Ebook The Reluctant Welfare State Engaging History To Advance Social Work Practice in Contemporary Society PDF Full Chapter PDF

The Reluctant Welfare State: Engaging
History to Advance Social Work

Practice in Contemporary Society -
eBook PDF
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/the-reluctant-welfare-state-engaging-history-to-ad
vance-social-work-practice-in-contemporary-society-ebook-pdf/
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Fit your coursework
into your hectic life.
Make the most of your time by learning
your way. Access the resources you need to
succeed wherever, whenever.
Study with digital flashcards, listen to audio

textbooks, and take quizzes.
Review your current course grade and compare

your progress with your peers.
Get the free MindTap Mobile App and learn

wherever you are.
Break Limitations. Create your

own potential, and be unstoppable
with MindTap.
MINDTAP. POWERED BY YOU.

cengage.com/mindtap
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Council on Social Work
Education’s Educational Policy and
Accreditation Standards by Chapter
The Council on Social Work Education’s Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards requires
all social work students to develop the nine competencies listed below. The Council also identifies
31 related component behaviors that help operationalize the nine competencies. The competen-
cies and component behaviors are listed below, along with the book chapters that address them in
whole or part. In addition to the information shown below, multicolor icons throughout chapters
and “Competency Notes” at the end of each chapter help identify these connections.
Competencies and Component Behaviors Chapter(s) Where

The 9 Competencies and 31 Component Behaviors (EPAS, 2015): Referenced:
Competency 1 Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior:
a. Make ethical decisions by applying the standards of the NASW Code of Ethics, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
relevant laws and regulations, models for ethical decision making, ethical 11, 12, 13
conduct of research, and additional codes of ethics as appropriate to context
b. Use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain 2, 4, 6, 10, 13
professionalism in practice situations
c. Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
and electronic communication 12, 13
d. Use technology ethically and appropriately to facilitate practice outcomes
e. Use supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior 1, 7
Competency 2 Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice:
a. Apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels 12, 14
b. Present themselves as learners and engage clients and constituencies as experts
of their own experiences
c. Apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal 2, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12
biases and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies
Competency 3 Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice:
a. Apply their understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,

advocate for human rights at the individual and system levels 10, 12, 14
b. Engage in practices that advance social, economic, and environmental justice 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 13,
14
Competency 4 Engage in Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice:
a. Use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research 6, 8
b. Apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative 2, 14
research methods and research findings
c. Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and 5, 9, 14
service delivery
Competencies and Component Behaviors Chapter(s) Where
The 9 Competencies and 31 Component Behaviors (EPAS, 2015): Referenced:
Competency 5 Engage in Policy Practice:
a. Identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10,
service delivery, and access to social services 11, 12, 14
b. Assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12
access to social services
c. Apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12,
advance human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice 13, 14
Competency 6 Engage with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:
a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in- 3, 6, 7

environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with
clients and constituencies
b. Use empathy, reflection, and interpersonal skills to effectively engage diverse
clients and constituencies
Competency 7 Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:
a. Collect and organize data, and apply critical thinking to interpret information 4, 6, 10
from clients and constituencies
b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in- 4, 6
environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis
of assessment data from clients and constituencies
c. Develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives based on the 6
critical assessment of strengths, needs, and challenges within clients and
constituencies
d. Select appropriate intervention strategies based on the assessment, research 6
knowledge, and values and preferences of clients and constituencies
Competency 8 Intervene with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:
a. Critically choose and implement interventions to achieve practice goals and 2, 7

enhance capacities of clients and constituencies
b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person- 12
in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in
interventions with clients and constituencies
c. Use inter-professional collaboration as appropriate to achieve beneficial practice
outcomes
d. Negotiate, mediate, and advocate with and on behalf of diverse clients and 10, 11, 12, 14
constituencies
e. Facilitate effective transitions and endings that advance mutually agreed-on
goals
Competency 9 Evaluate Practice with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:
a. Select and use appropriate methods for evaluation of outcomes

