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ANTICORROSIVE RUBBER LINING
PLASTICS DESIGN LIBRARY (PDL)
PDL HANDBOOK SERIES
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Biopolymers: Processing and Products, Michael Niaounakis (ISBN: 9780323266987)
Biopolymers: Reuse, Recycling, and Disposal, Michael Niaounakis (ISBN: 9781455731459)
Carbon Nanotube Reinforced Composites, Marcio Loos (ISBN: 9781455731954)
Extrusion, 2e, John Wagner & Eldridge Mount (ISBN: 9781437734812)
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Handbook of Thermoplastic Elastomers, Jiri G Drobny (ISBN: 9780323221368)
Handbook of Thermoset Plastics, 2e, Hanna Dodiuk & Sidney Goodman (ISBN: 9781455731077)
High Performance Polymers, 2e, Johannes Karl Fink (ISBN: 9780323312226)
Introduction to Fluoropolymers, Sina Ebnesajjad (ISBN: 9781455774425)
Ionizing Radiation and Polymers, Jiri G Drobny (ISBN: 9781455778812)
Manufacturing Flexible Packaging, Thomas Dunn (ISBN: 9780323264365)
Plastic Films in Food Packaging, Sina Ebnesajjad (ISBN: 9781455731121)
Plastics in Medical Devices, 2e, Vinny Sastri (ISBN: 9781455732012)
Polylactic Acid, Rahmat et. al. (ISBN: 9781437744590)
Polyvinyl Fluoride, Sina Ebnesajjad (ISBN: 9781455778850)
Reactive Polymers, 2e, Johannes Karl Fink (ISBN: 9781455731497)
The Effect of Creep and Other Time Related Factors on Plastics and Elastomers, 3e, Laurence McKeen (ISBN: 9780323353137)
The Effect of Long Term Thermal Exposure on Plastics and Elastomers, Laurence McKeen (ISBN: 9780323221085)
The Effect of Sterilization on Plastics and Elastomers, 3e, Laurence McKeen (ISBN: 9781455725984)
The Effect of Temperature and Other Factors on Plastics and Elastomers, 3e, Laurence McKeen (ISBN: 9780323310161)
The Effect of UV Light and Weather on Plastics and Elastomers, 3e, Laurence McKeen (ISBN: 9781455728510)
Thermoforming of Single and Multilayer Laminates, Ali Ashter (ISBN: 9781455731725)
Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites, 2e, Michel Biron (ISBN: 9781455778980)
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ANTICORROSIVE RUBBER LINING

A Practical Guide for Plastics Engineers

Chellappa Chandrasekaran
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 Contents

About the Author............................................................................................................................................ xxi

Preface��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xxiii
Acknowledgment����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xxv
Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ xxvii

1 Rubber—A Miracle Material........................................................................................................................ 1

Rubber, an Elastic Concept............................................................................................................................... 1
On Icy Roads and in Ablative Flame................................................................................................................ 1
In the Beginning................................................................................................................................................ 1
Saturation and Unsaturation.............................................................................................................................. 2
Hardening and Softening Degradations............................................................................................................ 2
Crosslinking...................................................................................................................................................... 3
The Origin of Polymer Science......................................................................................................................... 3
The Polymerization Process.............................................................................................................................. 4
Crystalline and Amorphous States.................................................................................................................... 4
Development in Synthetic Rubbers................................................................................................................... 4
Vulcanization, Accelerators, and Nitric Acid.................................................................................................... 4
Rubber Compounding Technology................................................................................................................... 5
Range of Rubbers.............................................................................................................................................. 5
Anticorrosive Rubber Lining Technology......................................................................................................... 6
References......................................................................................................................................................... 6

2 Rubber for Corrosion Protection.................................................................................................................. 9

Types of Corrosion.......................................................................................................................................... 11
Uniform Attack........................................................................................................................................ 11
Galvanic Corrosion.................................................................................................................................. 11
Crevice Corrosion.................................................................................................................................... 12
Pitting....................................................................................................................................................... 12
Intergranular Corrosion............................................................................................................................ 12
Selective Leaching................................................................................................................................... 12
Erosion Corrosion.................................................................................................................................... 12
Stress Corrosion....................................................................................................................................... 12
Types of Rubber Lining Based on Rubbers.................................................................................................... 12
Corrosion in Industries.................................................................................................................................... 13
Fertilizer Industry.................................................................................................................................... 13
Power Plants............................................................................................................................................. 13
Treatment of Ores.................................................................................................................................... 14
Chlor-Alkali Industry...................................................................................................................................... 14
Mercury Cells in the Caustic Soda Industry................................................................................................... 14

ix
x Contents

Membrane Technology.................................................................................................................................... 15
Flexible Cell Covers........................................................................................................................................ 15
Steel Industry.................................................................................................................................................. 17
Transport Industry........................................................................................................................................... 17
Electro-Plating Industry.................................................................................................................................. 18
Fluorine Industries.......................................................................................................................................... 18
Explosives Industry......................................................................................................................................... 18
Pulp and Paper Industry.................................................................................................................................. 19
Ore and Mining Industry................................................................................................................................. 19
References....................................................................................................................................................... 19

3 Wear-Resistant Rubbers for Ore and Mining Industries......................................................................... 21

Wear Pattern.................................................................................................................................................... 21
Conveyor System............................................................................................................................................ 22
Slurry Transportation...................................................................................................................................... 23
Wear-Resistant Polyurethane Rubber Sheeting............................................................................................... 23
Slurry Specification......................................................................................................................................... 24
Future of Hydraulic Transportation of Solids................................................................................................. 24
Resistance to Abrasion.................................................................................................................................... 26
Dry Abrasion................................................................................................................................................... 27
Wet Abrasion................................................................................................................................................... 27
References....................................................................................................................................................... 28

4 Chemical Resistance of Biopolymers........................................................................................................... 29

Research and Development in Biopolymers................................................................................................... 29
Styrene–Soybean Polymer.............................................................................................................................. 29
Guayule Rubber.............................................................................................................................................. 29
Biobutadiene Rubber....................................................................................................................................... 29
Bio-PDO Polymer........................................................................................................................................... 29
Bioisoprene..................................................................................................................................................... 30
Bio-EPDM...................................................................................................................................................... 30
Biopolymers Versus Synthetic Polymers........................................................................................................ 31
Substitute for Fossil Fuels............................................................................................................................... 31
Resistance to Chemicals.................................................................................................................................. 31
Soy Protein...................................................................................................................................................... 32
Biodegradation, Compostability, and Recyclability ....................................................................................... 32
Environmental Impacts—Carbon Neutrality.................................................................................................. 33
Future Outlook................................................................................................................................................ 33
Current Isoprene Technology Versus Green Isoprene Technology................................................................. 33
References....................................................................................................................................................... 34

5 Corrosion Resistance of Fluoropolymers.................................................................................................... 35

The Difference Between FPM, FKM, and Viton............................................................................................ 36
Chemical Resistance of Fluororubbers........................................................................................................... 36
Temperature Resistance........................................................................................................................... 36
Blends With Other Polymers........................................................................................................................... 36
Pharmaceutical Processing Equipment........................................................................................................... 38
Contents xi

Key Properties of PTFE.................................................................................................................................. 38

Thermal Stability............................................................................................................................................. 38
PTFE Paste Extrusion..................................................................................................................................... 38
Perfluoroalkoxy............................................................................................................................................... 39
Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene...................................................................................................................... 39
Polyvinylidene Difluoride............................................................................................................................... 39
PTFE- and PFA-Lined Pipe and Fittings........................................................................................................ 39
Expansion Bellows.......................................................................................................................................... 39
Weathering and Ozone Resistance.................................................................................................................. 39
Flame Retardance............................................................................................................................................ 40
Low-Temperature Resistance.......................................................................................................................... 40
Use in Vacuum................................................................................................................................................ 40
Gas Permeability............................................................................................................................................. 40
References....................................................................................................................................................... 41

6 Rubber Lining for Sea Water Systems....................................................................................................... 43

Design Considerations in a Sea Water Corrosion Protecting System............................................................. 44
Epoxy Resin.................................................................................................................................................... 45
Polyurethane Coating...................................................................................................................................... 45
Surface Preparation Methods.......................................................................................................................... 45
Specific Corrosion Protection Measures......................................................................................................... 46
Intake Water Tunnels....................................................................................................................................... 46
Trash Rack and Traveling Water Screens........................................................................................................ 46
Condenser Water Boxes.................................................................................................................................. 47
Condenser Tubes and Tube Sheets.................................................................................................................. 47
Piping, Pumps, and Heat Exchangers............................................................................................................. 47
Field Observations.......................................................................................................................................... 47
Corrosion-Resistant Materials for Sea Water-Based Systems in Nuclear Power Plants ................................ 48
Reference........................................................................................................................................................ 49

7 Rubber Linings for Oilfield Equipment...................................................................................................... 51

Well Fluid........................................................................................................................................................ 51
Completion Fluid............................................................................................................................................ 51
Stimulation Fluid............................................................................................................................................. 51
Explosive Decompression............................................................................................................................... 53
Effect of Increasing Molecular Weight........................................................................................................... 53
References....................................................................................................................................................... 56

8 Curing Technology........................................................................................................................................ 57
Principles of Vulcanization............................................................................................................................. 57
Different Methods of Vulcanization................................................................................................................ 57
Sulfur and Sulfurless Vulcanization................................................................................................................ 59
Vulcanization With Peroxides......................................................................................................................... 59
Vulcanization Conditions................................................................................................................................ 59
Effect of Thickness.......................................................................................................................................... 60
Effect of Temperature on Curing Time........................................................................................................... 60
Effects of Thermal Stability............................................................................................................................ 60
xii Contents

Techniques of Vulcanization........................................................................................................................... 60
Compression Molding..................................................................................................................................... 60
Transfer Molding............................................................................................................................................ 61
Injection Molding............................................................................................................................................ 61
Isostatic Molding............................................................................................................................................. 61
Open Cures...................................................................................................................................................... 61
Continuous Vulcanization System................................................................................................................... 62
Cold Vulcanization.......................................................................................................................................... 62
Cure With High-Energy Radiation.................................................................................................................. 62
Optimum Cure................................................................................................................................................. 62
Tensile Strength....................................................................................................................................... 63
Modulus................................................................................................................................................... 63
Hardness................................................................................................................................................... 63
Control of Production Cures........................................................................................................................... 64
Curing Time.................................................................................................................................................... 64
Common Defects in Vulcanizates................................................................................................................... 64
Air Blisters...................................................................................................................................................... 64
Tearing............................................................................................................................................................. 65
Porosity........................................................................................................................................................... 65
Debonding From Metal................................................................................................................................... 65
Surface Scorching........................................................................................................................................... 65
References....................................................................................................................................................... 65

9 Rubber Lining for Nuclear Equipment...................................................................................................... 67

Radiation Environment and Upgradation of Rubber Compounds.................................................................. 67
Acceptance Criteria of Radiation-Resistant Rubber Compounds................................................................... 67
Aging by Radiation and Heat.......................................................................................................................... 67
Rubber Lining of Tanks and Pipes.................................................................................................................. 68
Recommendations for System Components in the Nuclear Plant.................................................................. 68
Polychloroprene Rubber................................................................................................................................. 69
Teflon (Polytetrafluoroethylene)..................................................................................................................... 69
Ethylene-Propylene-Diene-Monomer............................................................................................................. 69
Polyurethanes.................................................................................................................................................. 70
Radiation Exposure......................................................................................................................................... 70
Water Absorption............................................................................................................................................ 70
Synergy Effects Between Radiation and Heat................................................................................................ 70
Units of Radiation........................................................................................................................................... 70
Water Treatment Plant Installed in Nuclear Installations................................................................................ 70
Radiation Units............................................................................................................................................... 71
Selecting Elastomers for Nuclear Plant Applications..................................................................................... 72
References....................................................................................................................................................... 72

10 Rubber Lining for a Sulfur Dioxide Scrubbing System............................................................................ 73

Sulfur Dioxide Corrosion and Atmospheric Pollution.................................................................................... 73
Rubber Linings................................................................................................................................................ 74
Atmospheric Pollution.................................................................................................................................... 74
Methods of Fuel or Flue-Gas Purification....................................................................................................... 75
References....................................................................................................................................................... 76
Contents xiii

11 Raw Materials for Rubber Lining Compounds......................................................................................... 77

Introduction..................................................................................................................................................... 77
Natural Rubber................................................................................................................................................ 77
Synthetic Rubbers........................................................................................................................................... 77
Polyisoprene Rubber................................................................................................................................ 77
Polybutadiene Rubber.............................................................................................................................. 78
Butyl Rubber (Isobutylene Isoprene Rubber—IIR)................................................................................. 78
Ethylene-Propylene Rubber..................................................................................................................... 79
Chloroprene Rubber (Neoprene)............................................................................................................. 79
Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene Rubbers (Hypalon)................................................................................ 79
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene Rubbers (Nitrile)............................................................................................... 79
Styrene-Butadiene Rubbers..................................................................................................................... 80
Thermoplastic Elastomers............................................................................................................................... 80
Applications.................................................................................................................................................... 83
Vulcanizing and Curing Agents...................................................................................................................... 83
Accelerators.................................................................................................................................................... 83
Materials for Reinforcement........................................................................................................................... 84
Carbon Black........................................................................................................................................... 84
Nonblack Fillers.............................................................................................................................................. 84
China Clay............................................................................................................................................... 84
Talc ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 84
Titanium Dioxide..................................................................................................................................... 84
Zinc Oxide............................................................................................................................................... 84
Lithopone................................................................................................................................................. 84
Litharge.................................................................................................................................................... 85
Antimony Trioxide................................................................................................................................... 85
Zinc Stearate............................................................................................................................................ 85
Plasticizers, Softeners, and Extenders..................................................................................................... 85
Peptizers................................................................................................................................................... 85
Process Oils.............................................................................................................................................. 85
Paraffin Wax............................................................................................................................................. 85
Resins....................................................................................................................................................... 85
Antioxidants and Antiozonants....................................................................................................................... 85
Adhesives and Bonding Agents....................................................................................................................... 85
Solvents........................................................................................................................................................... 86

12 Rubbers Mostly Used in Process Equipment Lining................................................................................. 87

Neoprene Rubber............................................................................................................................................ 87
Compounding Neoprene for Tank Lining....................................................................................................... 88
Hypalon Rubbers............................................................................................................................................. 89
Compounding Hypalon for Tank Lining......................................................................................................... 90
Butyl Rubber................................................................................................................................................... 92
Ethylene-Propylene-Diene Monomer Rubber................................................................................................. 94
Silicone Rubbers............................................................................................................................................. 95
Fluorocarbon Elastomers................................................................................................................................ 96
Natural Rubber................................................................................................................................................ 96
Synthetic Ebonites......................................................................................................................................... 100
References..................................................................................................................................................... 101
xiv Contents

13 Compounding Rubbers for Lining Applications...................................................................................... 103

