Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215

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Sustainable Production and Consumption

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/spc

Review article

Plant-based materials and transitioning to a circular economy

∗
Randal Shogren a , Delilah Wood b , William Orts b , Gregory Glenn b ,
a
PO Box 2064, Columbia Falls, MT 59912, United States
b
USDA-ARS, WRRC, 800 Buchanan Street, Albany, CA 94710, United States

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Plant-based materials play an integral part in transitioning to a circular economy. Bioplastics are a
Received 25 February 2019 growing industry but still account for less than 1% of the total plastic production. Cellulose and starch
Received in revised form 10 April 2019 are abundant, widely available plant polymers that are used extensively for paper, packaging, food
Accepted 13 April 2019
service items, bags and biofuels. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) which is derived from starch by a fermentation
Available online 18 April 2019
process and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) which are renewable, microbial derived biodegradable
Keywords: polyesters that can be processed similar to various commodity plastics. Both polymers are projected
Biopolymer to grasp an increasing market share of commodity plastics as production costs drop. Other synthetic
Biobased biodegradable polyesters and plant-based commodity plastics are commercially available and have
Bioproduct expanding markets. The growing use of plant-based materials will have environmental benefits
Sustainable including waste reduction, lower greenhouse gas emissions, promote rural investment, reduce the
Renewable volume of harmful chemicals/pollutants, conserve ecosystems and biodiversity, and will help transition
to the circular economy.
Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Institution of Chemical Engineers.

Contents

1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 195
2. Properties of plant-based materials and their commercial development ................................................................................................................. 195
2.1. Lignocellulosic materials ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 195
2.2. Starch, modified starch and starch-based composites .................................................................................................................................... 199
2.3. Polylactic acid (PLA) ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 201
2.4. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) ............................................................................................................................................................................ 201
2.5. Other biodegradable polyesters ......................................................................................................................................................................... 203
2.6. Biobased, non-biodegradable polymers ............................................................................................................................................................ 203
2.7. Other bio-based materials .................................................................................................................................................................................. 204
3. Environmental benefits associated with plant-based materials ................................................................................................................................. 205
3.1. Greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation of climate change impact .......................................................................................................... 205
3.2. Waste/pollution reduction .................................................................................................................................................................................. 206
3.3. Less energy/resource consumption.................................................................................................................................................................... 207
3.4. Other considerations/challenges ........................................................................................................................................................................ 207
4. The economic benefits of plant-based materials.......................................................................................................................................................... 208
4.1. Promotion of circular economy — sustainable economic benefit ................................................................................................................ 208
4.2. More employment opportunities ....................................................................................................................................................................... 208
4.3. Encouragement of rural investment.................................................................................................................................................................. 208
4.4. Promotion of green technology innovation ...................................................................................................................................................... 208
5. The health benefits derived from plant-based materials ............................................................................................................................................ 209
5.1. Reduce prevalence of harmful chemicals/pollutants ....................................................................................................................................... 209
5.2. Mitigate health burdens associated with climate change .............................................................................................................................. 209
5.3. Help conserve ecosystems and biodiversity ..................................................................................................................................................... 210
6. Known specific product applications for plant-based materials ................................................................................................................................ 210
6.1. Packaging .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 210

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: greg.glenn@ars.usda.gov (G. Glenn).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2019.04.007
2352-5509/Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Institution of Chemical Engineers.
 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215 195

6.2. Textiles and fibers ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 210

6.3. Personal care products ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 210
6.4. Engineering plastics............................................................................................................................................................................................. 210
6.5. Household cleaners.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 210
6.6. Construction/building materials ......................................................................................................................................................................... 210
6.7. Electronic components ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 210
6.8. Binders .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 210
6.9. Foams .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 212
6.10. Lubricants/waxes.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 212
6.11. Paints/coatings ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 212
6.12. Rubber ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 213
7. Conclusions........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 213
Appendix. Examples of specific applications for plant-based materials ................................................................................................................... 213
References ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 213

1. Introduction bio-based polymers are not biodegradable. For example, many

As concerns mount over diminishing natural resources, growth
in global population, and the release of vast volumes of waste in
our oceans, atmosphere, and landscape, experts are increasingly
urging manufacturers to rethink the traditional ‘‘throw away’’
model more commonly referred to as the ‘‘linear economy’’. The
fossil fuel industry is the most impactful example of the linear
economy in our day. Billions of tons of coal and petroleum are
extracted from the earth each year with virtually all of it being
made into products that end up either in landfills or spilled into
our waterways, oceans, landscapes, or burned and released into
the atmosphere as pollutants. The circular economy represents
a shift towards sustainable production (Clark et al., 2016; Haas
et al., 2015). In the circular economy, resource utilization and
recycling/reuse is emphasized while minimizing the amount of
waste produced. Agricultural production provides a vast renew-
able resource that will certainly play a major role in transitioning
to a circular economy. The objective of this paper is to highlight
the progress in developing agricultural/plant-based materials and
their commercial importance and discuss their benefit to the
environment, economy, and the health and well-being of society.
2. Properties of plant-based materials and their commercial
development
People have used plant-based materials like wood, cotton, flax
and hemp in innumerable applications for thousands of years. It
is only in the last hundred years or so that fossil resources (oil,
natural gas) became the focus of much materials development.
Massive factories were built to refine oil into cheap transportation
fuels and a variety of organic chemicals. Some of the latter like
ethylene were polymerized into long chain molecules which gave
plastics their unique and useful properties. Plastics are strong
and flexible, are easy to melt and process into desired shapes
at relatively low temperatures, are resistant to water and many
chemicals and have a long shelf life. As a result, virtually all
products now contain or are packaged in synthetic, oil-based
plastic films, foams, fibers or molded articles. Global plastics
production in 2016 was 740 billion pounds with a growth rate
of about 4% per year; U.S. production was 117 billion pounds in
2017. Amounts of different types of plastics produced per year
are given in Fig. 1.
Recently, however, concerns about petroleum-based plastics
have begun to mount including the finite nature of fossil-based
resources, supply restrictions from foreign countries, price volatil-
ity, increased costs of disposal, accumulation in the environment
and hazards to wildlife especially in the oceans. As a result,
there has been considerable recent effort both in R&D and com-
mercial development of bio-based and biodegradable polymers
(Gross and Kalra, 2002; Andreeben and Steinbuchel, 2018). Some
non-biodegradable polymers like polyethylene (PE), polypropy-
lene (PP) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are now being
made from plant resources. This gives companies flexibility in
choosing plant or petroleum feedstock depending on price and
availability. Many of the bio-based, biodegradable polymers such
as polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) had
early performance drawbacks or higher prices which have lim-
ited their acceptance thus far. Overall, the appeal of bio-based
polymers in the U.S. has been driven by the abundance of agri-
cultural commodities as a feedstock as well as their perceived
environmental friendliness. The surplus of agricultural feedstocks
may increase in the future if tariffs continue and export markets
for U.S. crops diminish. The situation in Europe and Japan is
quite different since stricter regulations for material recycling and
disposal make biodegradable products more desirable. Production
volumes for major bio-based materials are shown in Fig. 2. The
total market for bio-based plastics in 2017 was approximately 4.5
billion pounds or less than 1% of the total plastics market (EBA,
2018) so there is a large potential opportunity for growth.
The following discussion compares the performance of promi-
nent and emerging plant-based materials with petroleum-based
ones and gauges their future potential. The chemical structures
of selected plant-based polymers are shown in Fig. 3. Table 1
gives a list of popular materials and some approximate price data.
Table 2 lists mechanical properties of bio-based materials and
some petroleum-based plastics for comparison. Permeability of
select materials to water vapor and some gases are presented
in Table 3. Biodegradability in different environments is given in
Table 4. Market sizes for different application areas for bio-based
plastics are shown in Table 5.
2.1. Lignocellulosic materials
Cellulose is the most abundant polymer on earth as it is the
major structural element of all plants. The U.S. is blessed with
vast areas of forests for harvesting of wood. There are also large
areas devoted to growing crops such as corn, wheat, soybeans
and native grasses. In addition to lumber for building, wood is
processed via heating in an aqueous slurry into fibrous pulp
for making paper and cardboard. The pulping process removes
part of the lignin and hemicellulose which binds cellulose fibers
together in wood making it easier to disperse the fibers into a
fine suspension. The price of pulp and paper varies considerably
depending on purity and quality (∼$0.1–0.6/lb.) This is less than
the price of commodity petroleum-based polymers ($0.65–1.2/lb.,
Table 1) so lignocellulosic materials are attractive from an eco-
nomic point of view. As shown in Table 6, International Paper,
Georgia Pacific, Weyerhauser, Westrock and Rayonier are major
companies involved in pulp and paper manufacture in the U.S.
196 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215

Table 1
Common plant-based and petroleum-based materials and their approximate prices.
Material Source Price ($/lb.)
Lignocellulose fiber Plant 0.2–0.6
Cellulose esters/ethers Plant/petrochemical 2–10
Starch Plant 0.10–1.0
Starch/polymer blends Plant, petrochemical 1–2?
Polylactic acid (PLA) Plant ∼1.0
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) Plant 2–6?
Polybutylene succinate (PBS), polybutylene Plant, petrochemical 2–3
adipate phthalate (PBAT)
Polyamides (Nylon 10, 11) Castor oil
Zein Corn
Biopolyurethanes Plant, petrochemical
Bioepoxies Plant, petrochemical
Bio-polyethylene (bio-PE) Ethanol from corn, sugarcane,etc.
Bio-polypropylene (bio-PP)
Bio-polyethylene terephthalate (bio-PET) Plant sugars
Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) Corn glucose, petrochemicals
Polyethylene furanoate (PEF) Corn sugars
PE Petrochemicals 0.65–0.80
PP " 0.85–0.95
PET " 0.85–0.90
PS " 1.0–1.2
PVC " 0.85–0.90

Table 2
Mechanical and thermal properties of plant-based and petrochemical-based polymers.
Material Tensile Elongation at Glass transition Melting References
strength (MPa) break (%) temperature temperature
(◦ C) (◦ C)
Kraft paper 68 3 – – Shogren (1999)
Cellulose acetate 90 25 110 230 Sookne and Harris (1945),
Mandelkern and Flory
(1951)
Corn starcha 40 9 112 – Shogren and Jasberg (1994)
PLAb 59 2–7 55 165 Farah et al. (2016), Shogren
et al. (2011a,b)
PHAc 15–50 1–800 −12–3 100–175 Noda et al. (2009)
PBS 34 560 −32 114 Xu and Guo (2010)
PBAT 22 800 −29 110 Gross and Kalra (2002)
PEF 35–67 3–4 85 211 Knoop et al. (2013)
PTT 49 160 50 228 Kurian (2005), Chen and
Patel (2012)
PE 15–30 1000 −125 110–130 www.polymerdatabase.com
PP 36 400 −13 176 "
PET 86 20 72 265 "
PS 30–60 1–5 100 – "
PVC 52 35 −18 200 "
a
Corn starch was extruded at 20–30% water then equilibrated to 50% r.h.
b
PLA containing 96/4 L/D.
c
PHA containing 85–100% 3-HB, 0–15% other scl, mcl monomers.

Table 3
Relative gas permeabilities of polymers.
Material Water vapor Oxygen Carbon dioxide References
Kraft paper High High High Bedane et al. (2012)
Cellulose acetate, DS 2.5 2920 1000 Shogren (1997), Noda et al.
(2009)
Corn starch 1 Forssell et al. (2002)
PLA 172 360 1500 Shogren (1997), Aurus et al.
(2005), Bedane et al. (2012)
PHBV 21 40 Shogren (1997), Noda et al.
(2009)
PBS 330 Shogren (1997)
PEF 6 5 21 Burgess et al. (2015)

PE 5 7000 92,000 Ashley (1985),

www.polymerdatabase.com
PP 2 2300 24,000 "
PET 12 60 400 "
PS 80 4000 23,000 "

Relative values are given since measurement conditions vary between studies.
 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215 197

Table 4
Biodegradability of plant-based polymers in different environments.
Material Compost Soil Marine References
Kraft paper Y Y Y
Cellulose acetate Y Y Y Puls et al. (2011)
Corn starch Y Y Y Bastioli (2001), Shah et al.
(2008)
PLA Y N N Karamanlioglu et al.
(2017)
PHA Y Y Y Wang et al. (2018),
Noda et al. (2009)
PBS Y N N Xu and Guo (2010)
PBAT Y Y ? Diaz et al. (2014)
PE N N N
PP N N N
PET N N N
PS N N N

ASTM standard tests for biodegradation via composting (D6400), soil (D5988), marine (D6691).

