of a range of different diameters (1/16", 1/8", 1/4", 1/2").
The type of Rockwell hardness (the Scale) defined by a letter establishes the indenter and
the loads applied, except that for Superficial Rockwell one of three loads has to be also
specified.
Performing a Rockwell test consists in:
• putting gently the specimen in contact with the indenter
• applying a preliminary (or minor) force (load) (of 10 kg for normal or 3 kg for
superficial testing)
• automatically or manually zeroing the penetration measuring instrument or dial
gage
• applying gradually the total (or major) force (load) (of 60, 100 or 150 kg for
normal and 15, 30 or 45 kg for superficial testing)
• removing gently the total force (load) while leaving in place the preliminary one
(so that the elastic deformation following the removal of final force (load) is
recovered) and
• measuring the depth of penetration using the instrument

417
 • finally calculating the Rockwell hardness number as the difference between a
fixed value (100 for Brale 130 for ball) and showing it on a dial or on a digital
display.

The Rockwell hardness number is therefore an expression of the depth penetrated by the
indenter between the application of the preliminary force (load) (when the instrument is
zeroed) and the removal of the total force (load), with the preliminary force (load) still in
place (see the expressions at the end of this section).
Because of the nature of Rockwell testing, which essentially measures the vertical
movement of the indenter, any disturbance introducing an error in this measurement
produces a false reading.
Any error of only 0.002 mm in the measurement of the vertical displacement produces an
error of one Rockwell point, in regular test. For superficial test the error needs only be
0.001 mm for one hardness point.
Therefore any minor chip or burr on the underside of the specimen must be eliminated
before testing. It is good practice to discard the first test whenever changing anvil or
indenter, to make sure that any minor disturbance is crushed.
Also the anvil must seat squarely in place with no excess oil, grease or dirt under its
support area. Finally the test piece must be fully supported, no overhanging is admitted: if
necessary an auxiliary support (not a hand) must keep the test piece in place, so that no
movement will occur when applying the final load. This applies also for curved surfaces.
If the indenter comes in contact with the anvil, if it falls or is subject to an occasional
impact, it must not be used before verifying under a microscope that the tip is not cracked
or blunt.
The emplacement of the Rockwell tester must be free from vibrations. No indentation can
be performed twice on the same spot. The minimum thickness of part or test piece is to be
observed, (at least 10 times the depth of the indentation
expected) according to the Standard, and the minimum distance to the edge or between
impressions should again be at least 2.5 or 3 times their size.
The readings are exact for flat specimens. If curved or round specimens are to be tested
there is a correction (dependent on the diameter and on the hardness range) to be applied
as detailed on Tables of the Standard, at least up a diameter of one inch (25.4 mm).
Hardness values are to be reported by writing the number followed by the letters HR for
Hardness Rockwell and affixing the name of the scale used: i.e. 32 HRC.
The same caution as explained above should be used when attempting to find correlations
among different scales, as they must be considered as only approximations.

418
Metallographic test

Metallography is the study of a material’s microstructure. Analysis of a material’s

microstructure aids in determining if the material has been processed correctly and is
therefore a critical step for determining product reliability and for determining why a
material failed. The basic steps for proper metallographic sample preparation include:
documentation, sectioning and cutting, mounting, planar grinding, rough polishing, final
polishing, etching, microscopic analysis and hardness testing

Metallurgical analysis (metallography) of the micro structural provides the Material

Scientist or Metallurgist information varying from phase structure, grain size, solidification
structure, casting voids, etc. Figure below shows an example of two cast iron structures.
Figure 2a shows a cast iron microstructure which has graphite flakes. Over time this
materials will most likely fail under load. On the other hand by adding some solidifying
agents the cast iron can be made to form the more durable graphite nodules (Figure
below). Figure below shows the grain size of a tough pitch copper. Analysis of a materials
grain size provides valuable information regarding a materials physical hardness and
ductility. Micro structural analysis can also provide very useful information about the types
of phases that occur during cooling. Figure below shows the dendritic growth of the
microstructure for an aluminum-silicon alloy which formed during solidification. The
direction and size of these dendrites again relate to the materials strength and durability.

419
Scanning transmission electron microscope, used in metallography.

Microscopic Analysis

Bright Field (B.F.) illumination is the most common illumination technique

for metallographic analysis. The light path for B.F. illumination is from the source, through the
objective, reflected off the surface and returning through the objective and back to the eyepiece or
camera. This type of illumination produces a bright background for flat surfaces with the non-flat
features (pores, edges, etched grain boundaries) being darker as light is reflected back at an angle.

Field (D.F.) illumination is a lesser knows illumination but powerful illumination

technique. The light path for D.F. illumination is from the source, down the outside of the
objective, reflected off the surface and returning through the objective and back to the eyepiece or
camera. This type of illumination produces a dark background for flat surfaces with the non-flat
features (pores, edges, etched grain boundaries) being brighter as light is reflected at an angle back
into the objective.