Design of Compound Formulations.............................................................................................................. 104
Choice of Ingredients............................................................................................................................. 104
Viscosity Control................................................................................................................................... 104
Nerve Control........................................................................................................................................ 104
Sticking to the Mill Rollers.................................................................................................................... 105
Sheeting................................................................................................................................................. 105
Tack ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 105
Scorching............................................................................................................................................... 105
Hardness and Modulus........................................................................................................................... 105
Elasticity................................................................................................................................................ 106
Strength.................................................................................................................................................. 106
Resistance to Tear.................................................................................................................................. 106
Resistance to Flex Cracking and Fatigue............................................................................................... 106
Resistance to Heat.................................................................................................................................. 107
Resistance to Flame............................................................................................................................... 107
Resistance to Gas Permeation................................................................................................................ 107
Bonding.................................................................................................................................................. 107
Processing Characteristics............................................................................................................................. 107
Mastication............................................................................................................................................. 108
Mixing.................................................................................................................................................... 108
Calendering............................................................................................................................................ 108
Extrusion................................................................................................................................................ 109
Molding.................................................................................................................................................. 110
Proportion.............................................................................................................................................. 110
Silica and Carbon-Filled Butyl Rubber Vulcanizates.................................................................................... 110
Compounding Elastomers of Low Cure Functionality................................................................................. 111
Class A................................................................................................................................................... 111
Class B................................................................................................................................................... 112
Chemical Reaction of Polymers............................................................................................................ 112
Resistance to Halogens.......................................................................................................................... 112
Resistance to Hydrogen Sulfide............................................................................................................. 113
Epoxidation by Hypochlorous Acid....................................................................................................... 113
Hydrochlorination of Rubbers............................................................................................................... 113
Heat Evolution During Vulcanization of Ebonites................................................................................. 113
References..................................................................................................................................................... 114
14 Technoeconomic Aspects of Nonrubber Linings—Glass, FRP, and Lead............................................ 115
Glass Lining.................................................................................................................................................. 115
Historical....................................................................................................................................................... 115
Development of Industrial Glass Lining....................................................................................................... 116
Manufacturing Process.................................................................................................................................. 117
Fabrication of Vessels............................................................................................................................ 117
Manufacture of Glass/Enamel............................................................................................................... 117
Application of the Enamel..................................................................................................................... 117
Firing or Curing of Glass....................................................................................................................... 117
Fitting..................................................................................................................................................... 118
Furnace Designs............................................................................................................................................ 118
Precautions to be Taken With Glass-Lined Equipment................................................................................. 118
Contents xv

Industrial Applications of Glass-Lined Equipment....................................................................................... 118

Corrosion Resistance............................................................................................................................. 118
Flexibility............................................................................................................................................... 119
Purity...................................................................................................................................................... 119
Ease of Cleaning.................................................................................................................................... 119
Economy................................................................................................................................................ 119
Absence of Catalytic Effect................................................................................................................... 119
Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Lining............................................................................................................ 119
Historical................................................................................................................................................ 120
FRP—A Potentially Advantageous Material......................................................................................... 120
Resins Used in the Manufacturing Process............................................................................................ 121
Application Techniques......................................................................................................................... 121
Testing of FRP Lining............................................................................................................................ 122
Lead Lining................................................................................................................................................... 123
Lead for Radiation Protection................................................................................................................ 124
Properties of Lead for Radiation Shielding........................................................................................... 124
Attenuation of Neutron Particles........................................................................................................... 124
Other Factors.......................................................................................................................................... 124
Lead Lining Application Procedure....................................................................................................... 125
Design of Vessels and Equipment.......................................................................................................... 125
Cladding................................................................................................................................................. 125
Sheet Linings......................................................................................................................................... 125
Homogeneous Linings........................................................................................................................... 125
Thickness of Linings.............................................................................................................................. 125
Factors Affecting Design of Lining....................................................................................................... 126
Lead Burning......................................................................................................................................... 126
Adhesion Test......................................................................................................................................... 126
References..................................................................................................................................................... 127

15 Manufacturing Rubber Sheets and Application Procedures.................................................................. 129

Mastication.................................................................................................................................................... 129
Sheeting......................................................................................................................................................... 129
Rubber Lining............................................................................................................................................... 130
Role of Impurities......................................................................................................................................... 130
Working Temperature.................................................................................................................................... 131
Lining Thickness........................................................................................................................................... 131
Design and Fabrication of Lining Supports.................................................................................................. 133
Adhesive Coating.......................................................................................................................................... 134
Application of Calendered Sheet.................................................................................................................. 134
Autoclave Vulcanization............................................................................................................................... 135
Inspection...................................................................................................................................................... 135
Adhesive Manufacture.................................................................................................................................. 135
Rubber Lining of Large Storage Tanks......................................................................................................... 136
Sheet Dimension........................................................................................................................................... 137
Sheet Laying and Rolling.............................................................................................................................. 137
Procedure of Tank Inspection Before Lining................................................................................................ 138
Rubber Lining of Pipes................................................................................................................................. 138
Storage of Rubber-Lined Pipes..................................................................................................................... 140
xvi Contents

Surface Preparation for Rubber Lining......................................................................................................... 140

Methods of Surface Preparation.................................................................................................................... 140
Waterblasting................................................................................................................................................. 141
References..................................................................................................................................................... 142

16 Adhesive Formulations for Rubber-to-Metal Bonding Systems............................................................. 143

Adhesive Criteria........................................................................................................................................... 143
Elastomer Criteria......................................................................................................................................... 143
Curing Process Effects.................................................................................................................................. 143
Chemical-Bonding Technique....................................................................................................................... 144
Facts of a Rubber/Metal Bond...................................................................................................................... 145
Selection of Bonding Agent.......................................................................................................................... 145
Substrate........................................................................................................................................................ 145
The Bonding Process.................................................................................................................................... 145
Application of Bonding Agents..................................................................................................................... 146
Compounding of Rubber............................................................................................................................... 146
Method of Manufacture of Adhesive Cements............................................................................................. 146
Adhesive Formulations for Rubber Lining................................................................................................... 147
References..................................................................................................................................................... 149

17 General Rubber Lining Guidelines........................................................................................................... 151

Metal Surface................................................................................................................................................ 151
Primer Coat and Adhesive Coat.................................................................................................................... 151
Lining Guidelines.......................................................................................................................................... 151
Lining of Pipes.............................................................................................................................................. 151
Repairs to Rubber-Lined Equipment............................................................................................................ 152
Lining Life of Rubber Linings in Bleach (Sodium Hypochlorite) Service................................................... 153
Hydrochloric Acid and Tank Linings............................................................................................................ 153
Rubber Lining at Site.................................................................................................................................... 154
Insulation....................................................................................................................................................... 154
Cleaning........................................................................................................................................................ 155
Primer Coat................................................................................................................................................... 155
Cutting Rubber Sheets.................................................................................................................................. 155
Application of the Lining.............................................................................................................................. 155
Inspection Before Curing.............................................................................................................................. 156
Spark Testing Voltage.................................................................................................................................... 156
Curing Methods............................................................................................................................................. 156
Using Vessel as an Autoclave........................................................................................................................ 156
Atmospheric or Exhaust Steam Curing......................................................................................................... 157
Inspection After Curing................................................................................................................................. 157

18 Fabrication of Equipment for Rubber Lining Suitability....................................................................... 159

Pipe Fittings.................................................................................................................................................. 159
Tanks and Accessories and Fittings............................................................................................................... 159
Mild Steel Vessels......................................................................................................................................... 159
Equipment in Dynamic Service.................................................................................................................... 161
Dished Ends.................................................................................................................................................. 161
Contents xvii

Pipes.............................................................................................................................................................. 161
Metal Defects Detrimental to Rubber Lining............................................................................................... 164

19 Testing of Rubber Lining........................................................................................................................... 165

Generally Conducted Tests on Rubber/Plastics............................................................................................ 165
Ash Content........................................................................................................................................... 165
Bulk Density.......................................................................................................................................... 165
Carbon Black in Olefin Plastic...................................................................................................................... 166
Compression Set Under Constant Deflection................................................................................................ 166
Compression Properties................................................................................................................................ 166
Charpy Impact Test....................................................................................................................................... 166
Coefficient of Friction................................................................................................................................... 166
Deflection Temperature Under Load............................................................................................................. 166
Density and Specific Gravity........................................................................................................................ 166
Durometer Hardness (Shore Hardness)......................................................................................................... 166
Interrelationship of Rubber Properties.......................................................................................................... 167
Differential Scanning Calorimeter................................................................................................................ 167
Flexural Properties........................................................................................................................................ 167
Flammability................................................................................................................................................. 168
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry..................................................................................................... 168
Peel Test........................................................................................................................................................ 168
Surface Resistivity and Volume Resistivity................................................................................................... 168
Tensile Test of Plastics.................................................................................................................................. 168
Tensile Test of Rubber................................................................................................................................... 168
Thermogravimetric Analysis......................................................................................................................... 168
Water Absorption.......................................................................................................................................... 168
Visual Check on Rubber Lining.................................................................................................................... 168
Chemical Testing........................................................................................................................................... 169
Density of Solids........................................................................................................................................... 169
Spark Testing................................................................................................................................................. 169
The Principle of the Spark Tester.................................................................................................................. 169
Swelling Test................................................................................................................................................. 170
References..................................................................................................................................................... 171

20 Specifications and Codes of Practice......................................................................................................... 173

References..................................................................................................................................................... 176
Useful Websites............................................................................................................................................. 177

21 Some Typical Process Conditions in Chemical Industries...................................................................... 179

Mineral Acids................................................................................................................................................ 179
Sulfuric Acid.......................................................................................................................................... 179
Nitric Acid.............................................................................................................................................. 179
Hydrochloric Acid.................................................................................................................................. 179
Hydrofluoric Acid.................................................................................................................................. 180
Phosphoric Acid..................................................................................................................................... 180
Typical Chemical Process Conditions................................................................................................... 180
Digesters in the Bauxite Ore Industry.................................................................................................... 180
xviii Contents

Filter Drum in Sulfamic Acid Manufacture........................................................................................... 180

Agitators Handling Abrasive Slurries in Acids...................................................................................... 181
Impellers in Phosphatic Fertilizer Plants............................................................................................... 181
Ebonite Brine Filters in the Caustic Soda Industry................................................................................ 181
Clarifiers in a Caustic Soda Plant.......................................................................................................... 181
Runners in a Fertilizer Plant.................................................................................................................. 181
Phosphoric Acid Attack Tank in a Fertilizer Plant................................................................................. 181
Dryer Scrubbers in Fertilizer Plants....................................................................................................... 182
Brine Dechlorination Tank in the Caustic Soda Industry...................................................................... 182
Slurry Handling Buckets in the Cement Industry.................................................................................. 182
Road Tanker for Phosphoric Acid Transportation.................................................................................. 182

22 Aging, Service Life, and Prediction........................................................................................................... 183

Suggested Materials for Improving the Aging of Rubber Vulcanizates........................................................ 184
Accelerators.................................................................................................................................................. 184
Phenols................................................................................................................................................... 184
Primary Aromatic Amines..................................................................................................................... 184
Oxidation............................................................................................................................................... 185
Heat ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
Flexing................................................................................................................................................... 185
Ozone..................................................................................................................................................... 185
Light ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
Sulfur..................................................................................................................................................... 185
Metals..................................................................................................................................................... 186
Fluids..................................................................................................................................................... 186
Predicting Life of Lining....................................................................................................................... 187
Hydrochloric Acid Tank Lining Life..................................................................................................... 187
Residual Life of Natural Rubber Lining in a Phosphoric Acid Storage Tank Installed
in a Port Terminal................................................................................................................................ 188
Immersion in Fluids...................................................................................................................................... 188
References..................................................................................................................................................... 189
Further Reading............................................................................................................................................. 189

23 Failure Analysis Methodology................................................................................................................... 191

Methodology................................................................................................................................................. 191
Inspection............................................................................................................................................... 191
Analysis......................................................................................................................................................... 192
Identification.......................................................................................................................................... 192
Environmental Stress Cracking.............................................................................................................. 192
Dynamic Fatigue.................................................................................................................................... 193
Chemical Attack..................................................................................................................................... 193
Thermal Degradation............................................................................................................................. 194
Failure Caused by Ultraviolet Degradation........................................................................................... 194
Piping Layout......................................................................................................................................... 194
Hydrolysis.............................................................................................................................................. 194
Creep and Relaxation............................................................................................................................. 194
Other Failure Modes.............................................................................................................................. 194
Holistic Design...................................................................................................................................... 195
Contents xix

Maintenance of Rubber-Lined Vessels.................................................................................................. 195

Premature Aging.................................................................................................................................... 196
Storage of Rubber-Lined Equipment..................................................................................................... 196
Future Considerations............................................................................................................................ 196
References..................................................................................................................................................... 197

24 Implications of Forensic Engineering on Rubber Lining........................................................................ 199

Analytical Method......................................................................................................................................... 200
Fracture......................................................................................................................................................... 200
Ozone Cracking............................................................................................................................................. 200
Chlorine-Induced Cracking........................................................................................................................... 201
Hydrolysis..................................................................................................................................................... 201
Ultraviolet Degradation................................................................................................................................. 201
Skid Mark...................................................................................................................................................... 202
Agitator Blades Failure in a Magnesium Pilot Plant..................................................................................... 202
References..................................................................................................................................................... 203

25 Basic Chemical-Resistant Ebonite Formulations..................................................................................... 205

26 Practical Corrosion-Resistant Rubber Formulations.............................................................................. 209

27 Infrastructure for Setting up a Rubber Lining Shop.............................................................................. 217

Methane and Carbon Dioxide Capture.......................................................................................................... 217
High Market Potential for Anticorrosive Rubber Lining.............................................................................. 217
Proximity....................................................................................................................................................... 217
Direction Principle........................................................................................................................................ 217
Lining Bay............................................................................................................................................. 218
Calender and Mill Bay........................................................................................................................... 218
Autoclave............................................................................................................................................... 218
Prevulcanized Sheet Manufacturing Plant............................................................................................. 218
Laboratory.............................................................................................................................................. 218
Auxiliary Services Infrastructure........................................................................................................... 218
Water����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 218
Labor����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 219
Other Facilities....................................................................................................................................... 219
Land and Building................................................................................................................................. 219
References..................................................................................................................................................... 219

28 Case Studies................................................................................................................................................. 221

Case Study 1.................................................................................................................................................. 221
Waterbox Lining ................................................................................................................................... 221
Case Study 2.................................................................................................................................................. 222
Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster........................................................................................................ 222
Case Study 3.................................................................................................................................................. 222
Forensic Study....................................................................................................................................... 222
Case Study 4.................................................................................................................................................. 223
Ammonium Nitrate Explosion .............................................................................................................. 223
Case Study 5 ................................................................................................................................................. 224
Leakage in Loose Hose Flange Connection.......................................................................................... 224
xx Contents

Case Study 6.................................................................................................................................................. 224

Pebble Mill............................................................................................................................................. 224
Case Study 7.................................................................................................................................................. 225
Rubber and Ceramic.............................................................................................................................. 225
Case Study 8.................................................................................................................................................. 225
Compounding Development for Flue-Gas Desulfurizing System......................................................... 225
Case Study 9.................................................................................................................................................. 226
Wrong Selection of Curing Method....................................................................................................... 226
References..................................................................................................................................................... 227

Appendix I..................................................................................................................................................... 229

Appendix II................................................................................................................................................... 231
Appendix III.................................................................................................................................................. 233
Appendix IV.................................................................................................................................................. 235
Appendix V................................................................................................................................................... 237
Appendix VI.................................................................................................................................................. 239
Appendix VII................................................................................................................................................. 241
Appendix VIII............................................................................................................................................... 243
Appendix IX.................................................................................................................................................. 245
Appendix X................................................................................................................................................... 247
Bibliography.................................................................................................................................................. 251
Glossary of Terms......................................................................................................................................... 253
Index.............................................................................................................................................................. 261

