Modeling Kiln Operation

Chapter 10.
2 1275
Modeling in Cement
Kiln Operations
by Georg Locher* and Martin Schneider*
Mathematical modeling of production processes is already far advanced in many branches of

industry, but so far very few approaches exist for the clinker burning process during kiln opera-
tions in cement industry. An important reason for this is the complexity of the heat transfer about
which comparatively little is known, and which takes place simultaneously with chemical, physical,
and mineralogical reactions. Operational measurements to investigate the processes are compli-
cated and in many cases not yet technically possible. In particular, this includes measurement of
the heat transfer in rotary kilns and calciners, and of the heat transfer between gas and kiln feed in
the individual cyclone stages as well as between cooling air and clinker in the grate cooler.
•
Q WU
Coating
•
Q GW
• Brickwork
Q WS,G
•
Q G S Steel
•
•
Q S,G Q S,W
•
Q WS,W Kiln feed
Figure 10.2.1. Heat flow within a segment of a rotary kiln.
*Verein Deutscher Zementwerke, Tannenstraße 2, 40476 Düsseldorf, Germany, +49 (211) 4578-336
1276 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing
Nevertheless, many of the phenomena relevant to the clinker burning process have been investi-
gated individually in detail. These include, for example, calcination, clinker phase formation,
combustion of fuels, and heat transfer in packed beds. These processes are now sufficiently well
understood to be able to develop mathematical expressions and compare their results with practi-
cal measurements. They can be combined to form a complete model so that the interactions
between plant sections and individual reactions can also be taken into account.
The model described here includes the phenomena from the entry of kiln feed to the discharge of
clinker from the cooler, and covers process engineering, material, and thermal phenomena. The
emphasis is on the interactions between the processes, which is why the modeling of the individual
plant components is kept simple at first. An example of mathematical modeling based on heat flow
between kiln feed and gas in a segmented rotary kiln is shown in Figure 10.2.1. In many cases it can
be refined, but this would lead to unacceptably long calculation times. At present it takes 15 to 30
minutes (Pentium III, 800 MHz, Windows NT) for calculating the steady-state condition for a
complete plant consisting of preheater, calciner, bypass, kiln, and cooler –with the result that it is
still possible to carry out calculation studies with parameter variations.
It is not the aim of the work introduced below to adapt the model empirically to measured data.
The results so far show that this would certainly be possible with a few additional parameters. The
intention is rather to investigate the extent to which the current understanding of the process is
appropriate and complete. A comparison between calculation and measurement indicates that
deviations can generally be attributed to phenomena which were not adequately taken into
account during the modeling. Against this background a gain in understanding can be expected
only when the corresponding differences are worked out and explained, and are not obscured by
parameters that have no reference to the phenomena in the process.
An important aim of the work is use of the calculations to optimize the clinker burning process.
This relates, for example, to a changed mode of operation of the plant, the use of secondary mate-
rials, plant modifications, and measures to increase efficiency. The best possible agreement
between the model and reality is an essential precondition.
BACKGROUND AND PREVIOUS WORK

Cyclone Preheaters
Cyclone preheaters in the cement industry operate on a principle which can be described as a
combination of co-current and counter-current heat exchange. The kiln feed is fed into the gas
duct of one stage, entrained by the gas during which it is heated, and finally collected in the
cyclone. It then drops into the gas duct of the next lower stage, is heated further by the gas, and is
collected again. As a consequence, there is co-current transmission of the heat in each individual
stage, but the preheater as a whole can be regarded as a counter-current heat exchanger.
Modeling in Cement Kiln Operations 1277
The effectiveness of a preheater can be considered against this background. In principle, a greater
quantity of heat can be transmitted from the gas to the kiln feed in counter-current than in co-
current. The attempt is made to achieve this in practice by using a large number of cyclones. It is
also important that these cyclones separate the kiln feed and gas as efficiently as possible, as heat is
carried in co-current with any kiln feed which has not been collected and, as a result, acts against
the counter-current principle. The flow regime in the gas ducts and cyclones as well as the wall
heat losses also influence the effectiveness of preheaters. Wall heat losses result in a direct reduc-
tion in the quantity of heat which can be transferred from the gas to the kiln feed, but the flow
regime influences the distribution of the kiln feed in the gas flow and hence the corresponding
heat transfer.
Fundamental thought had already been given to the effectiveness of heat exchangers in the 1960s
(Vogel, 1968; Hohenhinnebusch, 1969; and Frankenberger, 1969) and included not only practical
investigations but also an increasing range of theoretical calculations. Vosteen (1971) was able to
prove mathematically that in each stage the gas and kiln feed reach virtually the same temperature.
However, the theoretical estimate did not include any heats of reaction. With increased demands
on the accuracy of the investigations it was therefore necessary to take into account that the heat
exchange during calcination is also affected by the reaction kinetics (Vosteen, 1974; Reh, 1983; and
Rosemann, 1986a). Clinker phase formation, which can be associated with a considerable contri-
bution to the heat balance, may also occur (Rosemann, 1983).
The quality of heat exchangers depends on the quantity of heat transferred and was investigated
mathematically at an early stage (Frankenberger, 1970; and Ritzmann, 1971). However, it cannot be
measured directly in the cement manufacturing process, since not only the sensible heat but also
the heat of reaction has to be taken into account, which requires determination of the composition
of the kiln feed as well as the temperature. These calculations are made even harder by the fact that
substantially calcined dust is entrained in the kiln exhaust gas mixes with the kiln feed in the pre-
heater and simulates too high a degree of calcination in the preheater. Vogel (1968) investigated
these relationships to prove the dependence of the degree of calcination on the dust transport in
the preheater.
Rotary Kiln
Rotary kilns in the cement industry operate on the counter-current principle. In the dry process the
hot meal which has been between 50% and more than 90% calcined, depending on the preheater,
passes counter-current to the hot process gases. During this process it is heated from about 900°C to
1500°C, during which the chemical and mineralogical transformations necessary for cement clinker
formation take place. The necessary energy is provided by the combustion of fuels.
The heat transfer between kiln feed and gas takes place both directly and indirectly and is made up
of convection and radiation components. With direct transfer, the heat is exchanged directly
between gas and kiln wall. The wall is also heated by the combustion gases and exchanges heat with
the kiln feed both to its upper side (radiation) and during contact of the wall with the underside of
the kiln feed. Heat losses as a result of thermal conduction through the kiln wall and into the
surroundings depend essentially on the type and thickness of the brickwork.
The main contributions to the kiln heat balance come from combustion, calcination, formation of
β-C2S, possibly vaporization of alkali chlorides, and melt phase formation. The kiln feed enters the
kiln with varying levels of calcination which depend on the preheater. The length of the calcining
zone and heat requirement for the remaining calcination depend on the degree of calcination on
entry to the rotary kiln. Any alkali chlorides present vaporize at temperatures above 900°C to
1000°C and are carried away with the combustion gases. The heat of vaporization is expended in
the kiln and released again as heat of condensation in the preheater or calciner. The heat released
during the formation of β-C2S is available in the kiln for meeting the heat requirement. Formation
of the melt phase starts at temperatures around 1280°C, for which energy is required. The energy is
released again in the precooling zone of the kiln and in the front of the cooler.
Measurements within the kiln and at the kiln inlet and outlet are difficult and at present are possi-
ble to only a limited extent. As early as the beginning of the 1960s, Weber (1960) investigated a
Lepol kiln, a cyclone preheater kiln, and a long wet kiln by placing sampling holes along the kiln
axis. This made it possible to measure temperatures and take samples. Attempts were also made at
an early stage to investigate the processes in the kiln mathematically. Rosa (1970) put forward a
mathematical model in which the preheater, kiln, and cooler were subdivided into a total of nine
zones. Conversion reactions between raw material, entrained dust, flue gas, fuel, and air were
formulated for the individual zones and calculated iteratively with the aid of a computer.
Frankenberger (1971) calculated an average heat transfer co-efficient for the entire kiln in order to
predict specific fuel heat consumptions. Onissi (1980) drew conclusions about the temperature
profile in the kiln from material investigations after kiln stoppages, and from the findings he
deduced equations for dimensioning kilns. At the same time, he indicated the importance of heat
transfer by radiation and its dependence on the dust loading. In the development of a mathemati-
cal model Gardeik (1979a, 1979b) started initially from idealized conditions –more extensive
considerations were concerned in particular with the relationship between direct and indirect heat
transfer. Frisch (1983) built on this and extended the model to take into account not only the radi-
ation but also chemical reactions. Parameter variations showed that the description of the material
properties of the kiln feed can have considerable effect on the result of the calculation. In the work
by Maas (1995) the corresponding mathematical description was refined so that the calculations
could be used for designing rotary kilns. For this purpose raw meals were investigated in a gradient
furnace and the results were used in the mathematical model for calculating the process engineer-
ing design variables. Nowadays commercially available programs enable extensive mixed differen-
tial algebraic equation systems for the clinker burning process to be solved with normal personal
computers (Klein, 1999).
Grate Cooler
The task of the clinker cooler is to cool the cement clinker in continuous operation to the lowest
possible temperature with a temperature regime adapted to suit the quality. At the same time, the
combustion air required for the burning process should be preheated to a temperature level such
that the kiln feed temperature required for clinker formation in the sintering zone of the rotary
kiln is achieved with the lowest possible use of fuel energy.
During this process the temperature change in the clinker has an important influence on the qual-
ity of the cement produced from it, especially on its composition, setting, and hardening. It is
advantageous for the strength development that the clinker is not cooled too rapidly from the
sintering temperature down to about 1250°C as this allows the clinker melt to crystallize in fine-
grained form. On the other hand, the cooling in the temperature range between 1250°C and 800°C
must be carried out as quickly as possible to prevent decomposition of the C3S. Below a tempera-
ture of 800°C the rate of cooling has no further effect on the quality.
For industrial clinker cooling it is necessary to differentiate between the pre-cooling zone of the
rotary kiln and the cooling in the clinker cooler. The clinker is cooled while it is still in the rotary
kiln because the highest kiln feed temperature is reached at least several meters before the kiln
outlet. In addition to this, the colder secondary air carries out counter-current cooling of the
clinker while it is still in the rotary tube. The cooling in the pre-cooling zone is relatively slow
because of the comparatively poor heat transfer and heat conduction conditions. The model
presented here is based on expressions for calculating the heat transfer between particles and fluid
in particulate beds and the cooling of a sphere in a stream of gas.
Complete Plant
Any ideas about optimization of the cement clinker burning process should include the complete
plant from preheater to clinker cooler as the sections of plant are closely linked to one another by
mass and energy flows. The investigations described in the literature focus on the expenditure of
fuel energy. As a rule, the mathematical models have concentrated on the area of the preheater and
calciner and have dealt with the kiln and cooler by using empirical equations.
As early as 1980, Elkjær (1980) described a model with which it was possible to calculate the heat
consumption of a kiln with a four- or five-stage preheater and, where applicable, also a bypass.
Parameter studies involved false air at the kiln meal feed, radiation losses, and collecting efficien-
cies of the cyclones as well as operation with a bypass. Gardeik (1981a) investigated the influence of
a reduced sintering zone temperature on the energy consumption of the plant and calculated a
saving of about 4.5% for a reduction from 1450°C to 1250°C. Further, different modes of operation
of a plant with calciner and bypass were investigated (Gardeik, 1981). It was assumed that the
calculated rise in energy consumption with increasing proportion of fuel in the secondary firing
system was due to a higher raw gas temperature which could be utilized with an additional cyclone
stage. On the basis of a model which was not described in detail, Rother (1982) reported that an
additional fifth cyclone stage can enable significant savings to be made where there are high costs
for thermal energy and high proportions of fuel in the secondary firing system. Menzel (1987)
compared various cyclone preheaters with one another and came to the conclusion that simpler
preheater processes were to be preferred because of lower capital costs in spite of the heat technol-
ogy disadvantages.
CONCEPT OF MODELING
Material, Gas, and Fuel
The modeling is based on material and energy balances carried out on the material flows. For the
solids a distinction is made between the raw material components (Table 10.2.1), the clinker phases
(Table 10.2.2), and the chemical constituents of the fuels (Table 10.2.3). Comparable consideration
is also given to the individual gas constituents (Table 10.2.4).
Table 10.2.1. Raw Material and Fuel Ash Table 10.2.2. Clinker Phases
Designation Chemical formulae Designation Chemical formulae

