School Psychology

© 2019 American Psychological Association 2019, Vol. 34, No. 4, 458 – 467
2578-4218/19/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/spq0000289

The Parent Role in School-Based Teams for Adolescents With Autism

Spectrum Disorder
Kristin M. Rispoli, Gloria K. Lee, Emma W. Nathanson, and Allura L. Malcolm
Michigan State University

For youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and their families, adolescence presents unique
challenges that require parents work closely with school teams. Both parent involvement in education and
family school partnerships are associated with positive student outcomes. However, research character-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

izing parents’ role in working with school-based teams across the middle and high school years for youth
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

with ASD is limited. The present study presents qualitative data illustrating the perspectives of 23 parents
of students with ASD regarding their experiences working with middle and high school teams. Partic-
ipants completed semistructured interviews, which were analyzed using interpretative phenomenological
analysis. Six themes were reflected in the experiences and perspectives of parents, including collabora-
tion/partnership, advocacy, relationships, parental background, expectations, and impact on the parent.
Results indicated variability in the nature and impact of parents’ experiences and a need for intentional
formation of meaningful partnerships between educators and families that honor the unique needs and
strengths of youth and maximize team effectiveness.

Impact and Implications

Parents of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder were interviewed about their role in partici-
pating on school teams to support youth school functioning and preparation for adulthood. Resulting
themes indicated parents valued collaboration with school providers, were influenced by their own
backgrounds, and were personally impacted. Results can inform educators’ efforts to efficiently and
effectively engage parents in school teams for middle and high school students with autism spectrum
disorder.