The author earned his B.S. degree in Chemistry
at the American College, Mathurai South India,
under the erstwhile University of Madras and a
Licentiate from the Institution of Rubber Industry,
UK (currently Institute of Materials, Minerals and
Mining). He is one among a few gold medalists in
India awarded by the Industrial Research Institute
(London) in the 1960s. He has served the rubber
industry since 1960 in corporate and government
sectors. In the Indian Air Force, Ministry of Defense,
Government of India, he served as a Grade-1 Senior
Scientific Officer developing airborne rubber prod-
ucts for various types of aircraft and air weaponry of
Indian, British, and Russian origin.
He is well known in the chemical process indus-
tries as he has been associated with anticorrosive rub-
ber lining projects for several years.
He has traveled widely in the Middle and Far East
and the United States. He participated in the Rubber
International Event in Malaysia in the 1980s as a
member of a group of technical delegates from India.
He has been invited as a faculty in various tech-
nical seminars by the Fertilizer Association of
India, National Productivity Council, Institute of
Mechanical and Chemical Engineers, Institute of
About the Author
Plant Engineers, and other government and privately
sponsored technical symposiums on various topics in
rubber technology.
He promotes two rubber projects, and has served
as CEO of M/s. Lebracs Rubber Lining Pvt. Ltd.,
Pondicherry, India, and thereafter as the Managing
Director of M/s. O R Elastomers Pvt. Ltd., Chennai,
India. As an anticorrosive rubber lining specialist he
has had good exposure to the fertilizer, chlor-alkali,
and other process industries in India and abroad.
The author has published many technical articles
such as “Materials of Construction-Elastomers” in
Chemical Age of India 1983, and “Airborne Rubber
Seals” and “Rubber Expansion Joints” in Polymer
Review 1982. He has presented technical papers on
“Wear Resistance of Rubbers” and “Protective Surface
Coatings Based on Chlorosulphonated Polyethylene”
in domestic and international seminars conducted in
Delhi, Kanpur, Bangalore, and Trivandrum in India
in the 1980s, sponsored by the Central Scientific
and Industrial Research Organization and the
Defence Research and Development Organization,
Government of India.
He is presently serving Can C Consulting, India,
as a consultant rubber technologist.
xxi
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A serious and sincere attempt was made to
provide abundant resources and information on
an unwieldy subject like Anticorrosive Rubber
Lining—A Practical Guide for Plastics Engineers.
The author took great effort to paraphrase the whole
subject matter. It is assumed that the readers have
a good basic knowledge of chemistry, physics, and
engineering and are well versed in the general glos-
sary of terms followed in a book of technology like
this. Much effort has been taken to provide the text
with illustrations and figures that could be absent
only where they are not required. Repetitions here
and there are not mistakes but are made with the
intention of emphasizing a particular point or might
have been required in a different context. Abundant
research and literature surveys were undertaken to
give more or less complete information on the vari-
ous topics dealt with in this book. Valuable infor-
mation collected from blogs, public domains, and
freely published research theses, complemented by
author’s own research work in various aspects of
rubber technology, is presented in this work, taking
care to focus on the main theme of the title without
any diversion.
This book, contrary perhaps to the general percep-
tion, does not deal with the fundamental chemistry
of rubber and its reaction mechanisms with acids,
alkalis, fumes, and gases prevalent and handled
in process industries. Such a treatise can no doubt
be available in several research works, papers, and
books published in bits and pieces, which are rich
resources for the corrosion engineers who correlate
science with facts to solve problems of corrosion.
On the other hand, this book deals with the specialty
subject of sacrificial protective rubber lining and its
applications in various process industries, highlight-
ing the technological aspects of manufacture and
application.
This can be considered as a unique book in the
world of rubber literature because of its exclusiveness
and its blatant exposition of the technical know-how
crowned with case histories and industrial practice.
The author was contemplating quite some time ago
about presenting an informative book on this subject
Preface
in a concise form, which should be useful to user
industries and practicing engineers in their respec-
tive industrial environments. This work reflects the
author’s humble wish to draw the attention of the
concerned, serious, and worried engineers, and
interested readers and students, to the technological
aspects of protective rubbers and their vast poten-
tial as technically viable and commercially valuable
materials to combat corrosion.
The various corrosion challenges that the indus-
tries are facing undoubtedly and frustratingly make
them look for materials to protect their plant and
equipment from the attacks caused by corrosive
media. While they search, rubber comes to the fore-
front offering to face their corrosion challenges as
a supportive material in preference to costly metal-
lic alternatives like titanium, manganese, stainless
steel, lead, etc. Nonmetallic materials like fiberglass-
reinforced polyester, glass, and specialty plastics
have limited application in critical areas. A chapter
on nonrubber linings is also written for comparative
purposes.
This book describes exactly how to use rubbers
as a lining material in reactors and storage tanks,
process vessels, critical equipment like filters, cen-
trifuges, digesters, precipitators, anionic and cat-
ionic tanks, ball mills, plating tanks, and pipes and
fittings, and how to overcome problems associated
with this technique right from manufacturing and
application.
The author having been exposed to the rubber
industry for several years in production, manufac-
ture, and research and development has tried to focus
throughout the chapters in this book on the most
important aspects covering the nature and use of vari-
ous rubbers used in anticorrosive applications.
This book should be of immense help to chemical
engineers, materials managers, maintenance engi-
neers, and practitioners in rubber and students alike
as a know-how document. Moreover, this will also
be a reference book for fertilizer, caustic soda, and
other chemical process industries. The extremely dif-
ficult semitechnical style of writing a technical book
like this, which is the author’s intention, will attract
xxiii
xxiv Preface

general readers too, whose knowledge of rubber is are concerned with the corrosion of plant and equip-
perhaps erasers, condoms, rubber bands, and tires. ment because his desire is that he should not be in
The author invites comments and suggestions any way branded as a “one-eyed man as the king in
from all engineers, chemists, and technologists who the land of the blind.”