Table 5
Major application areas for biobased polymers.
Source: European Bioplastics Association, https://www.european-bioplastics.org/
market/.
Application Percent of total
Packaging 58
Textiles 11
Automotive and transport 7
Consumer goods 7
Agriculture and horticulture 6
Coatings and adhesives 5
Building and construction 4
Electric and electronics 2
Others 1

the same cargo weight. Cellulose is very hydrophilic and so water

Fig. 1. Global Plastics demand in 2015 in billions of pounds (total 660).
Source: Data from Spierling et al. (2018).
Fig. 2. World production of bio-plastics in 2017 (In million pounds). To-
tal production was 4.51 billion pounds of which 2.58 billion pounds was
non-biodegradable and 1.93 billion pounds was biodegradable.
Source: European Bioplastics Association, https://www.european-bioplastics.org/
market/.
Paper is rather strong and rigid as seen by its relatively high
tensile strength but low elongation to break (Table 2). Thus, it
is often used in rigid packaging such as corrugated cardboard
boxes for shipping and molded shapes for protecting fragile items
such as eggs. Paper has a rather low tear strength and impact
resistance so it is less useful for flexible film packaging than
plastics like polyethylene which have a very high elongation to
break and tear resistance. Paper shopping bags, for instance, are
typically 6–10 times heavier than polyethylene bags to handle
permeability of paper is very high while permeability to gases is
also high due to its porous nature. For applications that require
resistance to moisture like meat wrapping, paper is usually coated
with a layer of polyethylene or wax.
The most striking performance advantage of cellulose over
petroleum-based polymers is their biodegradability in natural
environments including soil, waste water, compost and marine
ecosystems (Table 4). This typically occurs over a period of weeks
to months through the natural action of bacterial and fungal
enzymes breaking down lignocelluloses into sugars which they
can then metabolize. In contrast, commodity petroleum-based
polymers may require hundreds or thousands of years to fully
degrade. Much single use plastics end up in the environment
where they become an unsightly mess and a hazard to wildlife.
As a result, local and national governments around the world are
beginning to institute bans on many single use plastics such as
straws, clamshell containers, bags and utensils.
In response to this trend, the popularity of lignocellulosic
products has seen an increase (Su et al., 2018). For example,
Aardvark Co., a Fort Wayne, IN company and the only one in the
U.S. that makes paper straws, saw demand for its product increase
50-fold between 2017 and 2018 (Krader, 2018). Another company
located in Portland, OR, Billerud-Korsnas, designs cardboard pack-
aging to replace rigid polystyrene that often covers and protects
goods on store shelves. Their revenue has been growing 25%
annually recently (Profita, 2018). Appendix lists specific product
applications for plant-based materials including lignocelluloses as
well as companies that manufacture these (USDA, 2018a). These
include various types of plates, bowls and clamshell containers
for food consumption. Markets for these have been increasing
since numerous cities and school districts in the U.S. have banned
polystyrene foam single use food containers. For example, New
York City’s ban took effect on January 1, 2019 while ordinances
198 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215

Fig. 3. Chemical structures of selected plant-based polymers.

Table 6
Companies manufacturing paper and lignocellulosic fiber pulp.
Company Raw materials Location References
International Paper Trees U.S. www.internationalpaper.com
Georgia Pacific " " https://www.gp.com
Weyerhauser " " https://www.weyerhaeuser.com
Westrock " " https://www.westrock.com
Rayonier " " https://www.rayonier.com

Table 7
Companies manufacturing cellulose esters/ethers.
Company Product Location References
Eastman Cellulose esters U.S. https://www.eastman.com
Celanese " " https://www.celanese.com
Ashland Cellulose ethers " https://www.ashland.com
DowDupont " " https://www.dow.com
CP Kelco " " https://www.cpkelco.com

against expanded polystyrene cover 120 cities and counties in
California including San Francisco.
Cellulose which has been disrupted into microfibrils (MFC) or
nanofibrils (NFC) by mechanical and/or chemical or enzymatic
treatments has been the target of increasing R&D as well as
commercialization recently (Nechyporchuk et al., 2016). MFC and
NFC form highly hydrogen bonded networks at very low concen-
trations in water (<0.2%) giving highly viscous suspensions with
gel-like properties. These currently are used as thickeners, bulk-
ing agents and fiber in a variety of foods (Gomez et al., 2016). Due
to their high strength and surface area, MFC and NFC have great
potential as reinforcing fillers in plastics, particularly biodegrad-
able ones. Films cast from NFC suspensions have very low oxygen
permeability, making them useful in food packaging to replace
petroleum-based barrier films like poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alco-
hol). On freeze-drying, MFC gels form very low-density aerogels
which may have useful absorption and insulation properties. MFC
and NFC can be prepared from nearly any type of lignocellu-
lose including crop residues such as corn cobs (Shogren et al.,
2011a,b). Potential for future growth in commercial applications
appears good.
Akin to the development of petroleum-based materials along
with the fossil fuels industry, the budding development of the
cellulosic biofuels industry in the U.S. promises similar feedstock
opportunities for bio-based materials. The cellulosic biofuel in-
dustry in the U.S. is supported by federal government grants,
loan guarantees and the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) as autho-
rized under the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007.
Every year the EPA establishes volumes of cellulosic biofuels
 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215
which refiners are required to use taking into account market
conditions. For 2018, the annual volume standard for cellulosic
biofuel was 288 million gallons ethanol equivalent and has grown
from 123 million gallons in 2015 (EPA, 2018a). Through Septem-
ber, 2018 actual production was 196 million gallons (RIN D3)
of which 7 million was cellulosic ethanol with the remainder
being natural gas (methane) produced by anaerobic fermentation
of lignocellulosic residues and wastes. As will be discussed in
more detail later, methane can be utilized by certain bacteria
to produce polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) which have properties
similar to commodity polymers (Strong et al., 2016). Growth of
the cellulosic ethanol industry has been hampered by technical
difficulties and high costs (Lynd et al., 2017).
Several companies have entered and exited the field with
Poet and partner DSM having the only commercial scale plant
currently operating in the U.S. in Iowa. However, given the huge
volume of cellulose available in the form of municipal solid waste
and crop residues estimated to be potentially a billion tons per
year (DOE, 2018a,b), it is likely that more efficient methods
will be developed and commercial cellulosic ethanol as well as
intermediates like glucose will experience growth in the future.
Cellulose derivatives have been a commercial success for over
a hundred years. Cellulose nitrate was perhaps the first modern
plastic and found use as motion picture film. Less flammable
esters like cellulose acetates, propionates and butyrates followed
and are used in a variety of specialty applications such as filter
tow, tool handles, coatings, biodegradable plastics, optical films,
membranes and controlled release (Edgar et al., 2001). Cellulose
acetate, for example, is a strong, tough material (Table 4) but its
cost is substantially higher than commodity polymers (Table 3) so
its use is limited mainly to specialty applications. Cellulose esters
are generally biodegradable over a period of months to a few
years with rates of degradation decreasing as degree of substitu-
tion (DS) increases (Puls et al., 2011). Major manufacturers in the
U.S. include Eastman and Celanese (Table 9). Global production of
cellulose esters is around 2 billion pounds per year.
Cellulose ethers such as methyl and ethyl cellulose, hydrox-
yethyl and hydroxypropyl cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose
are mainly designed to be water soluble and function as thicken-
ers and suspending agents (Majewicz et al., 2002). Applications
include paints, adhesives, sealants, cosmetics, foods, pharmaceu-
ticals and oilfield. World market size is around 1 billion pounds
per year. Producers in the U.S. include Ashland, DowDupont and
CP Kelco.
2.2. Starch, modified starch and starch-based composites
After cellulose and lignin, starches are probably the next most
abundant natural polymers. In the U.S., starch is derived mostly
from cereals such as corn and wheat. Corn harvests in the U.S.
have been around 15 billion bushels in recent years (USDA,
2018b), of which about 570 billion pounds are starch. Corn is
used for animal feed (35%), fuel ethanol (40%), export (15%),
food (7%) and industrial (1%–2%). Wet-millers refine corn into
its purified constituents including starch, corn gluten meal, oil
and fiber. Starch made from dent corn is inexpensive (∼$0.15/lb.)
while specialty starches such as high amylose varieties and those
which are chemically modified can approach $1/lb. Major starch
producers are listed in Table 8.
Starch has a wide variety of uses in the food and industrial
sectors and these usually take advantage of its ability to be
dispersed in hot water (BeMiller and Whistler, 2009). In foods, for
example, starch pastes serve as a thickener and stabilizer. Food
starches are often lightly chemically modified in order to keep
them from recrystallizing, increase water binding and improve
emulsifying properties (Din et al., 2017). Starch is often used as an
199
adhesive and binder in paper, cardboard, pharmaceutical tablets
and many other products. These are mature and stable markets.
There has been considerable interest in replacing petroleum-
based plastics with starch-based ones over the past few decades
(Laftah, 2017; Probhu and Prashantha, 2016; Halley and Averous,
2014). This was driven by the low cost of starch, its
biodegradability and its status as a renewable resource. Starch
can be utilized in materials in either its native, granular form
or after heat processing with a plasticizer into destructurized
or thermoplastic starch (TPS). Since granular starch has a high
elastic modulus due to its high crystallinity, it can function as
a reinforcing filler in plastics. Partial acid or amylase digestion
removes some of the amorphous domains from granular starch
resulting in small particles with even higher crystallinity. For
example, Angellier et al. (2005) found that loading natural rubber
with 20% corn starch nanocrystals increased modulus or stiffness
75-fold while elongation at break was unchanged. Novamont (an
Italian company) has worked with Goodyear to develop tires in
which starch replaced part of the carbon black and silica used
as fillers in the rubber (Markley, 2008). The starch-filled tires
had the advantage of decreased rolling resistance and better fuel
economy. Goodyear has also begun to use natural silica from
incinerated cereal straw in tires.
Composites of granular starch with polyethylene, polypropy-
lene, polylactic acid and many other polymers have also been
prepared. Interfacial adhesion is generally poor. Therefore, a com-
patibilizing agent such as a maleic anhydride copolymer, peroxide
to generate in situ grafting or a difunctional reagent like a diiso-
cyanate is often used to improve strength. Green Dot Bioplastics
(https://www.greendotbioplastics.com/) in Emporia, Kansas cur-
rently sells composites containing up to 65% starch for a variety
of uses including cell phone cases, golf tees and cutlery. They
received the Bio-based Product of the Year award from Bio-based
World News in 2017 for their collaboration with BeginAgain and
Braskem to produce toy trucks molded from a composite of corn-
cob fibers and bio-based polyethylene. Companies manufacturing
starch-based plastic resins are listed in Table 9.
Thermoplastic starch (TPS) has also been the target of much
fundamental research as well as commercialization. By adding
small amounts (10%–30%) of water and/or plasticizers like glyc-
erol, sorbitol, propylene glycol, urea and triethylene glycol, starch
can be melt processed in an extruder like other more conven-
tional polymers. Limitations of TPS-based plastics are their low
strength, moisture sensitivity and tendency to become brittle.
Typically, TPS formulations have tensile strengths less than 6 MPa
(Zhang et al., 2014), much lower than commodity oil-based poly-
mers (Table 2). If only water is used as plasticizer, tensile strength
is 40 MPa at 50% humidity but declines rapidly as humidity
increases over 80% (Shogren and Jasberg, 1994).
Strength, resistance to moisture and flexibility of TPS can all
be improved by increasing amylose content (Shogren and Jas-
berg, 1994) and by inducing orientation (Shogren, 2007). Another
approach to improve water resistance and strength of TPS is to
blend with other polymers having better mechanical properties
such as polyesters (Averous, 2004). Since TPS is very hydrophilic,
water vapor transmission rates through starch films are very
high (Rankin et al., 1958). Conversely, permeability to apolar
molecules like oxygen or hydrophobic organics is very low, at
least as long as moisture level within starch film is less than about
20% where the glass transition drops below room temperature
(Forssell et al., 2002). Laminated films where a central TPS layer is
protected from moisture by outer polymer layers may be effective
barrier films for applications such as food packaging, chemical
containers, and mulch films during fumigation (Wang et al., 2000;
Dilkes-Hoffman et al., 2018).
Despite the shortcomings of TPS, plastic materials containing
TPS have seen some significant commercialization success (Glenn
200 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215

Table 8
Companies manufacturing starches.
Company Product Location References
Cargill Corn, wheatstarches U.S. https://www.cargill.com
Ingredion Corn, wheat,potato starches " www.ingredion.us
ADM Corn, wheat,tapioca starches " https://www.adm.com
Tate & Lyle Corn, wheat,tapioca starches " https://www.tateandlyle.com
Avebe Potato starch Netherlands https://www.avebe.com