Keywords: autism, adolescents, parents, middle school, high school

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental dis-
order affecting one in 59 children (Baio et al., 2018) characterized
by persistent difficulties in social communication and interaction
as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests or
activities that present in the child’s early years and persist, result-
ing in significant impairments in functioning (American Psychiat-
ric Association, 2013). The past 20 years have seen gradually
increasing rates of ASD diagnoses and slow but steady improve-
ments in the availability of early intervention services (Boyd,
Odom, Humphreys, & Sam, 2010; Matson & Kozlowski, 2011).
Still, services to support students with ASD as they reach and
progress through adolescence are scant, scattered, and difficult to
implement in a systematic fashion (Kucharczyk et al., 2015).
Parents play a vital role in the education of students with ASD. The
parent role in school-based teams for adolescents with ASD is not
Kristin M. Rispoli, Gloria K. Lee, Emma W. Nathanson, and Allura L.
Malcolm, Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology and Special
Education, Michigan State University.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kristin
M. Rispoli, Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology and Spe-
cial Education, Michigan State University, 620 Farm Lane, 441 Erickson
Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824. E-mail: rispolik@msu.edu
458
well-understood; much of the research on parent engagement in
ASD focuses on younger children (Burrell & Borrego, 2012). This
study sought to describe the perspectives of parents of middle and
high school youth regarding their interactions with school teams.
Adolescence introduces a host of potential challenges for youth
with ASD, including the transition to middle and high school,
greater expectations for independence, an increasingly peer-focused
social landscape, and preparation for postsecondary employment
and education (Hume, 2014). Youth with ASD often lack formal
and informal social support and experience restricted social net-
works, which pose challenges for them to integrate with peers and
the school environment following the transition to middle and high
school (van Asselt-Goverts, Embregts, Hendriks, Wegman, &
Teunisse, 2015). Dillon and Underwood (2012) investigated pa-
rental perspectives of their children’s experience and preparedness
from primary to secondary school and noted that the establishment
of friendship groups and peer acceptance were key for successful
school outcomes. Social isolation and conflict are associated with
substantial negative impacts on the self-esteem, mental health and
academic progress of students with ASD (e.g., Wainscot, Naylor,
Sutcliffe, Tantam, & Williams, 2008). Additionally, youth with
ASD commonly struggle with establishing independence in daily
tasks at home (e.g., making meals, keeping one’s room clean) and
at school (e.g., tracking assignments posted to a class website) that
 PARENT ROLE IN SCHOOL TEAMS FOR ASD
are expected by parents and teachers in the adolescent years
(Hume, Boyd, Hamm, & Kucharczyk, 2014).
Unfortunately, difficulties faced in the middle and high school
grades often give way to negative outcomes for these youth fol-
lowing high school completion. Nationally representative esti-
mates indicate that up to half of young adults with ASD do not
participate in postsecondary employment or education (Shattuck et
al., 2012). Many experience more difficulty finding and sustaining
employment than typically developing peers (Hendricks, 2010)
and are more likely to live under supervision or with their families
than live independently (Anderson, Shattuck, Cooper, Roux, &
Wagner, 2014). Results of one study of 430 students with ASD
found that parents’ level of expectations regarding students’ atten-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
dance at a postsecondary institution was significantly related to the
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
students’ participation in postsecondary education. When control-
ling for factors including the school’s goal for the student, high
school type, family income, and the student’s high school aca-
demic performance, odds of the student attending postsecondary
education increased by 277% when the parent expected that that
child would do so following high school graduation (Chiang,
Cheung, Hickson, Xiang, & Tsai, 2012). Parents appear to be
crucial to the long-term success of youth with ASD as they prepare
for adulthood.
Concerns about ineffective communication between school and
home and limited understanding of ASD among school profes-
sionals have been raised by parents of youth as they enter second-
ary school and throughout the secondary school experience (Dillon
& Underwood, 2012: Kucharczyk et al., 2015). Moreover, while
school-based teaming has been used to support students with
academic and behavioral needs for nearly 50 years, little is known
about how to promote efficient and effective team processes
(Rosenfield, Newell, Zwolski, & Benishek, 2018). Increased
knowledge of the parent role in school-based teams for youth with
ASD can help school practitioners understand how to better en-
gage parents and promote successful youth outcomes. Both parent
involvement in education and family school partnerships are con-
nected to improved student outcomes. Parent involvement refers to
activities that parents pursue in support of their children’s educa-
tion, such as volunteering at school events, attending school meet-
ings, helping with homework, and seeking information to help plan
for their children’s postsecondary work and/or education experi-
ences (Fan & Chen, 2001; Griffin, McMillan, & Hodapp, 2010).
Parent involvement has been widely studied in the general educa-
tion population and has positive effects on student academic
achievement (Fan & Chen, 2001; Hill & Tyson, 2009).
Recent research has examined parent involvement in education
for parents of younger children with ASD. In a longitudinal sample
of 31 children with ASD and their families from early education to
elementary school, parent involvement in education at the elemen-
tary level was predicted by satisfaction with early childhood ser-
vices, school communication, and how much information was
provided to parents about ASD (Garbacz, McIntyre, & Santiago,
2016). Furthermore, in a nationally representative sample of 142
children with ASD in Grades K–12, Zablotsky, Boswell, and
Smith (2012) found that parents of children with ASD were more
likely to be involved in school (i.e., attending parent-teacher con-
ferences, meeting with child’s guidance counselor, and assisting
with homework) than parents of children who did not have ASD.
However, while parent involvement was related to school satis-
459
faction for parents of other children, it was not for parents of
children with ASD.
Family school partnerships differ from parent involvement in
that they focus on fostering collaborative relationships between
families and school providers. Mutually engaged interactions and
communication occur between families and schools to support
student outcomes (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001; Sheridan &
Kim, 2015). Considerable research supports the connection be-
tween family school partnerships and students’ achievement (May-
nard, Kjellstrand, & Thompson, 2014) school engagement (Chris-
tenson, 2004), and social-emotional and behavioral skills (Sheridan,
Bovaird, Glover, Garbacz, & Witte, 2012). These models have
seldom been studied with youth with ASD, though studies with
young children with ASD employing family school partnership
interventions resulted in improved child behavior, mother– child,
and teacher– child interactions (e.g., Blair, Lee, Cho, & Dunlap,
2011; Garbacz & McIntyre, 2016). Family school partnering and
parent involvement in the middle and high school grades likely
differ from better-understood practices in elementary and early
childhood schools (Kyzar & Jimerson, 2018).
The Current Study
Given data suggesting poorer school experiences and postsec-
ondary outcomes for many adolescents with ASD (e.g., Hume et
al., 2014; Shattuck et al., 2012), research to inform improvements
in the process of engaging parents in school-based teams is needed
to foster improved student outcomes (Kyzar & Jimerson, 2018).
Though parent involvement and family school partnerships are
widely accepted as integral to students’ school success, little is
understood about how parents are involved and/or partnered with
schools for youth with ASD. Previous work (Blair et al., 2011;
Garbacz et al., 2016; Zablotsky et al., 2012) introduced important
findings that demonstrate the importance of parent involvement
and family school partnerships in education for children with
ASD; however, these studies did not focus on adolescent youth.
The purpose of this study was to conduct a qualitative investi-
gation of the parent role in school-based teams for adolescents with
ASD using parents’ unique perspectives. We examined whether there
was evidence that parents perceived their role(s) as consistent with
definitions of involvement and/or family school partnerships re-
flected in the literature (Christenson & Sheridan, 2001; Fan &
Chen, 2001). Use of a qualitative approach allowed us to circum-
vent the well-documented variation in definitions of parent in-
volvement and family school partnerships (Anderson & Minke,
2007; Ferlazzo & Hammond, 2009), as findings were not bound by
finite measures but rather the authentic examination of the parent
voice in describing these phenomena.
Method
Participants
The study included 23 parents of adolescents who received a
medical diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder and/or qualified for
special education services under the eligibility category of autism.
Adolescents were mostly male (74%; 17% female; 8% gender not
reported) and enrolled in Grades 6 –12 in public schools in a
Midwestern state. Most (n ⫽ 14) were on track to earn a traditional
 460 RISPOLI, LEE, NATHANSON, AND MALCOLM
high school diploma, five were working toward a certificate of
high school completion (indicating completion of an alternative
curriculum not meeting graduation standards in the state), and one
completed high school early via homeschooling. This information
was not reported for the remaining three adolescents. Additional
demographic information was provided by all but two of the parents.
Parents were mostly female and ranged in age from 37 to 63 years
(M ⫽ 47). Most parents were married (n ⫽ 16); three were divorced,
and two were single or widowed. Parent race/ethnicity was reported as
White (n ⫽ 17), Hispanic (n ⫽ 2), Black (n ⫽ 2), or multiracial (n ⫽
1). Median family income was $50,001–$75,000 per year. Parents
described adolescents’ race/ethnicity as White (n ⫽ 16), Hispanic
(n ⫽ 3), or Black (n ⫽ 2).
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
Researchers
The research team included two doctoral-level researchers with
expertise in ASD, families, and postsecondary transition services
(Kristin M. Rispoli and Gloria K. Lee). Kristin M. Rispoli is a
licensed clinical psychologist and certified school psychologist
with 10⫹ years’ experience providing assessment, consultation
and treatment to individuals with ASD and their families. Gloria
K. Lee is a provisional licensed psychologist and certified reha-
bilitation counselor with over 10 years of experience working with
families, as well as young children and young adults with ASD in
parent management training and social skills training. These re-
searchers conducted interviews and analyzed data for the study.
Interviews were also conducted by three doctoral students in
school psychology or rehabilitation counseling that were trained in
interviewing techniques and supervised by Kristin M. Rispoli and
Gloria K. Lee. All students had knowledge of ASD through
coursework and research experiences.
Procedure
The study was approved by the university’s Institutional Review
Board. The researchers shared information about the study with
special education staff in the local intermediate school district
(ISD), who in turn distributed informational fliers to parents whose
adolescents were enrolled in the districts being served by the ISD.
In addition, the researchers posted the electronic flyer to several
local parent support groups and organizations, and parents who
were interested in participating contacted Kristin M. Rispoli and
Gloria K. Lee via e-mail. All interviews were conducted face-to-
face in parents’ homes or in a private lab space at the university,
depending on the parent’s preference. Parents were provided with
an informational sheet explaining the purpose and requirements of
participation and were told that participation in the interview
implied their consent for participation. Audio recordings from all
interviews were transcribed verbatim.
Data for the current study were drawn from comprehensive
interviews focused on parental role in education and other treat-
ment services, expectations, resources, and family impact for fam-
ilies of youth identified as students with autism in school settings.
A semistructured interview guide was used to conduct interviews
(available from Kristin M. Rispoli upon request). For the current
study, parents responded to questions regarding (a) their role with
educators and other school personnel, (b) how their role(s) affected
them in various aspects of their lives, and (c) how their expecta-
tions for their children affected their interactions with educators
and other school personnel. On average, interviews lasted 60 min.
Data Analysis
Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was used to
identify themes within the data that reflected participants’ lived
experiences (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). The analytic pro-
cess in IPA focuses less on previous theory or hypothesis, but
rather on understanding how an individual applies meaning to their
experiences (Smith, 2017). First, each transcript was closely read
by a researcher (Kristin M. Rispoli or Gloria K. Lee). Second, the
transcript was reread while initial notes were recorded about
salient elements of the participant’s experience (e.g., relationships,
processes, places, principles). Third, these notes and the transcript
were simultaneously reviewed to identify emergent themes reflec-
tive of connections, patterns, and relationships in the data. Fourth,
emergent themes were categorized for each participant to identify
an underlying structure that demonstrated the most salient and
interesting elements of each participant’s account. These initial
four steps were repeated for all 23 participants. Next, the research-
ers compiled all themes for each participant and investigated
patterns across cases. This process continued until the researchers
reached consensus on all patterns reflected in the data. The overall
meaning from these patterns was used to derive labels for super-
ordinate themes. The researchers then returned to the individual
transcripts to confirm consistency between emergent and superordi-
nate themes, and to identify quotations to support each theme
(Smith et al., 2009).
The focus in IPA stresses the need for close examination of
individual cases and importance of reflecting individual voices in
the final presentation of results (Smith, 2017). Consistent with
recommendations by Smith (2017), results of the study are pre-
sented to highlight individual experiences of participants and re-
flect both convergence and divergence from the superordinate
themes identified in the data. A number was assigned to each
participant to ensure confidentiality.
An independent researcher reviewed the emergent themes iden-
tified for a random selection of 30% of the participants. A total of
61 emergent themes were categorized into the superordinate themes
to determine consistency with the decisions made by the other
researchers. Interrater reliability was “substantial” (␬ ⫽ .74; Lan-
dis & Koch, 1977).
Results
Six superordinate themes were reflected in the experiences and
perspectives of parents interviewed for the study regarding their
role and interaction with school providers: (a) collaboration/part-
nership, (b) relationships, (c) advocacy, (d) parental background,
(e) expectations, and (f) impact on the parent. Emergent themes
that occurred within each superordinate theme are displayed in
Table 1.
Theme 1: Collaboration/Partnership
Many parents suggested, citing both positive and negative ex-
periences, that they expected their interactions with educators and
 PARENT ROLE IN SCHOOL TEAMS FOR ASD 461