420
D i f f e r e n t i a l I n t e r f e r e n c e C o n t r a c t ( D I C ) - is a very useful illumination
technique for providing enhanced specimen features. DIC uses a normarski prism along with a
polarizer in the 90° crossed positions. The two light beams are made to coincide at the focal plane
of the objective, thus rendering height differences visible as variations in color.

O p t i c a l I n t e r f e r o m e t r y - is a technique that provides precise details of a materials

surface topography. The simplest interferometer employs the interference between two beams of
light. One beam is focused on the specimen and the second beam on an optically flat reference
surface. The two reflected beams are then recombined by the beam splitter and pass through the
eyepiece together. The two beams reinforce each other for those points on the specimen for which
their path lengths are either the same of differ by an integral multiple of the wave length, nλ. The
beams cancel for path differences of nλ /2. Today's interferometers provide quantitative 3-
dimensional surface topography information.

The two most common optical interferometry techniques include - phase shifting interferometry
(PSI) which uses a PZT to shift the optical path of the objective and vertical scanning interferometry
(VSI) which changes the focus range of the objective. The main differences between PSI and VSI are
that PSI has a higher z-axis resolution, whereas VSI has a larger scan range. PSI and VSI can also
be combined to provide both high surface resolution and a larger scan range.

A t o m i c F o r c e M i c r o s c o p y ( A F M ) - Is a non-optical technique that provides

angstrom level surface profiling information. AFM's are very powerful tools and can be provide
electrochemical, magnetic, and other surface feature information.

421
7. Engineering processes used in construction and repair

Moreover, there are several agencies around the world that provide services for marine
engine repairs, which cannot be done by marine engineers on board the ship due lack of
special equipments and manpower. Some examples of heavy maintenance of marine
engine repairs are metal stitching or metal locking, recondition of piston, honing of liners
etc.

When we talk about marine engine repairs, they not just include maintenance and
repair work on the mechanical parts of the engines but also include repairs on various
electrical equipments as well. Thus, marine engine repair is categorized in two parts –
electrical and mechanical.

For an effective performance of the marine engine and in order to prevent breakdown of
the same proper procedures are to be followed as described in the manuals. Marine
engine repairs have to be done at specific running hours as described in the planned
maintenance system of the ship.

On board ship there is a team of marine engineers or marine mechanics, along with crew
ratings such as motorman, oiler, fitter, etc. to carry out the work of marine engine repairs.

The team of engineers includes chief engineer, second engineer, third engineer and fourth
engineer. Chief and second engineer are management level officers, whereas third and
fourth engineers are operational level engineers.

The chief engineer looks after different surveys that are to be carried out on the marine
engine and also plans out when they are to be carried out. The second engineer plans the
marine engine repair work that is pending or scheduled to be due soon.

The second engineer also looks after main engine and different pumps in the engine room.
The fourth engineer looks after the repairs of compressors and purifiers whereas third
engineer looks after theboiler and auxiliary engines along with the help of crew ratings.

For electrical equipments the repairs are carried out by a separate dedicated electrical
engineer, who looks after various motors, batteries, print card electronics etc.

422
Important Points for Marine Engine Repair

For marine engine repair, the most important thing is to make available several sets of
spare parts on board the ship. If there is a shortage of any of these parts, then they need
to be ordered by the respective engineer, who is looking after the particular machinery.
Some special considerations also need to be given to emergency, safety and life saving
equipments.

Marine engineer also have to make sure that all the equipments are working fine without
any problem. External agencies such as port state control and flag state will detain the ship
if equipments like emergency generator, life boat engine, and fire fighting system are not
working properly. The agencies may fine the ship heavily for these abnormalities.

For this reason, proper checks and routine schedule have to be maintained to avoid
unwanted circumstances related to marine engines on board a ship.

8. Casting

The Forming section pertained to methods of getting metal into a usable form using solid-
state techniques. Another option to obtain components is by solidifying metal in the
desired shape. Casting technologies are varied for the many melting point materials that
are used. The simplest use of casting is to form ingots that are subsequently shaped by
forming processes. These castings can be very large, on the order of tons. Continuous
casting is used in steel mills to form large, thick, flat slabs which are subsequently rolled
into plate, sheet, and other simple shapes. These casting methodologies do not produce a
final shape for use, rather, they produce raw material for other processing.
Some methods of producing final shapes through casting are sand molding, die
casting, and investment casting.
In sand molding, carefully prepared molding sand containing a binder, which may be clay,
is mixed with water.
This mixture generates a material that has some strength to be molded. The sand is then
either sculpted or molded into the desired shape. If it is molded, then a pattern must be
fabricated.
The pattern may be made of plastic, wood, or metal, depending on the number of pieces
that will be cast.
The pattern must have some draft or taper to allow it to be removed from the sand. Spes,
downspouts for the incoming metal, runners, channels to contain the molten metal, and
gates to lead it into the die cavity must be cut into the sand or can be included in the mold.
Internal passages can be formed by the use of cores.
Molten metal is poured into the cavity and allowed to solidify.