Table 9
Companies manufacturing starch/polymer blends.
Company Materials Volume Location References
(million lb./yr.)
Novamont Starch with PBAT, 500? Italy https://www.novamont.com
other polymers
Rodenburg Potato starch/other 130 Netherlands www.biopolymers.nl
polymers
Plantic High amylose corn ? Australia www.plantic.com.au
starch/other
polymers
BIOTEC Starch/polymers 55 Germany https://en.biotech.de
Japan Corn Hydrophobically ? Japan https://www.nihon-cornstarch.com
Starch modified starch
Wuhan Huali Starch/other polymers 130 China https://psm.en.china.cn
Environmental
Technology
Cardia Starch/other ? Australia/China Cardiabioplastics.com
Bioplastics polymers
Green Dot Starch/other ? U.S. https://www.greendotbioplastics.com
Bioplastics polymers
KTM Starch/other ? U.S. https://www.greencellfoam.com
Industries polymers

et al., 2014). Back in the 1990’s National Starch (now owned
by Ingredion) extruded foam packing peanuts having accept-
able mechanical properties from hydroxypropyl high amylose
corn starch and water. These and other similar products have
taken significant market share from polystyrene foam packing
peanuts. In most cases, water resistance is not critical so starch
foams perform in a reasonable manner (Tatarka and Cunning-
ham, 1998). They also have the property of being antistatic, an
important consideration for packaging of electronic components.
Another company, KTM Industries in Holt, Michigan, sells cor-
rugated starch foam sheets that are cut and fit into containers
for cushioning, protecting and keeping cool a wide variety of
consumer products (https://www.greencellfoam.com/).
Globally, there are several companies selling TPS-polymer
blends for plastics applications but most of those in the U.S.
have exited the business or gone bankrupt. Chapter 11 bankrupt-
cies were filed by U.S. based corporations Cereplast in 2014
and Earthshell in 2007. Earthshell produced starch foam cups,
plates, clamshells and bowls made by a baking process followed
by lamination with a water-resistant polymer film. Cereplast
made starch-PLA blends for a variety of applications. Dupont
had been marketing TPS-polymer blends in cooperation with
Plantic of Australia in 2008 but later exited the business. Warner-
Lambert, a large pharmaceutical company, sold their TPS patents
to Novamont in 1997 and was later acquired by Pfizer. These
events underscore that performance and cost of biodegradable
plastics need to be similar to those of petroleum-based plastics
to be marketable in the U.S. and that biodegradability does not
command much of a price premium. The latter may be changing,
however, as public awareness of the impact of plastic litter rises.
In contrast, there are many companies producing TPS-based
plastics in Europe and Asia, perhaps because of greater public
concern about environmental issues there. Novamont, headquar-
tered in Italy, is the world leader is the production of TPS-based
plastics. According to their website (https://www.novamont.com),
all their products (trademarked Mater-Bi) are fully biodegradable
and compostable and have applications ranging from packing
peanuts to agricultural mulch film, packaging film, garbage bags,
and single-use plates, cups, bowls and utensils. Polymers used in
blends with starch include the biodegradable synthetic polyester
polybutylene adipate co-terephthalate (PBAT), using technology
acquired from Eastman (DeGuzman, 2013). Plans call for making
PBAT and similar polyesters (trademarked Origo-Bi) from bio-
based sources such as azelaic acid from vegetable oils in a joint
venture with Versalis (ENI) and butane diol (BDO) from sugars as
licensed from Genomatica. In 2016, Novamont opened the first
plant to produce BDO via bacterial fermentation at a scale of 30
million pounds per year near Rovigo, Italy. Novamont recently
announced a 25% production rate increase for Origo-Bi and other
components of Mater-Bi to 300 million pounds per year at their
plant south of Rome (Barrett, 2018b).
Other producers and processors of TPS bio-plastics include
Rodenburg Biopolymers of Oosterhut, The Netherlands (www.
biopolymers.nl). They compound starch from potato process-
ing waste with other polymers into bio-based and biodegrad-
able blends having mechanical properties similar to commodity
plastics. Their annual capacity is 130 million pounds per year.
BioBag, headquartered in Askim, Norway, is a large processor of
Mater-Bi and the world’s largest producer of biodegradable blown
films (http://www.bioplasticsinfo.com/). Huhtamaki in Finland is
a large processor of food service containers and a big user of
Mater-Bi (https://www2.huhtamaki.com/). BIOTEC in Germany
produces a line of biodegradable starch-polymers blends and has
a capacity of 55 million pounds per year (https://en.biotec.de/).
Plantic, based in Australia, processes blends of hydroxypropyl
high amylose corn starch with other polymers into sheets which
can then be thermoformed into food containers (www.plantic.
com.au). Some grades are laminated with thin layers of PET, PE or
 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215
other polymers to provide necessary water resistance. Plantic was
purchased by and became a division of Kuraray, a global leader
in the production of barrier films (EVAL), in 2015.
Allied Market Research has estimated the global starch-based
bioplastics market to be $424 million in 2016 with a CAGR of
3.7% (Roy, 2017). As shown in Table 3, the European Bioplastics
Association estimated that starch blends amounted to 18.8% of
the world bioplastics capacity or 840 million pounds in 2017.
2.3. Polylactic acid (PLA)
PLA is a biobased, compostable polyester that has long been
used in biomedical devices and more recently in consumer prod-
ucts (Hamad et al., 2015; Farah et al., 2016). In a way, PLA can be
thought of as starch-based since lactic acid is usually prepared by
bacterial fermentation of starch. Lactic acid is then polymerized
by heating under reduced pressure to form low molecular weight
PLA, followed in most commercial processes by synthesis and pu-
rification of lactide and finally polymerization to high molecular
weight PLA. Depending on catalysts used, PLA can have varying
ratios of optical isomers L or D and different amounts of isotactic
and syndiotactic content. PLLA (100% L) is semi-crystalline while
PDLA (racemic) is amorphous. Since the melting temperature of
PLLA is about 180 ◦ C and thermal degradation begins around
200 ◦ C, a small amount of D isomer is often added to lower
the melting temperature and expand the processing window.
Amorphous PLA is transparent like polystyrene and hence could
be used where clear packaging to display the product is desired.
Mechanical and thermal properties of a typical commercial
PLA having 96/4 L/D are shown in Table 2. With a tensile strength
of about 60 MPa and an elongation at break of about 2%–7%,
PLA is a strong, stiff polymer similar to polystyrene. Brittleness
can be overcome by adding rubbery polymers or by orientation.
For example, tensile strengths up to 400–600 MPa were obtained
for extruded PLA fibers after drawing 6–8 times (Shogren et al.,
2011a,b). Elongations at break up to 150% were obtained at draw
ratios of 2/1. Since PLA has a rather low glass transition temper-
ature (Tg) of 55 ◦ C and crystallization is slow, applications of PLA
where exposure to high temperature conditions like hot liquids
occurs can be problematic. Heat resistance can be improved by
accelerating crystallization by inducing orientation (Zhang et al.,
2011), adding nucleating agents or reinforcing fillers, annealing
at temperatures over Tg, and by PLLA/PDLA complex formation
(Nagarajan et al., 2016). Heat deflection temperatures over 100 ◦ C
have been obtained in several commercial products (Nagarajan
et al., 2016).
Transmission rates of PLA films to water vapor and oxygen and
comparable data for petrochemical-based polymers are shown
in Table 3. WVTR for PLA at room temperature is similar to
polystyrene but higher than PET, PE or PP. OTR for PLA are lower
than PS, PE or PP but higher than PET. Thus, PLA has adequate
barrier properties to replace PS and in some cases PET. For some
applications such as packaging for fresh vegetables and fruits, it
is desirable for excess moisture to evaporate to avoid microbial
growth and spoilage so the higher WVTR of PLA would be an
advantage in such cases. On the other hand, the higher CO2
transmission rate for PLA compared to PET means that PLA would
not be a good candidate for bottles for carbonated drinks.
The ester linkages in PLA are subject to both chemical hy-
drolysis and enzymatic cleavage (Shah et al., 2008). PLA rapidly
biodegrades in a compost environment where temperatures ex-
ceed 60 ◦ C. Hydrolysis to lactic acid and oligomers occurs initially
followed by microbial metabolism of these to CO2 and water.
Degradation of PLA typically occurs much more slowly in soil,
wastewater and oceans (years).
Therefore, PLA has physical properties suitable for a wide
range of applications. Jamshidian et al. (2010) estimate that 70%
201
of PLA is used for packaging, 28% for fibers and fabrics, 1% for
agriculture and 1% for appliances. The packaging segment in-
cludes rigid thermoformed containers such as clear fresh fruit
and vegetable clamshells, deli meat trays, yoghurt cups, bakery,
herb and candy containers, electronics packaging and cold drink
cups. Packaging also includes biaxially oriented PLA film for candy
twist wrap, envelope windows, lamination windows, gift basket
overwrap, lidding stock, labels, tapes, stand-up pouches, and cake
mix, cereal and bread bags. PLA blow molded bottles are used
as containers for short shelf-life milk, edible oils and bottled
water. Fiber applications include clothing, nonwovens for wipes,
hygiene products, diapers, and autointeriors, home furnishings
such as blankets, upholstery and decorative fabrics, carpeting
and geotextiles and fiberfill for pillows, comforters, mattresses
and furniture. Agricultural applications include mulch film since
removal of non-degradable films from the field can be costly
and difficult. More recent uses include filament for 3-D printers,
durable impact-resistance products and foams.
Several companies manufacture PLA worldwide with Nature-
Works LLC being the largest (Table 10). Located in Blair, Nebraska,
NatureWorks opened their 330 million pound per year plant in
2002 as a collaboration between Cargill and Dow Chemical (https:
//www.natureworksllc.com/). As described above, uses for their
Ingeo brand PLA multiplied and production was reportedly sold
out in 2007. Dow sold their interest and was replaced by first Tei-
jin and later by PTT Global Chemical of Thailand. It seems some-
what surprising that NatureWorks has not increased their pro-
duction capacity despite the apparent strong demand. Also in the
U.S., ADM and DuPont once had programs to make PLA but these
were discontinued. Total and Corbion, the world’s largest pro-
ducer of lactic acid, have initiated a joint venture (Total Corbion
PLA) which just began producing 165 million pounds PLA per year
at their new plant in Rayong, Thailand in December, 2018 (https:
//www.total-corbion.com/). They feature standard and high heat
grades of PLA, with the latter capable of withstanding tempera-
tures of 100–140 ◦ C and thus competing with polypropylene (PP),
polystyrene (PS) and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS). They
achieved high heat resistance by blending PLLA with PDLA, giving
a rapidly crystallizing complex with a high melting temperature.
Weforyou Group, located in Graz, Austria, has a PLA capacity of
22 million pounds per year (www.weforyou.pro). Synbra Tech-
nology bv produces 11 million pounds PLA per year at their
plant in the Netherlands using technology developed by Sulzer
and Purac (https://www.synbratechnology.com/biofoam/). Hisun
Biomaterials produces 10 million pounds PLA per year in Taizhou,
China.
Total global production of PLA in 2017 was estimated to be
460 million pounds (Fig. 2). PLA and PHA’s are expected to be the
main drivers in the growth of bio-based biodegradable plastics
with CAGR for PLA around 10% (EBA, 2018). Prices for PLA have
gradually come down to about $1/lb., a level which is only slightly
higher than many petrochemical polymers. As costs decline fur-
ther, PLA can potentially claim much of the current market for PS
and portions of the markets for PP, ABS and PET.
2.4. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
PHA’s are a family of natural polyesters produced by bacteria
for energy storage (Sudesh et al., 2000). They have a wide range
of mechanical properties similar to petroleum-based plastics and
are biodegradable in soil, compost, marine and anaerobic condi-
tions. There are over 100 different types which can be classified as
short chain length (SCL), medium chain length (MCH) or copoly-
mers of both (Tan et al., 2014). SCL monomers have 3–5 carbon
atoms of which the most common are 3-hydroxybutyrate and
3-hydroxyvalerate. MCL monomers contain 6–14 carbon atoms
202 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215
Table 10
Companies manufacturing polylactic acid (PLA).
Company Raw material Volume
(million
lb./yr.)
NatureWorks Corn 330
Total-Corbion Sugarcane 165
Weforyou Sugarcane cassava 22
Synbra ? 11
Hisun Corn, cassava 10
and include 3-hydroxyhexanote and 3-hydroxyoctanoate. Poly-
hydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a highly crystalline, brittle polymer so
copolymers with some longer side chain monomers like
3-hydroxyvalerate (PHBV) or 3-hydroxyhexanoate (PHBH) are
preferred to improve flexibility and reduce melting temperature.
Pure PHB melts near 180 ◦ C and begins to degrade at simi-
lar temperatures so reduction in melt temperature to facilitate
processing is important (Noda et al., 2009). PHA composition is
determined by the type of bacteria used as well as the carbon
substrate used for the fermentation. A wide range of substrates
can be utilized including sugars, n-alkanes, n-alkanoic acids, n-
alcohols and gases such as methane and carbon dioxide (Tan et al.,
2014). Waste streams such as used frying oil, discarded food,
agricultural wastes, domestic wastewater, glycerol from biodiesel
production and landfill gas have been used as free or low-cost
fermentation substrates to produce PHA’s.
Mechanical and physical properties of PHA’s are highly depen-
dent on monomer composition and resulting crystalline structure
(Noda et al., 2009). PHA’s containing SCL monomers form large
spherulitic crystals with overall crystallinity of 50% or higher.
Increasing valerate content in PHBV does disrupt crystallinity
somewhat, leading to lower melting temperatures. It turns out,
however, that the ethyl side chain of valerate can be incorporated
into the PHB crystal lattice without much distortion so that there
is relatively small decrease in melting temperature (Marchessault
et al., 1990). The rigid crystals of PHB and PHBV tend to promote
fracture along their interfaces so that elongations at break tend
to be fairly low. Nucleating agents and plasticizers can reduce
crystallite size and improve flexibility. Typical tensile strengths
and elongations at break for PHBV are 15–40 MPa and 1%–25%
(Bugnicourt et al., 2014). These values are similar to polystyrene
so applications in rigid packaging can be contemplated. One of the
first applications for PHBV was a shampoo bottle developed by ICI