Aluminium oxide Al2O3 Tricalcium silicate C3S
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 Dicalcium silicate C2S
Calcium oxide CaO Tricalcium aluminate C 3A
Chlorine Cl Calcium aluminoferrite C4AF
Organic carbon Corg Monocalcium aluminate CA
Iron oxide Fe2O3 Dicalcium ferrite C 2F
Potassium oxide K2O
Magnesium carbonate MgCO3
Table 10.2.3. Fuel Constituents
Magnesium oxide MgO Designation Chemical formulae
Manganese oxide Mn2O3 Carbon C
Sodium oxide Na2O Hydrogen H
Sulfur S Sulfur S
Silicon dioxide SiO2 Nitrogen N
Sulfate SO3 Oxygen O
Titanium oxide TiO2 Water H2O
Table 10.2.4. Gas Constituents
Designation Chemical formulae

Oxygen O2
Carbon dioxide CO2
Carbon monoxide CO
Nitrogen N2
Water H2O
Sulfur oxide SO2
Hydrogen H2
Clinkering Reactions
The formation of the clinker phases from a raw material mix is made up of many individual reac-
tions of which the most important from the materials and energy point of view are modeled as
follows (Table 10.2.5).
Evaporation of liquid water. Any liquid water which may be present (raw material and fuel
moisture) is evaporated completely at a temperature of 100°C and passes into the gas phase. In the
modeling it is assumed that the requisite evaporation enthalpy is not applied solely when the boiling
temperature is reached, but instead is allowed for continuously during the heating in the tempera-
ture range up to 100°C (Reaction 1 in Table 10.2.5).
Reaction of carbon monoxide (CO) in gas phase. According to the model, there must
be a minimum temperature of 620°C for the conversion of CO to CO2. If this is the case, then the
enthalpy of reaction is taken as 10100 kJ/kgCO. The quantity converted is determined by an upper
limiting temperature of 670°C. Above this temperature complete conversion is assumed; at temper-
atures between the minimum temperature and the limiting temperature the conversion is linearly
dependent on the final temperature achieved in the reactions space (Reaction 2 in Table 10.2.5).
Reaction of organic constituents in solids. Carbon in the solids can derive both from the
raw material and from incompletely burnt fuel. Depending on the supply of available oxygen and
the temperature, carbon either reacts to form CO2 or CO or else may emerge unchanged from the
particular balance area. According to the model, the reactions start at a temperature of 450°C and
are complete at 750°C, provided sufficient oxygen is present (Reactions 3 and 4 in Table 10.2.5).
Table 10.2.5. Reactions

Standard enthalpy of Reaction
Reaction Temperature range reactions, kJ/kg no.
H2Oliq ↔ H2Ovap 0 °C –100 °C +2446 1
CO + ⁄2 O2 ↔ CO2
1
620 °C –670 °C –10,100 2
C + O2 ↔ CO2 450 °C –750 °C –32,786 3
C + ⁄2 O2 ↔ CO
1
450 °C –750 °C –9200 4
S + O2 ↔ SO2 400 °C –500 °C –9276 5
H2 + 1⁄2 O2 ↔ H2O 530 °C –580 °C –121,000 6
CaCO3 ↔ CaO + CO2 550 °C –960 °C +1780 7
MgCO3 ↔ MgO + CO2 550 °C –960 °C +1395 8
CaO + Al2O3 ↔ CA 800 °C –1100 °C –100 9
2CaO + Fe2O3 ↔ C2F 800 °C –1100 °C –114 10
2CaO + SiO2 ↔ β-C2S 600 °C –1300 °C –732 11
CA + C2F + CaO ↔ C4AF 1200 °C –1280 °C +25 12
CA + 2CaO ↔ C3A 1200 °C –1280 °C +25 13
β-C2S + CaO ↔ C3S 1200 °C –1280 °C +59 14
clinkersol ↔ clinkerliq > 1280 °C +600 15
Combustion reactions. Various types of fuel can be fired in the clinker burning process. The
composition of the resulting flue gases is governed by the composition of the fuel used (Table
10.2.3) as well as by the local gas composition (especially the available oxygen), and is determined
in the model with the aid of chemical reaction equations (Reactions 3 to 6 in Table 10.2.5). This
procedure makes it possible to cater not only for standard fuels but also for secondary fuels. The
burn-out behavior is modeled by neglecting kinetic effects and forming a mathematical series-
connection of several balance areas, in which in each case the calculation only covers the conver-
sion of part of the total fuel used, e.g., in the rotary kiln.
The composition of the resulting flue gas is dependent on, among other things, the relevant quan-
tity of available oxygen. If oxygen is present in sufficient quantity it is assumed that the carbon,
hydrogen, and sulfur are fully converted into CO2, H2O, and SO2. The reactions are incomplete if
there is a lack of oxygen. In this case it is assumed that the hydrogen is converted preferentially;
any remaining oxygen is then credited to the reaction with sulfur. The reaction of carbon to form
CO and CO2 takes place last. Any hydrogen from the solids which has not been converted in these
reactions passes into the gas phase, while sulfur and carbon continue to remain in the solid phase.
The temperature of the flue gases is determined with the aid of an energy balance for the particular
balance area. The first step is to calculate the composition and quantity of the flue gases resulting
from the above-mentioned chemical reactions. In the next step, the quantity of heat released
during combustion is determined in terms of the calorific value. When applied to the quantity of
flue gas and the resulting ash, this gives the theoretical combustion temperature.
The fuel ash which mixes with the other solids in the particular combustion zone is also taken into
account in the calculation. In the primary firing system, for example, it initially forms a
constituent of the dust entrained in the gases before it is collected by the kiln or the cyclones of the
preheater in accordance with their collecting efficiencies. It then mixes with the local stream of
solids and contributes to the reactions of the solids in accordance with its composition.
Calcination. The temperature range for calcination is assumed to be between 550°C and 960 °C
during which CO2 is expelled into the gas phase from CaCO3 and MgCO3. The dissociation
enthalpies are taken as 1780 kJ/kgCaCO3 and 1395 kJ/kgMgCO3 respectively (Reactions 7 and 8 in
Table 10.2.5).
Clinker phase formation. The clinker phases C3S, C2S, and C4AF are produced from the
intermediate products CA, C2F, and β-C2S. The conversions and reaction enthalpies are as
proposed by Rosemann (1986b) (Reactions 9 to 14 in Table 10.2.5).
Liquid phase formation. Formation of the liquid phase is assumed to take place above 1280°C
(Reaction 15 in Table 10.2.5). The calculation is based on the assumption that in the temperature
range between 1280°C and 1450°C, the clinker phases C3A, C4AF, and C2F pass completely into the
liquid phase and that 5% of the C2S passes into the liquid phase. The enthalpy of liquid phase
formation is assumed to be 600 kJ/kgliq . The temperature dependence of all material parameters
(density, specific heat, thermal conductivity, dynamic viscosity) of the solids, gases, and water is
taken into account with the usual polynomial expressions.
Critical Unit Operations

In the clinker burning process, finely ground kiln meal is heated counter-current to the process
gases. The associated reactions are characterized at many points by the contact between kiln meal
and gas, and therefore have certain chemical engineering similarities. This concerns, for example,
the dispersion of kiln meal in the process gas, which is repeated many times in the preheater,
calciner, bypass, and rotary kiln. The temperature and composition of the kiln meal and gas do in
fact change, but the chemical engineering unit operation of dispersion of finely ground meal in gas
remains the same.
This circumstance is utilized in the model by formulating the unit operations so that they are
generally applicable to the entire clinker burning process. For example, the processes during the
heating of a stream of solids are modeled so that they cover the entire relevant temperature range
and the usual range of composition of kiln feed and gas. Because of this approach it is not neces-
sary to stipulate at which point in the process certain reactions take place. For example, due to the
local conditions it will become clear during the calculation whether the clinker phase formation
has already started in the calciner or only starts in the kiln. This avoids having to make a commit-
ment in advance.
A description is given below of the unit operations which can be used to describe many phenom-
ena in the clinker burning process. In addition to the unit operation for combustion of fuels
(Figure 10.2.2), they also concern the material conversion phenomena and relate to any of the reac-
tion spaces in the preheater, calciner, bypass, and rotary kiln. The calculations are based on the
reaction equations listed in Table 10.2.5 for which the material and energy balances are drawn up
and solved in the unit operations.
Balance boundary Reaction space
Gas in Gas out

Fuel-gas Temperature
reactions equalization
Mass Heat
balance balance
Fuel in Material out
C, H, N, O, S, H2O (ash)
Figure 10.2.2. Combustion of fuels (C).