423
The final product of a sand mold will have a coarse surface finish that depends on the size
and texture of the sand used for molding. Often, castings will have pores and other defects
that may make them unusable as is. They can be either repaired (welded) or scrapped.
Die casting (or pressure die casting) uses a permanent mold of tool steel or other
high melting point alloy and injects molten metal into the cavity. The die may have water
cooling to prevent its melting. The surface finish of a die cast is better than a sand cast
part. Since the cooling rate is faster, a finer structure is produced.
Die casting is useful for making zinc, aluminum, and cop per parts. The difficulty in
producing quality parts increases with increased melting point, and metals with higher
melting points than copper cannot be die cast. Many of the parts that are die cast can be
produced more cheaply out of plastic and are being replaced by plastics.
Investment casting uses a sacrificial wax or plastic pattern that has all of the
features of the finished part. The gates and sprue may be directly molded or attached by
wax "welding."
The mold, for a shell type casting, is made by assembling all of the components and then
dipping the wax or plastic pattern in slurry of fine silica. Two or three slurry coats are
applied, and then several layers of coarse slurry are used to give the shell strength. The
wax is then melted out, the shell fired to eliminate all of the traces of the pattern and to
strengthen the mold and the molten metal poured into the mold. The metal solidifies and
the shell is broken off.
Internal passages and other product features can be incorporated into the casting
using cores. Excellent surface finish and dimensional control can be obtained. Complex
turbine blades can be manufactured with this method. It is more expensive than other
casting technologies.
A specialized form of investment casting is used to make single crystal and
directionally solidified pieces.
With these technologies, which are very important for materials that require long stress
rupture and creep properties, the heat is preferentially extracted in a single direction. This
promotes the growth of a single grain or a single grain orientation.
The grain orientation selected depends on the crystal anisotropy and the property most
important for the application.

424
425
9. Forming

Metals can be shaped by a number of processes which include machining and plastic
deformation. This section will briefly address metal shaping by plastic deformation. Plastic
deformation is the application of force to change the shape of a material. Some of the
more common types of plastic deformation are shown in Figure below.

Five common metal forming methods

Most of these methods can be used either hot or cold; extrusion is done hot. When used
cold, these forming processes can increase strength with a resultant reduction in ductility,
as shown schematically in Figure below. When used hot, these processes can close off
porosity from the casting stage.
In some cases the forming methods used can be primary, to rough a piece to near net
shape, or secondary, to produce a finished part. Forging can produce simple pancakes or
complex parts. It may require several intermediate dies and heat treatments to produce
very complex parts. Rolling is used to produce flat plate, strip, and foil. Wire drawing, as
the name implies, is used for wires. Tubes can also be drawn by including a plug in the die
set-up. Extrusions are made of low melting point alloys, aluminum, copper, and lead
because of the high forces needed to push the metal through the die and the high
temperatures required to decrease the material strength. Deep drawing is used to form
thin sections like doorknobs and beverage cans.

426
Influence of cold work on the ductility and strength of a metal

10. Forging

This is the working and shaping of hot metal by mechanical or hand processes with tools
called swages. During the process the coarse, as cast, structure of the metal is broken
down to form a finer-grained structure with the impurities distributed into a fibrous form.
Items that are forged include connecting rods, crankshafts, upset ends of shafts and boiler
stays, etc.

Forged steel
This is an iron-carbon alloy with 0,15 to 0,5% carbon content.
Properties:
-malleable
-high tensile strength also at high temperatures
-ductile
-machine able
-coarse moulding which requires machining operation after casting

Today, generally used for the cylinder heads of crosshead engines due to the mechanical
and thermal load increases.
Crankshafts for all types of engines, connecting rods, piston rods and cam shaft
components also are made of this material.

11. Welding

Welding processes may be divided into two main groups, pressure welding and non
pressure welding.
Any welding process which requires pressure is generally referred to as a forge
welding process and these processes do not usually require a filler metal or flux. The parts
to be welded however, should be clean and free from grease, etc.

427
 The oldest form of forge welding is blacksmiths forge welding. The process consists
of heating the metal components to be welded in a blacksmiths fire until the parts to be
united are plastic, then the parts of the components are removed from the heat source
and hammered together to form a union.
Resistance welding is another forge welding process, current and pressure are
supplied to the parts being welded but no finer metal or nux is required. The heat which is
generated in order to form the weld depends upon (1) the square of the current supplied
(2) the metal to be welded and the contact resistance (3) the time of application of current
and pressure. Examples of resistance welding are: studs welded to decks or to boiler tubes
in Water tube boiler.
Welding processes which do not require any pressure are often referred to as
fusion welding processes. Fusion welding processes require a filler metal and often a flux is
used. The most popular and most convenient form of fusion welding is the electric arc
welding process, sometimes called the metal arc welding process.