Table 1
Superordinate and Emerging Themes From Parent Interviews

Superordinate theme Emergent theme n %

1. Collaboration/partnership Noted need for strong communication between parents and school. 6 26
Believed school did not understand the needs of their adolescent with ASD. 6 26
Described interactions with school team as collaborative and/or a partnership. 4 17
Felt a better sense of collaboration with outside providers/private school educators. 2 9
2. Advocacy Parent views self as advocate for child. 21 91
Notes sense of intimidation/demandingness that is part of advocacy at times. 6 26
Parent expresses sense of expertise/wisdom regarding child. 4 17
Mentions efforts to facilitate/focus on child’s self-advocacy. 3 13
3. Relationships Need for bidirectionality in relationships with school providers. 9 39
Importance of feeling heard by school providers. 8 35
Relationships are weaker with high school staff compared to earlier grades. 3 13
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Benefits to viewing issues through teachers’ eyes; sympathy for demands placed on teachers/systemic 4 17
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

barriers to obtaining ideal services for child.

4. Parental background Parent indicated former or current employment as an educator as mechanism shaping role. 6 26
Noted a sense of holding multiple roles. 3 13
5. Impact on parent Emotional impact on parents resulting from involvement with schools/other service providers. 16 69
Emotional impact on parents resulting from challenges from systems and resources. 8 34
Overall impact on parents resulting from child’s ASD. 14 60
6. Expectations Reciprocal relationship between expectations and parent role with providers mediated by motivation. 17 74
Note. ASD ⫽ autism spectrum disorder.