and Wella in the 1980’s (Luzier, 1992). Like PLA, the mechanical
properties of PHBV’s can be greatly improved by orientation
(Antipov et al., 2006) so that fibers and biaxially oriented films
should be attractive targets for commercial development. One
limitation of PHA’s is their slow crystallization rate but this can
be improved by nucleating agents (Laycock et al., 2014).
In contrast to SCL monomers, incorporation of MCL 3-HA into
PHB acts a molecular defect thus lowering the crystallinity of
PHA and increasing flexibility (Noda et al., 2009). For example,
PHA with 12 mole % 3-HHx has a melting temperature of 110 ◦ C
and crystallinity of about 30%. Elongation at break for PHBOd
containing 7 mole % 3-hydroxyoctadecanoate was about 800%
while tensile strength was about 20 MPa. These mechanical prop-
erties are similar to low density polyethylene so that SCL/MCL
PHA’s would be suitable for application as blown film for garbage
bags and other flexible packaging. PHA’s exhibit good barrier
properties to O2 , CO2 and odors with O2 permeability lower than
polyolefins and PET (Noda et al., 2009). Permeability to water
vapor is higher for PHA’s than PE and PET but still in an acceptable
range (Table 3).
PHA’s are readily biodegradable in soil, sewage sludge, anaer-
obic digesters and seawater (Noda et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2018).
Location Reference
U.S. https://www.natureworksllc.com
Netherlands/Thailand https://www.total-corbion.com
Austria https://www.weforyou.pro
Netherlands https://www.synbratechnology.com
China En.hisunplas.com
They are, however, stable like paper in ambient conditions or in
the absence of high concentrations of microorganisms.
The biggest drawback and impediment to commercialization
has been the higher cost of PHA’s compared to petroleum-based
polymers. Prices for PHA’s in recent years have been around
$2.50/lb. (for ADM/Metabolix product) compared to <$1/lb. for
commodity petrochemical resins (Table 3). However, prices have
been dropping over past 20–30 years due to improved PHA pro-
duction efficiencies as well as a focus on cheap raw materials
from agro-industrial residues (Kaur et al., 2017). This trend is ex-
pected to continue as much research and development effort has
been focused on PHA’s in both academic and industrial sectors.
Many companies both large and small have been involved
in PHA production with several currently in the start-up phase
(Table 11). As mentioned above PHBV was first manufactured by
ICI in 1983 (Luzier, 1992). ICI later sold the business to Monsanto
in 1996 who in turn sold it to Metabolix in 2001. Metabolix
partnered with ADM and opened a 110 million pound per year
plant in Clinton, IA in 2009. The plant was closed in 2012 and
Metabolix sold the PHA business to Korea’s CJ CheilJedang in 2016
(Tullo, 2016a,b). Starting in the late 1980’s, scientists at Proctor &
Gamble developed a series of copolymers of SCL and MCL PHA’s
(Noda et al., 2009).
Meredian, later to merge with Danimer Scientific, purchased
P&G’s patent portfolio in 2007 and later began manufactur-
ing PHA’s from vegetable oils at their plant in Bainbridge, GA.
Danimer recently announced that it will build a $36 million
facility to make PHA’s from canola oil in Winchester, KY in 2019
(Tullo, 2018). They also recently designed the first biodegrad-
able plastic straw made from PHA and a compostable snack
bag in cooperation with Pepsico (https://danimerscientific.com/).
Danimer and Pepsico jointly received the Plastics Industry As-
sociation’s Innovation in Bioplastics Award for 2018 for their
development of the compostable, blown film snack bag (Toto,
2018). All their products are certified for food contact. Full Cy-
cle Bioplastics is a start-up company based in Richmond, CA
that converts organic waste to PHA’s via bacterial fermentation
(http://fullcyclebioplastics.com). Newlight Technologies, located
in Huntington Beach, CA, utilizes waste methane and carbon
dioxide from an adjacent agricultural waste digester to produce
PHA’s (http://www.newlight.com/). They began producing PHA
at a small commercial scale in 2013, have received numerous
awards for their technology and have partnered with several large
corporations. For example, Dell is using Newlight PHA in pack-
aging for their computers, Sprint recently introduced cell phone
cases made with their PHA, and IKEA signed a supply/licensing
agreement with Newlight. Both Newlight and Danimer claim
their products are cost competitive with other plastics on the
market.
In China, Tianjin GreenBio Materials Co. has an installed ca-
pacity to produce 20 million pounds PHA per year (http://www.
tjgreenbio.com/). Tian An Biopolymer produces 4 million pounds
of PHBV per year at their plant in Ningbo City, China. Bluepha is
a start-up in Beijing, China. Kaneka in Tokyo, Japan has a capacity
of about 10 million pounds per year of PHBH and is considering
 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215
Table 11
Companies manufacturing polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA’s).
Company Materials
Danimer Scientific PHA from veg. oils
Newlight Technologies PHA from CH4 , CO2
Full Cycle Bioplastics PHA from organic waste
Mango Materials PHA from waste CH4
Kaneka PHBH from plant oils
Bio-on PHA micro-spheres
BioMatera PHA
Tianjin PHA
TianAn PHBV
Bluepha PHA
Polyferm Canada PHA elastomers
Terraverdae PHA
building a much larger plant (http://www.kaneka.be/). TerraVer-
dae Bioworks produces biochemicals and PHA by fermentation of
methanol and methane at their plant in Edmonton, AB (http://
www.terraverdae.com/). Biomatera is a start-up company seeking
to produce PHA in Toronto, CA. PolyFerm Canada is developing
mcl-PHA’s for use as adhesives, sealants and coatings. Bio-on,
located in Bologna, Italy is beginning to produce PHA’s initially
to replace polymer microspheres in personal care products (http:
//www.bio-on.it/). Mango Materials is a start-up company in San
Francisco, CA looking to produce PHA from waste methane.
Total worldwide production of PHA’s was estimated to be
108 million pounds in 2017 according to European Bioplastics
Association (Fig. 2). Production capacities are expected to grow
at 60% per year over the next five years. Thus, the future for
PHA’s appears bright given their similarity in properties to petro-
chemical plastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene, good
biodegradability, declining cost and widespread commercial in-
terest. Assuming costs become competitive, PHA’s can potentially
take over a substantial share of the market for PE and PP which
is valued at hundreds of billions of dollars annually.
2.5. Other biodegradable polyesters
Back in the 1990’s, there was increasing public and industrial
interest in biodegradable polymers and it was well known that
polyesters like PHA’s and polycaprolactone (PCL) were biodegrad-
able (Gross and Kalra, 2002). However, PHA’s were very expensive
at the time and PCL has a low melting temperature (60 ◦ C) and
thus would not be useful under hot conditions.
Therefore, companies sought to alter existing processes used
to make condensation polyesters like PET in order to improve
biodegradability. Many copolymers of ethylene glycol and buty-
lene glycol with succinic acid, adipic acid and terephthalic acid
were prepared with polybutylene succinate (PBS) and polybuty-
lene adipate terephthalate (PBAT) becoming commercial suc-
cesses. At the time, all the monomers used to prepare PBS and
PBAT were derived from petroleum but that is gradually changing
as improved fermentation methods are being developed starting
primarily from glucose.
As shown in Table 2, PBS and PBAT are flexible, semi-crystalline
polymers with thermal and mechanical properties similar to
polyethylene (Xu and Guo, 2010; Gross and Kalra, 2002). PBS
is biodegradable in a compost environment but is slower to de-
grade in soil and seawater due to its relatively high crystallinity.
Adding adipic acid comonomer to PBS decreases crystallinity
and improves biodegradability. PBAT is also compostable (Diaz
et al., 2014). Applications for PBS and PBAT include compost bags,
packaging, agricultural mulch film. Annual production of PBAT
and PBS have been estimated to be 230 and 220 million pounds,
respectively (Fig. 2). The relatively higher prices of these ($2–
3/lb., Table 1) compared to petrochemical polymers has likely
203
Volume Location References
(million
lb./yr.)
? U.S. https://danimerscientific.com
? U.S. https://www.newlight.com
? U.S. http://fullcyclebioplastics.com
? U.S. mangomaterials.com
10 Japan/Belgium www.kaneka.be
2 Italy www.bio-on.it
? Canada
20 China www.tigreenbio.com
5 China www.tianan-enmat.com
? China en.bluepha.com
? Canada https://www.polyfermcanda.com
? Canada www.terraverdae.com
limited their market penetration. Another downside of PBS is
slow hydrolysis in water or high temperature/humidity condi-
tions leading to loss of mechanical properties over several months
(Xu and Guo, 2010; Muthuraj et al., 2015). Blending PBAT with
PLA is known to improve the flexibility of PLA (Jiang et al., 2006).
There are several companies making PBS and PBAT but they
are all located outside the U.S. (Table 12). As mentioned in Sec-
tion 2.2. Eastman formerly manufactured PBAT in the U.S. but
sold their interest to Novamont of Italy. Showa Denko began
production of their BionolleTM PBS and PBSA in Japan in 1993
but terminated the business in 2017. BASF has manufactured
their line of petrochemical-based, compostable EcoflexTM PBAT
in Germany since the 1980’s. They also sell blends of PLA and
PBAT. PTT MCC Biochem produces biobased PBS in Thailand under
a collaboration between PTT Co. and Mitsubishi Chemical (https:
//www.mcpp-global.com/).
Other manufacturers include Anqing Hexing in China and Ire
Chemical and SK Chemical both in South Korea.
2.6. Biobased, non-biodegradable polymers
In an effort to boost sustainability and lower their greenhouse
gas emissions, numerous companies around the globe are begin-
ning to utilize plant resources to make traditional non-degradable
plastics like PET, PE, nylon, polyurethanes, and epoxies. One ad-
vantage of this approach is that many bio-based versions are
identical to petrochemical polymers so that they are drop-in re-
placements. Thus, there is no need to adjust processing conditions
or end-use requirements as there is with new polymers like PLA,
PHA’s, PBS, or starch-based blends which have different physical
and mechanical property profiles.
Best known, perhaps, is the commercial preparation of bio-
PE by fermentation of sugarcane juice to ethanol, followed by
dehydration of ethanol to ethylene at high temperatures over a
catalyst and lastly the usual catalytic polymerization of ethylene
to PE (Babu et al., 2013; Zhu et al., 2016). With an abundance
of sugarcane grown in Brazil, Braskem is the world’s largest
producer of bio-PE with a capacity of 400 million pounds per
year (Table 13). Global production of bio-PE was estimated to be
520 million pounds in 2017 (Fig. 2). Applications include flexible
bags for packaging foods (LDPE) and rigid containers for milk and
personal care products (HDPE).
Neste, a Finnish oil company and leading producer of diesel
from waste and residues, is preparing to open the world’s first
plant to make bio-PP from waste and virgin vegetable oils (Bar-
rett, 2018a). IKEA plans to be a big customer for the output of the
new plant, consistent with their plan to use only plastics derived
from recycled material or from renewable resources by 2030.
Bio-PET had the largest production volume (1.2 billion pounds)
of all the bio-based polymers in 2017 (Fig. 2). So far, only the
204 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215
Table 12
Companies manufacturing other biodegradable polyesters (PBS, PBAT).
Company Materials
Novamont PBAT, similar polyesters
BASF PBAT
PTT MCC Biochem. PBS
Anqing Hexing PBS
Ire Chemical PBS, PBAT
Table 13
Companies manufacturing bio-based, non-biodegradable plastics.
Company Materials
Braskem PE from sugarcane
Neste PP from veg. oils
BASF/Avantium PEF from sugars
Dupont/ADM PTF from corn fructose
Dupont/Tate & Lyle PTT from corn sugars
ethylene glycol part of PET is bio-based, being manufactured
from bio-based ethylene followed by oxidation and hydration
(Zhu et al., 2016). Coca Cola Corporation has been a big user
and driver of bio-PET, having introduced their Plant BottleTM in
2009. They plan to switch to 100% plant-based PET for their
beverage bottles by 2020 and are working with biotechnology
companies Virent, Gevo and Avantium to manufacture plant-
based terephthalic acid. Virent recently started small commercial
scale production of paraxylene, an upstream intermediate needed
to make terephthalic acid, by catalytic reforming of plant sug-
ars at their plant in Madison, WI (www.virent.com). Virent is
working with Renmatix, a developer of low-cost plant sugars
by supercritical water hydrolysis of cellulosic biomass. Gevo is
producing paraxylene from plant-derived isobutanol in Silsbee,
TX. Ford, Heinz and P&G are collaborating with Coca-Cola to
speed development of 100% bio-based PET under their Plant PET
Technology Collaborative (PTC).
As an alternative to terephthalic acid, there has been consid-
erable interest in furan dicarboxylic acid (FDCA) and its polyester
analog polyethylene furanoate (PEF). FDCA can be prepared from
fructose by selective dehydration and oxidation (Motagamwala
et al., 2018). PEF has several advantages compared to PET (Ta-
bles 3 and 4) including higher elastic modulus, higher glass tran-
sition temperature, and lower permeabilities to oxygen, carbon
dioxide and water (Burgess et al., 2015). For example, permeabil-
ity of PEF to carbon dioxide is only 1/19 that of PET. Such an
improvement in properties should allow the use of thinner bottles
or other containers and hence less material needed than for PET,
especially for carbonated soda bottles. Permeability of PEF to oxy-
gen is 1/11 that of PET and should improve the long-term stability
of food prone to oxidation such as beer in a plastic bottle or soups,
stews or vegetables in a ‘‘plastic can’’. BASF and Avantium formed
a joint venture called Synvina in 2016, planned to open a 110
million pound per year PEF plant in Antwerp, Belgium in 2018
and planned to further license production to other companies in
the future. However, technical challenges have caused Avantium
to extend pilot stage testing and delay the larger plant until
2023 (DeGuzman, 2018). Dupont and ADM are working together
to produce a similar polymer, polytrimethylene furanoate (PTF)
from corn fructose in a 120,000 lb. pilot facility in Decatur, IL
(Tullo, 2016a). Anticipated applications include beverage bottles,
fibers and engineering plastics. The trimethylene component of
PTF comes from propanediol (PDO). Dupont along with Tate &
Lyle have been producing bio-based PDO via fermentation of
corn sugar at their plant in Loudon, TN since 2006. Dupont also
uses PDO along with terephthalic acid to make polytrimethylene
Volume Location References
(million
lb./yr.)
300 Italy https://www.novamont.com
? Germany https://plasticsportal.net
? Thailand https://www.mcpp-global.com
6 China https://hexingpbs.en.china.cn
? S. Korea https://irechem.en.ec21.com
Volume Location References
(million
lb./yr.)
400 Brazil www.braskem.com.br
? Finland https://www.neste.us
110 planned Belgium https://www.basf.com