While writing this book the author recalls with
gratitude the assistance received by him from Peter,
a mechanical engineer specializing in anticorrosive
rubber lining, and Arun, an IT specialist, who were
aggressive in motivating me and updating my office
infrastructure as well. The valuable suggestions and
criticisms especially from Peter provoked me and
enabled me to approach each topic with vigilance
and clarity as vividly as possible.
Vast and resourceful information in the form
of abstract papers and actual papers by leading
Acknowledgment
scientists were provided to me as references by
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers,
USA, whom I thank with immense gratitude. I
thank David Jackson, Aquisition Editor, Andrae
Akeh, Editorial Project manager, and Caroline
Johnson, Senior Project manager of Elsevier who
have been rendering marvelous advice and guide-
lines to me during various stages of writing this
book.
xxv
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Quite some time ago, I read an inspiring article
published in an American journal. I felt the contents
of that article quite relevant to the subject matter that
you are going to read in the forthcoming pages of
this book.
The article was about coating a fuel rocket meant
for launching the Titan rocket. The engines of the
Titan rocket were the most powerful ones, having
a diameter of about 3 m and length of about 2 m,
weighing approximately 250 tons, and developing
a thrust of more than half a million kilograms. Two
such engines fitted on Titan with combustible liquid
fuels were capable of pushing into orbit a load of
2.5 tons or much more. The rubber lining that pro-
tected the steel casing of the rockets against tem-
peratures that exceeded 5000°F (3000°C) and highly
corrosive gases was made up of a nitrile rubber com-
pound with silica and asbestos dust. During the com-
missioning of the launch, the rubber sheet became
combustible, died once and for all, and burnt into
ashes, thus sacrificing itself to protect the casings of
the rocket against the attack of highly eroding gases
at the unimaginable temperature of 3000°C. If the
rubber lining was not able to rebel against the high
temperature and gases for even fractions of minutes
during commissioning of the engine, the steel casing
would have melted and the launch would have failed.
The thickness of the lining at the various regions of
the rocket ranged from 20 to 250 mm. After the lin-
ing was done, the lined rocket was vulcanized in a
3.6 mm diameter autoclave.
How was the lining applied? After the steel inter-
nal surface of the rocket was well prepared by scrap-
ing and using highly abrading grinding stones, two
coats of primer adhesive were given followed by lay-
ing of the prepared rubber sheets of about 1.5 mm
thick by hand onto the tank surface, and then rolled
with a knurled tool to eliminate air from being
trapped between the sheet and the metal. The sheets
were joined perfectly with taper-cut edges over-
lapping one with the other. The number of desired
sheets was applied thereafter one above the other
Introduction
after roughening and cleaning the surface with sol-
vent until the required thickness was reached. After
inspection, the lining along with the rocket was kept
in an autoclave and vulcanized in steam under pres-
sure. The article mentions strict control at every
stage of manufacture to obtain fault-free lining, thus
ensuring maximum safety of the steel casing of the
rocket. The control parameters started from checking
the quality of raw materials, to surface preparation of
the metal, to physical and chemical parameters of the
lining sheets, which were to be verified during their
manufacture and application and after vulcanization.
This brilliant description of rubber lining and of
its failure after providing the required performance
of protection during even the shortest duration in the
space industry is valid even today for the application
of rubber lining in chemical and other process indus-
tries; same materials, same techniques, and same
controls put into practice.
Obviously, therefore, rubber linings are passive
protection against corrosion of plant and equipment
in chemical process industries. Rubbers act as sacri-
ficial materials reacting or not reacting with the cor-
rosive media, diffusing or not diffusing the liquids,
swelling or not swelling by itself, permeating or not
permeating gases or fumes, abrading or wearing by
the slurry particles, and getting ozonized or oxidized;
but still protecting the metal surface beneath it dur-
ing its considerable life cycle under those severe and
stressed conditions. Rubbers age but their life cycle
is good enough to protect the metals against corro-
sion and erosion. Rubber linings are applied in sheet
form intimately adhering to the base metal, wood, or
concrete surface. They are not coatings but are solid
flexible foils or membranes usually 3 mm or 6 mm
thick or more in certain instances.
The raw material bases are natural or synthetic
rubbers. Rubber is used for corrosion/abrasion-proof
linings more than any other material because of
its proven superiority in this service at a relatively
low cost. Fertilizer, electroplating, ore refining,
petrochemicals, chlor-alkali, and paper industries
xxvii
xxviii
invariably turn to rubber linings in preference to
other types of linings for their high resistance to cor-
rosion and abrasion. Moreover, the variety of rubbers
available, both natural and synthetic, and their flex-
ibility to serve under wide temperature and pressure
ranges made rubber linings the worldwide accepted
anticorrosive and antiabrasive medium.
According to a report some time ago by the National
Association of Corrosion Engineers International,
nearly $10 bn are being lost each year through cor-
rosion in industries in developing countries. This
loss erodes into a substantial percentage of the gross
domestic product of these nations. Preventing this
industrial corrosion reduces the loss and damage to
plant and equipment considerably on the one hand
and offers a huge potential for the anticorrosive rub-
ber lining industry on the other.
During the presynthetic rubber periods only natu-
ral rubber compounds either soft or hard (ebonite)
were used for lining the cast iron or riveted structures.
Natural rubber by itself is resistant to many corrosive
chemicals. In the presynthetic rubber era even for oil
resistance, low-swelling compounded natural rubber
was in use for O-rings, oil seals, and in the manu-
facture of packaging. The riveted construction of the
equipment was later complemented by gas-welded
constructions. When electrically welded construction
was becoming popular in the chemical industry, rub-
ber linings became increasingly popular and found a
wide area of application as anticorrosive rubber lin-
ings and acid-resistant special products of all kinds,
such as calendered sheets, extruded profiles, molded
goods, hand-built as well as molded items such as
expansion joints, customized sheets, foils, and flex-
ible covers, or in solution form for exterior coatings
for atmospheric protection. The advent of synthetic
rubbers came in handy for the chemical industry as
materials of construction along with mild steel.
Introduction
Though for a number of years the application of
rubber linings was restricted to small fabricated tanks
and vessels and pipes, which could be transported,
necessity arose to apply rubber linings to large stor-
age tanks, ducts, and vessels at clients’ sites. This
was done because they could not be transported to
the lining contractor’s site as well as outdoor storage
installations because of the faster growth, upgrada-
tion, and modernization of plant and equipment in
the chemical process industries. The process was first
carried out by vulcanizing the lining with saturated
steam at the site. Then rubber compounding and
processing techniques were developed where newly
designed compounds could be vulcanized at lower
temperatures, i.e., at 100°C using hot water. A few
decades ago, rubber compounds and adhesive bond
solutions were developed that were capable of self-
curing at ambient temperatures over a certain period
of time such as 7–10 days. Thus it was possible to
rubber line equipment of any size. Storage tanks of
surface areas 20005000 m2 were no longer rare sizes.
In Zambia a few decades ago, around 10,000 m2 of
lining were carried out by M/s. Bayer, Germany, for
a thickener plant in a copper refining project. Lining
with unvulcanized sheets with chemical vulcanizing
processes such as painting an accelerating solution
had not been accepted by chemical engineers. Today,
all forms of vulcanization are in use and they have
their special applications, advantages, disadvantages,
and limitations. For example, for vacuum environ-
ments, an autoclave-vulcanized lining is preferred
over one cured by the self-curing method or open
steam curing method. For rubber lining of large tanks
and installations on site the most suited method is the
cold bonding technique.
It is to be noted that there is no alternative mate-
rial that possesses the qualities of natural or synthetic
rubbers for chemical resistance applications.
 1 Rubber—A Miracle Material
We encounter this miracle material everywhere and
every day without even realizing it—in cars, tooth-
brushes, mobile phones, computers, chewing gum,
balloons, surgical gloves, bathroom mats, rubber
corks, rubber bands, erasers, roads, hospitals, and in
aircraft and space craft. When combined with other
materials, rubber has an almost infinite number of
uses. It is one of the most hardy, robust, and versa-
tile materials in existence. The oldest traces of rubber
were found in a fossil estimated to be 55–60 million
years old, discovered in 1924 in lignite deposits in
Germany [1]. Amazingly, after being treated vio-
lently, the rubber still had its elastic properties!
Rubber, an Elastic Concept
But what actually is the material that we refer to
in everyday language as rubber? The short answer is
that rubber is our most elastic material, with unique
properties of sealing fluid leakages, damping, resist-
ing acids, and protecting in a variety of different
contexts. However, the concept of rubber is far from
uniform. There are many different types of rubber and
closely related materials, which can be given widely
differing properties through the addition of vari-
ous chemicals. Rubber elasticity is identified as the
capacity to sustain very large deformations followed
by complete recovery. It is exhibited exclusively by
polymeric materials consisting predominantly of
long molecular chains. The essential requirement for
a material to be rubbery is that it consists of long flex-
ible chain-like molecules. It is to be understood that
there is a limit to the amount of stress one can apply
to a material before it reaches its “elastic limit” and
deforms irreversibly. Materials like rubber have high
elasticity because they are made up of millions of
long and bendable chains of molecules. Many theo-
ries exist on the concept of rubber elasticity but they
are centered on the fact that although stress can be
applied to the millions of chains in the rubber in any
direction, it will always return to its original shape.
Anticorrosive Rubber Lining. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-44371-5.00001-3
Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
On Icy Roads and in Ablative
Flame
Chemical additives and combinations with other
materials such as metals, textiles, and plastics deter-
mine the final characteristics of the end product. It
might be a hose that must be resistant to corrosive
chemicals, or a rubber sheet applied to a metal surface
for chemical resistance, or a seal in an aircraft that
must withstand extreme differences in temperature,
or a sound-absorbing material that silences the hum-
ming of a hard disk, or a tire that rides on icy roads
or on runways as well as on tropical roads, which
develops high friction temperature, or in the rocket
industry an ablative material that is flame retardant.
Icy roads in snowy winter are topped up with sodium
chloride salt crystals to lower the freezing point of
the slippery ice. Whatever our needs, human beings
can be relied on to constantly find new applications
for this remarkable material.
In the Beginning
Natural rubber is obtained from the bark of the tree
Hevea brasiliensis, originally discovered in Brazil.
The traditional and century-old method of slitting the
bark and letting the milk to drip to form a solid mass
called latex continues to be the sole method of obtain-
ing natural rubber. This was the only material serving
humanity until the advent of polymer technology.
Hence the term “rubber,” until the arrival of poly-
mers, only meant natural rubber. Hevea brasiliensis
is found in African countries too. Comparing the cli-
matic conditions of these countries, it is obvious that
these rubber trees prefer humid tropical climates.
Since its discovery the use of rubber became wide-
spread and when worldwide demand increased during
the world war periods, the natural rubber produced all
over the world was inadequate. This necessitated sci-
entists to look for substitutes for natural rubber. From
the discovery of natural rubber to the development
1
2 Anticorrosive Rubber Lining
of modern-day thermoplastic elastomers, elasto-
meric materials have found a mind-boggling variety
of applications that make them an integral part of an
industrial and civilized society. In a diverse variety
of products ranging from automobile tires to lifesav-
ing implantable medical devices, their unique abil-
ity to be greatly deformed and return to their original
shape fills an important niche in the world of engi-
neering materials. It would be difficult to identify a
manufacturing process that does not use elastomers
in one form or another. Elastomeric materials have
found widespread acceptance because of the virtu-
ally limitless combinations of elastomer types, fillers,
and additives, which can be compounded at relatively
low cost and processed by a wide variety of methods.
This gives end users the ability to develop specific
formulations with properties tailored to their needs.
Saturation and Unsaturation
The traditional view that rubber properties are
related to high unsaturation led to numerous theo-
ries about the elastic behavior of rubbers, which
were based on geometric structures resulting from
the unsaturated linkages [2]. Susceptibility to chemi-
cal attack is attributed to the unsaturation of natural
rubber molecules. Physical properties that appear
not to be intrinsically dependent upon the carbon–
carbon double bond (C]C) configuration are ten-
sile strength, elasticity, rebound, elasticitic recovery,
mechanical orientation, electrical properties, and sol-
ubility, which are mostly dependent on the molecular
weight distribution, entanglement, and coiling up of
long chain molecules.
Chemical unsaturation, which is extremely impor-
tant from the point of view of allowing crosslinking or
vulcanization to take place, is the greatest weakness of
natural rubber molecules since it also allows oxidation
reaction. One has therefore to reasonably believe that
in the case of soft rubber goods, molded, extruded, or
sheeting, only a fraction of the available double bonds
is utilized in the vulcanization process with sulfur. The
large residual unsaturation is responsible for the pro-
nounced chemical reactivity of the soft rubber. It is this
unsaturated character that makes natural rubber very
susceptible to oxidation by O2, O3, and other oxidiz-
ing chemicals with consequent deterioration on aging
and disintegration. It is also responsible for its lack of
resistance to chemical agents such as strong mineral
acids and also to its lack of heat stability.
Hardening and Softening
Degradations
In this context, it may be interesting to compare
the saturation levels of both natural and butyl rub-
ber where the latter has a low level of unsaturation
and the former has a high level. Cured butyl rubber
with its predominant saturation is resistant to many
acids making it a viable protective lining, while cured
natural rubber in spite of its predominant unsatura-
tion is again a protective lining because it forms an
acid-resistant protective layer by reacting with acids
especially HCl, the layer being known as chlorinated
rubber, a highly chemically resistant material.
In appearance, butyl rubber resembles natural
crêpe rubber, since it is an aliphatic, hydrocarbon
polymer, whose density is the minimum (0.91) attain-
able for elastic materials of this type. In butyl rubber
the original unsaturation level is very small and this
low unsaturation is greatly reduced and may even be
entirely eliminated during the compounding and cur-
ing process. The fact that vulcanized butyl rubber is
extremely resistant to chemical attack is understand-
able because after vulcanization it becomes not only
a nonthermoplastic, strong elastic material, but also
an essentially chemically saturated product. This
means that from a physical standpoint, vulcanized
butyl rubber resembles soft vulcanized natural rub-
ber and from the point of view of chemical resistance
it may be considered most similar to ebonite, which
is almost devoid of any unsaturation.
It is extremely resistant to acids and other deterio-
ration influences. Like natural rubber, butyl rubber
is not resistant to aliphatic hydrocarbon, but it does
show a surprising resistance to benzene, ethylene
dichloride, and oxygenated solvents. On resistance
to aging and chemicals, Staudinger [3] says: “Every
reaction which shortens the length of molecules liq-
uefies to mass and conversely every reaction which
lengthens the atomic chain tends to solidify the mass.
These two actions correspond exactly to the chief
transformations which rubber undergoes, which are
nothing more than changes in consistency namely a
fluidizing degradation and hardening degradation.”
How true it is when both natural rubber and butyl
rubber are compared after an accelerated aging test,
butyl of low unsaturation undergoing only the deg-
radative softening type of deterioration under the
severe influence of heat, light, and air, and natural
rubber predominantly of high unsaturation undergo-
ing hardening deterioration.
1: Rubber—A Miracle Material
Crosslinking
For the most effective development of rubber-like
elasticity, permanent interlocking of the chain mol-
ecules at a few points along their length to form a
three-dimensional network is desirable. The cross-
links should be sufficient in number to ensure a per-
manence of structure that is a suppression of viscous
flow and yet not so numerous as to seriously restrict
the internal segment mobility of the polymer chain. A
very convenient way of effecting this crosslink is to
make natural rubber react with sulfur. Sulfur linkages
are formed between the chain with strengths compa-
rable to those linking the carbon atoms to the poly-
isoprene chains in the starting material. This process,
known as vulcanization, occurs as a consequence of
the presence of highly reactive double bonds in the
polyisoprene chains. The effect of vulcanization is
to raise the glass transition temperature of the amor-
phous polymer and to lower the melting point of
the crystallites formed on stretching the amorphous
material.
Crosslinked polymers are to be regarded as
giant three-dimensional molecules of indeterminate
molecular weight [4–9]. Such molecules swell in sol-
vents to an extent that depends on the nature of the
swelling agent and also on the extent of crosslink-
ing. The more highly crosslinked a given solvent is,
the less the swelling. As the number of crosslinks is
increased, these polymers, e.g., ebonites containing
upward of 30% sulfur combined with rubber, show
progressively less segmented mobility of the chains
between the crosslinking points and consequently
lose their long-range elasticity and resemble ordinary
brittle solids in their elastic behavior.
Many of the mechanical properties of the high
polymers are molecular weight dependent although
the effect may be overshadowed by other factors such
as chain orientation or crystallinity. A polymer of
low molecular weight is very weak. As the molecu-
lar weight increases, the mechanical properties also
increase.
The Origin of Polymer Science
During 1927, Reimer and Tiemann published their
work on amino acids and soon after it really opened
up a new vista for process industries. Polymer tech-
nology became a new study and research work in
these avenues yielded a wide range of new materials,
3
which until then were unavailable for use. Research
on the chemistry of natural rubber revealed iso-
prene linking a monomer of the terpene group very
much like the amino acid links in large molecules
of protein. Consequently, polymerization of iso-
prene yielded polyisoprene, which was found to have
similar properties to natural rubber. This started an
avalanche of other polymers using styrene, butyl,
chlorobutadiene, etc. Thus the birth of synthetic rub-
ber was announced. The scientific community felt
the incongruity of the old term “rubber” and coined
a new term to cover the entire range, “elastomers,”
which is an acronym of “elastic polymers.”
Polymers that include synthetic materials such as
plastics, vinyl, nylon, polyester, teflon, and natural
materials such as silk, cotton, starch, cellulose, and
plantation rubber are used every day. Scientists began
to control and manipulate polymers in the 19th cen-
tury during their search for ways to improve natural
rubber. During the 21st century, chemists have cre-
ated hundreds of durable synthetic polymeric materi-
als from just a few simple building blocks. Scientists
are experimenting today with polymers for various
applications in chemical, instrumentation, mechani-
cal, electrical, and electronics industries.
The Cutting Edge: An Encyclopedia of Advanced
Technology [10] describes polymers as giant mole-
cules of a compound of simple small units. The word
polymer comes from the Greek words “poly” mean-
ing many and “mer” meaning unit. Thus a monomer
is a single unit. A dimer is composed of two units.
A polymer can have from 10 to millions of indi-
vidual units. These units do not have to be identical.
Polymers with two or more different units are called
copolymers. The most common forms of copolymers
are called random copolymers, which contain differ-
ent types of monomers in random order, and block
copolymers, which contain stretches of different
monomers: for example, five A monomers followed
by five B monomers. Nylon is a typical copolymer
that is composed of two repeating units, a diacid
molecule and a diamine molecule. Teflon or polytet-
rafluoroethylene is a linear polymer formed by the
repeating molecular unit CF2—a carbon molecule
and two fluorine molecules. Teflon's special prop-
erties, like its unique nonadhesive nature and low
friction characteristics, make it ideal for nonstick
coatings on pots and pans. It is also used to insulate
wires, cables, and motors.
A polymer characteristic can be simply reflected
by a small number of features. The first is the length
4 Anticorrosive Rubber Lining
of the polymer, which can run from 10 to millions
of units. At the molecular levels, the chains of mol-
ecules can be branched, unbranched, or crosslinked
to other strands. They can be aligned or unaligned.
They can be flexible or inflexible. Changing any of
these characteristics affects properties such as melt-
ing point, flexibility, rigidity, and elasticity. Several
polymers have been made from surprisingly few
simple starting units. The five most common start-
ing molecules are ethylene, methane, propylene, ben-
zene, and butylene. All these are obtained from crude
oil and natural gas. These molecules are the lightest
fractions of crude oil, which is a rich mixture of vari-
ous hydrocarbons (molecules made of only carbon
and hydrogen). Other chemicals derived from crude
oil include gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, diesel fuel,
and waxes.
The Polymerization Process
The most common way of creating polymers
is through addition polymerization, a process that
involves three steps, namely, polymer initiation,
addition, and termination.
In initiation an active free radical is created by a
chemical. This free radical is quite unstable but very
reactive because of unpaired electrons in the mole-
cule. This is a monomer with the unpaired electron.
Once this is formed the addition begins as the free
radical reacts with another monomer radical. This
reaction results in the formation of another mono-
mer, the chain reaction is started, and the addition
continues with subsequent monomers. Within a frac-
tion of a second, the addition of tens of millions of
monomers takes place. Finally, when two of the free
radical ends encounter each other and bond together
to form a large molecule the termination occurs as
the unpaired electrons are joined.
The term elastomer is the modern word to describe
a material that exhibits rubbery properties, i.e., it can
recover most of its original dimensions after extension
or compression. The pioneering work of Staudinger
in the 1900s motivated polymer chemists to accept
that such a rubbery behavior results from the fact that
the material is composed of a tangled mass of long-
chain flexible molecules and when such a material
is stretched, the individual long-chain molecules are
partially uncoiled, but will coil up again when the
force is removed because of the kinetic energy of
the segments of the polymer chain. The flexibility of
such polymer-chain molecules is actually the result
of the ability of the atoms comprising the chain to
rotate around the simple bonds between them.
Crystalline and Amorphous States
The properties of elastomeric materials are also
greatly influenced by the strong interchain, i.e.,
intermolecular forces that can result in the forma-
tion of a crystalline domain. Thus the elastomeric
properties are those of an amorphous material having
weak interchain interaction and hence no crystalliza-
tion. At the other extreme of polymer properties are
fiber-forming polymers, such as nylon, which when
properly oriented lead to the formation of permanent
crystalline fibers. In between these two extremes is
a whole range of polymers, from purely amorphous
elastomers to partially crystalline plastics, such as
polyethylene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, etc.
A most interesting class of material is comprised of
these amorphous elastomers that show the ability to
undergo a temporary crystallization when stretched
to a high extension, thus virtually becoming fibers,
but that retract to their original dimension when the
force is removed. Such crystallizing rubbers can thus
demonstrate unusually high tensile strength in the
stretched condition, but revert to amorphous state
when the force is relaxed because of relatively weak
interchain or intermolecular forces.
Development in Synthetic Rubbers
The rapid development of the synthetic rub-
ber industry throughout the war-torn world in the
1940s and later in the 1950s established the need
for an organization in which the problem of mutual
interest could be discussed between the operating
synthetic rubber plants in various countries. As a
result the International Institute of Synthetic Rubber
Producers Inc., having its main office in New York,
was constituted.
Vulcanization, Accelerators, and
Nitric Acid
Charles Goodyear found that by adding certain
nonmetals like phosphorous, sulfur, and arsenic to
the elastomers, the same can be hardened and impart
1: Rubber—A Miracle Material
the property of “elasticity” in a very short span of
time [11]. Thomas Hancock of London commercial-
ized this. He called this process “vulcanization” or
“curing” and he also found sulfur to be the best agent
for this. The hardness can be controlled by varying
the addition of sulfur. In addition to sulfur the pres-
ent rubber products have fillers and other agents like
accelerators, antioxidants, etc. However, despite all
this, vulcanization set the trend.
Goodyear discovered vulcanization while he was
in prison. In the process of his experiments he guessed
that by mixing the raw gum rubber with magnesia
and boiling it in lime he could get rid of the stickiness
in rubber. He made some nonsticky samples using
this procedure. This may have been the origin of the
use of inorganic accelerators, which are presently
used widely in the manufacture of chemical-resistant
ebonite as well as soft rubber compounds. He also
found later that aqua fortis (nitric acid) produced a
strong curing effect on the rubber since the surface
was hardened when the rubber was treated with it.
He mistakenly thought that he discovered the secret
of vulcanization. However, he found later that nitric
acid destroyed rubber. Maybe this was the earliest test
of chemical resistance of gum rubber unintentionally
conducted by Goodyear with a different purpose.
Rubber Compounding Technology
Though nitric acid was not the cause for vulcani-
zation it really gave a first leap toward the hardening
effect of rubber for the wonderful benefits of man-
kind. Because the nitric acid episode did not solve
this problem of sticking of the rubber successfully,
Goodyear made further attempts and finally acci-
dentally discovered true vulcanization. While boil-
ing gum rubber with sulfur a lump of the sulfured
gum fell onto the stove. Finally, the process of this
so-called vulcanization was perfected, and an accu-
rate formula and the exact quantity or degree of heat
were ascertained for manufacturing various kinds of
products. This subject later became known as rubber
compounding technology.
The outstanding property of rubber in general is
resilience or low modulus of elasticity. Although
its flexibility and physical properties account for
its application in general engineering and automo-
bile industries, its chemical and wear and abrasion
resistance as a sacrificial material and insulating
properties are utilized in many corrosion and erosion
5
applications in process industries. Rubber and hydro-
chloric acid form an effective combination in that
rubber-lined mild steel pipes, and tankages have been
standard materials of construction for hydrochloric
acid service for many years.
A general rule of thumb is that natural rubbers
have better mechanical properties than synthetic rub-
bers but the latter have better corrosion resistance.
However, natural rubbers are superior for certain
applications like wet chlorine and hydrochloric acid
where the corrosion reaction products formed on
the surface provide an effective protection against
the corrosive media. Natural rubber-based ebonite
provides good resistance for such application at
higher temperatures up to 90°C. Corrosion resistance
increases with increasing hardness as a rule of thumb
with hardness ranges from 60°A to 80°D. Higher
proportions of sulfur increase the hardness range in
the Shore D scale.
Range of Rubbers
The variety of polymers/rubbers available to
make innumerable types of compounds under the
terms “elastomer” or “polymer” is overwhelming.
Consider the following list of elastomers:
Natural rubber
Polyisoprene rubber
Polybutadiene rubber
Styrene-butadiene rubber
Butyl rubber
Ethylene propylene rubber
Nitrile rubber
Polychloroprene rubber
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene rubber
Silicone rubber
Polyurethane rubber
Polysulfides
Fluororubbers
To complicate the matter further any one of these
rubbers can be blended with the others to produce
mind-boggling new varieties of rubber compounds.
Throughout this book the terms elastomer, polymer,
and rubber are used with similar meanings.
6 Anticorrosive Rubber Lining
Anticorrosive Rubber Lining
Technology
Though originally the rubber industries were
catering to many engineering industrial sectors,
industries like fertilizer, caustic soda, paper and
pulp, pharmaceuticals, ore, and mining were asking
for rubber products. Apart from its elastic proper-
ties, elastomers are found to have other properties
like corrosion and abrasion resistance. To meet the
exacting standards and the technological advance-
ment growing at a furious pace in the process indus-
tries, the rubber technologists were forced to develop
new kinds of elastomers and compound formulating
techniques. Because these industries handle various
kinds of corrosive substances, the need to develop
special elastomers as materials of construction for
chemical industries was felt by the rubber manu-
facturers. They were greatly helped by the research
done in the field of polymer technology [12–20].
Finally, when the scope for elastomers became infi-
nite, the subject of dealing with elastomers and their
applications in the chemical industries developed
into the specialized area of anticorrosive rubber lin-
ing technology.
In continuous chemical process industries, where
the replacement of equipment cannot be done
overnight, maintaining the life of that equipment
becomes imperative. For example, a weak solution
of sulfuric acid can eat through a two-inch wall of
steel in just 8 months. If direct contact of the acid
with the metal can be avoided through a protective
and acid-resistant lining, the life of that equipment
can be enormously increased. So, taking the entire
spectrum of the chemical processing industries, the
range of corrosive media handled by these indus-
tries is wide. Of course, all the corrosive and abra-
sive conditions cannot be handled by elastomeric
lining alone, but of all the protective linings used,
elastomeric lining commands an overwhelming
majority.
References
[1] http://www.ehow.com/info_8439501_effects-
bubble-gum-environment.html#ixzz2sPMFrWri.
[2] R.M. Thomas, I.E. Lightbown, W.J. Sparks,
P.K. Frolich, E.V. Murphree, Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry 32 (10) (1940) 1283.
[3] H. Staudinger, Die Hochmolekularen Organis­
chen Verbindungen Kautschuk and Cellulose
(High Molecular Organic Compounds, Rubber
and Cellulose), Julius Springer, Berlin,
Germany, 1932, p. 540.
[4] H.L. Fisher, R.H. Gerke, in: C.C. Davis, J.T.
Blake (Eds.), The Chemistry and Technology of
Rubber, ACS Manograph Series No. 74, 1937,
ACS, Washington, DC, USA, p. 126.
[5] T.C. Chowdhri, Organic Synthesis Collection,
vol. II, 1927, p. 590.
[6] I.L. Finar, Organic Chemistry, vol. I, Longmans,
Green & Co., London, UK, 1951, p. 743. 766
and 836.
[7] R.B. Woodward, Reimer-Tiemaun reaction,
Journal of the American Chemical Society
p. 266, 336 (1927) by 1940.
[8] J.D. Hebworth, D.R. Waring, M.J. Waring,
Aromatic Chemistry, Royal Society of
Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, 2002.
[9] J. Andraos, Graphical Anecdotes by the
Department of Chemistry, York University,
Toronto, Ontario, Canada. http://www.chem.
yorku.ca/NAMED/PDF-FILES/graphical-anec-
dotes.pdf.
[10] P. Downey, in: W. Allstetter, J.A. Angelo Jr., T.
Day (Eds.), The Cutting Edge: An Encyclopedia
of Advanced Technologies, Oxford University
Press, Oxford, UK, 2000, p. 210.
[11] The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, sixth
ed., Columbia University Press, New York,
USA, 2006. Holland Thompson, History of
Rubber.
[12] C.C. Davis, The Chemistry and Technology
of Rubber, Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
USA, 1937, p. 238.
[13] International Rubber Research and Development
Board (IRRDB), Malaysia, History of Natural
Rubber, Parts 3 and 4, e-publication, http://
www.irrdb.com/IRRDB/NaturalRubber/History/
History3.htm and http://www.irrdb.com/IRRDB/
NaturalRubber/History/History4.htm.
[14] S. Kodama, Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi 78 (12)
(2005) 467.
[15] Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering
45 (1) (2006) 1.
[16] Japan Chemical Week 47 (2370) (2006) 4.
[17] B.-L. Zhang, W.-Y. Deng, H.-X. Lu, M. Chen,
H.-L. Qian, Journal of Applied Polymer Science
100 (5) (2006) 4114.
1: Rubber—A Miracle Material 7