other treatment providers be consistent with a collaboration or
partnership approach.
Communication and understanding between parents and
school. Notably, the emergent themes reflected by the greatest
number of parents (26%, n ⫽ 6) both suggest a focus on commu-
nication: The first indicates parents’ awareness of the need for
strong communication between parents and school, while the sec-
ond reflects parents’ belief that school providers did not under-
stand the needs of their adolescents. Six parents noted that con-
sistent, open communication between parents and educators is
necessary for building successful partnerships. Some parents rec-
ognized the need to reach out and share information with the
school about their adolescents, while others noted a bidirectional
aspect to this communication. Parent 9 noted the need for teachers
and parents to educate one another:
I think you have to have a working relationship. We turned out having
a very good relationship but I think that educators have to understand
that we’re with this kid 24/7. And we do know that we do not know
everything, but we can offer a lot of information that might make it
easier for both of them.
Sense of collaboration with the school team. Although par-
ents are aware of and value the expert knowledge of school
providers, many would like to be considered experts on their
children and valuable partners that contribute toward shared goals
and successful outcomes. Consistent with messages about strong
communication between parents and school providers, four parents
described a sense of collaboration or partnership between them-
selves and their adolescents’ school teams. Notably, Parent 13
noted that participating in typical school involvement activities
allowed her to forge partnerships with her child’s teachers:
I think I see myself as an integral part of his team. And I would say
95% of the time the staff that [child] has had supporting him have
always made me feel as part of the team. There are times when I have
to remind them that I’m part of the team. It’s not major things that
are affecting him but it’s like “We need to know this because there are
some things that he does with routine and needs to know if there’s a
change.” . . . Part of what I do to be able to stay connected is I’m on
the PTO and have been since first grade. And then also volunteering
at school, either helping teachers or helping the staff in the office. Just
to keep that connection.
Lack of school understanding. For other parents, a desire to
serve as an active member of the school team was conveyed in the
disappointment that their adolescents’ school teams did not under-
stand their needs. These parents often described their efforts to
rectify this situation. Two parents noted their intentional efforts to
reach out and share information with the school to combat any
misunderstanding. These parents collectively conveyed the mes-
sage that the lack of understanding may lead to negative interac-
tions and necessitate extra efforts to reach out to the school team.
Parent 10 noted:
Last year I said to all of his teachers at conferences “You know that
[child] has a 504 plan and you’ve read it, right?” . . . I cannot expect
every teacher to know the ins and outs of every single disorder that
kids may have.
Theme 2: Relationships
The superordinate theme of relationships is presented separate
from collaboration/partnership, as the latter conveyed a sense of
active effort for all parties in the context of parent–school inter-
actions, while the former described parents’ sense of connection to
school or other providers. Overall, parental responses conveyed
the message that the family school relationship is imperative to
positive school experiences for youth. Parents emphasized that
both parties need to work to build the relationship. More impor-
tantly, responses suggested a positive relationship is necessary to
make collaboration more efficient even in instances when parents
feel more confident being guided by the school.
 462 RISPOLI, LEE, NATHANSON, AND MALCOLM
Need for bidirectional relationships. Many parents men-
tioned relationships with teachers as being central to their role. For
nine parents (39%), a sense of bidirectionality was conveyed in
their response, such as the importance of sharing and incorporating
perspectives. Several parents (35%, n ⫽ 8) also remarked on the
importance of feeling heard and/or supported by teachers and
school staff, which appeared to relate to a sense of positive
relationships with these providers. As was noted by Parent 18 “To
know that you’re not alone and to know that there’s experts out
there and they’ll help guide you through . . . that helps.” Another
parent (6) described a sense of reassurance that she could rely on
educators to support her son even if she was feeling overwhelmed:
“If I am too emotionally exhausted let them know, ‘Hey I need a
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
break, I’m taking a break,’ . . . I know they are still going to be
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
there for my son.” This parent also noted that adjusting her
perspective allowed her to maintain a sense of optimism rather
than frustration if she sensed members of her son’s team were
criticizing her:
After a while I just had to look at it as they are on the outside doing
their job and they only can see what they can see. They haven’t been
on the inside, they cannot get any further on the inside as far as our
experiences, our emotions and the things that we’ve been through.
Establishing relationships. For some parents, great impor-
tance was placed on being proactive about establishing relation-
ships. Still others assumed a reactive or dependent role. For
instance, Parent 18 noted the contentment felt by knowing that the
school was guiding the family through the child’s educational
experience and providing the resources necessary for the child’s
education. Perhaps in reaction to frustration experienced in estab-
lishing relationships, a portion of parents (17%, n ⫽ 4) reflected on
their efforts to consider teachers’ perspectives, access to resources,
and administrative support (or lack thereof) when building and
maintaining relationships. Parent 17 stated:
I try not to think in terms of us versus them. I prefer to assume it’s
benevolent ignorance—they want what’s best for him but they do not
really know what’s best for him and they’re kind of clueless about
carrying it out. That’s why I think there’s been a lot of missed
opportunities.
Notably, some parents (13%, n ⫽ 3) indicated a sense that
relationships were more difficult to build in the later grades com-
pared to earlier in their children’s education. These differences
were attributed to having fewer resources for students with ASD
working toward a typical diploma (vs. an adapted curriculum) at
the high school level and a sense that communication was more
limited as children moved through the higher grades.
Theme 3: Advocacy
Parent responses often mentioned advocacy and suggested that
parents felt obligated to serve as advocates for youth. Notably,
responses conveyed an undertone that parents often did not feel
they were being listened to, which in some cases resulted in them
exerting a “fighter’s stance” to push for services. Nearly all parents
(91%, n ⫽ 21) described themselves as advocates for youth. For
instance, Parent 20 indicated she met with teachers over the
summer months to recommend the teachers that she thought would
be best for her child in the upcoming year. Parent 1 reflected a
sense of personal responsibility for advocating for her child’s
needs as well as recognition that her personal circumstances al-
lowed her to be more engaged in her child’s education than other
parents with different circumstances:
But there are the teachers that do get frustrated, and that’s where it’s
like parents really need to know and just try to stay as invested as
possible during the school times, because if your kid doesn’t have a
voice . . . if you’re not there to be their voice, your kid is going to fall
through the cracks, and I thank God that I can be there all the time for
him and be there for anything, and I just hate for parents that cannot.
Still, other parents indicated a sense of ambiguity over the
degree to which they should advocate. Parent 14, for example,
stated:
I have this very big question mark about what’s our role and are we
effectively engaging in that role? And it’s not even anything that team
has said, but for me it’s, is he getting enough opportunity and training
for work?
Demandingness as part of advocacy. For some parents (26%,
n ⫽ 6), serving as advocates for their adolescents meant needing to
engage in demanding or intimidating behaviors at times. For
instance, Parent 5 recognized that school team members may view
her as intimidating or a “helicopter mom” at times. Parent 16