0.12 U.S. www.dupont.com
? U.S. Sorona.com
terephthalate (PTT) or SoronaTM . Clothing and carpeting made
from PTT fibers are said to have superior softness, elastic recovery
and stain resistance compared to other materials (Kurian, 2005).
Polyamides (PA), better known as nylons, are another class of
non-degradable polymers many of which are fully or partially
bio-based (Andreeben and Steinbuchel, 2018; Winnacker and
Rieger, 2016). Approximately 540 million pounds of bio-based PA
were produced in 2017 (Table 2). PA are tough, chemically and
thermally resistant, engineering plastics and tend to be used in
durable applications such as appliances, tubing, fittings, electrical
components, metal coatings, etc. Bio-PA’s have long been pro-
duced from castor oil which contains a unique hydroxylated fatty
acid (ricinoleic acid) as well as sebacic acid. For example, Arkema
based in France has produced nylon 11 from castor oil since 1949
and also has been making nylon 10,10, nylon 10,12 and nylon 6,10
from castor oil (DeGuzman, 2016). Radici of Italy supplies similar
products. Several biotechnology companies are working on mak-
ing nylon intermediates from sugars. These include caprolactam
from Genomatica, adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine from
Rennovia.
Other types of polymers, namely polyurethanes and epox-
ies, are also manufactured commercially in part from vegetable
oils (Zhang et al., 2017). The polyol component or soft segment
of polyurethanes can be made from vegetable oils while the
diisocyanate part or hard segment is still usually made from
petroleum. Similarly, polyamine or polycarboxylic acid epoxy
curing agents are made from vegetable oils while the resin it-
self, normally diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A, is derived from
petroleum. Polyurethanes and epoxies are tough thermosetting
resins often used as durable coatings, adhesives, sealants and
insulating foams.
In summary, non-biodegradable polymers constitute the ma-
jority (57%) of bio-based plastics manufactured in 2017 (Fig. 2).
This commercial and consumer acceptance is due to their sus-
tainable plant derived nature, greenhouse gas reductions and
properties identical to their petroleum-based analogs allowing
easy drop-in replacement. Future production of these polymers
is expected to continue to grow as processes become more cost
effective. The latter may involve better conversion chemistries,
new monomers and polymers with improved properties and uti-
lization of lower cost lignocellulosic feedstocks.
2.7. Other bio-based materials
In an effort to promote research and development of bio-
based products, the U.S. Department of Energy published a list
 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215
of 12 chemicals that can be made from sugars and which they
thought would have good potential to become platforms for a
bio-economy (Werpy and Petersen, 2004). These consisted of
succinic acid, fumaric acid, malic acid, FDCA, 3-hydroxypropionic
acid, aspartic acid, glucaric acid, glutamic acid, itaconic acid,
levulinic acid, 3-hydroxybutyrolactone, glycerol, sorbitol, and xyl-
itol/arabinitol. An updated list of bioproducts with expected near-
term potential for new or expanded commercial development
was released by DOE in 2016 and included 1,4-butanediol,
1,3-butadiene, ethyl lactate, fatty alcohols, furfural, glycerin, iso-
prene, lactic acid, 1,3-propanediol, propylene glycol, succinic acid,
para-xylene, adipic acid, acrylic acid and FDCA (Biddy et al.,
2016). Producing biochemicals along with bioenergy is expected
to improve economic feasibility of biorefineries since chemical
products represent nearly 50% of petroleum refiner’s profits.
These and similar plant-based materials may have applications
in the food industry. These could include bio-based solvents, plas-
ticizers, surfactants, lubricants, acidulants, flavorings, colorants
and nutritional supplements. Safer, green, bio-based solvents in-
clude alcohols such as ethanol, butanol and propanol, acids such
as acetic and lactic, esters such as ethyl acetate, lactones and
limonenes (Clark et al., 2015). Citrate ester plasticizers are being
used to replace petroleum-based ones in various plastics. Veg-
etable oil-based fatty acid esters and ethers are commercially
available as detergents and lubricants.
3. Environmental benefits associated with plant-based mate-
rials
3.1. Greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation of climate change
impact
Greenhouse gases (GHG) are those which have a strong dipole
moment and absorbance in the infrared part of the electromag-
netic spectrum and include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, fluorinated gases and water vapor. As visible light from
the sun strikes the earth, the surface of the planet is warmed
and emits infrared radiation. This radiation then travels into the
atmosphere where it interacts with and causes greenhouse gas
molecules to vibrate and warm in temperature. Thus, greenhouse
gases act as a transparent ‘‘blanket’’ around the earth trapping
heat and warming the planet. Greenhouse gas levels in the atmo-
sphere have been increasing due to burning of fossil fuels which
release carbon dioxide and other human activities such as drilling
and agriculture which release methane. The continental U.S. has
warmed by about 1.8 ◦ F since 1900 and projections call for further
warming of 3–12 degrees by the end of the century (USGCRP,
2018).
Numerous reports have been published recently regarding
the dangers of climate change due to greenhouse gas emissions.
For example, the U.S. government released the Fourth National
Climate Assessment on November 23, 2018 which details how
warming exacerbated wildfires, droughts, coastal flooding and
storms have been and will affect the economy, environment,
human health and quality of life. They estimate that U.S. GDP
could be reduced by 10% by 2100 if action is not taken to curb
emissions. The UN’s Intergovernmental panel on climate change
(IPCC) warned in October, 2018 that drastic reductions of green-
house gases (45% reduction by 2030 and net zero by 2050) are
needed just to keep warming from exceeding the critical thresh-
old of 1.5 ◦ C, above which there are expected much more extreme
detrimental events (IPCC, 2018).
The largest sources of greenhouse gases in the U.S. are trans-
portation such as cars, trucks, ships, trains, etc. (28%), elec-
tricity generation (28%), industry (22%), residential/commercial
(11%) and agriculture (9%) (EPA, 2018b). The International Energy
205
Agency estimates that the petrochemical sector generates about
1.5 GtCO2 annually which represents about 20% of all indus-
trial GHG emissions or about 5% of all combustion-related CO2
emissions (IEA, 2018). Therefore, oil-based chemical and plastics
are a significant contributor to global GHG emissions. Chemical
and consumer product companies have begun to recognize that
climate change constitutes a threat to their businesses and need
to reduce their GHG emissions and energy footprint.
Lifecycle analyses of bio-based plastics and chemicals have
generally shown significantly lower GHG emissions than for
petroleum-based ones (Narayan, 2011; Spierling et al., 2018).
Much of this difference is due to the fact that plants absorb CO2
from the air and incorporate it into their biomolecular struc-
tures. Assuming that bio-based materials either biodegrade or are
burned at the end of their life cycle, the CO2 contained in the
material is returned to the atmosphere resulting in a net zero
carbon balance. In contrast, when fossil fuel-based materials are
burned or slowly degrade into CO2 , the resulting emissions are a
net positive contribution to GHG. In addition to materials carbon,
GHG emissions required to grow, harvest and transport crops or
drill for and transport oil or natural gas. Also, GHG emissions
during the conversion process from plant or petroleum to finished
product need to be taken into account.
The global warming potential (GWP) based on LCA for plant-
based polymers are shown in Table 14. There is some vari-
ability in these values since they depend on choice of plant
feedstock, production process details which are still evolving and
end-of-life options. For comparison, data are also presented for
petrochemical-based polymers from PlasticsEurope as reported
by Vink and Davies (2015). Older petrochemical data from the U.S.
was quite similar to the European data (Vink and Davies, 2015).
For PLA made from corn-based glucose and using Nature-
Works’ production process, GHG emissions were 0.62 kg CO2 /kg
PLA (Vink and Davies, 2015). This is lower than emissions from
common petroleum-based polymers PE, PP, PS and PET which
range from 1.6–2.3 kg CO2 /kg polymer. Likewise, GHG emissions
for thermoplastic starch and blends with polyesters (0.8–1.2 kg
CO2 ) were significantly lower than for petroleum-based plastics
(Shen and Patel, 2008). For PHA’s there is a wide range of esti-
mates since commercial processes have not been well established
yet and this is reflected in differing assumptions for several dif-
ferent LCA studies of PHA’s (Dietrich et al., 2017). Negative values
of GHG emissions are due to credits from burning of biomass
residuals like corn stover for heat and electricity while high
positive values are due to utilization of crops like rapeseed which
have lower yields. Nevertheless, low values for GWP for PHA’s in
some studies suggest the potential for lower GHG emission than
petroleum-based plastics. Among non-biodegradable bio-based
polymers, bio-PE using sugarcane has a low GWP of −0.75 kg
CO2 /kg polymer (Tsiropoulos et al., 2015). For bio-PET, emissions
are similar to petroleum-based polymers at this time presumably
because only the ethylene glycol portion or about 30% of bio-PET
is currently bio-based. Posen et al. (2016) emphasized the rela-
tively high level of uncertainty in LCA studies but still found lower
GWP for PLA and bio-PE. They also suggested that substituting
lignocellulose feedstocks like switchgrass would further lower
emissions. No LCA data are available for regenerated cellulose,
cellulose acetate, bio-PU or PEF (Spierling et al., 2018).
In addition to materials, conversion into final products will
also contribute to GHG emissions. This usually involves com-
pounding the polymer with other additives into pellets, molding
the pellets into the desired shape, cutting and/or assembling
the plastic part into the final product and transfer to points of
distribution/sales. Since these operations are often carried out at
locations hundreds or thousands of miles apart, transportation
between locations adds to emissions. Energy required and GWP
206 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215
Table 14
Life cycle analyses of plant-based polymers.
Material Kg CO2 eq.
emitted/kg
polymer
Kraft paper
TPS, 50% 0.8–1.2
TPS+50%
PBS or PBAT
PLA 0.62
PHA −2.3–6.9
PE 1.9
Bio-PE −0.75
PP 1.6
PET 2.2
Bio-PET 2.1
PS 2.3
TPS = thermoplastic starch.
from plastics processing depends on several factors such as the
glass transition and/or melting temperature of the polymer, melt
viscosity, and crystallization rate. Plastic density, modulus of elas-
ticity and tensile and impact strengths also determine part thick-
ness and weight of plastic needed to perform its function. When
the end-use application involves motion such as automobiles,
weight of the part will impact fuel economy and emissions.
Due to these many factors, it is difficult to make general-
izations about the relative magnitudes of the contributions of
materials, processing and transportation to GWP for different
plastic products. For example, Venkatachalam et al. (2018) found
that 65% of the GWP for the manufacture of a computer mouse
from a PLA blend was due to materials acquisition. Koch and Mi-
halyi (2018) also found that the largest contribution to GWP for a
water bottle was from the Bio-PET contribution. In contrast, Choi
et al. (2018) found that extrusion and transportation made up the
majority (about 80%) of the GWP for a PLA film. Since thermal
and mechanical properties of petroleum-based and plant-based
materials are similar (Table 2), processing energy requirements
and GWP will be similar (Petchprayul et al., 2012). Densities of
plant-based polymers like PLA (1.24), PHA (1.2–1.25) and cellu-
lose/starch (1.5) are slightly higher than some petroleum-based
polymers such as polyethylene (0.96), polypropylene (0.95) and
polystyrene (1.05). Therefore, slightly more bio-based polymer by
weight would be needed to attain the same mechanical prop-
erties. However, GWP and non-renewable energy use remain
lower for products made from these plant-based materials than
common petroleum-based polymers (Dietrich et al., 2017; Shen
and Patel, 2008).
In summary, a review of LCA studies of plant-based polymers
suggests that reductions in GWP may be achieved by switching
from petroleum-based plastics to bio-based ones. Spierling et al.
(2018) estimate that emissions could be reduced by 0.24–0.32
GtCO2 equivalent by substituting 2/3 of all conventional plastics
on a global basis. Similarly, Saygin et al. (2014) estimated poten-
tial savings of 0.3–0.7 GtCO2 by replacing petrochemical polymers
and fibers with bio-based ones by 2030 and a reduction potential
of 1.3–1.7 GtCO2 for all organic chemicals.
3.2. Waste/pollution reduction
As global plastics production has grown over time, so have
problems with disposal after their useful life has ended. Over 40%
of plastics are made for single-use applications such as packaging
so they are disposed of quickly after use. Options for petroleum-
based plastic disposal include landfilling, recycling, burning or
littering. Geyer et al. (2017) estimate that of the cumulative global
total 6300 Mt of plastic generated by 2015, only 9% has been
recycled, 12% was incinerated and 79% was landfilled or discarded
Non-renewable References
Energy required
MJ/kg polymer
25 Shen and Patel (2008)
40 Vink and Davies (2015)
40–110 Dietrich et al. (2017)
80 Vink and Davies (2015)
28 Tsiropoulos et al. (2015)
56 Vink and Davies (2015)
69 Vink and Davies (2015)
62 Tsiropoulos et al. (2015)
82 Vink and Davies (2015)
into the natural environment. It is difficult to come by exact
figures for the amount of plastic littered but Jambeck et al. (2015)
have estimated that 5–13 million metric tons or about 2%–4%
of all plastics produced each year enter the oceans. Europe and
China recycled 30% and 25% of their plastic waste, respectively, in
2014 while the U.S. only recycled 9% of its plastic waste. Inciner-
ation has increased over time in Europe and China, reaching 40%
and 30%, respectively, in 2014 while 16% was burned in the U.S.
Plastics represent over 10% by weight of municipal solid waste
(MSW) in developed countries.
It is quite expensive to build landfills and people generally
do not want to live nearby them. Disposal or ‘‘tipping’’ fees in
the U.S. vary by location with rates as high as over $100 per ton
in population dense east and west coast cities while rates can
be as low as $20 in rural central U.S. It is the goal of landfills
to permanently entomb waste inside a man-made ‘‘mountain’’.
Although newer landfills are designed with liners to resist leak-
age of contaminated leachate and pumps to reduce runoff, leaks
may occur as the liner ages with the possibility of groundwater
contamination.
Plant-based alternatives to petroleum-based plastics have ad-