Electric Arc welding

In this process an electric arc is struck between the electrode, which may serve as the filler
metal, and the metal to be welded.
The heat which is generated causes the electrode to melt and the molten metal is
transferred from the electrode to the plate.

If the electrode is bare, the arc tends to wander and is therefore difficult to control.
Also, the arc stream is open to contamination from the atmosphere and these results in a
porous brittle weld. To avoid these defects, flux coated electrodes are
generally used.
The flux coating melts at a higher temperature than the electrode metal core thus
the coating protrudes beyond the core during welding. This gives better stability, control
and concentration of the arc. The coating also shields the arc and the molten metal pool
from the atmosphere by means of the inert gases given off as it vaporises.
Silicates, formed from the coating, form a slag upon the surface of the hot metal
and this protects the hot metal from the atmosphere as it cools; Also due to the larger
contraction of the slag than the metal as cooling is taking place, the slag is easily removed.
Electric arc welding may be done using d.c. or a.c. supply.
About 50 open circuit volts are required to strike the arc when d.c. is used, and about 80
volts when a.c. is used.

428
 A.C. supply is usually more popular than d.c. for the following reasons.
(I) More compact plant.
(2) Less plant maintenance required.
(3) Higher efficiency than d.c. plant.
(4) Initial cost is less for similar capacity plants.

Disadvantages of a.c. supply are:

(1) Higher voltage is used, hence greater shock risk.
(2) More difficult to weld cast iron and non-ferrous metals

Fig. below gives an indication of the ideal weld and also some of the imperfections that
may occur on the surface or internally to the weld and adjacent metal.
The defects are generally due to mal-operation of the welding equipment and for this
reason welders should be tested regularly and their welding examined for defects.

429
TYPICAL ‘ V’ AND ‘U’ BUTT PREPARATION FOR WELDING

Downhand welding
A preferable terminology is 'flat position welding', it is welding from the upper side of joint
where the face of the weld is approximately horizontal.

Heal Affected Zone

In welding or brazing it is that part of the base metal which has had its microstructure and
mechanical properties altered but it has not been melted.

Difference between welding, brazing and soldering.

Welding: filler metal used has a melting point at or slightly

below that of the base metal.
Brazing: filler used has a melting point above SOO°C (approx)
but below that of the base metal.
Soldering: filler metal used has a melting point below 500°C.

Brazing and Soldering processes are similar in that the filler

metal must (1) wet the parent metal (2) be drawn into the joint
by capillary action. Brazing filler metals are alloys of copper,
nickel, silver and aluminium. Soldering filler metals are lead &
tin or aluminium & zinc alloys.
A flux is used to dissolve or remove oxides, in the case of
brazing, borax is used, for soldering; resin in petroleum spirit.

430
12.Common repair techniques.

Repair and maintenance of modern, highly charged diesel engines require expert
knowledge
Mechanical, thermal and chemical factors cause engines to become worn. The worn parts
must be replaced by new ones or reconditioned within a certain time span.
Several examples of parts that require replacement
are:
 cylinder heads, especially the exhaust valves;
 pistons and piston rings;
 cylinder liners;
 shafts en shaft bearings;
 super-charging groups
 pumps;
 governors;
 starring motors;
 fuel pumps and injectors.

Engine manufacturers provide specifications with regard re the normal life of the various
parts, and the engine proprietors or operators put together a maintenance plan based on
this information.
Regular maintenance is performed at the most favorable time in shipping: during dry-
docking, surveys or while the ship is in port.

After cleaning, inlet and exhaust valves are inspected for hair-cracks and the dimensions
are checked.

431
 A valve grinding machine

This machine enables the valve seat to be reconditioned using a chisel.

432
Valve seats are cooled In liquid nitrogen to a temperature of 180 °C below zero to facilitate
mounting in the cylinder heads

Pistons made from two parts, as is the case in medium-speed engines, are taken apart,
cleaned, measured and, if necessary, repaIred

433
Grinding a large crankshaft

Honing the pump cylinder

434
A blade-attachment system of the exhaust-gas turbine on the turbine wheel

Arc welding the bottom of a piston

435
Arc welding the bottom of a large piston. The side has been removed and will be rewelded.
Subsequently the new piston-ring grooves are restored.

After arc welding, the piston is machined to restore its original dimensions

436
Tears in a welded A-frame of a two-stroke crosshead engine

Arc welding visualised

437
An oven to anneal the welded parts. Here two piston crowns.
After heating, the welded parts are allowed to cool gradually. The stresses Introduced by
welding are hereby released to a large extent.

