a.Explain Cursor with its types and example.

A cursor is a database object used to manipulate and retrieve data from a result set in a database. It
provides a way to traverse through the rows of a result set one at a time. Cursors are commonly used in
database programming languages to perform operations on query results.

Types of Cursors:

1. Forward-only Cursor: This type of cursor allows traversal only in the forward direction. It can
move sequentially through the result set, but cannot move backward or revisit rows that have
already been processed.

Example:

```sql

DECLARE cursor_name CURSOR FOR SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name;

```

2. Scrollable Cursor: Scrollable cursors provide more flexibility by allowing traversal in both forward
and backward directions. They can move to any row in the result set and revisit rows that have
already been processed.

Example:

```sql

DECLARE cursor_name SCROLL CURSOR FOR SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name;

```

b. a. List the basic operators of Relational Algebra. Explain any 3 operators with respective syntax and
example.

Basic operators of Relational Algebra:

1. Projection (π): The projection operator selects specific columns from a relation while discarding
the remaining columns. It produces a new relation with the specified columns.
Syntax:

```sql

Π<column_list>(relation_name)

```

Example:

Consider a relation `Employees` with columns `EmployeeID`, `Name`, and `Salary`. To project only the
`Name` column from the relation, the syntax would be:

```sql

Π<Name>(Employees)

```

2. Selection (σ): The selection operator filters the tuples of a relation based on a specified
condition. It retrieves only the tuples that satisfy the given condition.

Syntax:

```sql

Σ<condition>(relation_name)

```

Example:

Continuing from the previous example, suppose we want to select only those employees whose salary is
greater than 5000. The syntax would be:

```sql

Σ<Salary > 5000>(Employees)

```
 3. Cartesian Product (×): The Cartesian product combines every tuple from one relation with every
tuple from another relation, resulting in a new relation with a combination of all possible pairs of
tuples.

Syntax:

```sql

Relation_name1 × relation_name2

```

Example:

Consider two relations `Students` and `Courses` with columns `StudentID` and `CourseID`, respectively.
To find all possible combinations of students and courses, the syntax would be:

```sql

Students × Courses

```

b. Explain Join and its type with example.

Join is an operation in relational algebra that combines rows from two or more relations based on a
related column between them. It creates a new relation by matching values in the specified columns of
the participating relations.

Types of Joins:

1. Inner Join: It returns only the rows where the values in the join columns match in both
participating relations.

Example:

Consider two relations `Orders` and `Customers` with a common column `CustomerID`. To retrieve all
orders along with their corresponding customer details, an inner join can be performed as follows:

```sql
SELECT * FROM Orders

INNER JOIN Customers

ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;

```

2. Left Join (or Left Outer Join): It returns all the rows from the left (first) relation and the matching
rows from the right (second) relation. If no match is found, NULL values are used for the columns
of the right relation.

Example:

Continuing from the previous example, if we want to retrieve all orders along with their corresponding
customer details, including orders with no matching customer, a left join can be used:

```sql

SELECT * FROM Orders

LEFT JOIN Customers

ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;

```

3. Right Join (or Right Outer Join): It returns all the rows from the right (second) relation and the
matching rows from the left (first) relation.

If no match is found, NULL values are used for the columns of the left relation.

Example:

Using the same relations, if we want to retrieve all customers along with their corresponding orders,
including customers with no matching order, a right join can be used:

```sql

SELECT * FROM Orders

RIGHT JOIN Customers

ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;
```

These are just a few examples of relational algebra operators and join types. Relational algebra provides
several other operators like union, intersection, difference, etc., and different join types such as full outer
join and natural join to perform various operations on relations.

Questions: List and explain the different DML statements in SQL.

DML (Data Manipulation Language) statements in SQL are used to manipulate data within the database
tables. They allow you to insert, update, delete, and retrieve data from the database. Here are the
different DML statements in SQL:

1. SELECT: The SELECT statement is used to retrieve data from one or more database tables. It
allows you to specify the columns and conditions to filter the rows that should be returned.

Syntax:

```sql

SELECT column1, column2, …

FROM table_name

WHERE condition;

```

Example:

```sql

SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country = ‘USA’;

```

This query retrieves all columns from the “Customers” table where the “Country” column has the value
‘USA’.

2. INSERT: The INSERT statement is used to insert new rows into a database table. It allows you to
specify the values for the columns in the inserted row.
Syntax:

```sql

INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, …)

VALUES (value1, value2, …);

```

Example:

```sql

INSERT INTO Customers (FirstName, LastName, Email)

VALUES (‘John’, ‘Doe’, ‘john.doe@example.com’);

```

This query inserts a new row into the “Customers” table with the specified values for the columns
“FirstName,” “LastName,” and “Email.”

3. UPDATE: The UPDATE statement is used to modify existing data in a database table. It allows you
to specify which rows should be updated and set new values for the specified columns.

Syntax:

```sql

UPDATE table_name

SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, …

WHERE condition;

```

Example:

```sql

UPDATE Customers SET City = ‘New York’ WHERE CustomerID = 1;

```

This query updates the “City” column of the row with “CustomerID” equal to 1 in the “Customers” table
and sets it to ‘New York.’
 4. DELETE: The DELETE statement is used to remove rows from a database table. It allows you to
specify which rows should be deleted based on certain conditions.

Syntax:

```sql

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE condition;

```

Example:

```sql

DELETE FROM Customers WHERE CustomerID = 1;

```

This query deletes the row with “CustomerID” equal to 1 from the “Customers” table.

These are the main DML statements in SQL that allow you to manipulate data in the database. They
provide the ability to retrieve, insert, update, and delete data, enabling you to perform various
operations on your database tables.