[18] 
J.E. Ingran, W.R. Abell, in: Proceedings of [20] 
W.F. Fischer, in: R.O. Babbit (Ed.), The
Thermoplastic Elastomers Topical Conference Vanderbilt Handbook, RT Vanderbilt, New
2005: Bounce back with TPEs, Akron, OH, York, NY, USA, 1937, p. 87.
2005. Paper No. 3.5.
[19] H. Chao, N. Tian, M. Bailey, J. Pytela, in:
Proceedings of Thermoplastic Elastomers
Top­ical Conference 2005: Bounce back with
TPEs, Akron, OH, 2005. Paper No. 3.1.
This page intentionally left blank

     
 2 Rubber for Corrosion Protection
A number of ordinary items of everyday use are
obtained from complex chemical processes starting
from life-saving drugs, capsules and tablets to per-
fumes, and so on. These are all derived from coal,
crude oil, and petroleum gases. From crude oil we
get fertilizers, plastics, synthetic rubbers, pesticides,
detergents, fabrics, and coatings and paints. From sea
water we get vital heavy chemicals like caustic soda,
sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric
acid, etc.
During the last several decades great inroads have
been made in the chemical industry resulting in
heavy demand for raw materials. This in turn resulted
in an increase in transportation of various types of
chemicals such as phosphoric acid, hydrochloric
acid, sulfuric acid, caustic soda, chlorine gas, and
other corrosive fumes and gases. The construction of
tankers and vessels for transporting these chemicals
is a complex job. Cargos like corrosive chemicals
often pose tremendous challenges and difficulties
from a corrosion and safety point of view, leading to
an atmospheric pollution threat. We have seen many
instances of pollution by crude oil leakage from ship
tankers into the seas and oceans. An incidence in
2004 [1] of the bursting of a fiberglass tank holding
hydrochloric acid at Univar’s bulk chemical facil-
ity near Twinsburg, Ohio, in the United States made
media headlines in state and federal journals neces-
sitating President Bush’s visit to the site. Univar is
a giant chemical facility operating throughout North
America and Canada, transporting bulk corrosive
chemicals in tankers for various destinations in the
American continent.
Many people are ignorant of the fact that chemis-
try has a relevance to everyday life. DuPont’s good
old slogan of “Better things for better living…
through chemistry” [2] is relevant in this context.
In fact, all of us are surrounded by the products of
the chemical industry. The food we eat is grown
with phosphatic, nitrate, and urea fertilizers. The
food crops are protected with pesticide sprays. The
clothes and garments we wear are mostly made of
Anticorrosive Rubber Lining. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-44371-5.00002-5
Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
artificial fibers derived from petrochemicals that
come from petroleum gas. Detergents, antifreeze
chemicals for motor vehicle engines, and synthetic
rubbers are all derivatives from petroleum. Many
patent medicines are from phenol and chlorine [3],
a derivative of coal and a by-product of electrolysis
of sodium chloride, respectively. Many electronic
goods, several consumer products, toys, packag-
ing materials, etc., are all from rubbers or plas-
tics. A modern world without rubber and plastics
is unthinkable. The raw materials for the chemi-
cal industry, as any other raw materials, have to be
transported from where they are produced to where
they are used.
The chemicals transported in bulk in tankers are
mainly heavy chemicals. Heavy chemicals include
substances that are produced in large quantities. The
most common heavy chemicals are:
1. 
Sulfuric acid is used in the manufacture of
phosphate fertilizers, explosives, removing
oxides from metals in storage batteries, and in
drying towers in chlor-alkali plants.
2. Phosphoric acid is used in the manufacture of
superphosphates.
3. Nitric acid is used in explosives, nitrate fertil-
izers, and in electroplating units.
4. Caustic soda in liquid and flake forms is used
in the dye and textile industry.
5. Other heavy chemicals like hydrochloric acid
and chlorine are used in pharmaceuticals
industries.
The hazards produced by these chemicals are
enormous and their corrosion effects in the respective
industries is phenomenal. The National Association
of Corrosion Engineers is often giving warning sig-
nals [4–6] that billions of dollars are being lost every
year through corrosion in industries, eating heavily
into the gross domestic products of many countries at
as high as more than 4%.
9
10
Prevention of this industrial corrosion leads
to considerable reduction in loss and damage to
the plant and equipment and escape from pollu-
tion threat to a great level. This preventive method
through employing anticorrosive thin coatings and
linings reduces loss caused by downtime of equip-
ment, machines, and the transport system. It is
here that rubber lining occupies a prominent place
in helping to reduce industrial loss because of the
corrosive chemicals handled in the plant and trans-
ported in tankers from destination to destination,
resulting in a huge market potential for the anticor-
rosive rubber lining industry.
Rubber lining is one of the proven methods
employed to protect chemical process equipment
against the corrosive and abrasive attacks of flu-
ids. One of the most important characteristics of
natural rubber and modern synthetic rubber is
their remarkable resistance to corrosive chemi-
cals, fumes, acids, alkalis, and other salt solutions.
Because of their outstanding resistance to corro-
sion, their use is widely accepted for protecting
chemical process equipment. Without such pro-
tection, corrosion would be so extensive that most
products of modern technology could not exist.
The variations, differences, and large percentages
of corrosive impurities have little influence on the
rubber lining when temperature increases up to
100–120°C.
This is the decisive technical difference between
rubber lining and stainless steel. Even the deposits
of solids or incrustations of very hard nature will
not have any significant negative effect on the rub-
ber lining. Rubber is the lowest cost anticorrosive
lining because other anticorrosive materials are
either very expensive or cannot be used because of
other drawbacks. The question of the service life
of rubber lining has some importance. The author
of this book has authentic information that proves
that the rubber lining of the phosphoric acid stor-
age tank at the harbor terminal belonging to M/s.
Madras Fertilizers Ltd. in India has secured the life
of the tank for 15–20 years with little sign of degra-
dation [7].
From the low degree of degradation, which can
be assumed to be negligible, it appears that the lin-
ing can give 5 more years of service successfully.
Fig. 2.1 shows the phosphoric acid storage tank at a
harbor terminal in Chennai, India.
The foregoing long-term technical advantages are
supplemented by considerable economic advantages.
Anticorrosive Rubber Lining
The combination of mild steel and rubber lining as
materials of construction in a chemical industry is
much cheaper than stainless steel. An example to
prove this has been quoted by R. Heinrich in this
paper on “Rubber Lining of Chemical Carriers,
Storage Tanks and Pipelines” as follows [8]:
Construction of tanks in 10 mm thick plates:
in stainless steel AISI 316, the approximate cost—
US $900/sq.m.
in carbon steel with rubber lining, the approximate
cost—US $550/sq.m.
difference is US $350/sq.m, equivalent to 60% in
relation to the tank surface. Considering a total
surface of 7000 sq.m., translates to a saving of
US $2.5 M.
The main types of rubber used in the field of anti-
corrosion are natural rubber, polyisoprene, polybuta-
diene, polyurethane, butyl rubber, styrene-butadiene,
nitrile rubber, ethylene-propylene rubber, polychlo-
roprene, silicone rubber, vinylidene rubber, etc. The
wide ranges of available natural and synthetic rub-
bers offer a versatility of properties to suit almost
every corrosive condition encountered in the process
industries.
Soft rubber linings are resistant to the diffu-
sion of ionic chemicals through the thickness of
the lining. But hard rubber or “ebonite” linings
have strong resistance to diffusion. As diffusion is
inversely proportional to the thickness of the lining,
the resistance to diffusion can be quadrupled by just
Figure 2.1 Rubber-lined phosphoric acid storage
tank at Chennai harbor terminal, India.
2: Rubber for Corrosion Protection 11

doubling the thickness. Raw rubber cannot be used Uniform Attack

for lining as it is, and the final rubber used for lin-
ing is prepared by blending many ingredients with
the raw rubber such as carbon black, talc, graphite,
fillers, etc. To suit individual requirements, different
formulations are designed and this requires a very
high skill and knowledge. Moreover, to achieve a
good lining, vessels to be lined should also be free
from defects like blowholes, sharp edges, air inclu-
sion, pitting on the surface, etc. Improper lining,
either because of defective compounding of rubber
or because of the surface defects on the vessels, will
lead to premature failure of the lining.
Meticulous care is to be taken to remove air bub-
bles building between the rubber and metal and the
presence of moisture is to be identified and removed,
if found, by wiping with solvent.
Table 2.1 gives an idea of the application of rubber
linings in the process industries.
Types of Corrosion
Experts have identified the various forms of corro-
sion in the chemical industry into mainly eight major
heads as follows.
Uniformity of attack on all the areas exposed to
corrosion, e.g., piece of mild steel sheet immersed
in dilute sulfuric acid, will be uniformly corroded
by the acid. Corrosion by uniform attack accounts
for the greatest loss in practice. An incidence of this
kind of corrosion can easily be detected and remedial
measures taken.
Galvanic Corrosion
The dry cell battery is a typical example of gal-
vanic or two-metal corrosion as it is otherwise
called. When two dissimilar metals are immersed
in a conductive or corrosive medium, there is
always a potential difference between them. Once
these metals are connected, this potential differ-
ence induces electron flow between them. The less
corrosion-resistant metal is attacked more than the
more resistant metal. This is an electrochemical
process. In the case of a dry cell battery the car-
bon electrode acts as the cathode (the more resis-
tant material) and zinc electrode acts the corroding
anode. The natural phenomenon of corrosion is
used in this case for producing electricity.

Table 2.1 Application of Rubber Linings

Type of Industry Equipment Rubber Used
Fertilizer Phosphoric acid storage tanks Soft natural rubber, semiebonite,
neoprene, and butyl
Caustic soda Chlorine drying towers Hypalon
Chlor-alkali Electrolytic mercury cells Soft natural rubber, ebonite,
neoprene rubber
Ectroplating Plating tanks EPDM, ebonite, butyl
Halogens HF absorbers, flouride dryer, centrifuges Soft natural rubber, ebonite,
semiebonite
Ores and mining Ball mills, rotary vacuum filters, digesters Natural soft rubber, semi ebonite,
butyl rubber
Organic/aromatic Distillation and stripping column, storage Viton
tanks
Pharmaceutical Crystallization tanks, centrifuges, digesters Semiebonite, butyl
Pulp and paper Hypochlorite towers, alkali extraction Natural soft rubber
towers, pipes
Thermal plants Anionic and cationic tanks Soft natural rubber, neoprene,
ebonite
EPDM, Ethylene-propylene-diene-monomer; HF, Hydrogen Flouride.
12
Crevice Corrosion
Stagnant solution in small holes, gasket faces, lap
joints, surface deposits, cervices under bolts, and
rivet heads are all sources of crevice corrosion. It is
also called deposit or gasket corrosion.
Pitting
This form of corrosion results in pits or holes in the
metal. Generally, a pit has a diameter that is less than
the depth. These pits will be normally filled with the
corrosion products and will be rarely detected before
leaks start. So pit failure will be sudden and no pre-
vention can be thought of as in the case of other slow
processes of perceptible corrosion such as uniform
attack. The general tendency of pits is to grow in
the direction of gravity from the horizontal surfaces
downward. Vertical surfaces show less of this attack.
Intergranular Corrosion
It is generally noted that the grain boundaries are
more reactive. This is the reason for higher corrosion
at grain boundaries in certain cases, rather than at the
grain surfaces.
Selective Leaching
Corrosion sometimes removes ore element from a
solid solution of alloy and this process is described as
selective leaching. This can easily be seen in the case
of brass where the surface becomes a copper color
from the original yellow color.
Erosion Corrosion
When there is a relative motion between the corroding
liquid and the metal or rubber surface the rate of attack
or the damage to the surface is increased. The process is
actually sweating off the corrosion product, thus expos-
ing the base surface again to corrosion. Otherwise the
corrosion product, as a newly formed protective layer,
would have prevented or slowed down further corro-
sion, just as in the case of hypochlorous acid solution on
natural rubber lining. In this case of an erosion-corro-
sion situation the protective corrosion products exhibit
very low cohesion and as such are prone to be wiped off
by the liquid, unlike wet chlorine or hydrochloric acid,
which forms a strong protective layer of corrosion prod-
uct well adhered to the rubber surface.
Anticorrosive Rubber Lining
Stress Corrosion
When tensile stress is applied in the presence
of a corrosive medium the metal cracks and this is
called stress corrosion. This does not include crack-
ing because of hydrogen embrittlement. In the case
of stress corrosion, the metal is not affected uni-
formly and most of the surface is unaffected while
fine cracks proceed through it. In stress corrosion,
the preferred lining is rubber lining rather than any
rigid lining such as fiber-reinforced plastics, a rubber
being elastic enough to withstand stress caused by
thermal expansion of the metals.
The need for protection against corrosion is a
prime requirement in the chemical industry. Rubber
lining has been proven in this sector over many
decades and remains as a product of outstand-
ing durability and dependability. A rubber lining
whether soft or hard is a good selection for corrosion
protection in plants in which processing is carried
out with acids, alkalis, salt solutions, etc. A wide
variety of different plant and equipment including
tanks, pressure vessels, vacuum vessels, evapora-
tors, pipes, agitators, stirrers, impellers, runner fans,
centrifugals, filter drums and their components,
scrubbers, electrolytic mercury cells, and electro-
lyte tanks are effectively protected against corrosion
by rubber linings. In chemical plants, the equipment
that is protected against corrosion can be either of
metal carbon steel, aluminum, stainless steel, con-
crete, or wood.
Types of Rubber Lining Based on
Rubbers
The different types of lining based on base rubbers
are as follows:
1. Natural rubber and polyisoprene rubber. These
are used for the production of not only soft rub-
ber but also hard rubber. Like hard rubber, soft
rubber is notable for its good processing prop-
erties but its chemical stability is lower. Soft
rubber linings are used mainly for applications
likely to involve abrasive wear but no major
chemical stresses.
2. 
Chlorobutyl rubber, bromobutyl rubber, and
butyl rubber. These can be vulcanized into soft
rubber. Vulcanized rubber has almost the same
chemical stability as natural-based hard rubber,
2: Rubber for Corrosion Protection 13