mentioned the need to correct or confront professionals about the
need for appropriate services for her son. Parent 20 noted that she
was not afraid to push when her son’s needs were not being met:
There’s been years when we started school, I contacted the school
board, we still do not have a schedule, I need them to walk the
hallways to know where he’s going and they’re like “Well, no one’s
here yet.” . . . We need to know where he’s going or you’re going to
have a meltdown and then, I’m going to have a meltdown because I
do not think we are asking for too much.
Another, Parent 17, noted the need to be intimidating at times
with the school team, adding “I don’t honestly feel like there’s any
services he’s ever received that hasn’t been initiated by me. Me
bringing in outside resources.”
Parent as expert. In addition to the high number of parents
who described themselves as advocates, a smaller percentage
(17%, n ⫽ 4) indicated that they viewed themselves as “experts”
on their children or possessing “wisdom” learned over the years
about youth’s unique needs and how these needs are best served in
the school system.
Focus on children’s self-advocacy. A surprisingly low per-
centage (13%, n ⫽ 3) of parents noted efforts to encourage
self-advocacy among youth. Parent 12 noted a need to “respect the
child’s space and facilitate taking responsibilities.” Self-advocacy
appeared to have different meanings for parents; for instance,
Parent 4 defined self-advocacy as her son telling the teacher his
needs, identifying resources, and attending IEP meetings, while
some parents did not define self-advocacy or defined it more simply,
such as “giving the child room to communicate” (Parent 12).
Theme 4: Parental Background
A fourth theme that emerged was the notion that parents’ own
background helped shape, and in some cases defined their role on
school teams.
 PARENT ROLE IN SCHOOL TEAMS FOR ASD
Background as educators. In several instances (26%, n ⫽ 6)
the parent noted that she or he was an educator and used their
expertise in education and/or special education to drive their
actions toward working with school professionals and engagement
in educational decision making for their child. For some parents,
this background was helpful, such as providing knowledge to
homeschool, and knowing about educational resources. Another
parent who did not have a degree in education noted a professional
and personal interest in education which fueled his involvement.
Additionally, Parent 15 described her personality as “team-oriented”
which she believed supported her ability to collaborate with school-
based professionals working with her child. Still, others indicated an
ambivalent view. For instance, another mother noted that she used her
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
background in education to deliver an in-service to teachers focused
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
on her child’s needs, but also felt her background contributed to
heightened frustration when she did not agree with teacher practices.
Multiple roles. For some parents, reflecting on their role with
educators led to discussions of holding multiple roles. Parent 6
noted that she saw herself as her child’s mother and teacher, but
“ultimately I am his mother and I cannot do everything the teacher
needs to do.” Similarly, Parent 20 noted she saw herself as a
researcher of available resources and expert about her son’s needs
that she could use to train teachers.
Theme 5: Expectations
For many parents (74%, n ⫽ 17) there appeared to be a recip-
rocal relationship between expectations and engagement with pro-
viders that was mediated by motivation. When service providers
and school personnel were positive and services were available for
youth, parents felt motivated toward engagement, which fueled
higher expectations. Parent 9’s experience illustrated this notion:
So because of the way our system is I have great trust in our educators
because they’re getting so much support. So he’s starting with that and
then we have accommodations in our IEP. . . . But up to this point
we’re having complete trust in our educators that they’re going to
decide when we need to put the accommodations in.
While lower parental expectations can be influenced by many
factors, negative interactions with professionals and lack of service
availability certainly appeared to play a role for participants in this
study. Parent 17 explained that:
I’m fighting by charming. And I have to fight for these services
[I think will benefit my child at school] and that I do not get enough
feedback about what’s working and not working. I do not have a way
to know whether they’re actually doing the things that I’ve asked them
to do.
Theme 6: Impact on Parent
When asked how their work in supporting youth in school
affected them personally, parents’ responses overwhelmingly sug-
gested they felt negatively impacted by several factors. Specifi-
cally, many parents mentioned feeling unsupported by some edu-
cators, the experience of navigating through service systems, and
their child’s ASD diagnosis as affecting them negatively. Impor-
tantly, however, parents also noted the personal benefits of strong
social supports; often indirectly, parents described how the support
463
received from a spouse, extended family member, or other parent
of a child with ASD contributed to their own resilience.
Negative emotional impact resulting from interactions with
school teams. Many (69%, n ⫽ 16) reported that their involve-
ment with school and other service providers had an impact on
their emotional well-being. Most parents used negative descrip-
tors, such as feeling frustrated, a sense of defeat, mistrust, misun-
derstood, disrespected, stressed, grieved, and overwhelmed. When
parents conveyed the sense that educators did not communicate or
listen to them, parents felt self-doubt, blamed, and defensive.
Parent 3 indicated that she needed to constantly “fight for her
child” and needed to set up an “us versus them” mentality, as
stated in the following quote:
As an educator myself, it was hard to maneuver that system and no
wonder parents are irate and upset. It’s awful. It was awful for me. But
[child] also has different characteristics in lots of other areas too so it
was not a textbook case. . . . I also felt like sometimes they didn’t
listen or hear what I was saying. I felt more kind of pushed off.
Positive emotional impact resulting from interactions with
school teams. Other parents shared positive outcomes resulting
from their experiences interacting with school team members. For
instance, Parent 2 stated:
I’m feeling more part of a team. The teachers respond, the special ed
teacher responds, they listen, our IEP meeting was completely differ-
ent than anything we had experienced. So for the first time I would say
I feel like I have real partners in education.
Parent 6 mentioned that her interactions with the teachers made
her feel “the world can be a better place” and that she stayed
motivated and engaged: “I have a lot of respect for [teachers] and
I really do feel like the people who worked with my son loved
him. . . . Well, I feel like in a way they were our saviors.”
Emotional impact of navigating challenging services and
systems. Several parents (34%, n ⫽ 8) described ways in which
navigating systems and seeking resources for their children also
impacted them personally. For instance, Parent 4 stated “The
school and us have been in a bit of conflict . . . it’s the system, not
the people . . . we fought hard for services . . . not just to get
services but to get appropriate services.”
Impact of child’s ASD diagnosis. The majority of parents
(60%, n ⫽ 14) also reflected broad impact posed on the parents
and/or the family due to the child’s ASD diagnosis. Many
parents felt physically and emotionally exhausted as well as
financially burdened. Exhaustion was often related to the con-
stant need to oversee and advocate for services while simulta-
neously attending to youth’s needs. Parent 5 expressed:
It can just be outright exhausting at times. Just having to do the
advocacy piece and then when you’re able to overcome that hurdle,
then I really feel like sometimes I cannot even fully function as a
parent because I’m feeling like I’m having to be monitor of services
and making sure everything is actually being implemented as it’s
supposed to be.
The sacrifice caregivers made regarding their own work/career
to attend to caregiving was evident. As stated by Parent 22 “So
yeah, it just feels like you’re carrying a weight. It’s affected my
career negatively. I haven’t been able to do all of the things I think
I could have done in my career.”
 464 RISPOLI, LEE, NATHANSON, AND MALCOLM
Lack of time also affected parents in other aspects of their lives,
such as intimacy with their partner, cleaning the house, and per-
sonal well-being. Parent 17 stated “So I also don’t get really any