[1]References and Further Reading

1)Pounder’s Marine Diesel Enginess & Gas Turbine Edited by
Doug Woodyard
2) Engineers Databook-Fourth Edition by Clifford Matthews- A John Wiley & Sons, Publications.
3) Nondestructive Test Methods by Nicholas J. Carino
Research structural engineer in the Structures Division at the National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Gaithersburg.
4) Independent Metallurgist and Consultant to the Thermal Spray Coating Instustry – Cordon
England
5) Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook Third edition - Materials and Mechanical Design Edited by
Myer Kutz. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
6) Diesel Engines for Ship propulsion and Power Plants by Kees Kuiken

438
Bibliography
http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/che/motazali/files/Thermodynamics/

http://www.freestudy.co.uk/d225/t3.pdf
http://www.ewp.rpi.edu/hartford/users/papers/engr/ernesto/poworp/Project/4.%20Supporting_
Material/Books/32669_04.pdf

http://www.amazon.com/Reeds-Vol-Applied-Mechanics-Professional/dp/0713672587

http://www.wondershare.com/download.html?download_url=http://download.wondershare.com
/pdf-to-word_full417.exe

https://books.google.gr/books?id=hpmA4Ch2bfwC&pg=PP14&lpg=PP14&dq=Reciprocating+engin
e+crank+effort&source=bl&ots=OwhtN0nLeP&sig=AghSEtdxsLqmPF3K9-
gpEdOugRM&hl=el&sa=X&ei=QU2gVKG3JYbvUq3ygZgL&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=helic
al%20springs&f=false

http://www.onlineocr.net/

http://marine.man.eu/docs/librariesprovider6/propeller-aftship/basic-principles-of-
propulsion.pdf?sfvrsn=0

http://issuu.com/bloomsburypublishing/docs/reeds_vol_12

439
Bibliography
References and Further Reading Part A
1) Joel, R. (1987). Basic Engineering Thermodynamics, Longman.
2) Embleton, W. and L. Jackson (2003). Reeds Vol 3: Applied Heat, Bloomsbury Academic.
3) RATHAKRISHNAN, E. (2005). FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS, PHI
Learning.

References and Further Reading Part B

1)Pounder’s Marine Diesel Enginess & Gas Turbine Edited by Doug Woodyard
2) Introduction to Marine Engineering, Second Edition by D. A. Taylor, MSc, BSc, CENG,
FIMarE, FRINA Marine Consultant, Harbour Craft Services Ltd, Hong Kong Formerly
Senior Lecturer in Marine Technology, Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
3)Gas Turbine handbook – Principles and Practices 3rd Edition by Tony Giampaolo,
MSME, PE

References and Further Reading Part C

1)Pounder’s Marine Diesel Enginess & Gas Turbine Edited by Doug Woodyard
2) Engineers Databook-Fourth Edition by Clifford Matthews- A John Wiley & Sons,
Publications.
3) Nondestructive Test Methods by Nicholas J. Carino
Research structural engineer in the Structures Division at the National Institute of
Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg.
4) Diesel Engines for Ship propulsion and Power Plants by Kees Kuiken
5) Handbook of Diesel Engines Editors Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Mollenhauer.
6) Introduction to Marine Engineering, Second Edition by D. A. Taylor, MSc, BSc, CENG,
FIMarE, FRINA Marine Consultant, Harbour Craft Services Ltd, Hong Kong Formerly Senior
Lecturer in Marine Technology, Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
7) MAN B&W S50MC-C7 Project Guide Camshaft Controlled Two-stroke Engines.
8)MAN – service Experience – Two –Stroke Engines.
9)ΜΑΝ-Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion.
10) Ito, M., Development of Mitsubishi High Efficiency Marine Propulsion Plant (Ultra Steam
Turbine), KANRIN (Bulletin of The Japan Society of Naval Architects and Ocean Engineers) Vol. 12
(2007) p.43
11) MARINE STEAM POWER PLANT HEAT BALANCE by Steven A. Gelardi
12)Pounder’s Marine Diesel Enginess & Gas Turbine Edited by Doug Woodyard
13) Introduction to Marine Engineering, Second Edition by D. A. Taylor, MSc, BSc, CENG,
FIMarE, FRINA Marine Consultant, Harbour Craft Services Ltd, Hong Kong Formerly Senior
Lecturer in Marine Technology, Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
14)Gas Turbine handbook – Principles and Practices 3rd Edition by Tony Giampaolo, MSME,
PE

[1]References and Further Reading Part D

1) Flanagan, G. T. H. (2013). Marine Boilers, Elsevier Science.