Heating/cooling of a stream of solids. This situation relates to a stream of solids of any

composition which is being heated or cooled (abbreviation HS, Figure 10.2.3). Depending on the
composition and temperature, the listed reaction (Table 10.2.5) can also take place. For example, if
kiln feed of appropriate composition is heated sufficiently during calcination, this leads to the
formation of CO2, which passes into the gas phase. In addition, the fact that the reactions can also
depend on the composition of the gas phase is taken into account. Organic carbon, for example
–depending on the total available oxygen in the gas and solids –can be converted into CO or CO2
Gas in Gas Temperature Gas out

O2
Material balance Heat balance
T gas = T material
Material-gas Temperature
H2O
CO2
Material in Material balance CO Heat balance Material out
Heat
Figure 10.2.3. Heating/cooling a stream of solids (HS).
or else, in the absence of oxygen, only change in temperature while remaining materially
unchanged.
Emerging from the balance area therefore are a materials stream and a gas stream with composi-
tions which generally differ from those of the input state. In the present situation for the unit opera-
tion of heating/cooling a stream of solids, it is assumed that the two emerging streams (gas and
solids) have the same temperature, e.g. during the heating of the meal in the kiln by its long and
persistent contact with the hot inner wall of the kiln. If, on the other hand, the heat is only partially
transferred between gas and material, then this has to be taken into account with the aid of another
unit operation as is explained in the forthcoming Section on Dispersion of solids in gas.
On the assumption that the emerging gas and the emerging solids have the same temperature, it is
possible to calculate their compositions and temperature using the above-mentioned reactions, the
material balances for all the gas and fuel components, and the energy balance.
Dispersion of solids in gas. In this case a stream of solids of any composition is dispersed in
a gas stream (abbreviation SG, Figure 10.2.4). Depending on the particular temperatures, heat
exchange occurs in conjunction with the corresponding reactions (see above). If the heat exchange
is complete, then there is no difference in temperature between the emerging gas stream and the
Gas in Material-gas Heat Gas out

reactions exchange
(η WA)
Material in Mass balance Heat balance Material out
Figure 10.2.4. Dispersion of solids in gas (SG).
emerging stream of solids. In this situation the maximum heat has been exchanged between the
two streams.
Practically complete heat exchange between gas and material was assumed by Vosteen (1971) on
the basis of theoretical considerations for cyclones in preheaters for the clinker burning process,
provided it was not necessary to cover the heat requirement for a reaction. It was also supposed
that the kiln feed is completely dispersed in the gas. However, the two assumptions are not entirely
valid. Complete dispersion can certainly be assumed for those gas and dust flows which leave the
cyclone in the direction of the next highest stage. However, this is not necessarily the case for the
fraction of kiln feed which has been separated.
It is necessary to check whether sufficient time is available for these reactions to take place. In the
model this is assumed for all reactions in the gas phase, for the conversion of organic constituents
in the kiln meal, and for condensation and evaporation of water. However, this assumption is not
immediately justifiable for the calcination reactions as the time required for calcination at a
temperature of, say, 800°C to 950°C, can be 1 to 100 sec depending on the particle size of 10µm to
100µm (Reh, 1983). The residence time in a cyclone is therefore not sufficient under some circum-
stances for completion of the reaction in the larger particles.
This is taken into account in the model with the aid of an efficiency for the heat exchange (ηWA). It
is dependent both on the available reaction time and on the extent to which calcination is involved
in the overall reaction. The efficiency ηWA is lowest, and can drop to about 65%, for the extreme
case where the heat exchange between gas and kiln feed is used entirely for calcination for which
little time is available.
Mixing two streams of solids. The composition of a total stream mixed from two individual
streams of solids is obtained initially from a mix calculation (abbreviation SS, Figure 10.2.5). If,
however, there is a temperature difference between the two input streams, then heat exchange
occurs as well. This can be associated with chemical and physical reactions in which the gas phase
is also involved. In addition, there is a corresponding change to the composition of the emerging
Gas in Gas Temperature Gas out

O2
Material balance Heat balance
T gas = T material
Material-gas Temperature
H2O
Material in, 1 reactions equalization
CO2
Material balance CO Heat balance Material out
Material in, 2
Figure 10.2.5. Mixing two streams of solids (SS).
total stream of solids. Comparable with the unit operation for heating/cooling of a stream of
solids, it is also assumed in this situation that the gas and solids leave the balance area with the
same temperature.
Heating/cooling a gas stream. This unit operation is used to calculate the heat exchange
between a gas stream and its surroundings (abbreviation HG, Figure 10.2.6). Reactions can also
occur if CO and/or H2 is present together with O2 and a minimum temperature is exceeded. The
Gas
Gas in reactions Gas out
Mass Heat
balance balance
Heat
Figure 10.2.6. Heating/cooling a gas stream (HG).
level of conversion is governed by the temperature reached in the reaction space. The conversion is
complete if an upper limiting temperature is exceeded. In the temperature range between the
minimum temperature and the limiting temperature, the conversion is proportional to the
temperature change.
Gas in, 1
Gas Temperature
reactions equalization Gas out
Gas in, 2
Mass Heat
balance balance
Figure 10.2.7. Mixing of two gas streams (GG).
Mixing two gas streams. When two gases are mixed (Figure 10.2.7) a gas is produced with a
corresponding mixed composition (abbreviation GG). Respective gas phase reactions can also
occur, as with the heating/cooling of a gas stream, HG (see above). It is assumed that the emerging
gas not only has a homogeneous composition but a completely uniform temperature as well.
Cyclone Preheater
In the calculations, the preheater is subdivided into single cyclone stages, and the mixing of gas
and kiln feed is determined in each stage. The kiln feed is fed into the riser duct of a stage and is
heated in the flow. It is separated from the gas in the cyclone in accordance with the dust collection
efficiency (ηA) and deposited in the stage below. Heat is exchanged between the two flows through
the intensive mixing of kiln feed and gas. The procedure is repeated in each stage, always at a
higher temperature, during which the kiln feed is partially calcined.
The calculations for a single cyclone stage are based on the unit operations explained above. On
entering the cyclone stage (Figure 10.2.8), the gas from the previous stage mixes with false air and
is correspondingly cooled (mixing of two gas streams, GG). The kiln feed (dust) entrained in the
Wall heat
losses SG
HG
Collection
Kiln feed
SS
False
air
Dust GG
Gas
Figure 10.2.8. Calculation for a cyclone with the aid of unit operations.
gas mixes in a comparable way with the kiln feed collected from the next higher stage (mixing of
two streams of solids, SS). The heat loss through the cyclone wall is then calculated with an expres-
sion which includes the thickness of the brickwork and the surface area of the cyclone. The heat
loss is taken into account in the gas stream which is correspondingly cooled (heating/cooling a gas
stream, HG).
The most important step from the heat engineering aspect is the subsequent mixing of dust and
gas (dispersion of solids in gas, SG). Complete temperature equalization between dust and gas is
not assumed in principle in the calculations. This would correspond to the maximum heat
exchange. The effectiveness of heat exchange, which is referred to below as thermal efficiency
(ηWA), depends on the design of the cyclone and as a rule is unknown. The thermal efficiency
could be determined in a specific instance with the aid of operational measurements and an energy
balance for the individual cyclone. However, such measurements are complicated and at present
are not feasible in the lower stages of a preheater from the aspect of measurement technology.
Calculations based on flow models would also be possible but require detailed understanding both
of the energy exchange between gas and dust and also of the dust collection efficiency.
The last step in the calculations for a single cyclone stage consists of dividing the dust stream in
accordance with the dust collection efficiency (ηA). The fraction which has been collected leaves
the cyclone and passes to the stage below, while the dust which had not been collected is trans-
ported to the stage above together with the gas. Like the thermal efficiency ηWA, the dust collection
efficiency (ηA) is dependent on the design of the cyclone. However, unlike the thermal efficiency,
the dust collection efficiency is defined in the model. Relevant data are available, especially for the
upper stages, as measurements there are less complicated than in the lower stages.
Calculated/
known value
Estimated value
Calculation
step
Figure 10.2.9. Sequence of calculations for the cyclone of preheater.