alone time at all. I’m exhausted. It’s been on my list of things to
do to get my own counselor or therapist. I think it’s been on my list
for about 5 years.”
Positive impact of social supports. Still other parents indi-
cated optimism, citing strong social supports within and outside of
the family. Parent 6 highlighted a need for balance, flexibility, and
communication with her spouse:
I think the other thing is that it takes time out of our day because we
have to map things out. . . . We’re thinking “What do we have to do
so we have success?” And I think as time has gone on it’s just a natural
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
thing for us but at the beginning we really had to plan out. . . . So I think
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
even though we make a lot of plans we have to be flexible. So that has
changed how I operate. We do a lot more assessing; we would assess
what roadblocks might come up and then we realize that sometimes
we’re way off base. We forget. And that’s okay, too, because it brings
us back to “Oh yeah, we have to plan ahead.”
Discussion
Despite steady increases in rates of children diagnosed with
ASD and availability of early intervention services in the early
years (Boyd et al., 2010; Matson & Kozlowski, 2011), support for
adolescents with ASD and their families are scant, and adult
outcomes for this population are often poor (Anderson et al., 2014;
Hendricks, 2010; Shattuck et al., 2012; van Asselt-Goverts et al.,
2015). Findings that school personnel often lack knowledge in how
to promote communication, collaboration, and effective problem-
solving processes within school-based teams (Rosenfield et al.,
2018) underscore the need for better understanding of parental
perspectives regarding their participation on these teams as youth
with ASD progress through middle and high school. This study
investigated parents’ perspectives regarding their participation in
school teams for adolescents with ASD, how their expectations for
their children affected their interactions with school personnel, and
how their participation affected them personally.
Parents’ Expectations and Perceived Role(s) on
School Teams
Parents’ responses suggested that they often viewed their role
consistent with the notion of family school partnerships described
in the literature (e.g., Christenson & Sheridan, 2001). That is,
many parents described a sense of collaboration, or the desire for
collaboration, with educators when supporting youth’s educational
experiences. Aligned with the elements of family school partner-
ships described by Garbacz, Swanger-Gagné, and Sheridan (2015),
parents highlighted a need for open and reciprocal communication
and mutual understanding between themselves and school provid-
ers. Most parents centered their role with educators and other
school providers on efforts to support youth in the school setting.
Consistent with previous quantitative studies of families of chil-
dren with ASD enrolled in Grades K–12 (Zablotsky et al., 2012),
our parent interviews suggested that parents who were actively
involved with educators were generally more satisfied with youth’s
educational experiences.
Nevertheless, some parents expressed dissatisfaction with their
role with school providers and reflected a desire for that role to be
consistent with the family school partnership model. Consistent
with the literature (Zablotsky et al., 2012) such dissatisfaction was
mainly a result of the parents’ voices not being heard, a perception
that the child’s needs were not understood, and/or teachers’ resis-
tance to look to parents as experts on identifying their child’s
needs. Of note, contrasting expectations for parental engagement
in the education of older students may underlie this dissatisfaction.
Able, Sreckovic, Schultz, Garwood, and Sherman (2015) found
that teachers felt parents should have an active role in communi-
cating their children’s needs with school providers at the elemen-
tary level, but less so at the middle and high school levels. Contrasting
perspectives regarding parental involvement and family school part-
nerships in the later grades may impede the establishment of mean-
ingful parental engagement to support transition.
Notably, nearly every parent in the current study mentioned a
need to advocate for their child, while few noted the importance of
fostering self-advocacy. Despite educators’ focus on the impor-
tance of self-advocacy (Able et al., 2015), parents may be less
willing or aware of the need to support students’ self-advocacy as
they prepare their children to transition out of high school. These
findings underscore the importance of helping parents nurture their
children’s self-advocacy skills as they approach and progress through
secondary education.
Previous research points to the role of commonly studied family
demographics, including race/ethnicity, income, and maternal ed-
ucation, in predicting parents’ expectations and in turn youth
employment, living, and social outcomes (Kirby, 2016). The cur-
rent findings add to this research by identifying nuanced ways in
which parental background influenced parents’ interactions with
school providers in the later school years. Our results suggest that
parents’ educational background was both an asset and a limitation
in that it helped parents be aware of what services were available
to meet their child’s needs, but also contributed to a sense of role
confusion and/or helplessness when services for which they were
aware were not available to their children. Meaningful engagement
practices aimed at parents of middle and high school students with
ASD should seek to capitalize on parents’ unique strengths, par-
ticularly given the barriers that exist to obtaining services that meet
the needs of this population of students, and the potential for strong
parental networks to contribute to educators’ knowledge base
regarding available services and service providers (Kucharczyk et
al., 2015).
Personal Impact on Parents
Results from the current study also conveyed the personal
impact on parents as a result of supporting youth with ASD. Parent
responses suggested they were affected physically, emotionally,
and as a family unit as a result of interactions with the school, the
nature of the relevant systems, and by their child’s disorder.
Negative experiences and personal impacts on parents appeared
to contribute to discouragement and in some cases may have
reduced the degree to which parents participated as active partners
on youth’s school teams. Our results are consistent with similar
literature in which negative emotions seemed to discourage parents
from playing an active role in collaborating with the school to
promote their children’s academic and nonacademic goals (Wag-
ner, Newman, Cameto, Javitz, & Valdes, 2012). Some parents
reported feeling negatively impacted by the lack of, or providers’
 PARENT ROLE IN SCHOOL TEAMS FOR ASD
unawareness of, needed services for their children in the later
grades. Indeed, evidence consistently demonstrates needed ser-
vices for adolescents and young adults with ASD in social skills,
postsecondary education, employment, and independent living
(e.g., Kucharczyk et al., 2015; Sosnowy, Silverman, & Shattuck,
2018; Wehman et al., 2014). Poor person– environment fit, uncer-
tainties about the role of parents, as well as lack of comprehensive
and integrated services not only affect parents’ involvement but
also place burden on existing providers to implement services that
may be beyond their competencies (Anderson, Sosnowy, Kuo, &
Shattuck, 2018; Cheak-Zamora, Teti, & First, 2015).
Consistent with the literature (Smith & Anderson, 2014), many
parents expressed that they felt physically and emotionally ex-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
hausted in relation to their child’s ASD diagnosis due to the need
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
to juggle multiple services and attend to their own needs, such as
spousal relationships, financial obligations, and other family mem-
bers’ demands. Some parents also expressed uncertainty and self-
doubt in planning for their children’s future. Sosnowy, Silverman,
and Shattuck (2018) study supported this sentiment; the dilemma
in expecting other family members (e.g., siblings) to assume the
caretaking role later was a constant stressor for these parents.
Nevertheless, there were positive examples that suggest parents
benefited from collaborative, positive relationships established
with school teams. Parents noted the importance of feeling heard,
affirmed, and valued as part of the school team. These positive
experiences appeared to not only put the parent at ease regarding
the youth’s school experience but also freed up the parent to attend
to his or her own personal needs, interests, and/or career. Simi-