ditional or enhanced disposal options including composting,
anaerobic digestion, easier recycling, environmental biodegrada-
tion and even use as animal feed in some cases. In composting,
biodegradable plastics such as starch blends, PLA, PHA, PBS are
mixed together with yard waste like grass clippings, leaves and
branches along with other organics such as food and paper waste
and piled up into a large mound. Through the action of fungi,
bacteria, oxygen from air and temperatures which often exceed
60 ◦ C, the waste is biodegraded over several weeks into a rich soil
which can be returned to the fields or sold as topsoil to home
gardeners or greenhouses. Growing crops can deplete nutrients
from soils so this is a way to restore needed minerals and humus
without resorting to synthetic, oil-based fertilizers. About 9% of all
MSW is composted in the U.S. so there is significant infrastructure
and capability for composting (EPA, 2018c). There has been some
concern that bio-based plastics like PLA cups and utensils do not
compost as quickly as paper and organic waste leading some
operators to send these materials to the landfill rather than spend
the required time for complete degradation (Balaram, 2018).
This may point to the need to perhaps grind up PLA articles
beforehand to increase surface area, add fillers like starch or
cellulose that might increase degradation rates or enrich com-
post with an inoculum from a facility where PLA is the main
carbon source and microorganisms are well adapted to producing
esterases which breakdown PLA well.
In anaerobic digestion, a similar mix of wastes is enclosed in
an air-tight container and air is excluded allowing anaerobic bac-
teria to digest it into methane and other gases. The methane can
 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215
be collected, purified and sold for heating or chemical feedstock
as natural gas would be. This can occur naturally in landfills and
gas is collected from some but the process is far from optimal in
terms of moisture content, size and composition of garbage, etc.
Like petroleum-based plastics, plant-based materials can be
recycled. Indeed, about 2/3 of paper and cardboard are recycled in
the U.S. (EPA, 2018c). Among petrochemical plastics, about 30% of
PET and HDPE bottles were recycled in the U.S. in 2015. According
to the U.S. EPA, recycling confers significant benefits including
creating 757,000 jobs and $36.6 billion in wages (EPA, 2018d).
Biodegradable polymers like PLA, PHA’s and PBS can be recycled
although little is done currently since production volumes are
still low. The potential advantage of these polyesters is that they
can be easily broken down to their component monomers by
hydrolysis in aqueous base or by esterases and then reintroduced
to the production processes for the respective polymers. This
becomes in essence perpetual recycling. This is very difficult to
do for petroleum-based addition polymers like PE, PS, PVC and
PP and difficult for PET. These plastics are recycled and reused in
their polymeric form but it can generally only be done once since
losses in molecular weight invariably occur due to oxidation, UV
radiation and mechanical chain scission during processing. Also,
such recycled plastics cannot be used for food contact because
of the danger of contaminants while this is not a problem where
monomers are purified and reincorporated into production. There
is some concern about bio-based polymers like PLA, starch blends,
PHA’s, PBAT, PBS contaminating the recycling streams of petro-
chemical plastics, PET bottles in particular. However, bio-based
plastics can be identified using spectroscopic tools such as near
infrared spectroscopy and separated out. Overall, the recycling
rate of plastics in the U.S. is expected to drop considerably since
China, previously a large processor of recycled materials, is no
longer accepting recycled plastics from the U.S. Cleaning, sorting
and pelletizing have been labor intensive, expensive processes
and therefore were outsourced to foreign countries (Garcia and
Robertson, 2017).
Accumulation of plastics in the environment has become a
major global problem. Littered petroleum-based plastics create an
unsightly mess that can last for hundreds or thousands of years,
and are hazards to wildlife as well as people. Entanglement by
and ingestion of marine plastic waste by fish, birds and marine
mammals is a major contributor to their morbidity and mortality
(Xanthos and Walker, 2017). In addition to large plastic debris,
microplastics or small fragments broken off from the parent
article, have been found to be widespread but the possible dan-
gers of these are largely unknown. Economic losses from marine
plastic pollution due to impairment of tourism, recreation, vessel
damage, invasive species transport, energy production, fishing
and aquaculture have been conservatively estimated to be $13
billion per year (Xanthos and Walker, 2017). Plastic pollution
comes from many sources including intentional littering, uninten-
tional losses from wind blowing lightweight plastic bags or dishes
away from the owner, losses from transportation of poorly se-
cured garbage, plastics blown away from landfills, broken fishing
line and nets, plastic pellets washed away by cleaning opera-
tions at plastic processors, and poor garbage disposal practices
in developing countries.
Awareness of this problem has increased of late and countries
and cities around the world have begun to take action to reduce
land and marine plastic pollution. For example, the EU recently
agreed to ban many single-use plastic articles including dispos-
able cutlery, plates, straws, and polystyrene food and beverage
containers by 2021 (Wilkinson, 2018). Numerous countries in
Africa, Asia and the EU have either banned plastic bags or enacted
taxes on their sales (Xanthos and Walker, 2017). Plastic bags were
banned throughout California in 2016 and also in Hawaii. Many
207
U.S. cities have banned or taxed plastic bags. Kroger, the largest
grocery chain in the U.S., will phase out plastic bags by 2025.
Environmental biodegradability is a major distinction of many
plant-based polymers compared to the recalcitrance of
petroleum-based plastics. In particular, cellulosic materials, starch
and PHA’s are biodegradable in all environments including oceans.
Plastics production should be reduced where possible however,
biodegradable plant-based materials offer a reasonable alterna-
tive for such uses as food packaging to replace polyethylene and
polystyrene.
Another useful way of disposing of organic waste including
some plant-based plastics is by feeding to animals (Westendorf
et al., 1996). For example, all animals can digest starch-based
materials and ruminant animals such as cattle can digest cellu-
losic materials. Interestingly, some animals can also digest PHA’s
including mammals (Defoirdt et al., 2009). For example, 20% of a
PHB implant in the rat bowel disappeared in one week. In con-
trast, PHBV was poorly digested in pigs but could be increased to
37% by pretreatment with NaOH. Similarly, digestion of untreated
PHBV was 40% in sheep but this increased to 85% after NaOH
treatment.
Pretreatment with NaOH led to substantial beta-hydroxy-
butyrate formation along with a decrease in molecular weight
of the remaining polymeric fraction. NaOH treatment is cur-
rently used to pretreat other forage such as corn stover to im-
prove digestibility. Short chain fatty acids (SCFA) including beta-
hydroxybutyrate are important in human and mammal health by
serving as the preferred energy source for colonic mucosal cells
and by protecting against colitis and colorectal cancer. Short chain
fatty acids also have bacteriostatic properties particularly against
pathogenic species such as Vibrio and have been considered to
replace antibiotics in aquaculture. Addition of small amounts of
PHB to diets of shrimp and other aquatic animals can improve
growth and survival rates (Gao et al., 2019).
3.3. Less energy/resource consumption
As shown in Table 10, non-renewable energy used (NREU) to
manufacture plant-based materials is generally lower than for
petroleum-based materials.
Other resources such as land and water are used in the pro-
duction of plant and petroleum-based materials but these are
not often considered in LCA studies. For PLA, Vink and Davies
(2015) estimated that 1.57 kg of net corn is required to make
1 kg of PLA. Assuming a yield of 163 bushels corn/acre, they
calculate a net land use of 22,950 hectares to make 150,000 tons
of PLA at their NatureWorks plant. Extrapolating this land use
to all 300 million tons of petrochemical plastics, one arrives at
46 million hectares required to grow enough crops to replace all
conventional plastics. This would amount to about 1% of total
world agricultural land of about 4.7 billion hectares. The latter
figure includes both pasture and crop lands.
Similarly, the European Bioplastics Association (EBA, 2018) has
estimated that 2018 global bioplastic production of 2.1 million
metric tons requires 0.81 million hectares or 0.016% of world
farmland. Extrapolating this to the full 330 million metric ton
global plastic production in 2018 would require 126 million
hectares or 2.5% of agricultural land.
3.4. Other considerations/challenges
Like other industries, agriculture faces some sustainability
challenges. These include significant use of fossil fuels and pro-
duction of GHG’s, resistance of pests to chemical control agents,
weed resistance to herbicides, runoff of fertilizer, depletion of
208 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215
groundwater, loss of pollinators, air/water pollution and loss of
farmland to development (Reganold et al., 2011; Pretty, 2008).
The USDA has several research programs to address these
problems through initiatives such as integrated pest manage-
ment, rotational grazing, soil conservation, wetland conservation,
cover crops, crop diversity and nutrient management (USDA,
2018c).
4. The economic benefits of plant-based materials
4.1. Promotion of circular economy — sustainable economic benefit
Plant-based materials are beginning to be an important con-
tributor to a circular or sustainable economy (Clark et al., 2016;
Haas et al., 2015). Much of our current economy is based on a
linear model in which finite resources such as fossil fuels and
mineral resources from the earth are used to make products
which are used and then thrown away. Some products are even
made to purposely only have a short lifetime (planned obsoles-
cence) in order to accelerate the product cycle and sell more.
This obviously cannot continue forever since scarce resources will
become exhausted and GHG will cause environmental catastro-
phe. Plant-based materials in contrast are made from renewable
feedstocks. At the end of their lifetime, these materials may
biodegrade back into CO2 which can then be reassimilated by
plants or recycled back into more materials.
There are several industrial, societal and political trends that
represent challenges to the circular economy and have influenced
the competitiveness of plant-based materials or may do so in
the future. The development of oil-shale deposits by horizontal
drilling and hydraulic fracturing (fracking) has revolutionized
the oil and gas industry in U.S. (Jackson et al., 2014). The oil
industry in the U.S. had been one in decline until 2010 when
production began to increase due to fracking (EIA, 2018). This
resurgence in the abundance of oil and natural gas feedstock
led to a revitalization of the petrochemical industry in the U.S.
(Matthews, 2017) and competitive headwinds for the nascent
bio-based plastics industry. However, fracking is controversial
since there can be negative human and environmental health
consequences such as depletion of groundwater, contamination
of ground and surface water with numerous toxic chemicals used
in drilling fluids and air pollution due to release of hazardous
organic compounds and greenhouse gases (EPA, 2018e; Shonkoff
et al., 2014). Several states and numerous municipalities across
the U.S. have already banned fracking. There is little current
federal regulation of fracking since it was mostly exempted from
requirements of the Clean Water Act and Safe Drinking Water Act
as part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005.
There is also concern about the ability of our agricultural
system to provide food for a growing world population while
also providing resources for biofuels and bioproducts. Global food
demand is projected to double by 2050 due to both growing pop-
ulations and increasing per capita income and protein consump-
tion (Tilman et al., 2011). Maintaining agricultural productivity
in the face of a warming world, declining groundwater resources
and more extreme weather events is also a challenge. So far this
has not become a major problem since yields of corn and other
commodities continue to increase. Research and development
of new ways to convert agricultural byproducts such as corn
stalks and wheat straw, perennial crops like prairie grasses and
hemp and MSW into feedstocks for material production as well
as increased recycling efforts should help reduce the need to use
foods for materials.
The rise in popularity of electric vehicles made possible by
highly efficient lithium ion batteries may have an effect on bio-
based material development. Many car companies as well as
countries around the world have committed to replacing vehicles
powered by internal combustion engines with electric ones in
the future. For example, the UK and France plan to ban sales
of gas and diesel-powered vehicles by 2040, Norway by 2025,
India by 2030 and China is working on plan to ban vehicles
powered by fossil fuels (Petroff, 2017). The U.S has no federal
policy but several states have set goals. Major U.S. automakers
are, however, planning major expansion of their electric vehi-
cle offerings. Advantage of electric cars are their much higher
efficiency (3.4x) than gas powered ones and lack of emissions
(DOE, 2018a). Although coal and natural gas still provide most
of the electricity needed to charge electric vehicles, wind and
solar power have become cost competitive in many parts of the
U.S. and represent the largest source of new power generation
currently being built. As electric vehicles take over more of the
market, there may be initially more oil and gas available for
petrochemical and plastics manufacture. However, as more oil
refineries shut down, the availability of petrochemicals for plas-
tics could well decrease. This would be expected to increase the
attractiveness of bio-based alternatives.
4.2. More employment opportunities
According to a recent USDA report (Golden et al., 2018), bio-
based products are playing an increasingly Important role in the
U.S. economy, contributing to growth and job creation. Biofu-
els have been a big part of this growth. For example, ethanol
production in 2015 in the U.S. was over 14.7 billion gallons com-
pared to only 175 million in 1980. Biodiesel production reached
1.26 billion gallons in 2015 compared to 343 million in 2010.
The U.S. is also the global leader in the production of wood
pellets for renewable electricity generation and heating and ex-
ported 4.6 billion kg. The renewable chemicals and bio-based
products sector has also grown with the total number of such
products increasing to over 40,000 in 2014 from 17,000 in 2008.