The calculations for the individual cyclones must be combined with one another for the complete
calculation for the preheater during which the streams of kiln feed, dust, and gas are linked with
one another. The situation in each stage is determined in succession starting from the top cyclone;
the calculation therefore initially follows the direction of the kiln feed flow (Figure 10.2.9, left-
hand side). This condition of the kiln feed entering a stage is therefore given directly from the
calculation for the stage above (black arrows). On the other hand, the condition of the gas-dust
mixture entering a stage is initially unknown and must be estimated (red arrows).
When the calculation for a preheater based on the estimated values for gas and dust has reached
the bottom stage, the sequence of the calculation is reversed in the direction of the gas flow (Figure
10.2.9, right-hand side). This enables the estimated values to be improved as the condition of the
gas and dust stream entering a stage is given directly from the calculation for the stage below
(black arrows). Now, however, the condition of the incoming kiln feed is unknown and is taken
from the previous calculation (gray arrows).
Cyclone Gas Solids Heat

Riser- Tertiary
duct air duct
SG Kiln Primary False Wall
Fuel gas air air heat
Wall HG
heat C GG GG GG HG
SS SS SS SG
Kiln Kiln Cooler Tertiary

dust feed dust air
Figure 10.2.10. Calculation for calciner with the aid of unit operations.
The calculations are repeated until the energy and mass balances both for the individual cyclones
and for the entire preheater are fulfilled with sufficient accuracy. For cyclones, the maximum
permissible balance error is 1 W or 10 g/h and for the entire preheater, it is 50 W or 50 g/h.
Calciner
The process taking place in the calciner proceeds on the basis of the mixing of tertiary air, kiln
inlet gas, and combustion gases from the firing system with the appropriate streams of dust and
kiln feeds. Figure 10.2.10 shows how the unit operations are linked to one another.
The first step is to calculate the processes taking place in the tertiary air duct. Gas and dust from
the cooler which pass through it to the calciner are cooled in accordance with the wall heat losses
in the duct (heating/cooling of gases, HG). Complete temperature equalization is assumed
between gas and dust (dispersion of solids in gas, SG).
The mixing of the tertiary air with false air, primary air, and kiln gas (mixing of gases, GG) is
calculated in the next step before the combustion calculation (C). The composition of the resulting
combustion gas and ash depends on the gas and fuel composition. The tertiary air dust mixes with
the kiln feed from the preheater and is heated by the combustion gases (mixing of two streams of
solids, SS). The mixing with the ash from the combustion and with the kiln dust is then taken into
account (mixing of two streams of solids, SS). Complete temperature equalization between gas and
dust (dispersion of solids in gas, SG) is assumed for the calculation of the processes taking place in
the calciner riser duct. The wall heat losses are taken into account here at the same time
(heating/cooling of gases, HG). The gas-dust mixture leaving the calciner riser duct enters a
cyclone, and the dust is collected from the gas in accordance with the collecting efficiency. The
calculation for the processes taking place within the calciner cyclone follows the same procedure
already described above. Gases and dust from the calciner leave in the direction of the preheater,
while the material collected in the cyclone passes to the kiln inlet.
In some plants a small fraction of the gas stream is drawn off to limit recirculating chlorine and/or
sulfur systems between the kiln and preheater/calciner. This is cooled with air to condense chlorine
and sulfur on the dust particles. This process is catered for in the model by branches in the gas and
dust streams at the kiln inlet. The gas and dust which have been drawn off are then mixed theoreti-
cally with the ambient air.
Combustion Precooling
Collection Steel, zone
brickwork,
coating
Dust Dust
Gas Gas
Kiln feed Kiln feed

Segments Entrainment
Figure 10.2.11. Subdivision of the rotary kiln into segments.

Rotary Kiln
For calculating the steady-state operating condition, the rotary kiln is subdivided theoretically
along the axis into segments (about 20 to 50, Figure 10.2.11) for which the material and heat
balances are solved. Gas, dust, and fuel enter each segment from the adjacent segments in the
appropriate direction of flow and react with one another. Exchanges of energy (e.g., through radia-
tion and convection) and mass (e.g., through calcination) occur, and the combustion of the fuels
and the heat losses as a result of thermal conduction through coating, brickwork, and steel shell are
taken into account. Entrainment of kiln feed by the kiln gas, as well as the collection of the dust
from the kiln gas in the bed of kiln feed, sometimes leads to mixing of the two streams of material
and this may also be associated with reactions.
Flame shape and burn-out characteristics differ depending on the fuel, and affect the temperature
and concentration profiles of the combustion gases along the kiln axis. This is taken into account
in the model by mathematical allocation of the total quantity of fuel to the relevant segments.
Combustion gases and heat are liberated accordingly in segments along the kiln axis. To a first
approximation this makes it possible to investigate the use of fuels with different burn-out charac-
teristics and different compositions.
Heat exchange. The heat transfer by radiation, convection, and thermal conduction is calcu-
lated with the mathematical expressions normally used in heat technology. Within a segment, the
model largely follows the approach used by Frisch (1983). There is both direct and indirect
exchange of heat between kiln feed and gas (see Figure 10.2.1 already shown). The direct exchange
at the surface of the kiln feed is made up of a convection and a radiation component (∆Q • α,ε),
GS
and the indirect heat exchange involves the wall which is also heated by the combustion gases by
convection and radiation (∆Q • α,ε) and gives back part of this heat to the kiln feed. Both the
GW
upper side and the underside of the kiln feed are involved in this process; the heat at the upper side
of the kiln feed is exchanged exclusively by radiation (∆Q• ε
WS,G ) but at the underside, part of the
•
heat is also transferred by convection (∆QWS,Wα,ε). Heat transport within the kiln feed
(∆Q • λ, ∆Q • λ) requires a temperature gradient to overcome the thermal resistance. Heat losses
S,G S,W
to the surroundings (∆Q • α,ε) arise as a result of thermal conduction through coating, brick-
WU
work, and steel shell and are calculated in accordance with the equations given by Gardeik (1985).
The heat flows which are taken into account within a segment can therefore be summarized as
follows:
• Heat exchange between gas and kiln feed (radiation ∆Q• ε and convection ∆Q • α)
GS GS
• ε and convection
• Heat exchange between gas and kiln wall or coating (radiation ∆QGW
• α)
∆QGW
• Heat exchange between kiln wall and kiln feed at the upper side of the kiln feed (radiation
•
∆Q ε
WS,G )
•
• Heat exchange between kiln wall and kiln feed underside of the kiln feed (radiation ∆Q ε
WS,W
•
and convection ∆QWS,Wα)
• Heat flow from the outside of the kiln feed to the inside of the kiln feed (thermal conduction
• λ and ∆Q
∆Q • λ)
S,G S,W
• Heat loss at the outside of the shell (radiation and convection ∆Q• ε and convection
WU
•
∆Q α )
WU
According to these models, the total heat ∆QBG flowing into the kiln feed within a segment is
therefore made up of five heat flows, of which two are transferred directly from the gas (∆Q • α,
GS
• • •
∆QGS ) and the other three are transferred indirectly via the kiln wall (∆QWS,W , ∆QWS,W ,
ε α ε
∆Q• ε
WS,G ) The chemical, physical, and mineralogical changes in the kiln feed are essentially deter-
mined by this overall heat exchange.
The overall heat exchange of the gas ∆Q•

Gas with its surroundings can also be considered in the
same way. It consists of the convection and radiation components both in the exchange with the
kiln feed (∆Q • α, ∆Q • ε) and with the kiln wall (∆Q • α, ∆Q • ε) and, together with the gas reac-
GS GS GW GW
tions, affects the temperature change of the gas as it flows through the segment.
Material-flows. The mass balance for a segment is characterized essentially by the incoming
and outgoing mass flows of the feed and gas. Mass transfer between the material-flows can occur
within a segment through reactions. In particular, this includes the calcination of the limestone
during which the CO2 contained in the CaCO3 is transferred to the kiln gas. Dust flows are also
taken into account in the model as dust is carried from the cooler into the kiln with the secondary
air. It mixes with the fuel ash and, depending on the gas velocity, is transported through the entire
kiln to the preheater or calciner, or is deposited on the kiln feed. Kiln feed can also be carried away
from the material bed by the kiln gas if it is entrained as a consequence of the rotational movement
of the kiln and mixes with the dust in the kiln gas.
Total
Gas Solids Heat heat
Gas
C
HG
Fuel
Gas η Dust
SG SS SS
Fuel Dust
η Material SS HS
Kiln feed Kiln feed
Total
heat
Figure 10.2.12. Calculation for a kiln segment with the aid of unit operations.
Calculation procedure. During the calculations, repeated use is made of the unit operations
(Figure 10.2.12). The mixing of kiln feed and dust is determined by two parameters. ηdust describes
the dust collection in the kiln and ηmaterial describes the entrainment of the kiln feed. The part of
the kiln feed which has been entrained mixes with the dust in the gas phase (mixing two streams of
solids, SS) and leaves the segment under consideration after complete temperature equalization
with the gas (dispersion of solids in gas, SG). The majority of the kiln feed, however, mixes with
the collected dust (mixing two streams of solids, SS), is heated (heating/cooling of solids, HS), and
then leaves the segment. Incoming gas is possibly first heated by the combustion of fuels (combus-
tion calculation, C) before heat exchange with the surroundings takes place. The ash produced
during the combustion mixes with the dust entrained in the gas (mixing two streams of solids, SS).
Calculations running in opposing directions along the kiln axis have to be repeated many times
(approximately 30 to 80 times) before the results are matched sufficiently accurately to one
another. The requirement for this calculation is comparatively high; overall it is usually necessary
to carry out the calculations listed in Figure 10.2.12 approximately 10,000 to 100,000 times before
the calculated solution for the entire kiln is in numerical equilibrium. It must be borne in mind
that each of these calculations is associated with the solutions (also iterative) of the balance equa-
tions for several unit operations.
Grate Cooler
The calculations are based on empirically determined heat transfer laws for forced convection in
particulate packed beds through which a flow is passing and which consists of individual particles
(VDI, 1994). They were determined by extensive test series and describe the heat transfer between
clinker (particles) and cooling air (fluid) by functions with characteristic Nusselt, Reynolds, and
Péclet numbers. Among other things, the equations take account of the material properties of the
cooling air and particles, the size and shape of the particles, the volume of voids in the particulate
bed, and the nature of the approach flow to the particles. An equation can only be utilized in appli-
cations which are covered by the test program. This can be checked using the validity ranges speci-
fied for the characteristic numbers.
The heat flow at the contact surface between cooling air and clinker grain can be calculated with
the aid of the heat transfer coefficient. The actual heat transferred depends on whether sufficient
heat can be transported from the inside of the clinker grain to its surface. This process depends
essentially on the material properties and on the duration of the cooling. Corresponding equations
for unsteady-state heat conduction can also be taken from the literature (VDI, 1994) and make it
possible to determine the requisite quantity of heat. Here again it is assumed as a simplification
that the clinker particles are spherical.
Melt phase and radiation. In accordance with the definition of the model, the clinker at
temperatures above 1280°C contains clinker melt which is formed in the sintering zone of the kiln
through the input of heat. During the crystallization of the melt in the precooling zone of the kiln
and in the cooler, this heat of fusion is liberated again and contributes to heating the secondary
and tertiary air. The model equations take account of this heat input in the energy balance of the
cooler in accordance with the assumptions presented above. On the other hand, the influence of
the melt phase on the heat transfer in the particulate bed and on the unsteady-state heat conduc-
tion in the clinker particles is ignored. In addition to the forced convection there is also an
exchange of radiant heat between the top layer of clinker and the roof and walls of the cooler. As a
result of thermal conduction the radiant heat is dissipated through the brickwork and steel hous-
ing and contributes to the heat loss from the clinker.
Particulate dust. Clinker from the rotary kiln enters the grate cooler and is transported toward
the cooler outlet by the grate movement. During this process the friction between the particles
produces dust which is entrained and carried away by the cooling air. Depending on where the
dust is formed it can leave the cooler in various ways. For example, it can be transported away with
the secondary air toward the kiln, with the tertiary air toward the calciner firing system, or with
the cooler exhaust air toward the cooler dedusting system. In the calculations it is assumed that the
dust is entrained uniformly on the entire length of the cooler. The total quantity depends on the
dust levels chosen for the secondary air, tertiary air, and cooler exhaust air. These, together with
the quantity of cooling air, are used to calculate the clinker mass flow carried out by the dust.
Balance area
Air
Clinker
Clinker
Air
Figure 10.2.13. Subdivision of the clinker bed in a grate cooler into segments.
100
Material passing screen, % 75
50
Fine
25 Medium
Coarse
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Particle size, mm
Figure 10.2.14. Particle size distribution of the clinker.
Subdivision of the cooler into balance segments. For calculation purposes the length
and height of the clinker bed in the grate cooler are subdivided into individual balance segments
which cover the entire width of the cooler. The results presented were calculated for a cooler in
which the length was divided into 45 segments and the height into 6 segments. The dimensions of
a segment are about 0.5 m in length, 0.1 m in height and 3.0 m in width. As is shown schematically
in Figure10.2.13, the clinker flows horizontally and the cooling air flows vertically through each
balance segment. The balance segments are filled with spherical clinker of varying particle size for
which a size distribution is specified. In practice it is dependent on material and on process engi-
Heat losses
(radiation, Tertiary air
convection)
Exhaust air
Secondary air
Air interchange
Clinker
Cooling air Balance elements