ebonite. Another special feature is the materi-

al’s high resistance to steam diffusion and dif-
fusion by sulfur dioxide and hydroluoric acid.
They have good weathering resistance.
3. Polychloroprene rubber. This can only be vul-
canized into soft rubber, characterized by good
chemical stability and resistance to aging,
weathering, and wear. Its resistance to attack by
halogenating and oxidizing media is not as high
as that of butyl rubbers. But it displays higher
resistance to conditions involving exposure to
oils. Its relatively high chlorine content of more
than 25% can also provide it with self-extin-
guishing properties but its diffusion resistance is
markedly lower than that of butyl rubbers. Figure 2.2 Rubber lining of gypsum agitator for a
4. 
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene rubber. This fertilizer factory.
also can be used only for the production of soft
rubber grades. It is notable in particular for its • Resistance to abrasion by particles of solids and
high resistance to oxidative stresses, such as by slurries and in fumes.
chlorine bleach liquor. • Vacuum-tight bonding of the rubber with the
5. For special applications, soft rubber linings are metal.
also produced from nitrile rubber. Hard nitriles • Surface free of pinholes.
can also be produced. Nitrile linings are those
that display the most wide-ranging resistance • Chemical resistance.
to organic solvents.
Fig. 2.2 shows a gypsum agitator in a fertilizer
6. Styrene-butadiene rubber. Hard rubber and soft plant being rubber lined.
rubber compounds can be produced with this The resistance of certain rubbers to liquid ammonia
rubber. Hard rubber linings can be used in a with a boiling point of −33 to 35°C, which is widely
brine solution environment. used in the fertilizer industry, is given as follows:

Corrosion in Industries Natural rubber: Eminently suitable for cold ammo-

Fertilizer Industry
The growth in the global population has necessi-
tated an increased use of fertilizers to augment the sup-
ply of food. In the fertilizer industry the manufacturing
process involves the use of sulfuric acid, hydrochloric
acid, and phosphoric acid. The plant and equipment
and the piping system that come into contact with the
acids must be dependably protected against corrosive
attack. Many years of use of rubber as a protective lin-
ing has proved its reliability and cost effectiveness in
the fertilizer industry. Rubber as a construction mate-
rial is well able to satisfy the variety of requirements
placed on it in this area [9]. They are:
• Resistance to elevated temperatures up to 100°C
and higher.
nia gas.
Butyl rubber: Resistance is excellent and can be
used for liquid ammonia.
Polybutadiene rubber: Not suitable.
Neoprene: Highly impermeable to ammonia gas
rather than nitrogen gas.
Silicone rubbers: Satisfactory resistance and so
not recommended.
Viton: Severally attacked by anhydrous ammonia.
Power Plants
Rubber linings have been used for a variety of
different applications in power plants for corro-
sion protection. Special mention here can be made
14
in particular of water treatment plants and scrub-
bers in the desulfurization of flue gas. For these
applications the rubber lining can be applied in the
manufacturer’s works or construction site. Rubber
linings especially of butyl or bromobutyl rubbers
have proved themselves eminently in flue gas
scrubbers, tanks, pipes and fittings, cyclones, and
centrifuges. A typical example is the scrubbers in
the wet systems where rubber linings have to be
applied to thousands of square meters at heights
of 70 m and above. Even under severe conditions
of high temperatures, abrasion by solid particles,
in slurries and fumes, and permeation by water
and gases, the rubber linings have proved to be
appropriate materials of construction for protec-
tion against corrosion giving service lives of over
15 years in power plants [10].
Treatment of Ores
In almost all mines, such as copper, nickel, iron, or
gold, acids come into play. The ores must be bleached
out of the sludge by treating them with acids. The
process takes place in huge tanks of diameters up to
30 m and heights of 5 m. The tanks as such cannot
withstand the aggressiveness of the corrosive chemi-
cals employed and the abrasive environments. The
tanks can be of concrete or steel. These tanks must
be protected against corrosion/erosion. For decades,
rubber linings have been successfully used in ore-
dressing plants as a corrosion and abrasion protec-
tion material.
Chlor-Alkali Industry
The chlor-alkali industry is the one where huge
requirements of rubber linings based on ebonite,
natural soft rubber, neoprene, and chlorosulfonated
polyethylene are widely used to provide corrosion
protection as well as ozone protection in equipment
like electrolytic mercury cells, reaction tanks, dry-
ing towers, scrubbers, pipes and fittings, etc. The
wet chlorine produced as a result of electrolysis of
brine solution in the cells is the most corrosive, as
well as the hydrochloric acid that is formed dur-
ing the process. Corrosion protection is provided
by the reaction products of chlorine or hydrochlo-
ric acid, which form a layer of chlorinated rubber
above the base rubber surface. In the case of natu-
ral rubber, corrosion protection is given by these
Anticorrosive Rubber Lining
reaction products, namely, chlorinated rubber or
rubber hydrochloride. In the concentrated ozone
atmosphere in the cell house, neoprene linings and
components are used. In drying towers where sulfu-
ric acid is handled, chlorosulfonated polyethylene
is used.
Mercury Cells in the Caustic Soda
Industry
To understand how anticorrosive rubber linings
are used in the caustic soda industry it is better to
know the design, construction, and operation of the
industry, mainly in the cell house where corrosion is
severe. A brief description of the design, construc-
tion, and operation of mercury cells in the caustic
soda industry where rubber is used as an anticorro-
sive lining is given next [11].
The production of sodium hydroxide (caustic
soda) follows the famous Faraday’s law accord-
ing to which 96,500 coulombs (ie., amp/s) of elec-
tric charge passing through a cell will produce 1 g
equivalent of reaction product at each electrode.
Because of side reactions that follow, the cells usu-
ally require more than this amount of current to pro-
duce 1 g equivalent of sodium or its corresponding
sodium hydroxide during the electrolysis of sodium
chloride. The ratio of the theoretical to the actual
current consumed is defined as the current effi-
ciency. In conventional cells the current efficiency
is around 95%. The higher the current load (kA), the
higher is the output of sodium hydroxide. Fig. 2.3
shows a cell house in a caustic soda plant.
Today, plants with 300 kA cells are running satis-
factorily in caustic soda plants. The mercury cells,
as they are called, consist of three units as described
below.
1. Primary cells or the electrolyzer is where
sodium chloride is electrolyzed to sodium and
chlorine. Sodium combines with mercury to
form sodium–mercury amalgam.
2. 
The secondary cells are also called the
denuder or decomposer in which the sodium
amalgam supplied by the primary cells reacts
with pure water forming caustic soda and
hydrogen, releasing mercury for recircula-
tion. The mercury pump that takes mercury
from the secondary cells feeds it to the pri-
mary cells.
2: Rubber for Corrosion Protection
Figure 2.3 Cell house in a caustic soda plant. Courtesy: http://crsbasilea.inti.gov.ar/TallerMercurio/Materialadicional/
Mejores%20Praticas%20en%20Cloro%20Soda%20a06_399.pdf.
3. 
The electrolyzer consists of a rectangular
trough with a cover on top connected at both
ends to the end boxes; the one at the mercury
inlet is called the inlet box and the other the
outlet box. The trough is of mild steel construc-
tion with ebonite-lined bottom and sides. The
covers are of two types of construction. 1. mild
steel construction with ebonite lining on the
inside surface or 2. rubber sheets called flexible
cell covers having holes for fixing anodes. The
anode gaskets and rings are of soft and ebonite
rubber, respectively. The inlet box is of rubber-
lined mild steel construction having a feed
brine (sodium chloride) distributor and mer-
cury seal. The inlet box is so constructed that
it distributes the mercury uniformly across the
entire width of the cell trough. The anodes are
fixed to the cover and hung over the cell bottom.
The trough is installed on an inclined frame.
The mercury and the feed brine flow from the
inlet to the outlet end and the seal arrangement
in the outlet box allows only the amalgam to
flow out, while the depleted sodium chloride
solution (brine) is taken out from the overflow
nozzles fixed at the end of the trough.
One of the important constructional features of the
outlet box is that its design should be such that the
amalgam does not collide with the brine seal plate
and thereby the carryover of the brine along with the
amalgam to the secondary cell is minimal and thus
the sodium chloride content in the sodium hydrox-
ide liquor is low. Mercury forms a flowing cathode.
During the process of electrolysis, sodium chloride is
electrolyzed to sodium and chlorine ions, the sodium
ions discharging the current at the cathode and amal-
gamate with the mercury. Chlorine ions discharge
15
their charge at the anode and rise above the brine level
in the form of gas that is taken out from the cell top.
The width of the cell trough is generally a maximum
of 2.5 m. As regards length of the trough, although
short lengths are preferred, lengths of 10–12 m are
not uncommon.
The secondary cells are of two types: horizontal
and vertical. In the secondary cells the amalgam is
brought in contact with water, where the sodium elec-
trochemically reacts with the latter to form caustic
soda lye and hydrogen gas. The amalgam acts as the
anode and the graphite as the cathode. The sodium
hydroxide lye acts as the electrolyte.
Membrane Technology
The foregoing brief description of mercury cells
in the caustic soda industry reveals how rubber
plays a vital role as an anticorrosive protective
material in all the critical equipment and con-
nected piping systems handling acidic and alkaline
solutions, gases, and fumes. Mercury cell technol-
ogy was replaced by membrane technology for the
manufacture of caustic soda 20 years ago in most
installations around the world; however, corrosion
on equipment prevails and anticorrosive rubber
lining continues to play its role in the caustic soda
industry (Fig. 2.4).
Flexible Cell Covers
As said earlier, cell covers in an electrolytic mer-
cury cell in the caustic soda industry can be made of
mild steel ebonite-lined rigid covers or can be made of
only rubber sheets called flexible covers. The flexible
16
Figure 2.4 A membrane cell in a caustic soda factory.
rubber cover with holes for holding anodes is a two-
layer construction, the bottom layer of 4 mm thick-
ness being a chlorine-resistant natural soft rubber of
hardness 60 Å and the top layer a 2 mm-thick ozone-
resistant neoprene rubber of hardness 60 Å, which is
exposed to an ozone-concentrated atmosphere in the
cell house. The temperature of reaction in the cells
is around 80°C. The cell cover is expected to give a
life of about 14–18 months, matching that of graphite
anodes. Titanium anodes, which have replaced graph-
ite anodes, have a longer life and as such the com-
pounds of the flexible cell cover have to be designed
with suitable compounding of both the natural rub-
ber and neoprene rubber layers with longevity of
24 months, matching that of titanium anodes. The
bottom layer reacts with chlorine producing a protec-
tive chlorinated rubber layer, thus preventing further
attack by chlorine. The top neoprene layer is ozone
resistant. While compounding both natural rubber
and neoprene rubber the foregoing cell house condi-
tions are to be taken into consideration in addition to
the mutual compatibility of these two different base
rubbers with regard to their processing characteristics
in the calender and curing systems. These compounds
are separately calendered and doubled in a doubling
device while warm and then the doubled sheet is
wound on drums of large diameter of about 0.75 m in
the prevulcanizing plant device, tightly backed by a
fine-textured cotton duck fabric and cured in the auto-
clave for about 2½ h at a temperature of 140°C. The
cured sheets are punched for the anode holes and the
molded rubber gaskets, and the anode holding rings
are fixed with an epoxy-based adhesive.
The proven compounding practice for the natural
rubber layer is to load it with 30 phr of graphite, 30
phr of semireinforcing carbon black filler, and 50 phr
Anticorrosive Rubber Lining
of inert filler, china clay. A low sulfur curing system is
adopted for heat resistance with a suitable antioxidant
to prevent flex cracking. A typical chlorine-resistant
soft natural rubber compound formula is given below:
Ingredients phr
Smoked sheet RMA-1X 100
Zinc oxide 5
Stearic acid 3
Graphite 1
Plumbogine (fine graphite) 15
Fast extrusion furnace black 30
Fine china clay 50
Aromatic process oil 6
Cyclohexyl benzothiazole 1.25
sulfenamide
Sulfur 1.75
Antioxidant—Nonox HFN (blend of 1.00
arylamine)
phr, parts per hundred parts of rubber by weight.
The top neoprene layer is an ozone-resistant layer
and at the same time it protects and supports the
natural rubber layer beneath it. Therefore it has to be
strong. Neoprene is capable of producing high ten-
sile strength in the absence of reinforcing fillers. Gum
strengths of as high as 5000 psi (35 mPa) have been
reported by many neoprene (chloroprene) suppliers
[12–14]. While natural rubber tends to become soft
and sticky on oxidation, neoprene after prolonged
periods of exposure tends to increase in modulus,
decrease in ultimate elongation, and become dry and
hard. It is possible to produce cracking in neoprene
vulcanizate by prolonged exposure to high concentra-
tions of ozone. It has been established that the dynamic
properties of neoprene vulcanizates are affected less
than those of natural rubber at temperatures of 80°C
and above. For application in a flexible cell cover a 2
phr of phenyl-beta-naphthylamine accelerator is suffi-
cient (Fig. 2.5). Although on heat aging the neoprene
compounds maintain good breaking strength, they are
prone to suffer from increase in modulus, decrease
in extensibility, and increase in hardness. However,
the tendency of neoprene compounds to stiffen, lose
elongation, and finally become brittle at elevated
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 CHAPTER VIII.
DANIEL POLLITT, ESQ., AND FAMILY.