The USDA estimates that the overall bio-based products industry
contributed $393 billion value added and 4.22 million jobs in
2014.
4.3. Encouragement of rural investment
Plants to convert agricultural commodities to chemicals and
fuels are usually built in rural areas to be close to farms and
thus minimize the cost of transportation of farm products to
biorefineries. Thus, many biorefineries have been built across
rural American growing areas in effect spreading the economic
benefit widely. For example, 199 ethanol plants were in operation
in 2016 (Golden et al., 2018). Growth in bio-based manufacturing
will in turn encourage rural investment in other areas such as
schools, hospitals, roads/bridges, other businesses, recreation and
high-speed internet access.
4.4. Promotion of green technology innovation
Innovations in plant-based materials have been made possible
largely through research and development of modern genetic
engineering techniques as well as green chemical methods (less
solvent use, safer more efficient catalysts, fewer byproducts, etc.)
and better understanding of structure property relationships.
 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215
5. The health benefits derived from plant-based materials
5.1. Reduce prevalence of harmful chemicals/pollutants
Most plant-based materials have low toxicity and few other
hazards since they are derived from living tissue. There are, of
course, exceptions such as certain plants making small amounts
of toxins to ward off insect attack or feeding by grazing animals.
In contrast many petroleum-based materials are toxic and/or
highly flammable and explosive under certain conditions. The
danger from petrochemicals and fuels extends from production
and processing to transport and in final use products. We all use
these products frequently and tend to forget the potential dangers
associated with them.
Drilling for and transporting oil have resulted in a number of
high-profile disasters with extensive damage to the environment
as well as worker injuries and fatalities. For instance, the BP
Deepwater Horizon platform exploded in 2010 killing 11 workers,
released 4.9 million gallons of oil and contaminated large areas
of the Gulf of Mexico. In 1989, the massive Exxon Valdez oil
spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska, fouled a thousand miles
of pristine shoreline killing hundreds of thousands of birds, fish
and animals. As mentioned above, numerous toxic chemicals such
as methanol, ethylene glycol, xylene, silica, toluene, ethylben-
zene and formaldehyde are found in fracking fluids and have
the potential to impact human health when released into the
environment through spills or leaks from surface containment or
underground injection reservoirs.
Petrochemical processing into gasoline, diesel and a variety of
organic chemicals is routinely done in a safe manner but catas-
trophic accidents do occur when errors are made or equipment
malfunctions. For example, a series of massive explosions killed
15 and injured 180 at the BP Texas City refinery in 2005. An
explosion and fire killed 7 at the Tesoro refinery in Anacortes,
Washington in 2010. At least 58 have died working at oil refiner-
ies between 2005–2015 (Malewitz et al., 2015). Car and truck
collisions which result in gas and diesel fueled fires are thankfully
uncommon but do occur with terrible burns and loss of life when
fuel tanks or lines are breached.
Many petrochemical monomers used to make polymers have
well-known toxic and/or carcinogenic properties. Such monomers
represent a potential occupational hazard for those conduct-
ing large-scale polymerization reactions in the plastics and rub-
ber industry. There is always a small amount monomer left in
commercial plastics since the polymerization reactions never go
to completion. Consumers can be exposed when they inhale
monomers which volatilize from plastic or fiber products and
when they eat food or beverages from plastic containers or bowls.
Among monomers used to make high-volume plastics, the U.S.
National Institute of Health lists styrene as reasonably anticipated
to be a human carcinogen (NIH, 2018) and the International
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) recently designated styrene
as probably carcinogenic. Acute exposure to styrene can cause
central nervous system symptoms such as headache, fatigue,
dizziness and confusion. These risks apply mainly to high lev-
els of occupational exposure to workers in the plastics indus-
try. Exposure to styrene via leaching from cutlery or cups is
thought to be too low to cause disease though there is always
some uncertainty in safe levels. Acrylonitrile, used in ABS plas-
tics and to make absorbent polymers, and acrylamide, used to
make polyacrylamide for water treatment, are both neurotoxins
and probable human carcinogens. Vinyl chloride is a well-known
carcinogen and also a CNS toxin. Vinyl chloride exposure can
occur from water from PVC pipes or toys, packaging or medi-
cal tubing made from PVC. Toluene diisocyanate (TDI), a main
component of polyurethane foams, is extremely toxic to respi-
ratory mucosa causing asthma and other breathing problems at
209
very low concentrations (>0.02 ppm). The potential outgassing of
TDI from cured PUR foams is not fully understood (EPA, 2018f).
Polyurethane foams are highly flammable and release highly toxic
hydrogen cyanide when burned. Since PUR foams are ubiquitous
in seat cushions and insulation in homes, cars and planes, fires in
these situations can create hazardous or even deadly conditions.
Bisphenol A, a monomer found in polycarbonate water bottles
and epoxy can linings, is now known to be an endocrine disrupt-
ing chemical (EDC) (Halden, 2010; Bang et al., 2012; NIH, 2018).
EDC’s mimic naturally occurring hormones and can cause harmful
effects in humans at very low doses including obesity/diabetes,
reproductive changes, breast and prostate cancer, thyroid dis-
ruption and neurodevelopmental problems (Gore et al., 2015).
In contrast, many chemical monomers used to make bio-based
plastics such as lactic acid, hydroxyalkanoic acids, succinic acid
and glucose are natural metabolites and have very low toxicity.
There are many chemicals that are added to petrochemical-
based plastics to enhance properties and these have varying
toxicities. Additives may include polymerization catalysts, plas-
ticizers, antioxidants, UV stabilizers, flame retardants, lubricants,
thermal stabilizers and pigments. The literature describing the
potential toxicity of many of these compounds is rather limited
(Halden, 2010; Hahladakis et al., 2018) Antimony trioxide, a com-
mon polymerization catalyst for PET, is a possible carcinogen and
has other toxic properties. A study of antimony leaching from PET
water bottles showed very low levels of Sb in water stored at
room temperature but levels of Sb exceeded the EPA maximum
contaminant level of 6 ppb when stored at temperatures greater
than 60 ◦ C for several days or weeks (Westerhoff et al., 2008).
Such conditions can occur, for example, when bottles are left in
cars or trucks in the sun in warm climates. Several additives act as
EDC’s including phthalate plasticizers, polybrominated diphenyl
ether flame retardants and antioxidants such as bisphenol A and
nonylphenol (Gore et al., 2015). Phthalates are used to plasticize
vinyl plastics and are found in many products such as IV bags
and tubing, food packaging and wraps, shower curtains, toys,
raincoats, flooring and pipes. The health effects of phthalates are
not fully understood.
5.2. Mitigate health burdens associated with climate change
The potential for plant-based materials to reduce GHG emis-
sions and mitigate climate change was described in Section 2.1.
The impact of climate change on health was detailed in the
Fourth National Climate Assessment recently released by the U.S.
Global Change Research Program (USGCRP, 2018). They describe
how climate change can exacerbate extreme weather events,
air quality and transmission of disease through pests, food and
water. Heat-related deaths, especially for those unable to af-
ford air conditioning and/or elderly or sick, are expected to in-
crease with rising temperatures. Continued warming will also
bring more intense drought, wildfires and smoke. Many peo-
ple died in the severe wildfires in California in 2018. Smoke
was widespread throughout California and much of the west
contributing to respiratory disease such as asthma, chronic bron-
chitis and emphysema. Rising air and water temperatures are
expected to increase the frequency of waterborne and foodborne
diseases. The range of disease-carrying insects and pests is ex-
pected to expand exposing more people to ticks that carry Lyme
and other diseases and mosquitos that spread Zika, West Nile and
dengue. Flooding due to severe hurricanes and thunderstorms
like experienced in the southeast U.S. in 2018 compounds these
problems by creating a massive breeding ground for mosquitos
and other disease vectors. Flooding can also damage businesses
handling hazardous chemicals and animal waste confinement
lagoons leading to contamination of floodwaters and drinking
210 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215
water sources. The mental health consequences of these disasters
can be severe especially for the economically disadvantaged who
may be less able to relocate or rebuild after losses of home or
livelihood. Annual loss of life due to climate change could reach
into the tens of thousands later in the century in the U.S. (US-
GCRP, 2018) and hundreds of thousands worldwide (Patz et al.,
2005). Reducing GHG emissions by switching from petroleum-
based to plant-based materials, increasing recycling rates and
adopting renewable energy (biofuels, wind, solar) could help
alleviate such dire health consequences.
5.3. Help conserve ecosystems and biodiversity
Intact ecosystems are important for conserving biodiversity as
well as human health. Services provided by functioning ecosys-
tems of the world include oxygen production by plants, clean
water, decomposition of wastes, storage of carbon, fertile soil
for crop production, pollination, flood control, recreation and a
repository of genetic information (EPA, 2018g). The value of these
services has been estimated to be $125 trillion per year or about
twice as much as global GDP (Costanza et al., 2014). Demand
for plant-based materials can help preserve forests used for lum-
ber and paper production and prairies for grazing/lignocellulosic
production where they are sustainably managed to include a
wide diversity of species. Preservation of biodiversity is important
since different species are adapted to different environmental
conditions and hence improve resiliency towards change. Al-
though biodiversity tends to be low in U.S. row crop areas due to
the small number of major crops, there is an abundant production
of commodities for food, feed and fuel use.
6. Known specific product applications for plant-based mate-
rials
6.1. Packaging
Packaging is the largest application area for plant-based plas-
tics (see Table 7) and paper products. Specific product applica-
tions are listed in Appendix. Nearly all commercial products
now sold contain or are packaged in plastic or paper so this is a
huge and growing market. The increased popularity of internet
shopping and home/business delivery, in particular, has led to
increased demand for cardboard boxes, paper and starch foam
cushioning, and clear PLA plastic wraps. Trash and compost bags
are made from biodegradable polyesters such as PBAT, PBS, PHA’s
and blends of starch with these. Take-out food containers, plates
and clamshells are increasingly made from compressed plant
fibers or PLA, clear or foamed. Flexible wrapping for meats is often
made from coated paper or cellophane.
6.2. Textiles and fibers
There are a wide variety of plant-based fibers, both natural and
synthetic. Sources of natural fibers used commercially include
cotton, hemp, jute, bamboo, flax, kenaf, sisal and milkweed. Syn-
thetics include polyesters such as PLA, bio-PET, and PTT as well
as bio-nylons. Common applications include clothing, carpeting,
rope and stuffing for pillows, upholstery and mattresses. Hemp
farming in the U.S. was recently authorized in the new farm bill
(Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018). It has been cultivated for
thousands of years, has many uses such as food, feed, textiles,
paint, insulation and biofuels and should be a boon to both
farmers and consumers.
6.3. Personal care products
Numerous personal care products are made using plant-based
components. Cellulose fibers from plants are used for absorbency
in toilet paper, tissues, towels, incontinence pads, diapers, tam-
pons and many others. Plant oils such as coconut, palm, corn and
soy are used to make fatty acid soaps for personal washing as well
as lotions, shampoos, cosmetics, perfumes, etc.
Plants are also a big source of food additives such as omega-3
fatty acids and other nutritional supplements. Bio-PE is beginning
to be used to make bags and bottles to package these products.
6.4. Engineering plastics
Engineering plastics are those that have exceptional mechan-
ical, thermal, abrasion or chemical resistance properties. Appli-
cations typically involve high stress or harsh conditions. Exam-
ples include nylon skis/boots, gears and gasoline tubing, ABS
car bumpers and dashboard trim and polycarbonate window
panes and crash helmets. Some types of nylons have long been
made from vegetable oils while other nylon precursors are being
targeted by biotechnology companies. High heat and impact resis-
tant PLA blends are now commercially available that can compete
in properties with ABS.
6.5. Household cleaners
A variety of green, plant-based cleaners are available com-
mercially at most grocery and drug stores. One can also take the
simple approach and make your own green cleaners from ingre-
dients like vinegar (acetic acid), baking soda (sodium carbonate),
and orange or pine extracts such as limonene. Relatively safe,
bio-based solvents such as ethanol, propanol, acetone and ethyl
lactate can replace more hazardous petroleum-based ones.
6.6. Construction/building materials
Lignocellulosic products are used extensively in the construc-
tion industry including lumber framing and flooring, plywood
and oriented strand board panels for walls and roofing and com-
pressed fiber board for cabinetry. A recent trend is to laminate
many pieces of wood together from smaller trees to form large
beams rather than cut down scarce old growth trees. Cellulose bat
is used for insulation in walls and ceilings. Concrete/wood fiber
composite siding is long-lasting, fire resistant and low mainte-
nance.
6.7. Electronic components
Bio-based plastics such as PLA and PHA’s are beginning to be
used in computer and cell phone housings and packaging.
6.8. Binders
Many plant-based polymers can act as binders or adhesives.
Probably the most popular choices are native and modified
starches since they are non-toxic, water-dispersible and inexpen-
sive.
Starches serve as adhesives in many commercial products such
as paper, cardboard, ceiling tile, fiberglass insulation, charcoal
briquettes, pharmaceutical tablets. Bio-based epoxy resins are
beginning to be used for more demanding applications.
 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215 211