Figure 10.2.15. Overall balance for the cooler.
neering conditions which are not included in the framework of the model. The calculations
described here differentiate between fine, medium, and coarse clinker (Figure 10.2.14).
Above the clinker bed the cooling air combines to form secondary, tertiary, and exhaust air in
accordance with the guidelines (Figure 10.2.15). In practice the proportions of secondary, tertiary,
and cooler exhaust air in the total quantity of cooling air used are dependent on several factors.
These include, for example, the settings of the cooling air fans, the firing systems in the kiln and
calciner, and the flow resistances in the kiln and tertiary air duct. To some extent they concern
questions of gas flow which are not covered by the model. The proportions in which the total
quantity of incoming air is divided into secondary, tertiary, and cooler exhaust air must therefore
be specified for the calculations.
The calculations start with the assumption that the secondary air comes exclusively from the front
section of the cooler and that the off-take for the tertiary air is adjacent to this. The remaining air
is removed as cooler exhaust air. The secondary air reaches its highest temperature under these
conditions. As a rule, however, there is an interchange between secondary and tertiary air so that
their temperatures approach one another to a greater or lesser extent depending on the mixing. In
practice the degree of mixing depends mainly on the structural shape of the cooler, so it cannot be
calculated from the model but is specified with the aid of a parameter.
Overall Plant Operation

The model for the complete plant is based on the models of the plant sections. Steady-state operat-
ing conditions of preheater, calciner, kiln, and cooler are each determined in steps using iterative
calculation procedures; the initially estimated solutions of the balance equations for mass and
energy are improved with the aid of similar calculation steps until the required accuracy is achieved.
Kiln
meal
Points of interchanging
calculated results
Clinker
Figure 10.2.16. Balance areas and calculation sequence for the plant sections.
On top of this, the calculation of the steady-state condition for the complete plant combines these
solution steps and exchanges the results for the steady-state operating conditions of preheater,
calciner, bypass, kiln, and cooler at their interfaces (Figure 10.2.16). At the beginning an estimate is
made of the condition of the gas and kiln feed at these interfaces. These include the gas outlet from
the bottom cyclone, the kiln inlet with gas off-take, the cooler inlet, and the tertiary air duct. On
this basis the iteration starts with the calculations for the preheater. One of the results which is
used further is the condition of the kiln feed before entry into the riser duct of the calciner, which
is included in the calculations for the calciner. This calculation step then gives the condition of the
kiln feed at the kiln inlet. This is followed by the kiln calculation, the results of which determine
the condition of the clinker entering the cooler. The results of a cooler calculation supply not only
the outlet condition of the clinker but also the temperature and composition of the secondary and
tertiary air as well as of the dust contained in them. The calculations for the bypass complete one
iteration step and the calculations are then continued with a fresh calculation for the preheater.
Table 10.2.6. Accuracy of the Balances
Balance area Energy balance, W Mass balance, g/h

Unit operation 0.01 0.01
Cyclone 1 10
Preheater 200 300
Calciner 100 100
Kiln 100 500
Cooler 100 0.1
Entire plant 500 1000
Within one iteration step for the complete plant the results for the plant sections are exchanged
between the sections. For example, after a kiln calculation, new results are available for the clinker
at the cooler inlet and for the kiln gas and dust at the kiln inlet. These are used immediately in the
calculations for the cooler and calciner. The results are also passed on in a similar way to the other
plant sections so that there is a progressive change in the input variables for the model. However,
during the calculation these changes become ever smaller until after a certain time the results reach
a steady state condition.
For the results presented here the calculation ends as soon as all the model sections and the
complete model fulfill the requirements for the accuracy of the balances listed in Table 10.2.6 and
the temperature profile of the kiln has not changed at any point by more than 2 K in 10 successive
iteration steps. As a rule this is the case after 30 to 80 steps and requires about 20 minutes in a
normal commercial PC (Pentium III, 800 MHz, Windows NT). The calculations have shown that
4000 Total heat

Clinker phase formation
600-1300°C
3000
Reaction of
organic constitutents Liquid phase
450-750°C formation
2000 > 1280°C
Reaction heat
1000 Evaporation
of water Calcination
< 100°C 550-960°C
0
500 1000 1500
Temperature, °C
Figure 10.2.17. Heat requirement and reactions during the heating of kiln feed.
lower demands on the accuracy for the unit operations can lead to numerical problems when solv-
ing the balances for the plant components which are based on them.
RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS

Heating the Kiln Feed
The heat requirement based on the above-mentioned model assumptions for heating kiln feed of
normal composition is illustrated in Figure 10.2.17 with the aid of two heating curves. The first
curve only describes the heats of reaction, i.e. those quantities of heat which are converted as a
result of chemical reactions of the kiln feed. The second curve describes the total energy require-
ment, i.e. that heat which in total is needed to reach the corresponding temperature.
Exothermic reactions lead to a drop in the curve for the heats of reaction (black) and endothermic
reactions lead to a rise. For the kiln feed on which these curves are based there is a theoretical heat
energy requirement for the clinker burning process of a total of 1540 kJ/kgcli. This is about 100 to
200 kJ/kgcli lower than is usually given as in the present case the combustion of organic constituents
in the kiln feed already covers part of the heat requirement. This can be seen in the curve for the
heats of reaction from the drop in the temperature range between 450°C and 750°C. On the other
hand the total heat converted is higher; it comes to 3456 kJ/kgcli for a final temperature of 1450°C.
The strongly endothermic calcination reaction is conspicuous in the temperature range above
about 650°C. It starts as low as 550°C and is completed at about 960°C. Between 600°C and 1300°C
it overlaps with the reaction of clinker phase formation, to which the exothermic reaction of β-C2S
formation makes a particularly significant contribution. Liquid phase formation begins when the
1,5
CaCO3
Solids content, kg/kgcli
1,0
C3S
C2S
0,5
SiO3 CaO C4AF

CA C3A
500 750 1000 1250 1500

Temperature, °C
Figure 10.2.18. Material transformation during the heating of kiln feed.
temperature exceeds 1280°C. The phase transition of the kiln feed from solid to liquid requires
heat which leads to a further rise in the heat requirement.
One of the differences between the heat of reaction and the total heat is that heat is needed for rais-
ing the temperature of the reaction products – gases and solids. This heat can be recovered to some
extent in the clinker burning process as the clinker does not leave the process at, for example, a tem-
perature of 1450°C. The heat produced during its cooling is available for heating the kiln feed and
offsetting heat losses, and makes a corresponding reduction in the total heat energy requirement.
Table 10.2.7. Calculated and Measured Amounts of Clinker Phases in a German