larly, other research has found that advocacy can serve as a coping
mechanism for parents of children with ASD (Boshoff, Gibbs,
Phillips, Wiles, & Porter, 2016). Parents in the current study also
reflected on learning that balanced, flexible, and open communi-
cation among family members was important to maintain healthy
family dynamics. Smith, Greenberg, and Seltzer (2012) likewise
argued that the importance of social support, problem-focused
coping (DaWalt, Greenberg, & Mailick, 2018), and family adapt-
ability (Baker, Seltzer, & Greenberg, 2011) all can buffer the
negative effect of managing the disorder on parental outcomes.
Study Limitations
Important limitations to this research must be considered. The
parents interviewed were primarily female, White, and from a
middle to upper socioeconomic class, limiting the generalizability
of results to the wider autism community. Families from diverse
ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds may present differently in
terms of their role with school providers. There may be unique
challenges that differed across parents of students enrolled in
middle versus high school. However, given difficulties with re-
cruiting a similar portion of parents from both levels, comparisons
could not be made. Though it was our intention to highlight the
parental perspective in the current study, inclusion of school pro-
fessionals’ and students’ perspectives may have added to the
richness of the results. A study comparing perspectives of students,
parents, and teachers is an important area for future study. More-
over, the current study relied on a convenience sample; a random
sampling of parents may reveal differing responses to the inter-
view questions.
465
Implications for Research and Practice
Results from this study can inform the efforts of school psy-
chologists, teachers, and other school personnel in more effec-
tively engaging parents in school teams for adolescents with au-
tism spectrum disorder. Specifically, findings suggest that many
parents value when a partnership is established between them-
selves and school providers. Educators should work to ensure
parents are encouraged to assume an active role in middle and high
school teams, and explicit efforts should be made to provide
parents opportunities to share their expertise about youth’s
strengths and needs. At the same time, however, educators should
recognize that parental views on how and to what degree it is
appropriate for them to participate in the youth’s school team may
vary from that of educators. Parents and educators should work
together to develop shared understandings about the needs of
youth with ASD and joint expectations for how the entire team—
educators, parents, and youth—will work together. Of particular
importance, youth with ASD, as well as community service pro-
viders, who are sometimes not included in team meetings, should
be invited to contribute to the work of school-based teams. Such
team efforts can begin as early as middle school to best foster skills
(e.g., social skills, independence) necessary for successful post-
secondary outcomes.
Though less, or more indirect, engagement from parents may be
typical in these later grades (Hill & Tyson, 2009), parents of
adolescents with ASD uniformly described a high level of engage-
ment, or desire for a more engagement, when describing their
interactions with school teams. Parents’ preference for direct en-
gagement may be higher among parents of youth with ASD given
the complex symptoms of the disorder, frequent social and aca-
demic difficulties experienced by these youth, and limitations
among the students themselves in advocating for their needs (Bo-
shoff et al., 2016).
There was ample evidence that efforts to support youths’ per-
sonal and social success took an emotional, physical, and financial
toll on parents. Results also underscore the relevance of parents’
background and expectations in shaping their perspectives and
interactions with school teams. It is important that school person-
nel remain sensitive to the experience of parents of youth with
ASD in managing many demands and coping with an increasingly
sparse service landscape, as they look toward the future and what
may be several ambiguities surrounding their youth’s life follow-
ing high school. School personnel can maximize the contribution
of parents by taking time to learn about their own background and
capitalize on the parent’s knowledge and interests. Parents may
have access to valuable information, particularly concerning ser-
vices available to high schoolers and young adults in the commu-
nity, that they can share with school teams to in turn inform other
families (Kucharczyk et al., 2015).
As previously mentioned, results of this study suggest a prefer-
ence among parents for family school partnerships, rather than
relatively more surface level parent involvement, on school teams
for adolescents with ASD. Empirical research is needed to deter-
mine whether practices to foster family school partnerships yield
greater effects on youth outcomes than those that foster more
traditional parent involvement. It is also necessary to evaluate how
variations among youth, such as severity of ASD symptomology,
adaptive skills, and/or academic functioning may relate to how
 466 RISPOLI, LEE, NATHANSON, AND MALCOLM
parents are engaged in youth’s education. Finally, it would be
remiss to assume all parents have the ability and desire to engage
in similar ways. Future research should identify what types of
parent engagement are preferred across parents with diverse back-
grounds, and whether various types may differentially relate to
youth outcomes.
References
Able, H., Sreckovic, M. A., Schultz, T. R., Garwood, J. D., & Sherman, J.
(2015). Views from the teachers: Teacher and student supports needed
for full inclusion of students with ASD. Teacher Education and Special
Education, 38, 44 –57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0888406414558096
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical man-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
ual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric
Publishing.
Anderson, K. J., & Minke, K. M. (2007). Parent involvement in education:
Toward an understanding of parents’ decision making. The Journal of
Educational Research, 100, 311–323. http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JOER
.100.5.311-323
Anderson, K. A., Shattuck, P. T., Cooper, B. P., Roux, A. M., & Wagner,
M. (2014). Prevalence and correlates of postsecondary residential status
among young adults with an autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 18,
562–570. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1362361313481860
Anderson, K. A., Sosnowy, C., Kuo, A. A., & Shattuck, P. T. (2018).
Transition of individuals with autism to adulthood: A review of quali-
tative studies. Pediatrics, 141, 318 –327.
Baio, J., Wiggins, L., Christensen, D. L., Maenner, M. J., Daniels, J.,
Warren, Z., . . . Dowling, N. F. (2018). Prevalence of autism spectrum
disorder among children aged 8 years—Autism and Developmental
Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 sites, United States, 2014. (MMWR
Surveill Summary No. SS-6). Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/
mmwr/volumes/67/ss/ss6706a1.htm?s_cid⫽ss6706a1_w
Baker, J. K., Seltzer, M. M., & Greenberg, J. S. (2011). Longitudinal
effects of adaptability on behavior problems and maternal depression in
families of adolescents with autism. Journal of Family Psychology, 25,
601– 609. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0024409
Blair, K. C., Lee, I., Cho, S., & Dunlap, G. (2011). Positive behavior
support through family-school collaboration for young children with
autism. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 31, 22–36. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1177/0271121410377510
Boshoff, K., Gibbs, D., Phillips, R. L., Wiles, L., & Porter, L. (2016).
Parents’ voices: “Why and how we advocate.” A meta-synthesis of
parents’ experiences of advocating for their child with autism spectrum
disorder. Child: Care, Health and Development, 42, 784 –797. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1111/cch.12383
Boyd, B. A., Odom, S. L., Humphreys, B. P., & Sam, A. M. (2010). Infants
and toddlers with autism spectrum disorder: Early identification and
early intervention. Journal of Early Intervention, 32, 75–98. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1177/1053815110362690
Burrell, T. L., & Borrego, J. J., Jr. (2012). Parents’ involvement in ASD
treatment: What is their role? Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 19,
423– 432. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2011.04.003
Cheak-Zamora, N. C., Teti, M., & First, J. (2015). ‘Transitions are scary
for our kids, and they’re scary for us’: Family member and youth