The grand dinner-party at 500, Princes Gate, was over, the last
silken train had swept down the steps, the last brougham had
bowled away, and a somewhat bored-looking young man indulged in
a stretch and a prodigious yawn, and strolled slowly back to the
library, where the master of the house, a spruce little person of sixty,
with a rosy cheek and active eye, stood before the empty fireplace
(the month was June) with his coat-tails under his arms, engaged in
chewing a tooth-pick. Wealthy he may be, judging from his
surroundings, but he is certainly not distinguished in appearance; his
scanty locks are brushed out into two sharp horns over his large
ears. In spite of his blazing solitaire stud and faultless claw-hammer
coat, he is plebeian; yes, from the points of his patent leather shoes
to the crown of his bald head. It is difficult to believe that he is the
uncle of the aristocratic young fellow who has just entered and cast
himself into a deep armchair. What the French call “the look of race,”
is the principal thing that strikes one about Mark Jervis. It is
afterwards—possibly some time afterwards—that you realize the fact
that he is remarkably handsome, and considerably older than you
took him to be at the first glance. His smooth face and sunny hazel
eyes are misleading: young Jervis is more than nineteen, he is five
and twenty.
“Well, Mark, that’s over, thank God,” exclaimed Mr. Pollitt. “I hate
these big dinners; but your aunt will have them. She says we owe
them; women are never backward in paying those sort of debts. It
was well done, hey? That new chef is a success. Did you taste the
Perdreaux aux Chartreuse—or the Bouchée à la financière, or that
cold entrée?”
“No, Uncle Dan,” strangling another great yawn.
 “Ah, you sly dog! You were too much taken up with Lady
Boadicea! She is considered a beauty—at least her picture made
rather a stir. What do you think? How does she strike you?”
“To me—she looks like a wax doll that has been held too close to
the fire—and she is about as animated.”
“Well, you can’t say that of the American girl, Miss Clapper—
there’s a complexion!—there’s animation!—there’s a stunner for
you!”
“A stunner, indeed! She thrust her money down my throat in such
enormous quantities that I could scarcely swallow anything else!”
“Then why the deuce did you not stuff some of mine down hers,
hey?” chuckling. “I saw you at Hurlingham this afternoon.”
“Did you, sir? I had no idea you were there.”
“It was a frightful squash—hardly a chair to be had; the Royalties,
a fine day and a popular match, brought ’em. I suppose that was the
new pony you were trying, brown with white legs. How do you like
him?”
“He is not handy, and he is a bit slow. He is not in the same class
with Pipe-clay, or the chestnut Arab; I don’t think we will buy him, sir.”
“Lord Greenleg was very anxious to hear what I thought of him. He
only wants a hundred and thirty—asked me to give him an answer
there and then, as he had another customer, but I thought I had
better wait till I heard your opinion. Is the pony worth one hundred
and thirty guineas? What do you say?”
“I say, cut off the first figure, and that is about his value,” rejoined
his nephew shortly.
Mr. Pollitt looked blank. He rather liked buying ponies from lords,
even at a high figure, but a hundred guineas too much was a stiff
sum. He knew that he could rely on the young fellow’s opinion, for
lazy as he seemed, lounging there in an easy chair, he could both
buy a horse and ride a horse—which does not always follow. The
languid-looking youth was a hard rider to hounds, and a finished polo
player.
 “Then I suppose we shan’t mind the brown, eh, Mark?” said his
uncle rather dolefully. “After all, it is getting late in the season, and
his lordship has another offer.”
“Has he!” expressively. “Oh, then, that is all right.”
“Your side played up well to-day, my boy!”
“And were well beaten—two goals to four. Johnny Brind is no good
as a back. He sits doubled up in his saddle, like an angry cat, and
lets the ball roll out between his pony’s fore legs—and his language!”
“That did not come as far as my ears. I saw you speaking to Lord
Robert Tedcastle. You were at Eton with him—you might bring him
home to lunch some Sunday; and that Italian prince, did you come
across him?” anxiously.
“No; I did not see him.”
“I noticed you having a long talk with that young Torrens; what was
he yarning about? He was nodding his head and waving his hands
like a cheap toy.”
“He was telling me of his plans. He and his brother are off to
America next week, they are going on to Japan, Australia, and India.
I say, Uncle Dan,” suddenly sitting erect, “I wish you would let me
travel for a couple of years and see the world.”
A silence of nearly a minute, and then Mr. Pollitt burst out—
“Now, this is some stuff that young ass Torrens has been putting
into your head. To see the world! What world? You see it at home.
England is the world. You have the best of everything here—the
handsomest women, finest horses, best food and drink, best——” he
paused, and his nephew, who was nursing his leg, blandly
suggested “climate.”
“Climate be hanged! best society,” bawled Mr. Pollitt. “The fact of
the matter is, you young chaps don’t know when you are well off.
Travel—see the world—skittles!”
“I know that I am exceedingly well off, thanks to you, Uncle Dan,”
rejoined his nephew, quietly. “I have capital polo ponies, a first-rate
stud of hunters, a splendid allowance—but a fellow can’t play polo,
and hunt, and go to balls and theatres all his life; at least, that’s not
my idea of life. I have nothing to do, no profession, you know; you
would not hear of my going into the service.”
“No—I hate the army—what prospect does it offer the young idiots
who are slaving to get into it—to live vagabonds, and die beggars!”
“There was the diplomatic corps; but I’ve not brains enough for
that.”
“Bosh! You don’t want a profession, taking bread out of other
people’s mouths. You are my heir—that’s your profession. As to
intellect, there is a great deal too much intellect in these days; the
world would be far easier to govern if there was less! You have
brains enough, my boy, you did very well at Oxford.”
“I know that I am very fortunate,” repeated the young man, “and
that thousands of fellows would give anything to stand in my shoes.”
“Clarence for one,” interrupted his uncle, with a loud chuckle.
“But I’m sick of the eternal treadmill round of the London season—
Ascot, Goodwood, Cowes, Scotland. Then back to London, and we
begin the whole business over again. We see the same people, and
do the same things.”
“How old are you, Mark?” broke in Mr. Pollitt, excitedly.
“Five and twenty.”
“One would think you were eighty-five! But it is all the rage to be
bored and blasé, and to give out that life is not worth living. You are
in the height of the fashion, my boy! The fact of the matter is—that
you are too prosperous. A blow of real trouble, cutting to the very
bone, would do you no harm.”
“Perhaps so. Properly speaking, I believe I ought to have been a
poor man’s son, and had to work my way. I feel that I could do it. I
would not have minded being a soldier, a sailor, an explorer, or even
a stock-rider.”
“In fact, to put the matter in a nutshell, anything but what you are.”
 “Well, Uncle Dan, you have fought your way up to the front, step
by step, and won your spurs, and enjoyed the battle. I should like to
take some weapon, and strike into the fray.” Here he suddenly got
up, and came over to his uncle, and, putting his hand affectionately
on his shoulder said, “I would like to do something to make you”—
with a nervous laugh—“proud of me;” and as he looked into his
uncle’s shrewd little face, his eyes shone with repressed excitement.
“I’m proud enough. You are my own flesh and blood—a good-
looking chap, a capital rider, and a gentleman; a bit too fond of
dabbling with your nasty, dirty oil paints, a bit dreamy and Quixotic,
but——”
At this juncture the door was gently pushed open, and a long,
hooked nose came slowly into the room, followed by a tall, thin,
elderly lady, attired in a clinging mist-coloured robe, and blazing with
diamonds. A sallow, discontented-looking person, with a high-bred
air, despite her touzled fringe.
“So you are both here!” she murmured sweetly.
“Yes,” assented Mr. Pollitt; “and here is Mark,” waving a short
square hand towards him. “What do you think is his last craze,
Selina? He wants to travel for a couple of years, in order to see the
world. Just like the hero of a fairy tale.”
Mark hastened to place a chair for his aunt, into which she gently
sank, keeping her eyes steadily fixed on his as she did so, and
gradually narrowing her gaze to a cat-like glint.
“Do you know that I rather like the idea!” she remarked, after a
momentary silence. “I think it is a shocking thing for a young man to
waste his life, lounging in clubs gossipping and gambling, or playing
a game on the back of a pony. Travelling improves the mind and
enlarges the ideas.” Here, catching sight of Mr. Pollitt’s face of angry
scorn, she lost no time in adding, “You know, it is all the fashion to
travel, it’s only the second-rate people and nobodies who stay at
home. Lady Grace and Lord Kenneth are going out to India this cold
weather, so is the Duke of Saltminster, the Marquis and Marchioness
of Tordale, and crowds of other smart people.”
 Smart people were to Mr. Pollitt, as his crafty wife knew, the very
salt of the earth; and his expression changed from that of repressed
fury to grave attention.
“India! Perhaps I would not mind so much,” he admitted, after a
pause. “The boy was born there, and he could look up his father.
Yes, and he might have some shooting, and pick up a few tigers, and
nice acquaintances and companions.”
“Oh, but, of course, Mark could not travel alone, dear. He must
have a pleasant and experienced——”
“Bear-leader or keeper; or what would you say to a chaperon?”
broke in her husband.
“My dearest!” she gravely expostulated. “You know perfectly well
that it would be frightfully dull for the poor boy roaming about the
country with no one to keep him company, not knowing where to go,
or what to say. Now Clarence,” and she hesitated.
“Yes—now Clarence. What now?” sharply.
“Clarence,” speaking very distinctly, “was stationed in India for
eight years. He is an experienced Anglo-Indian, has hundreds of
friends, talks Hindostani fluently, and could get no end of shooting
and introductions to native princes” (great emphasis on princes). “He
would be a capital guide for Mark.”
“Umph!” with a short laugh. “I’m not so sure of that, Mrs. Pollitt.”
“Oh, my dear Dan, he is perfectly steady now. Why, he is thirty-
five, and has sown his wild oats. I never quite believe in these
wonderfully good young men,” and she shot a swift glance at Mark.
“Except Mark, of course, and he ought to have been a parson, and,”
with a little sneer, “he may yet become a missionary.”
“But India is no novelty to Clarence,” protested Mr. Pollitt; “and, by
all accounts, he made it too hot to hold him. Mark can easily tack
himself on to some party of friends, and do the tour with them. You
say that the Rothmores——”
“Oh yes,” impatiently; “and they have made their arrangements
months ago. Mark cannot tack himself on to people, as you express
it; it would not do at all. On the contrary, he must have some one
tacked on to him. The trip will be a boon to my brother, as well as to
your nephew. Poor Clarence loves India. He is frightfully hard up; he
would be an ideal companion for Mark,” turning to him. “What do you
say, Mark? Answer us quite frankly.”
And under these circumstances what could Mark say but, “Yes; oh,
certainly. Clarence is a good sort.”
“And at any rate, he can well be spared from home,” added Mr.
Pollitt, dryly.
“Then you will consent to Mark’s request, darling?” said his wife,
rising and tapping him playfully with her big feather fan. “Think of all
he will have to tell you, and of all the pretty things he will bring us.”
“As long as he does not bring a wife!” growled the old gentleman.
“Well, well, well, it is not often that you and Mark are on the same
side in a debate, or that you second the resolution. When you
combine, you are too strong for me. I’ll think it over.”
Mrs. Pollitt gave her nephew by marriage a quick significant
glance, for this speech distinctly showed that the bill before the
(head of the) house had passed, and that it now only remained to go
into a committee of ways and means.
 CHAPTER IX.
PERMISSION TO TRAVEL.