Cement Works, wt. %
Calculated on kiln Calculated on kiln
Clinker phase meal basis meal and ash basis Measurement
C3S 74.9 61.1 53 – 64
C2S 6.3 16.6 14.5 – 26.0
C3A 11.2 10.8 12 – 16
C4AF 5.3 4.6 4.0 – 6.0
C2F 0.3 0.8 k. A.
CA 0.5 1.9 k. A.
CaO 0.0 0.7 0.6 – 1.6
Other 1.5 3.5 k. A.
Figure 10.2.18 shows how the kiln feed composition changes as it is heated. Calcination proceeds
with increasing strength at about 650°C; there is a corresponding decrease in the CaCO3 concen-
tration while at the same time CaO is formed. However, the increase in CaO is diminished by the
formation of C2S, as CaO and SiO2 are consumed in this reaction. The clinker phases CA and C2F
(not shown) are also produced at even higher temperatures, above about 800°C. Above 1200°C
they are converted into C3A and C4AF, while C2S is converted into C3S. CaO also takes part in
these reactions.
The calculated percentages of the clinker phases are listed in Table 10.2.7. The results shown in
Figure 10.2.18 and the second column of Table 10.2.7 are based on a calculation which was carried
out with the kiln meal from a German cement works. The ash fractions from the fuel are therefore
not included in the calculation. The results show comparatively high levels of C3S and low levels of
C2S. The figures in the third column, however, come from a calculation for the entire plant in
which the ash introduced into the kiln and calciner mixes locally with the hot meal. Its SiO2
content leads to lower levels of C3S and higher levels of C2S in the clinker. The results agree well
with typical figures for the works.
The Complete Plant

The calculations were performed for the four-stage preheater plant shown in Figure 10.2.16, for
which an energy balances is available. All the data on the marginal conditions for the process were
taken from the test report as long as appropriate measurements had been carried out. This
included, for example, the information on the input materials and all the adjustments undertaken
by the operating personnel. Parameters which were not available were estimated on the basis of
literature information and empirical values from operational measurements.
Based on such a reference condition it is possible to apply changes to the model in order to investi-
gate the overall results. For this, the results of the reference condition are compared to those which
were obtained under changed conditions. It must be borne in mind that clinker with a quality
comparable with that of the reference condition must still be produced under the changed condi-
tions. This was ensured by assuming in the calculations that the same kiln feed temperature as in
the reference conditions must still be achieved in the sintering zone under the changed conditions.
In the studies this temperature was therefore adjusted to match the temperature in the reference
Modeling in Cement Kiln Operations
Table 10.2.8. Influence of Model Parameters and Process Engineering Variables
Loss on
Specific Change ignition Change Cooling
energy in energy at kiln in clinker area
requirement, requirement, Toff gas, Tkiln inlet, Tclinker, Tsecondary air, Ttertiary air, Tcooler exhaust air, inlet, production, efficiency,
kJ/kgcli kJ/kgcli °C °C °C °C °C °C wt. % wt. % %
Reference condition 3167 0 362 1019 177 1024 978 245 6.2 0.0 72.0
Worse dust collection
in preheater 3353 +186 381 1029 164 956 905 206 5.6 –9.1 74.3
Better dust collection
in top cyclone 3112 –55 360 1010 183 1054 1010 264 6.8 +4.2 70.9
Less dust in kiln 3087 –80 348 956 178 1028 982 248 8.1 +0.8 71.8
Fine-grained clinker 3079 –88 370 1046 89 1109 1067 188 5.1 –0.2 81.2
Coarse-grained clinker 3235 +68 358 1004 249 960 915 274 7.0 +0.1 65.4
No mixing of secondary
and tertiary air 3124 –43 350 969 183 1390 831 257 8.3 +0.2 70.6
Smaller bed depth 3204 +37 360 1012 217 992 946 259 6.6 +0.1 68.5
Delayed burn-out 3191 +24 367 1072 176 1021 975 243 5.6 –0.1 72.1
Increased radiation
from material in kiln 3145 –22 359 978 176 1020 974 244 6.8 0.0 72.1
Increased radiation
from kiln brickwork 3141 –26 358 965 176 1020 973 244 7.0 +0.1 72.1
Reduced radiation
from kiln gas 3197 +30 368 1080 177 1029 983 246 5.5 –0.1 71.9
Increased aeration in
front part of cooler 3189 +22 361 1014 178 1003 957 280 6.5 +0.0 69.8
Increased aeration in
rear part of cooler 3158 –9 363 1021 189 1031 984 216 6.2 +0.0 72.8
1301
1302
Table 10.2.8. Influence of Model Parameters and Process Engineering Variables
Loss on
Specific Change ignition Change Cooling
energy in energy at kiln in clinker area
requirement, requirement, Toff gas, Tkiln inlet, Tclinker, Tsecondary air, Ttertiary air, Tcooler exhaust air, inlet, production, efficiency,
kJ/kgcli kJ/kgcli °C °C °C °C °C °C wt. % wt. % %
Reference condition 3167 0 362 1019 177 1024 978 245 6.2 0 72,0
Additional 5th cyclone 3086 –81 314 1051 177 1028 982 247 5.0 +0.7 71,9
Additional 5th and
6th cyclones 3046 –121 282 1073 177 1027 981 247 4.2 +0.8 71,9
No bypass 3112 –55 376 1035 179 1034 989 251 5.6 +1.3 71,7
Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

Sintering zone
temperature – 50 K 3103 –64 355 979 168 965 918 228 7.3 +0.1 73,9
Reduced brickwork
thickness 3200 +33 357 998 177 1024 978 245 6.8 +0.1 72,0
False air at kiln inlet 3192 +25 367 1009 177 1027 980 246 6.7 +0.2 71,9
C3S-rich clinker 3249 +82 358 1002 176 1018 971 241 7.0 –1.0 72,2
Low-C3S clinker 3082 –85 366 1036 177 1026 980 247 5.6 +0.9 72,0
Low-C3S clinker,
sintering zone
temperature – 80 K 2984 –183 354 971 164 934 888 222 7.3 +1.0 74,9
condition with the aid of the fuel feed to the primary firing system. The additional use or saving of
fuel therefore permits an initial estimate to be made of the effects of the parameter change on the
energy in the complete process.
The following calculation studies on the complete model refer not only to the effect of model
parameters and process engineering variables (Table 10.2.8) but also to changes in the complete
plant and material criteria (Table 10.2.9). In each case an individual parameter was changed and at
the same time the kiln feed temperature in the sintering zone was adjusted to match the reference
condition with the aid of the fuel feed to the primary firing system.
Additional correction measures – particularly optimization of the operating condition – were