Table A.1

Product Material Manufacturer

Packaging, food service
Paper straw Wood cellulose Aardvark

Food containers: bowls,
clamshells, boxes, trays, plates
Compressed sugarcane
bagasse, bamboo, wheat
straw
Eco-products Inc., Blackswamp Trading Co.,
Excellent Packaging & Supply, Green is Green
Inc., EarthSmart Products LLC, EATware Inc.,
World Centric, Go-Green, Vegware, Natures
Solutions LLC, BioSelect Inc., Hoffmaster Group,
Dart, Eco-Products Inc., Frabri-Kal Co.,
Team Three Group, Pactiv

Salad bowl, deli container,
clamshell, cup, sushi tray, herb
tray, berry box
PLA Eco-products, Brenmar Co., Excellent Packaging
& Supply, Green is Green, Inc., Cool Pak, CM
Packaging, Natura Packaging, Lollicup USA,
Vegware, BSI Biodegradable Solutions, Solo
Cup, Bioselect, Hoffmaster, Dart, Grow
Plastics

Wrapping for deli, bakery Kraft paper coated Brenmar Co.

items, sandwiches, coffee with soy wax

Cups for hot drinks Paper coated with Soga, Huhtamaki, Dart
PLA

Film, bottles, coated paper, Bio-PE Small Planet Foods, Source

zipper bags Atlantique, Ecomass

Rigid film for thermoforming, PLA Klockner Pentaplast, BI-AX International,

flexible film A-ROO, Griff &
for packaging Associates, Univenture, Earth First

Sealable films for packaging Cellophane coated Futamura, Clear Lam Packaging
vegetables, bakery, cheeses

Trash bags, shopping bags Mater-Bi Excellent Packaging & Supply, Biome
(starch/polyester) Living, Green Depot

Compostable utensils (high Crystallized PLA, starch Green Home, Northern Technologies
heat) blends International, Vegware, MrTakeOutBags,
Simpack, DHgate,
Hoffmaster

Beverage, condiment Bio-PET Coca-Cola, Heinz

bottles

Bags for snacks PHA laminate Pepsico/Danimer Scientfic

Textiles/fibers
Clothing PTT (SoronaTM ) Dupont

Fiber, fabric Cotton, hemp, kenaf Barnhardt, Cotton Inc., Enviro-textiles

Regenerated cellulose yarn Wood pulp Lenzing AG, Eastman, Grasim,

Daiwabo Rayon

Pulp for paper, towels, Wheat straw Sustainable Fiber Technologies

tissues

Geotextiles, erosion control Jute, coconut fiber, wheat Western Excelsior, ABG Ltd., Peaceful Valley
mats straw Farm Supply, Enviroscape ECM, Boom
Environmental Products, Belton Industries, East
Coast Erosion
Blankets, RoLanka, American Excelsior

Towels, blankets, linens Hemp, flax, cotton, bamboo Biome Living, All Eco Natural and Organic
Living, EcoPlanet, HD Supply,
EnviroTextiles

Pillow, mattress filling PLA fiber Costco

Clothing, bedding, PLA fiber NatureWorks

non-woven wipes
Automotive
Carpet for car interiors, Bio-PET, PLA blends Toyota, Ford
headliners, floor mats

Greases, lubricants Fatty acid esters Cargill

Fuel lines, gears Bio-polyamide Fiat, Dupont, Arkema

(continued on next page)

212 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215

Table A.1 (continued).

Product Material Manufacturer
Exterior coating, interior parts PEIT Mazda/Mitsubishi
(polyethylene-co-iso sorbide
terephthalate)

Seat cushion foam Soy-based Ford, John Deere

polyurethane

Air filter Bio-polyamide Daimler/BASF

Plant fiber reinforced Flax, hemp, sisal, Daimler, Ford, GM

plastic panels kenaf

Tires Bio-isoprene Goodyear

Consumer goods
Toy packaging Bio-PET Hasbro

Toys Bio-PE LEGO

Lamps Bio-polyamide Industrial Facility

Toothbrushes Bio-polyamide for bristles, Biobrush, Tepe

unnamed
bioplastic for handle

Furniture Bio-PP IKEA/Neste

Packaging for cosmetics Bio-PE Proctor & Gamble, Johnson & Johnson

shoes Bio-polyurethane Nike

Agriculture
Plant fiber planting pots Coconut husk, rice hulls, many
cow manure,
binder

Mulch film PLA/PBAT BASF

Mulch film Starch/PBAT Novamont

Coatings/Adhesives
Roofing adhesive/coating Bio-polyurethane Tremco
Epoxy adhesive, resin Bio-epoxy Green Room Board, Gougeon
Brothers, Sicomin
Architectural coatings Bio-alkyd latex Reichhold
Construction
Insulation Fiberglass with Owens Corning/Cargill
starch binder
Carpeting PTT (SoronaTM ) Dupont
Structural insulated panels Wheat straw, jute Stramit USA, Nova Advanced
Composite Solutions
Concrete/fiber panels hemp Lime Technology
Electrical/Electronics
Transformer fluid Fatty acid esters Cargill
Computer, cellphone PLA Total/Corbion
housings
iPhone xs, xr frame Bio-polyamides? Apple/Arkema
Computer, cell phones PHA’s Dell, Sprint

Information from www.biopreferred.gov and company websites.

6.9. Foams
Starch-based foam packing peanuts and foam sheet for cush-
ioning products during transport have been commercially avail-
able for decades. Foamed PLA cups and plates are being developed
to replace expanded polystyrene. Bio-based polyurethane foams
are being used in insulation and cushioning applications.
6.10. Lubricants/waxes
Use of native and modified vegetable oils as lubricants has a
long history predating the modern petroleum era. Adoption of
these has progressed widely in Europe as a result of stricter reg-
ulations on petroleum products. Applications include hydraulic
fluids, greases, energy transfer fluids, transformer coolants, and
chain saw oils. Leaks to the environment often occur so
biodegradability and low toxicity of vegetable oil lubricants is
desirable. Development of high oleic seed oils have contributed
to oxidative stability and improved performance. Other areas of
application include heat-bodied oils for printing inks and fully
hydrogenated oils as waxes for candles.
6.11. Paints/coatings
A variety of plant-based materials are used in coating appli-
cations. Native highly unsaturated oils such as linseed and tung
are used alone or in combination with synthetic resins (alkyd)
to form thermosetting coatings. Cellulose ethers are widely used
and binders and thickeners in water-based latex paints. Bio-based
polyurethane and epoxy resins are also used for durable coatings.
 R. Shogren, D. Wood, W. Orts et al. / Sustainable Production and Consumption 19 (2019) 194–215
Plant-based solvents and pigments are also beginning to be used
in paints.
6.12. Rubber
Natural rubber is isolated from trees and well as plants such
as the well-known dandelion and the desert shrub guayule. It is
used in many applications including tires, hoses, boots, conveyer
belts, rollers, shock absorption, tubing, gloves and raincoats.
7. Conclusions
Our current reliance on petroleum and natural gas for the
great majority of our energy and materials needs is unsustainable
because they will be exhausted at some point in the future and
even before then the resulting emissions of greenhouse gases
will likely cause severe disruption in natural processes and hu-
man health/economies. The toxic and highly flammable nature
of many of these materials along with their accumulation in the
environment is also cause for concern. In contrast, plant-based
polymers and chemicals are sustainable and can contribute to
a circular economy since they can be composted or burned to
carbon dioxide which then can be reassimilated by plants. They
also generally have low toxicity and can be recycled in their poly-
meric form or hydrolyzed to their component monomers for re-
assembly into biopolymers. Some plant-based polymers are non-
degradable drop-in replacements for current commodity plastics
such as nylons, bio-polyurethanes, bio-PE and bio-PET. Newer
plant-based polymers such as PEF and PEIT offer the promise
of improved properties through novel chemistries and biotech-
nology. Biopolymers like cellulose and to a lesser extent starch
are used extensively to make paper, cardboard, foam cushioning
for packaging, plates, clamshells and cups. Although plant-based
plastics currently amount to less than 1% of the total, produc-
tion of many of these, especially PHA’s and PLA, are expected
to grow rapidly due to improvements in physical and thermal
properties that are now similar to commodity petroleum-based
plastics. Costs of PHA and PLA are still somewhat higher than
commodity plastics but are declining due to improved process
efficiencies and use of inexpensive plant byproducts and wastes
as feedstock. As costs approach those of petroleum-based plas-
tics and public awareness of the hazards of poor plastics waste
management grows, plant-based materials have the potential to
take over much of the plastics market. Research and innovation
in plant-based materials has led to the introduction of a myriad of
new products and jobs. Support from government, industry and
consumers can help speed the transition to a bio-based circular
economy.
Appendix. Examples of specific applications for plant-based
materials
See Table A.1.
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