Mark Jervis had been agreeably surprised by his aunt’s

enthusiastic co-operation; thanks to her powerful alliance, he had
carried his point, and was to spend twelve months travelling in India,
accompanied by Mrs. Pollitt’s brother, Captain Clarence Waring. The
latter was about to revisit his former haunts in an entirely new
character—that of mentor and companion to a young man—and,
moreover, a wealthy young man. All the world has heard of “Pollitt’s
Pearl Barley,” and “Pollitt’s Patent Fowls’ Food.” Are not its merits
blazoned in flaming letters in railway stations, in fields bordering the
rocking expresses that thunder through the land? Does not the name
of “Pollitt” greet the miserable eyes of sea-sick travellers, as they
stagger down the companion ladders of ocean greyhounds? In short,
the enterprise of Daniel Pollitt, and the fame of Pollitt’s pearl barley,
is of universal renown.
Although he has never boasted of the fact, or assured his
intimates that “he began life with the traditional sixpence,” Mr. Pollitt
is a self-made man. He talks freely enough of his wife’s relations, of
his nephew’s famous pedigree, but he has not once alluded in the
most distant fashion to his own little family tree. Yet he has nothing to
be ashamed of. His father was a gentleman by birth, a poor curate,
who had left two almost penniless orphans, Dan and a sister, several
years younger than himself. The former, while yet in his early teens,
had clambered on to a stool in an office in the city, from thence
(unusual flight) he had soared to success and wealth. Thanks to
indomitable industry, shrewdness, and pluck, he was now a
merchant of credit and renown. The latter, who was a remarkably
pretty and well-educated girl, accompanied a lady to India, in the
capacity of governess, and, in a startlingly short time, married
Captain Jervis of the Bengal Cavalry, a good-looking popular officer,
with a long pedigree and a somewhat slender purse. By all accounts,
the marriage was a happy one. At the end of six years Mrs. Jervis
died, and their only child, a boy of five, was sent to school in
England. Five years later, he was followed by his father, who rushed
home on three months’ leave, in order to see little Mark as well as
his tailor and his dentist. Major Jervis, a bronzed, handsome,
distinguished soldier, made an excellent impression on the plodding
city man—his brother-in-law, who cordially invited him to stay with
him at Norwood, where he had a luxurious bachelor establishment.
And here, over unimpeachable claret and cigars, the Indian officer
unfolded his plans.
Little Mark was about to have a stepmother, the lady was a Miss
Cardozo, of Portuguese extraction, dark, handsome, not very young,
but enormously wealthy, and quite infatuated about little Mark’s
papa. Her grandfather had been a military adventurer, whose sword
and swagger had gained him the heart and treasures of a Begum.
Miss Cardozo’s father was an indigo planter, in those good old times
when indigo crops brought in lacs of rupees, and she was his sole
heiress and an orphan. Besides the Begum’s wealth and jewels, she
owned property in the Doon, property in the hills, property in Tirhoot,
shares in banks and railways, and large investments in the funds.
Mr. Pollitt’s shrewd little eyes glistened approvingly as he
absorbed these particulars.
“Cut the service, bring her to England, and take a fine country
place,” was his prompt suggestion.
“No, no, she hates England; she was at school over here. She
dreads our winters, and rain and fog,” replied Major Jervis. “And she
likes my being in the service. I can tell you that our men and horses
are something to see! Mércèdes—that is her name—delights in
pomp and show and glitter, and is much attached to India; and to tell
you the honest truth, Pollitt, I’m partial to the country too. I have been
out there twenty-two years, ever since I was eighteen, with only two
short furloughs, and it’s a country that suits me down to the ground.
My near relations in England are every one dead, I have no ties
here, all my friends and interests are out there, and I don’t mind if I
end my days in the East.”
“And what about Mark?” demanded his listener.
“Yes, that is the question,” said his father. “It’s hard lines on the
boy, to have no home with me—but later on he shall go into the
service, and come out to us. You have been wonderfully kind to him I
know, having him here in his holidays, and he is very fond of you, as
he ought to be. I feel rather guilty about him, poor chap; he is ten
years old and I have seen nothing of him for half that time, and now,
goodness knows how or where we may meet again. Of course no
money shall be spared on his education, and all that—but——” he
paused.
“But I’ll tell you what you will do,” continued Mr. Pollitt. “I’ll put the
whole matter in a nutshell. You are making a fresh start, you and the
boy are almost strangers, so you won’t feel the wrench. Give him to
me, I am fond of him, I have no family—he is a handsome, plucky
little fellow, with poor Lucy’s eyes—I will ensure him a first-class
education, bring him up as my son, and make him my heir, and leave
him all I am worth; come now?”
“It is a splendid offer, Pollitt, but I am fond of him too. I cannot
provide for him as you would, I can only set him out in the world with
a profession, and make him a small allowance, for of course
Mércèdes’ money will be settled on herself. If I resigned him to you,
in years to come I might repent, I might want him back.”
“In years to come you will probably have half a dozen other sons,
and be thankful to have one of them off your hands.”
After considerable discussion—Jervis, the father, a little reluctant;
Pollitt, the uncle, exceedingly eager and pressing—the matter was
concluded. Mark was to correspond with his parent as regularly as
he pleased, but he was to be, to all intents and purposes, his uncle
Daniel’s son.
Major Jervis made the most of his five weeks in England. He
invested in a new and gorgeous uniform, a new battery of guns,
saddlery, presents for Indian friends and his fiancée, and saw as
much as possible of Mark. The more the pair were acquainted the
better they liked each other. They went to the Tower, Madame
Tussaud’s, the Zoo, the theatres. Mark invariably accompanied his
parent to tailors, boot-makers and gun-smiths, and became
subsequently quite the authority on these matters at school. His
soldierly, open-handed sire, who loaded him with gifts, who told him
tales of the stirring deeds of his ancestors, of his own swarthy
sowars, of tiger-hunting and elephant drives, speedily became his
hero and his idol.
On being sounded as to his own choice of a profession, Mark,
after taking thought for a considerable time, gravely announced to
his father and uncle, “that he would prefer to be a bachelor.”
“And by no means a bad choice,” roared Mr. Pollitt, in great glee.
“Stick to that, my boy, stick to that, copy your old uncle.”
“I don’t think he will,” remarked Major Jervis, with decision; “he will
take after me. We are a susceptible race, we Jervises, and I’ll give
him till he is two and twenty.”
The day of parting was a dismal one for father and son. The child
struggled desperately to be a man, to shed no tears, and bore
himself wonderfully, at any rate in public, but after the cab had driven
off, he rushed away and shut himself up in his own little bedroom,
and flung himself upon the floor, and abandoned himself to the
bitterest grief he had ever experienced, and he was ten years old.
Some years after this scene, Mr. Pollitt, to every one’s surprise,
married a faded, elegant-looking woman, of good family, but
portionless. He bought a house in Princes Gate, rented a grouse
moor, deer forest, and hunting box, and invested in some celebrated
diamonds. He had now amassed a great fortune, and at the age of
fifty-five, retired from business, in order to spend it. But here arose
an unexpected difficulty, he did not know how to enjoy the result of
his labours, save by proxy. He looked up to his handsome well-born
nephew to manipulate his thousands, much as a child appeals to an
experienced friend to work a new mechanical toy. All his own youth
had been spent among great city warehouses, on wharves, and in
offices. He had never ridden, save on the top of an omnibus, he
could not drive, shoot, row, or even fish, and, alas! it was now too
late to learn. He, however, took to field sports in the character of a
spectator, with surprising enthusiasm. He walked with the guns on
his moors, and was much excited respecting the bag. He gave fancy
prices for his nephew’s hunters, and attended every meet (on
wheels), where there was a prospect of seeing their performance,
following the line, and keeping the hounds in sight as far as possible,
by means of short cuts and glasses.
He was a truly proud man when he saw his nephew’s name in the
Field as foremost rider in a sensational run. The worst of it was, that
Mark hated notoriety of any kind, hung back where he should come
forward, came forward when he should have hung back; had actually
no desire to lease a theatre, keep race-horses, or even gamble; in
short, he had not a single extravagant taste. (Here, indeed, was a
most singular case. How many fathers are there in these latter days
who feel hurt and disappointed because their sons will not spend
thousands?) On the other hand, Mrs. Pollitt was only too ready to
assist her partner in laying out large sums. She had many needy
connections, and hoped to do great things for them; but she found,
to her deep chagrin, that the personal spending of her husband’s
wealth was denied her. She had a liberal dress allowance, diamonds
of the first water, equipages, a fine establishment, a French maid;
but she might not thrust her hand into her lord and master’s purse
and scatter largesse to her poor relations, and—what was a truly
hard case—she might not even attempt to arrange an alliance
between Mark and one of her nieces. No, Mr. Pollitt was resolved
that his heir should marry rank. It must be “Mr. and Lady Somebody
Jervis,” and with Mark’s good looks, money, and birth, there would
be no difficulty in this little matter. Then Mark must go into
Parliament, settle down as a great landed proprietor, and ruffle it with
the best. Thus was his future sketched out by his uncle, who wisely
kept the sketch to himself.
Mrs. Pollitt was surprised to find her dear Daniel so obstinate and
impracticable on several trifling matters. For instance, she had made
up her mind to change the spelling of his name, and had even gone
so far as to have her own cards printed, “Mrs. D. Murray-Paulet, 500,
Princes Gate.”
“How lucky that Daniel has a second name!” she said to herself as
she complacently examined her new title a few days after her
marriage. She tripped across the room and held a card playfully
before the bridegroom’s spectacles, and the tiresome man had
exclaimed—
“Who is she? I can’t stand visitors. Here, let me clear out first, if
she is coming up——”
“The new card trick,” as he subsequently called it, had been their
first trial of strength, and the bride had succumbed with tears.
“Change his name!” he had roared— “his name, that he had
made! Never! He was proud of it. It was the wife who changed her
name on marriage, not the husband. Was she aware of that?”
Another subject on which she had had to yield was the
housekeeping bills; they all passed through Mr. Pollitt’s hands, who
settled them by cheque, consequently there were no pickings.
Mrs. Pollitt had her own particular schemes; she could not offer
her kinsfolk much solid assistance, but did what she could. To her
sister and nieces she distributed dresses and mantles scarcely worn;
she gave them drives, boxes at the theatre, tickets, and perpetual
invitations to dinner, lunch, and all her parties; to her brother
Clarence such sums as she could spare from her pin-money.
Clarence was ten years her junior, gay, débonnaire, and good-
looking. He had a pair of handsome, insolent blue eyes, a well-
cultivated moustache, an admirable figure, and a rather overbearing
manner. He was a complete man of the world, who had many
pecuniary troubles, no fixed principles, and but few scruples. He
was, nevertheless, pleasant, and by no means unpopular.
Captain Waring had spent every penny that he possessed (and a
good many pennies belonging to other people); and when his
regiment came home from India, he had been compelled to retire
from the service, and had been living ever since on his friends and
his wits. This Indian trip would be a capital thing for him, all
expenses paid; and if he and Mark remained away a year, some of
the other connections might get a footing at Princes Gate. The
aphorism, “Absence makes the heart grow fonder,” does not apply to
uncles and nephews.
If Mark were never to return, it would not break his aunt’s heart. If
he had not been her husband’s favourite, she might have been fond
of him. He was exceedingly presentable; she liked to exhibit him in
her carriage or opera-box (a gratification she seldom enjoyed). He
was always polite, always thoughtful of her comfort, always
respectful, though he had shown himself ready with a forcible reply
on one or two critical occasions; but he did not understand the art of
administering flattery, and she consumed it in large doses. Now here
Clarence was supreme; it was he who had solemnly assured her that
she bore a striking resemblance to Sara Bernhardt. Yes, golden
voice and all; and the poor deluded lady believed him, and attired
herself in clinging draperies, and combed her fringe well over her
brows in order to emphasize her undeniable resemblance to the
great actress. Once, when she questioned Mr. Pollitt on the subject,
he had laughed so uproariously—so like a husband—that an
apoplectic seizure seemed imminent.
Captain Waring was most enthusiastic respecting this Indian
scheme, and naturally gave the project his warmest support. Tête-à-
tête, he said, “It’s a first-class notion of Mark’s. The uncle keeps him
far too tight in hand. No wonder he wants to break away and see the
world and live his own life, poor devil!”
“What nonsense!” protested Mrs. Pollitt, irritably. “He has plenty of
liberty and a latch-key.”
“And does not know how to use one or other. Besides, the uncle’s
proud eye is always on him; he follows him about like a dog—worse,
for dogs are not admitted into clubs! However, this twelve months’
holiday in a far country will be a most blessed relief to the boy and
A1 business for me. I’m on my last legs; and if this had not turned
up, I’d have had to make strong running with Miss Clodde. She is
common and repulsive looking, but has thirty thousand pounds. I
hope I may never be so desperate as to marry her—at any rate, I
have a year’s respite.”
“How do you know she would have you, Clar?”
Clar’s laugh was an interesting study in manly assurance.
“I really wish you were married,” continued his sister rather
peevishly.
“Yes; to a rich elderly widow who has had her fling—that is my
style.”
“What a horrible way of talking! You are really too dreadful. I
suppose this trip will be rather costly?”
“Ra—ther!” emphatically.
“And you will be the treasurer?” opening her pale eyes to their
widest extent.
“I’m not so sure of that,” shaking his head. “Of course, as I am the
manager, and am personally conducting this tour, all payments ought
to come from me. ‘The uncle,’ however, is rather shy of having
monetary dealings with his brother-in-law, as you know by sad
experience. However, I may be able to work it, once we are in India,
and you may depend upon me for making the most of my time and—
opportunities. I was so hard up, I was thinking of taking a leaf out of
Charlie Wilde’s book. He writes hymns and tracts——”
“How absurd you are! What preposterous nonsense! Charlie
Wilde, who has never entered a place of worship for years, write
tracts!”
“I tell you that he does!” persisted Clarence. “He has a wonderful
knack, and does the pathetic and emotional style A1. Gets about ten
pounds apiece, and invests the money in a flutter on the turf.”
“Well, Clar,” said his deeply shocked sister, “I cannot compliment
you on your companions; and, whatever you may come to, I hope
you will never arrive at such a pitch of wickedness as that.”
On one point Captain Waring and Mr. Pollitt were most warmly
agreed, viz. that “the trip must be done in good style if done at all.”
 Mark was inclined to travel “on the cheap,” his uncle had
complained, and had protested against a large quantity of baggage,
a battery of guns, and a valet.
“Thirty pair of boots!” he cried. “What rubbish! I am not going to
walk round India!”
“But Clarence says you can’t do with less, and he must know
better than you do,” argued Mr. Pollitt. “I wish you to travel like a
gentleman, not like a bag-man. There is where you disappoint me,
my boy—you make no show, no dash; your tastes are all for quiet—
your favourite character is the violet, and you prefer a back seat. You
are going out in the same steamer with a lot of nobs—I’ve seen to
that—and it is as likely as not that you will join forces when you land.
These swells take to you. As for me, they only take to my dinners,
and my deer forest. However, as long as you are in the best set, I
don’t care—I’m satisfied.”
“I think Clarence and I will stick to ourselves, and not join any
party, sir; we will be more independent. He has sketched out our
beat—Bombay, Poonah, Secunderabad, Travancore, Madras,
Ceylon, Calcutta, the hills; and that puts me in mind to ask if you
have any idea of my father’s whereabouts?”
“Bostock and Bell, Bombay, are his agents,” evading the question
and his nephew’s eyes.
“I know that; I have written to their care steadily for the last six
years.”
“And never had an answer?” with ill-concealed satisfaction.
“No, except a ‘Pioneer’ at long, long intervals.”
“Just to show that he is alive? Let me see, it is eight years since
he left the service and went to live at a place called the Doon. He
wrote pretty regularly up to then; and when Mrs. Jervis was killed in
that carriage accident, he never sent a line, only a paper. Poor
woman! I believe she led him a devil of a life. She was insanely
jealous.”
 “I suppose I can get his address in Bombay—his real address, I
mean?”
“Yes, I should think so.”
“And then I shall look him up—at once.”
“If he will be looked up. The Jervises are an eccentric family. I
heard some queer stories of them not long ago.”
“But my father never struck you as eccentric, did he?”
“No. And, of course, you must try and see him; but don’t let him lay
hands on you and keep you, my boy. He was a handsome,
persuasive sort of fellow, and had wonderful personal charm—when
he chose to exert it. India has cast a spell upon him, and kept him
with her for the best part of his life. Don’t let India do the same by
you.”
“No fear of that,” with emphasis.
“Well, I’m sorry now you are going out there, for several reasons. I
would have preferred China or Australia, but Waring has his say and
his way.”
“And I had my say and my way too, Uncle Dan. India is my native
land; I remember it distinctly—the servants with their dark faces and
big white turbans, my little chestnut pony, which was called the ‘Lal
Tatoo,’ and I want to see my father. You know we have not met for
fifteen years.”
“I know,” assented Mr. Pollitt, gloomily, and added, after a pause, “I
wonder now, if it would be possible for you to throw me over—and
stop out there with him!”
“There is not the smallest probability of that. Besides, my father
does not want me.”
“And supposing that he did!” exclaimed Mr. Pollitt, suddenly
jumping up and beginning to walk about the room. “Bear this in view,
that you must make up your mind between us! You cannot be son
and heir to two men! You can pay him a visit of a week, or at most a
month; but if you postpone coming home at his request—I warn you,
that you may stay in India till I fetch you! To put the matter in a
nutshell, I wash my hands of you for ever! Not one farthing of my
money will you see,” he continued, speaking in great excitement. “I
shall leave every shilling to hospitals, you understand that, eh?” he
gasped, breathless.
“Yes, and it would be but just. I cannot live with my father in India
and be your adopted son at home, but you are needlessly alarmed. I
shall turn up again within a year without fail. I’ll take a return ticket if
you like.”
“Well, that’s a bargain, my boy. I’m a bit jealous of your father, and
it’s a nasty, low, ungentlemanly feeling. I must confess that I have
been glad that he, so to speak, dropped you. But he handed you
over to me when he married the Begum, and you are my son—not
his.”
The day of departure arrived; the valet (a somewhat garrulous
person, with superb references), in charge of three cabs loaded with
baggage, preceded the travellers to Victoria, whilst Mr. and Mrs.
Pollitt drove the young men in the family landau, in order to see the
last of them.
As Mark and his uncle slowly paced the platform, the latter, who
had been incessantly fussy all the morning, said—
“Now, I hope nothing has been forgotten, and that you have
everything you want?”
“I’m sure we have—and ten times over.”
“You will write often—once a week—if only a line, eh? Mind you
don’t forget us.”
“No fear of that, Uncle Dan.”
“And remember our bargain. Though I have not taken return
tickets, after all. Don’t stay longer than the year. I don’t know how I’m
to get on without you. I can never use the mail-phaeton now, for I
hate sitting beside the coachman—and—you know, I tried to drive
once—and the result. There will be no one to take me on the river on
a hot afternoon—other people but you think an old fogey has no
business there. Oh, I shall miss you! I’ve lodged money for you in
Bombay with Bostock & Bell’s” (naming a magnificent sum), “and
when it’s done, you must come home, for I won’t send you another
stiver. It’s in your name, of course—you will be paymaster.”
“All right, uncle.”
“Keep your cheque-book locked up. Don’t let a tiger get hold of
you, or one of those scheming, husband-hunting women that
Clarence talks about.”
“You may make your mind quite easy on that score,” with a rather
derisive smile.
“Well, time is up, my dear boy. I am sorry you are going; take care
of yourself. God bless you!” wringing his hand as he spoke.
Meanwhile Mrs. Pollitt and her brother had also been having a few
parting words.
“Now, Clar,” she said impressively, “I have done a good thing for
you. This is a splendid chance. Be sure you make the most of it; if
you please the ‘uncle,’ as you call him, he will help you to something
better by-and-by.”
Clarence nodded sagaciously. He was in the highest spirits.
“You are not really limited to time, you know,” she continued, in a
whisper.
“I know,” and there was a significant look in his right eye, almost
approaching to a wink.
“And you will be manager—and paymaster.”
“Guide, councillor, and friend, you bet.”
“And now, dear boy, do be prudent; don’t get into any more
entanglements with grass widows; don’t get into any more betting or
gambling scrapes—promise me.”
“I shall be as steady as old Time or young Mark himself, and I
can’t say more. Well, good-bye—and thanks awfully, Lina. I must say
you do stick to your own people”—adding, with a hasty kiss—“I see
we are off.”
As the carriage moved slowly past the Pollitts, who were standing
side by side, Clarence flung himself back with a boisterous laugh, as
he exclaimed—
“I declare, the uncle seems quite cut up—ha, ha, ha! Upon my
soul, I believe the old chap is crying!”