440
2) Morton, T. D. (2003). Reeds Vol 9: Steam Engineering Knowledge, Bloomsbury
Academic.
3) Steam Boiler Operation by James J.Jackson,Prentice-Hall Inc,New Jersey, 1980.
4) Boilers by Carl D.Shields, McGraw Hill Book Company,U.S, 1961.
5) Industrial Heat Generation and Distribution -NIFES Training Manual Issued For CEC – India
Energy Bus Project
6) Industrial Boilers by David Gunn and Robert Horton, Longman Scientific & Technical, New
York

[1]References and Further Reading Part E

1) Dossat, R. J. and T. J. Horan (2002). Principles of Refrigeration, Prentice Hall.
2) Harbach, J. A. (2005). Marine Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, Cornell Maritime Press.
3) Hundy, G. H., A. R. Trott, et al. (2008). Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning, Elsevier
Science.

[1]References and Further Reading Part F

1)Pounder’s Marine Diesel Enginess & Gas Turbine Edited by Doug Woodyard
2) Engineers Databook-Fourth Edition by Clifford Matthews- A John Wiley & Sons,
Publications.
3) Nondestructive Test Methods by Nicholas J. Carino
Research structural engineer in the Structures Division at the National Institute of
Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg.
4) Diesel Engines for Ship propulsion and Power Plants by Kees Kuiken
5) Handbook of Diesel Engines Editors Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Mollenhauer

[1]References and Further Reading Part G

[1]References and Further Reading
1)Pounder’s Marine Diesel Enginess & Gas Turbine Edited by
Doug Woodyard
2) Engineers Databook-Fourth Edition by Clifford Matthews- A John Wiley & Sons, Publications.
3) Nondestructive Test Methods by Nicholas J. Carino
Research structural engineer in the Structures Division at the National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Gaithersburg.
4) Independent Metallurgist and Consultant to the Thermal Spray Coating Instustry – Cordon
England
5) Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook Third edition - Materials and Mechanical Design Edited by
Myer Kutz. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
6) Diesel Engines for Ship propulsion and Power Plants by Kees Kuiken

Bibliography
http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/che/motazali/files/Thermodynamics/

http://www.freestudy.co.uk/d225/t3.pdf
http://www.ewp.rpi.edu/hartford/users/papers/engr/ernesto/poworp/Project/4.%20Supporting_
Material/Books/32669_04.pdf

http://www.amazon.com/Reeds-Vol-Applied-Mechanics-Professional/dp/0713672587

441
http://www.wondershare.com/download.html?download_url=http://download.wondershare.com
/pdf-to-word_full417.exe

https://books.google.gr/books?id=hpmA4Ch2bfwC&pg=PP14&lpg=PP14&dq=Reciprocating+engin
e+crank+effort&source=bl&ots=OwhtN0nLeP&sig=AghSEtdxsLqmPF3K9-
gpEdOugRM&hl=el&sa=X&ei=QU2gVKG3JYbvUq3ygZgL&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=helic
al%20springs&f=false

http://www.onlineocr.net/

http://marine.man.eu/docs/librariesprovider6/propeller-aftship/basic-principles-of-
propulsion.pdf?sfvrsn=0

http://issuu.com/bloomsburypublishing/docs/reeds_vol_12

■ Teaching aids (A)

The list of teaching aids and references are recommendations only and are intended to
support the learning outcomes of the course.

A2 Ship’s Drawings/Plan (GA, Shell expansion, Deck plan and Mid section)

IMO/ILO/WHO references (R)

CHECKS SHOULD BE MADE THAT THESE ARE THE LATEST EDITIONS AVAILABLE

R1 SOLAS (Consolidated Edition, 2009) Code IE110E ISBN 978-92-801-150

R2 ILO/IMO/WHO INTERNATIONAL MEDICAL GUIDE FOR SHIPS (3rd Edition) Code
I115E ISBN 978-92-415-47208
R3 INTERNATIONAL SHIP AND PORT FACILITY SECURITY CODE (ISPS Code) (2003
Edition) Code I116E ISBN 978-92-801-51497
R4 INTERNATIONAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT CODE (ISM Code) AND GUIDELINES ON
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ISM CODE (2010 Edition) Code IB117E ISBN 978-92-
801-51510
R5 CODE OF THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS AND RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
FOR A SAFETY INVESTIGATION INTO A MARINE CASUALTY OR MARINE INCIDENT
(Casualty Investigation Code) (2008 Edition) Code I128E ISBN 978-92-801-14980
R6 INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR FIRE SAFETY SYSTEMS (FSS Code) (2007 Edition)
Code IA155E ISBN 978-92-801-14812
R7 INTERNATIONAL CODE OF SAFETY FOR HIGH-SPEED CRAFT, 2000 (2000 HSC
Code) (2008 Edition) Code IA185E ISBN 978-92-801-42402
R8 INTERNATIONAL MARITIME DANGEROUS GOODS CODE (IMDG Code) 2008 Edition
(incorporating amendment 34-08) Code IG200E ISBN 978-92-801-42419
R9 GUIDELINES ON THE ENHANCED PROGRAMME OF INSPECTIONS DURING
SURVEYS OF BULK CARRIERS AND OIL TANKERS (2008 Edition) Code IA265E ISBN
978-92-801-14966
R10 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION FOR SAFE CONTAINERS, 1972 (CSC 1972) (1996
Edition) Code IA282E ISBN 978-92-801-14119
R11 CONVENTION ON FACILITATION OF INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRAFFIC, 1965
(FAL 1965) (2006 Edition) Code IB350E ISBN 978-92-801-14676