dispensed with so as not to mask the effects of the parameter change. The calculations presented
here should therefore not be evaluated as being the result of plant optimization to achieve the
lowest possible specific energy requirement. This requires further calculations in which specific
changes are also made to other settings. In addition, practical implementation would have to be
checked in each individual case in order to avoid plant stoppages or damage.
Dust collection in preheater. The changes in the recirculating dust systems in the preheater
have a comparatively significant effect on the specific energy consumption of the plant. A deterio-
ration in the collecting efficiency of the two top cyclones by 5% in each case to 90% and 85%,
respectively, and in the third cyclone by 10% to 60% lead to an additional consumption of
186 kJ/kgcli (+5.9%). A substantial proportion of this is accounted for by the losses with the off gas
(103 kJ/kgcli) and the off gas dust (58 kJ/kgcli). The slightly increased wall heat losses contrast with
somewhat lower losses through cooler exhaust air and clinker.
Increased dust losses reduce the clinker production by 9.1% and in this way also affect the temper-
ature profile in the plant. The cooling air in the cooler is distributed to a smaller mass of clinker so
that this is cooled to a greater extent. At the same time there is a drop in the temperatures of the
secondary and tertiary air and in the temperature in the sintering zone (-44 K). This results in a
deterioration of the heat transfer from the gas to the kiln feed, and the gas temperature at the kiln
inlet rises by 10 K. Increased recirculating dust systems lead to the establishment of higher temper-
atures than in the reference condition, especially in the upper part of the preheater.
Similarly, an improvement in the collection efficiency of the top cyclone from 95% to 98% with
otherwise unchanged collection efficiencies produces saving of 55 kJ/kgcli (-1.7%) and an increase
of 4.2% in the clinker production.
Dust generation in rotary kiln. In the reference condition the dust concentration in the kiln
gas rises along the kiln axis from 0.112 kg/m3stp, dry (0.036 kg/kgcli) in the incoming secondary air
to 1.38 kg/m3stp, dry (0.564 kg/kgcli) at the kiln inlet. During the parameter studies a lower dust
generation was assumed so that the dust content of the gas at the kiln inlet rose to only 0.654
kg/m3stp, dry (0.268 kg/kgcli). This led not only to a reduction of 27% in the exchange of kiln feed
and kiln feed dust between kiln and preheater but also of a reduction of 80 kJ/kgcli (2.5%) in the
specific energy consumption, with an increase of 0.8% in clinker output.
Half the saving is due to the off gas which leaves the preheater at 348°C instead of 362°C. Lower
bypass losses and reduced wall heat losses account for further savings of about 10 kJ/kgcli each.
The changed recirculating dust systems lead to a displacement of the material flows and therefore
also of the temperature profile. The smaller quantity of dust means that less heat is carried from
the kiln into the preheater and calciner so that there is a general decrease in the temperatures
there. In the kiln the kiln feed is heated more rapidly than in the reference condition as the heat
from the firing system is distributed to a smaller quantity of kiln feed. This increases the gas
temperature in the sintering zone, which assists the heat transfer from gas to kiln feed. As a result
the gas temperature at the kiln inlet drops to 956°C, which is 63 K lower than in the reference
condition, while the temperature in the cooler remains virtually unchanged.
Particle size distribution of clinker. Fine-grained clinker is easier to cool than coarse-
grained clinker. The assumptions made here about the particle size distribution (Figure 10.2.14)
have significant effect on the efficiency of the cooling area; for fine-grained clinker the calculation
gives an unrealistically high value (81.2%). The change in the particle size distribution has a direct
influence on the specific energy consumption of the plant. In the case of fine-grained clinker, it
gives a saving of 88 kJ/kgcli (2.8%) and for coarse-grained clinker results in an additional consump-
tion of 68 kJ/kgcli (2.2%). In both cases this is primarily attributable to changed energy losses
through the clinker and cooler exhaust air. At the same time the temperature profile of the kiln,
preheater, and calciner is raised for fine-grained clinker and lowered for coarse-grained clinker.
Mixing of secondary and tertiary air in cooler. The temperatures of the secondary and
tertiary air depend on the mixing of the air within the cooler, which can be specified in the model
with the aid of a parameter. Without any mixing the strongly heated air from the first few
segments passes exclusively into the secondary air and the less strongly heated air from the follow-
ing segments passes into the tertiary air. In the case of complete mixing the two air flows leave the
cooler at the same temperature.
Full theoretical separation of the two air streams leads to an energy saving of 43 kJ/kgcli. The
majority of this is due to savings in the off gas (32 kJ/kgcli). The wall heat losses are also reduced by
18 kJ/kgcli, and the losses due to the exhaust air temperature from the cooler, which is 12 K higher,
are increased by 11 kJ/kgcli. Under these theoretical preconditions the secondary air reaches an
unrealistically high temperature of 1390°C. This has the effect of increasing the gas temperature in
the sintering zone of the kiln by 28 K to 1928°C. Because of the resulting improved heat transfer
from gas to kiln feed the gas temperature at the kiln inlet falls to 969°C, which is 50 K lower than
in the reference condition. This difference is reduced in the direction of the gas flow, and the raw
gas leaves the preheater with a temperature which is 12°K lower than in the reference condition.
Depth of clinker bed in cooler. By increasing transport speed of the clinker in the cooler,
the depth of the clinker bed was reduced from 63 cm to 50 cm. This shortens the path of the air
through the clinker and reduces the contact zone between cooling air and clinker. There is a corre-
sponding deterioration in the heat transfer, and the efficiency of the cooling area decreases to
68.5%, which is 3.5% lower than in the reference condition. The additional heat losses from the
cooler increase the specific energy requirement by 37 kJ/kgcli (1.2%), and the temperatures of the
secondary and tertiary air each fall by about 30°K. In contrast, the temperature of the clinker at the
cooler outlet rises by 40°K to 217°C and the temperature of the cooler exhaust air rises by 14°K to
259°C. Temperature distribution and flows of kiln feed in the other parts of the plant change only
very slightly.
Burn-out behavior of fuel in kiln firing system. In the reference case it is assumed that
the coal fed into the primary firing system is completely burnt in the first 15 m of the flame and
that there is a linear decrease in the quantity of fuel converted. These preconditions produce a
linear dependence of the amount of heat liberated on the flame length. An extension of this burn-
out distance by 50% to 22.5 m leads to an additional heat requirement of 24 kJ/kgcli (0.7%) caused
by displacement of the temperature profile toward the preheater. This raises the temperature of the
gas at the kiln inlet by 32°K and in the off gas by 5°K, and leads to higher raw gas and bypass gas
losses.
Radiation properties of brickwork, kiln feed, and gas. The radiation properties of a
material are described by the emissivities of the brickwork, kiln feed, and gas. The parameters can
adopt values between 0.0 and 1.0, in which high numerical values signify a good radiation heat
exchange between the medium in question and its surroundings. In three independent calculations
the emissivities of the brickwork, kiln feed, and gas in the kiln were each changed by 0.3. The
effects on the specific energy requirement amounted to 0.7% to 1.0% and can be attributed
entirely to the temperature changes of off gas and bypass gas.
Raising the emissivity of the kiln feed in the kiln from 0.6 in the reference condition to 0.9 theoret-
ically assists its heat exchange with the surroundings. There is an improvement in the heat transfer
from the kiln gases to the kiln feed in the kiln and the specific energy requirement is reduced by
22 kJ/kgcli (0.7%). Compared with the reference condition the gas temperatures fall by 23°K near
the firing system and by 41°K at the kiln inlet. However, this temperature difference from the refer-
ence condition is reduced in the preheater and calciner and is only 3°K in the off gas. The effects
on the processes in the cooler are slight as the clinker leaves the kiln at practically the same
temperature as in the reference condition.
Raising the emissivity of the brickwork from 0.5 to 0.8 leads to comparable results, with an energy
saving of 26 kJ/kgcli (0.8%). In this case only the kiln wall has a major involvement in the increased
heat flow from the kiln gas to the kiln feed. Theoretically, a reduction in the emissivity of the kiln
gas from 0.8 to 0.5 leads to worse heat transfer in the kiln. The temperature of the gas at the kiln
inlet rises by 37°K to 1056°C, and higher gas temperatures (+26°K) are also reached in the sintering
zone.
Distribution of cooling air in cooler. In the reference condition all three grates of equal
size in the cooler are uniformly aerated. Two independent calculations were carried out to investi-
gate the influence of increased aeration of the front grate and of the rear grate, respectively, with a
constant total quantity of cooling air. During aeration of the rear grate with 50% of the cooling air,
the temperatures of the secondary and tertiary air are increased while the temperature of the
cooler exhaust air falls. The overall effect is slight and leads to an improvement of only 9 kJ/kgcli in
the specific energy requirement. Increased cooling in the front part of the cooler, however, raises
the specific energy requirement by 22 kJ/kgcli.
Additional cyclone stages. The heat exchange between gas and kiln feed can be improved
through additional cyclone stages in the preheater. Theoretically, a new fifth stage reduces the
specific energy requirement of the plant by 8 kJ/kgcli (2.6%) and a sixth stage produces a total
saving compared with the reference condition of 121 kJ/kgcli (3.8%). In both cases this is attributa-
ble entirely to the reduced heat losses through off gas and off gas dust, the temperatures of which
are reduced by 48°K in the case of the five-stage preheater and by 80°K in the case of the six-stage
preheater. At the same time the temperature level at the kiln inlet also rises as a result of the more
intensive heat exchange in the preheater, and there is a corresponding drop in the loss on ignition
of the kiln feed. The increase in clinker production by 0.7% and 0.8% respectively can be attrib-
uted to the increased total dust collection by the preheater, as it is assumed in all cases that the
collection efficiency of the top cyclone is 95%.
Operation without bypass. The gas off-take at the kiln inlet of 3.5% relative to the gas volu-
metric flow is omitted during the operation without bypass. This results in savings in the gas and
dust of 92 kJ/kgcli and 7 kJ/kgcli, respectively. At the same time the kiln throughput is increased by
1.3% because of the lower dust losses. The greater quantity of clinker in the cooler causes the tem-
peratures of the secondary and tertiary air to rise by about 10°K and also contributes to the fact that
the gas temperature at the kiln inlet is 16°K higher than in the reference condition. The higher
temperature level is maintained as the gas passes through the preheater and leads to higher off gas
losses (+51 kJ/kgcli) than in the reference condition. There is an overall heat gain of 55 kJ/kgcli
(1.7%).
Lowering the sintering zone temperature. As a rule the sintering zone temperature
cannot be lowered without also changing the nature of the clinker. However, under certain condi-
tions it is possible, by using fluxing agents and/or mineralizers, to keep these changes within justi-
fiable limits. In the present case it was assumed that such measures allow the sintering zone
temperature to be reduced by 50°K. This results in an overall fuel saving of 64 kJ/kgcli (2%). This is
attributable primarily to lower losses in the off gas and cooler exhaust air. However, there is also a
reduction in the total wall heat losses by 14 kJ/kgcli as well as in the heat losses through the clinker.
Wall thickness of brickwork. As part of the calculations the thicknesses of the brickwork for
the kiln, calciner, tertiary air duct, and cyclones were each reduced by 50 mm. This increased the
wall heat losses from 323 kJ/kgcli to 374 kJ/kgcli. In conjunction with the lower off gas losses this
resulted in total in an increase in the specific energy requirement by 33 kJ/kgcli (1.1%).
False air at kiln inlet. False air at the kiln inlet can be caused by, for example, a defective kiln
inlet seal. Additional air ingress of 0.052 m3stp, dry/h was assumed for the calculations so that the
O2 concentration at this point rose from 4.9% to 6.2%, and the kiln feed was cooled. To compen-
sate for this the heat input had to be raised by 25 kJ/kgcli (0.80%) in order to maintain the sinter-
Table 10.2.10. Calculated Clinker Phases, wt. %
Reference case Lime-rich clinker Low-lime clinker