perspectives on the challenges of transitioning to adulthood with autism.
Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 28, 548 –560.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jar.12150
Chiang, H. M., Cheung, Y. K., Hickson, L., Xiang, R., & Tsai, L. Y.
(2012). Predictive factors of participation in postsecondary education for
high school leavers with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental
Disorders, 42, 685– 696. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1297-7
Christenson, S. L. (2004). The family-school partnership: An opportunity
to promote the learning competence of all students. School Psychology
Review, 33, 83–104.
Christenson, S. L., & Sheridan, S. M. (2001). Schools and families:
Creating essential connections for learning. New York, NY: Guilford
Press.
DaWalt, L. S., Greenberg, J. S., & Mailick, M. R. (2018). Transitioning
Together: A multi-family group psychoeducation program for adoles-
cents with ASD and their parents. Journal of Autism and Developmental
Disorders, 48, 251–263. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3307-x
Dillon, G. V., & Underwood, J. D. M. (2012). Parental perspectives of
students with autism spectrum disorders transitioning from primary to
secondary school in the United Kingdom. Focus on Autism and Other
Developmental Disabilities, 27, 111–121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/108
8357612441827
Fan, X., & Chen, M. (2001). Parental involvement and students’ academic
achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 13,
1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009048817385
Ferlazzo, L., & Hammond, L. A. (2009). Building parent engagement in
schools. Santa Barbara, CA: Linworth.
Garbacz, S. A., & McIntyre, L. L. (2016). Conjoint behavioral consultation
for children with autism spectrum disorder. School Psychology Quar-
terly, 31, 450 – 466. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/spq0000114
Garbacz, S. A., McIntyre, L. L., & Santiago, R. T. (2016). Family involve-
ment and parent-teacher relationships for students with autism spectrum
disorders. School Psychology Quarterly, 31, 478 – 490. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1037/spq0000157
Garbacz, S. A., Swanger-Gagné, M. S., & Sheridan, S. M. (2015). The role
of school-family partnership programs for promoting student social and
emotional learning. In J. Durlak, T. Gullotta, C. Domitrovich, P. Goren,
& R. Weissberg (Eds.), The handbook of social and emotional learning
(pp. 244–259). New York, NY: Guilford.
Griffin, M. M., McMillan, E. D., & Hodapp, R. M. (2010). Family
perspectives on post-secondary education for students with intellectual
disabilities. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Dis-
abilities, 45, 339 –346.
Hendricks, D. (2010). Employment and adults with autism spectrum dis-
orders: Challenges and strategies for success. Journal of Vocational
Rehabilitation, 32, 125–134.
Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school:
A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement.
Developmental Psychology, 45, 740 –763. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/
a0015362
Hume, K. (2014). Introduction to the special issue: Autism, adolescence,
and high school. Remedial and Special Education, 35, 67. http://dx.doi
.org/10.1177/0741932513519503
Hume, K., Boyd, B. A., Hamm, J. V., & Kucharczyk, S. (2014). Supporting
independence in adolescents on the autism spectrum. Remedial and
Special Education, 35, 102–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/074193
2513514617
Kirby, A. V. (2016). Parent expectations mediate outcomes for young adults
with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental
Disorders, 46, 1643–1655. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2691-3
Kucharczyk, S., Reutebuch, C. K., Carter, E. W., Hedges, S., Zein, F. E.,
Fan, H., . . . Gustafson, J. R. (2015). Addressing the needs of adolescents
with autism spectrum disorder: Considerations and complexities for high
school interventions. Exceptional Children, 81, 329 –349. http://dx.doi
.org/10.1177/0014402914563703
Kyzar, K., & Jimerson, J. B. (2018). Bridging the school-home divide in
the middle grades: A process for strengthening school-family partner-
ships. Middle School Journal, 49, 13–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/009
40771.2018.1399331
 PARENT ROLE IN SCHOOL TEAMS FOR ASD
Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer
agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33, 159 –174. http://dx.doi
.org/10.2307/2529310
Matson, J. L., & Kozlowski, A. M. (2011). The increasing prevalence of
autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5,
418 – 425. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.06.004
Maynard, B. R., Kjellstrand, E. K., & Thompson, A. M. (2014). Effects of
check and connect on attendance, behavior, and academics: A random-
ized effectiveness trial. Research on Social Work Practice, 24, 296 –309.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049731513497804
Rosenfield, S., Newell, M., Zwolski, S., & Benishek, L. E. (2018). Eval-
uating problem-solving teams in K–12 schools: Do they work? Ameri-
can Psychologist, 73, 407– 419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000254
Shattuck, P. T., Narendorf, S. C., Cooper, B., Sterzing, P. R., Wagner, M.,
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
& Taylor, J. L. (2012). Postsecondary education and employment among
youth with an autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics, 129, 1042–1049.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-2864
Sheridan, S. M., Bovaird, J. A., Glover, T. A., Garbacz, S. A., & Witte, A.
(2012). A randomized trial examining the effects of conjoint behavioral
consultation and the mediating role of the parent-teacher relationship.
School Psychology Review, 41, 23– 46.
Sheridan, S. M., & Kim, E. M. (2015). Processes and pathways of family-
school partnerships across development. Cham, UK: Springer. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16931-6
Smith, J. A. (2017). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: Getting at
lived experience. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12, 303–304.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1262622
Smith, J. A., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2009). Interpretative phenome-
nological analysis. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Smith, L. E., & Anderson, K. A. (2014). The roles and needs of families of
adolescents with ASD. Remedial and Special Education, 35, 114 –122.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0741932513514616
Smith, L. E., Greenberg, J. S., & Seltzer, M. M. (2012). Social support and
well-being at mid-life among mothers of adolescents and adults with
467
autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Dis-
orders, 42, 1818 –1826. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1420-9
Sosnowy, C., Silverman, C., & Shattuck, P. (2018). Parents’ and young
adults’ perspectives on transition outcomes for young adults with autism.
Autism, 22, 29 –39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1362361317699585
van Asselt-Goverts, A. E., Embregts, P. J. C. M., Hendriks, A. H. C.,
Wegman, K. M., & Teunisse, J. P. (2015). Do social networks differ?
Comparison of the social networks of people with intellectual disabili-
ties, people with autism spectrum disorders and other people living in the
community. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 1191–
1203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2279-3
Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R., Javitz, H., & Valdes, K. (2012). A
national picture of parent and youth participation in IEP and transition
planning meetings. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 23, 140 –155.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1044207311425384
Wainscot, J. J., Naylor, P., Sutcliffe, P., Tantam, D., & Williams, J. V.
(2008). Relationships with peers and use of the school environment of
mainstream secondary school pupils with Asperger syndrome (high-
functioning autism): A case-control study. International Journal of
Psychology & Psychological Therapy, 8, 25–38.
Wehman, P., Shcall, C., Carr, S., Targett, P., West, M., & Cifu, G. (2014).
Transition from school to adulthood for youth with autism spectrum
disorder. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 25, 30 – 40. http://dx.doi
.org/10.1177/1044207313518071
Zablotsky, B., Boswell, K., & Smith, C. (2012). An evaluation of school
involvement and satisfaction of parents of children with autism spectrum
disorders. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabil-
ities, 117, 316 –330. http://dx.doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-117.4.316
Received April 14, 2018
Revision received July 25, 2018
Accepted August 11, 2018 䡲