R12 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION RELATING TO INTERVENTION ON THE HIGH SEAS

442
IN CASES OF OIL POLLUTION CASUALTIES (Intervention), 1969 (1977 Edition) Code
I402E ISBN 978-92-801-10708
R13 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON CIVIL LIABILITY FOR OIL POLLUTION DAMAGE,
1969 (CLC 1969) (1977 Edition) Code I410E ISBN 978-92-801-10713
R14 CONFERENCE ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN INTERNATIONAL COMPENSATION
FUND FOR OIL POLLUTION DAMAGE, 1971 (1972 Edition) Code I420B (E/F) ISBN
978-92-801-11965
R15 OFFICIAL RECORDS OF THE CONFERENCE ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN
INTERNATIONAL COMPENSATION FUND FOR OIL POLLUTION DAMAGE, 1971
(2011 Edition) Code I423E ISBN 978-92-801-10760
R16 INTERNATIONAL LEGAL CONFERENCE ON MARITIME CARRIAGE OF NUCLEAR
SUBSTANCES, 1971 (1972 Edition) Code I429B (E/F) ISBN 978-92-801-00174
R17 ATHENS CONVENTION RELATING TO THE CARRIAGE OF PASSENGERS AND
THEIR LUGGAGE BY SEA, 1974 (PAL 1974) (2003 Edition) Code IA436E ISBN 978-
92-801-41610
R18 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LIMITATION OF LIABILITY FOR MARITIME
CLAIMS, 1976 (2007 Edition) Code IA444E ISBN 978-92-801-14768
R19 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SALVAGE, 1989 (1989 Edition) Code I450E ISBN
978-92-801-12511
R20 OFFICIAL RECORDS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LIMITATION OF
LIABILITY FOR MARITIME CLAIMS, 1976 (1983 Edition) Code I448E ISBN 978-92-
801-11569
R21 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THE SUPPRESSION OF UNLAWFUL ACTS
AGAINST THE SAFETY OF MARITIME NAVIGATION, 1988 (2006 Edition) Code IA462E
ISBN 978-92-801-42297
R22 CIVIL LIABILITY FOR OIL POLLUTION DAMAGE (1996 Edition) Code I473E ISBN
978-92-801-13310
R23 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON LIABILITY AND COMPENSATION FOR
DAMAGE IN CONNECTION WITH THE CARRIAGE OF HAZARDOUS AND NOXIOUS
SUBSTANCES BY SEA, 1996 (HNS Convention) (2010 Edition) Code I479E ISBN 978-
92-801-14508
R24 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON CIVIL LIABILITY FOR BUNKER OIL POLLUTION
DAMAGE, 2001 (2004 Edition) Code I490M ISBN 978-92-801-00327
R25 MARPOL (Consolidated Edition, 2006) Code IC520E ISBN 978-92-801-42167
R26 MARPOL – HOW TO DO IT (2002 Edition) Code IA636E ISBN 978-92-801-41528
R27 POLLUTION PREVENTION EQUIPMENT UNDER MARPOL (2006 Edition) Code
IA646E ISBN 978-92-801-14706
R28 CONDITION ASSESSMENT SCHEME (CAS) (2006 Edition) Code I530E ISBN 978-92-
801-42075
R29 GUIDELINES FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ANNEX V OF MARPOL (2006 Edition)
Code IA656E ISBN 978-92-801-42235
R30 PROVISIONS CONCERNING THE REPORTING OF INCIDENTS INVOLVING
HARMFUL SUBSTANCES UNDER MARPOL (1999 Edition) Code IA516E ISBN 978-
92-801-60987
R31 LONDON CONVENTION 1972 AND 1996 PROTOCOL (2003 Edition) Code IA532E
ISBN 978-92-801-41559
R32 GUIDELINES ON THE CONVENTION ON THE PREVENTION OF MARINE POLLUTION
BY DUMPING OF WASTES AND OTHER MATTER, 1972 (2006 Edition) Code I531E
ISBN 978-92-801-51503

R33 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON OIL POLLUTION PREPAREDNESS, RESPONSE