Clinker phase LSF = 93.6 LSF = 100 LSF = 86.0
Model Acc. to Bogue Model Acc. to Bogue Model Acc. to Bogue
C3S 61.1 57.8 67.7 74.9 51.3 37.9
C2S 16.6 20.9 10.6 6.4 26.2 39.3
C3A 10.8 12.7 11.2 12.3 9.4 13.4
C4AF 4.6 5.2 4.8 5.1 3.9 5.4
C2F 0.8 k. A. 2.6 k. A. 2.6 k. A.
CA 1.9 k. A. 1.0 k. A. 3.3 k. A.
CaO 0.7 0.0 1.8 0.0 0.2 0.0
Other 3.5 k. A. 0.3 k. A. 3.1 k. A.
ing zone temperature. The losses occur primarily in the off gas, leaving the preheater at a tempera-
ture which is 5°K higher than in the reference condition.
Clinker quality. Material influencing factors were investigated by assuming differing levels of
lime in the kiln meal. In the reference condition, the lime standard of the mixture of kiln meal and
fuel ash was 93.6. This mixture was changed in two calculations so that the lime standards were
100.0 and 86.0, respectively, for the same silica ratio, alumina ratio, and silicic acid modulus.
Burning the lime-rich clinker theoretically increases the specific energy requirement by 82 kJ/kgcli
as a result of the chemical reactions. This is due primarily to the additional energy for calcining the
CaCO3, which is partially offset by the heat recovery during the clinker phase formation. Unlike
Bogue (1929) calculation, the model also takes into account the formation of intermediate phases
which are not present in the burnt clinker (Table 10.2.2). The percentage of C3S increases from
61.1% to 67.7% (Table 10.2.10) at the expense of the percentage of C2S, which decreases from
16.6% to 10.6%. At the same time, the clinker production is reduced by 1.0%. The use of the low-
lime kiln feed mix has the opposite effect. With a LSF (Lime Saturation Factor) of 86 the specific
energy requirement falls by 85 kJ/kgcli compared with the reference condition and leads to a C3S
content of only 51.3%. At the same time, the clinker production rises by 0.9%.
In practice the change in LSF is generally linked with a change in process temperatures. With the
simultaneous assumption of a low-lime kiln feed mix and a sintering zone temperature which is
reduced by 80°K, there is theoretically a reduction in the specific energy requirement by183
kJ/kgcli. This is made up primarily of savings in the chemical reactions (87 kJ/kgcli), off gas (34
kJ/kgcli), cooler exhaust air (24 kJ/kgcli), and wall heat (23 kJ/kgcli). It should be mentioned that in
order to save fuel energy there have been repeated attempts to produce low-lime “belite clinker”
and adjust the quality of the cement by grinding to a higher fineness. However, the success of this
procedure is debatable because of the greater energy expenditure for grinding the clinker.
FUTURE WORK AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Simplified expressions for burning cement clinker in rotary kiln plants in the cement industry have
been combined in this work to form a mathematical model. It takes into account material as well
as process engineering and plant processes, and is currently applied to improve the mode of opera-
tion of plants with respect to energy-saving and environmental protection.
The model provides results which agree with the present understanding of the process. However,
they can be verified only in individual cases as it is not yet possible to make sufficiently accurate
measurements in all areas of the kiln plant. This applies, for example, to measurements within the
kiln and cooler. Measurements between the cyclone stages, at the calciner and bypass, and at the
kiln inlet and kiln hood are in fact possible but require considerable effort. Further development of
possible measuring techniques for these areas is therefore desirable.
Improvements to the model are needed, especially with respect to the material processes. From the
energy point of view these processes can be comparable with plant and process engineering factors
and must therefore not be neglected in the energy and mass balances. They are also important with
respect to clinker quality and environmental protection. In particular, the reactions and recirculat-
ing systems of sulphur, chlorine, and alkalis should be included in the model. Clinker phase forma-
tion must also be described more accurately to provide better coverage of the processes in the
different zones of the kiln.
From the point of view of process engineering, the very significant influence in the model of parti-
cle size distribution of clinker on the heat transfer in the grate cooler should be checked with the
aid of operational measurements. Laboratory measurements of the radiation properties of the kiln
feed could contribute to improved calculations of the heat transfer in the kiln. Differentiation of
the kiln feed on the basis of particle size fractions would permit a more sophisticated examination
of the collection characteristics of the preheater.
Even in its present state the model can be used to carry out theoretical investigations of changes in
a plant in advance. With a procedure analogous to that used in this work, the changes can be
assessed by comparing the calculations for a reference condition with the calculated results for the
modified plant. At present this primarily concerns energy and material questions for optimizing
the mode of operation. In future, this can be extended to cover emissions.
REFERENCES
Bogue, R. H., “Calculating the Chemical Composition of Portland Cement,” Ind. Eng. Chem. 1,
No. 4, 1929, pages 192-197.
Elkjær, H. P., “Determining the Heat Consumption of a 4-Stage Preheater by Applying a
Mathematical Model,” Zement-Kalk-Gips International, Vol. 33, No. 2, 1980, pages 63-68.
Frankenberger, R., “Conclusions from Thermal Efficiencies of Suspension Preheaters,” Zement-
Kalk-Gips International, Vol. 2, 1969, pages 89-94.
Frankenberger, R., “Effect of Dust cycles on the Efficiency of Raw Meal Preheaters,” Zement-Kalk-
Gips International, Vol. 6, 1970, pages 254-262.
Frankenberger, R., “Contribution to the Calcination of Heat transfer in Rotary Cement Kilns,”
Zement-Kalk-Gips International, Vol. 4, 1971, pages 152-156.
Frisch, V., and Jeschar, R., “Possibilities for Optimizing the Burning Process in Rotary Kiln
Systems,” Zement-Kalk-Gips International, Vol. 10, 1983, pages 549-560.
Gardeik, H. O., “Simplified Mathematical Models for Calculating the Heat Transfer in Internally
Heated Adiabatic Tubes (Convection Models). Part 1: Idealized Rotating Tube with Infinitely Large
Thermal Conductivity Coefficient of the Wall,” Zement-Kalk-Gips International, Vol. 5, 1979a,
pages 201-210.
Gardeik, H. O., “Simplified Mathematical Models for Calculating the Heat Transfer in Internally
Heated Adiabatic Tubes (Convection Models). Part 2: Rotating Tube with Finite Value of the
Thermal Conductivity of the Wall,” Zement-Kalk-Gips International, Vol. 9, 1979b, pages 434-441.
Gardeik, H. O., “Influence of the Clinkering Temperature on the Specific Energy Consumption in
Cement Clinker Burning,” Zement-Kalk-Gips International, Vol. 34, No. 4, 1981a, pages 169-174.
Gardeik, H. O., and Rosemann, H., “Fuel Energy Consumption and Fuel Energy Apportionment in
the Precalcining Process,” Zement-Kalk-Gips International, Vol. 34, No. 9, 1981b, pages 435-444.
Gardeik, H. O., and Ludwig, H., “Calculations of Heat Loss Through the Walls of Rotary Kilns and
Mills. Part II: Approximation Equations and Applications,” Zement-Kalk-Gips International, Vol.
38, 1985, pages 144-149.
Hohenhinnebusch, W., and Dercks, W., “Heat and Flow Studies for the Development of the Krupp-
Counterflow-Preheater,” Zement-Kalk-Gips International, Vol. 2, 1969, pages 66-74.
Kirchhoff, R., and Bauer, W., “Determination of the Spectral Emissivities of Temperature Resistant
Structured Ceramics,” 40th International colloquium on heat resistant material, Aachen, Germany,
September 30th – October 1st 1997.
Klein, H., Modular Models and Dynamic Simulation of the Cement Clinker Burning Process, (in
German), Master thesis, University of Siegen, Germany, 1999.
Maas, U., Determination of Design Criteria for Rotary Kilns for The Burning of Highly Calcined
Cement Raw Meal, (in German), PhD Thesis, Technical University of Clausthal, Germany, 1995.
Menzel, K., “Cyclone Preheaters –A Heat technological Comparison,” Zement-Kalk-Gips
International, Vol. 40, No. 3, 1987, pages 118-126.
Onissi, T. R., “Some Considerations on the Heat Transfer in the Cement Rotary Kiln,” Zement-
Kalk-Gips International, Vol. 12, 1980, pages 639-647.
Reh, L., “Calcining in the Circulating Fluidized Bed,” Zement-Kalk-Gips International, Vol. 9, 1983,
pages 512-516.
Ritzmann, H., “The Influence of the Dust Cycles on the Heat Consumption of Rotary Kiln Plants
with Raw Material Preheaters,” Zement-Kalk-Gips International, Vol. 12, 1971, pages 576-580.
Rosa, J., “Mathematical Formulation of the Heat Transfer in the Rotary Kiln,” Zement-Kalk-Gips
International, Vol. 8, 1970, pages 368-377.
Rosemann, H., and Gardeik, H. O., “Influence upon Energy Conversion in Calciners in the
Precalcination of Cement Raw Meal,” Zement-Kalk-Gips International, Vol. 9, 1983, pages 506-511.
Rosemann, H., “Energy Transfer in Precalcining Installations,” Zement-Kalk-Gips International,
Vol. 2, 1986a, pages 84-86.
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Modeling Kiln Operation

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Modeling Kiln Operation

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Chapter 10.

by Georg Locher* and Martin Schneider*

Mathematical modeling of production processes is already far advanced in many branches of

BACKGROUND AND PREVIOUS WORK

Designation Chemical formulae Designation Chemical formulae

Table 10.2.4. Gas Constituents

Designation Chemical formulae

Table 10.2.5. Reactions

Critical Unit Operations

Balance boundary Reaction space

Gas in Gas out

Figure 10.2.2. Combustion of fuels (C).

Heating/cooling of a stream of solids. This situation relates to a stream of solids of any

Balance boundary Reaction space

Gas in Gas Temperature Gas out

Figure 10.2.3. Heating/cooling a stream of solids (HS).

Balance boundary Reaction space

Gas in Material-gas Heat Gas out

Material in Mass balance Heat balance Material out

Figure 10.2.4. Dispersion of solids in gas (SG).

Balance boundary Reaction space

Gas in Gas Temperature Gas out

Balance boundary Reaction space

Figure 10.2.6. Heating/cooling a gas stream (HG).

Balance boundary Reaction space

Figure 10.2.7. Mixing of two gas streams (GG).

Figure 10.2.9. Sequence of calculations for the cyclone of preheater.

Cyclone Gas Solids Heat

Kiln Kiln Cooler Tertiary

Kiln feed Kiln feed

Figure 10.2.11. Subdivision of the rotary kiln into segments.

The overall heat exchange of the gas ∆Q•

Material passing screen, % 75

Cooling air Balance elements

Overall Plant Operation

Table 10.2.6. Accuracy of the Balances

Balance area Energy balance, W Mass balance, g/h

4000 Total heat

RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS

SiO3 CaO C4AF

500 750 1000 1250 1500

Figure 10.2.18. Material transformation during the heating of kiln feed.

Table 10.2.7. Calculated and Measured Amounts of Clinker Phases in a German

The Complete Plant

Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

Additional correction measures – particularly optimization of the operating condition – were

Table 10.2.10. Calculated Clinker Phases, wt. %

Reference case Lime-rich clinker Low-lime clinker

FUTURE WORK AND RECOMMENDATIONS

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