AND CO-OPERATION, 1990 (OPRC) (1991 Edition) Code I550E ISBN 978-92-801-

443
12672
R34 OPRC-HNS PROTOCOL 2000 (2002 Edition) Code I556E ISBN 978-92-801-51367
R35 IMO/UNEP GUIDELINES ON OIL SPILL DISPERSANT APPLICATION INCLUDING
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS (1995 Edition) Code IA575E ISBN 978-92-
801-13327
R37 GUIDELINES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHIPBOARD MARINE POLLUTION
EMERGENCY PLANS (2010 Edition) Code IB586E ISBN 978-92-801-15185
R38 CRUDE OIL WASHING SYSTEMS (2000 Edition) Code IA617E ISBN 978-92-801-
50940
R39 BALLAST WATER MANAGEMENT CONVENTION (2004 Edition) Code I620M ISBN
978-92-801-00334
R40 BALLAST WATER MANAGEMENT CONVENTION AND THE GUIDELINES FOR ITS
IMPLEMENTATION (2009 Edition) Code I621E ISBN 978-92-801-15031
R42 PROCEDURES FOR PORT STATE CONTROL (2000 Edition) Code IA650E ISBN 978-
92-801-50995
R43 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE CONTROL OF HARMFUL ANTI-FOULING
SYSTEMS (AFS) ON SHIPS, 2001 (2005 Edition) Code IA680E ISBN 978-92-801-
41955
R44 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LOAD LINES, 1966 (2005 Edition) Code IB701E
ISBN 978-92-801-41948
R45 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON TONNAGE MEASUREMENT OF SHIPS, 1969
(1970 Edition) Code I713E ISBN 978-92-801-10906
R46 INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF SHIPS
CARRYING DANGEROUS CHEMICALS IN BULK (IBC Code) (2007 Edition) Code
IC100E ISBN 978-92-801-42266
R47 CODE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF SHIPS CARRYING
DANGEROUS CHEMICALS IN BULK (BCH Code) (2009 Edition) Code IC772E ISBN
978-92-801-15093
R48 INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF SHIPS
CARRYING LIQUEFIED GASES IN BULK (IGC Code) (1993 Edition) Code I104E ISBN
978-92-801-12771
R49 CODE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF SHIPS CARRYING
LIQUEFIED GASES IN BULK (GC Code) (1983 Edition) Code I782E ISBN 978-92-801- 11651
R50 NOISE LEVELS ON BOARD SHIPS (1982 Edition) Code I814E ISBN 978-92-801-
11347
R51 INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR APPLICATION OF FIRE TEST PROCEDURES (FTP
Code) (1998 Edition) Code IB844E ISBN 978-92-801-145
R52 GUIDELINES ON SURVEYS REQUIRED BY THE 1978 SOLAS PROTOCOL, THE IBC
CODE AND THE IGC CODE (1987 Edition) Code I858E ISBN 978-92-801-12221
R53 CODE ON ALARMS AND INDICATORS, 1995 (1996 Edition) Code IA867E ISBN 978-
92-801-14218

R54 INTERNATIONAL CODE ON INTACT STABILITY, 2008 (2009 Edition) Code IB874E
ISBN 978-92-801-15062
R55 PREVENTION OF CORROSION ON BOARD SHIPS (2010 Edition) Code I877M ISBN
978-92-801-00358
R56 CONVENTION ON THE INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS FOR PREVENTING
COLLISIONS AT SEA, 1972 (COLREG 1972) (Consolidated Edition 2003) Code IB904E
ISBN 978-92-801-41672
R57 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON STANDARDS OF TRAINING, CERTIFICATION
AND WATCHKEEPING FOR SEAFARERS, 1978 (STCW 1978) (2001 Edition) Code
IB938E ISBN 978-92-801-51084

444
R58 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON SEARCH AND RESCUE, 1979 (SAR 1979) (2006
Edition) Code IB955E ISBN 978-92-801-52067
R59 GUIDELINES ON FATIGUE (2002 Edition) Code I968E ISBN 978-92-801-51282
R60 IMO/ILO GUIDELI ES FOR THE DEVELOPME T OF TABLES OF SEAFARERS’
SHIPBOARD WORKING ARRANGEMENTS AND FORMATS OF RECORDS OF
SEAFARERS’ HOURS OF WORK OR HOURS OF REST (1999 Edition) Code I973E
ISBN 978-92-801-60956
R61 INTERNATIONAL LIFE-SAVING APPLIANCES CODE (LSA Code) (2010 edition) Code
ID982E ISBN 978-92-801-15079
R62 ASSEMBLY RESOLUTIONS on CD, Version 9 (2010) Code D026E ISBN 978-92-801-
70320
R63 INTERNATIONAL HEALTH REGULATIONS (2005). SECOND EDITION (GENEVA,
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, 2008), ISBN 9789241580410
R64 COMPENDIUM OF MARITIME LABOUR INSTRUMENTS (2006 EDITION)
(INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE, GENEVA) ISBN 978-92-2-120612-5

445