b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person- 7, 8
in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the
evaluation of outcomes
c. Critically analyze, monitor, and evaluate intervention and program processes
and outcomes
d. Apply evaluation findings to improve practice effectiveness at the micro, mezzo,
and macro levels
empowerment series
NINTH EDITION
The Reluctant
Welfare State
Engaging History to Advance Social Work
Practice in Contemporary Society
Bruce S. Jansson
University of Southern California
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions,
some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed
content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right
to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For
valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate
formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for
materials in your areas of interest.
Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product
text may not be available in the eBook version.
The Reluctant Welfare State, Engaging © 2019, 2015 Cengage Learning, Inc.
History to Advance Social Work Practice
Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage.
in Contemporary Society, Ninth Edition
Bruce S. Jansson ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
herein may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,
Product Director: Marta Lee-Perriard except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written
permission of the copyright owner.
Product Manager: Julie Martinez
Project Manager: Seth Schwartz
Content Developer: Shannon Stanton, LD For product information and technology assistance, contact us at
Cengage Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706
Product Assistant: Allison Balchunas or support.cengage.com.
Marketing Manager: Zina Craft For permission to use material from this text
or product,submit all requests online at
Photo and Text Researcher: Lumina www.cengage.com/permissions.
Datamatics LTD.
Art Director: Vernon Boes

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017962370
Production Management and Composition:
MPS Limited
Student Edition:
Text and Cover Designer: Lisa Buckley
ISBN: 978-1-337-56563-9
Cover Image: SCIENCE SOURCE/Getty
Loose-leaf Edition:
Images; Ruben Sanchez @lostintv/
ISBN: 978-1-337-56568-4
Getty Images
Cengage
20 Channel Center Street
Boston, MA 02210
USA
Cengage is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with

employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in more
than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representative at
www.cengage.com.
Cengage products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd.
To learn more about Cengage platforms and services, visit

www.cengage.com. To register or access your online learning solution
or purchase materials for your course, visit www.cengagebrain.com.
Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018
This book is dedicated to Betty Ann
Brief Contents
Preface xiii
An Invitation to Students Using This Text xv
Acknowledgments xvi
PART 1 Becoming a Policy Advocate for Vulnerable Populations

CHAPTER 1 The Symbiotic and Uneasy Relationship: Clients, Social Workers, and the Welfare State 2
CHAPTER 2 Making the American Welfare State More Humane—Past, Present, and Future 27
PART 2 Social Policy in a Developing Nation

CHAPTER 3 Fashioning a New Society in the Wilderness 64
PART 3 Social Policy during a Transition to an Industrial Nation

CHAPTER 4 Social Welfare Policy in the 19th Century: 1789–1902 98
CHAPTER 5 Social Reform in the Progressive Era 157
PART 4 Social Policy in a Relatively Liberal Era

CHAPTER 6 Social Policy to Address the Worst Economic Catastrophe in U.S. History 204
CHAPTER 7 The Era of Federal Social Services: The New Frontier and the Great Society 260
CHAPTER 8 The Paradoxical Era: 1968–1980 301
PART 5 Social Policy in a Period of Conservative Backlash

CHAPTER 9 The Conservative Counterrevolution in the Era of Reagan and G. H. W. Bush 334
PART 6 The Period of Gridlock and Extreme Inequality

CHAPTER 10 Reluctance Illustrated: Policy Uncertainty during the Presidency of Bill Clinton 378
CHAPTER 11 George W. Bush’s Quest for Realignment 418
CHAPTER 12 Would President Barack Obama Reverse The Cycle of History? 450
CHAPTER 13 President Donald Trump: Populist or Conservative? 507
CHAPTER 14 Why Has the American Welfare State Been Reluctant—And What Can We Do about It? 548
Name Index 590
Subject Index 594
iv
Contents
Preface xiii
An Invitation to Students Using This Text xv
Acknowledgments xvi
PART 1 Becoming a Policy Advocate for Vulnerable Populations
CHAPTER 1 The Symbiotic and Uneasy Relationship: Clients, Social Workers,

and the Welfare State 2
LO 1-1 Analyze the Evolution of the American LO 1-9 Enrich Professional Practice by Placing it in
Welfare State 3 a Policy Context 10
LO 1-2 Discuss the Need for an American LO 1-10 Understand Policy-Sensitive Practice 11
Welfare State 3 LO 1-11 Trace the Gradual Evolution of the
LO 1-3 Understand Why Vulnerable Populations American Welfare State 13
Especially Need a Welfare State 5 LO 1-12 Recognize Polarization and Gridlock in the
LO 1-4 Move from our Imaginary Society to a Last 35 Years 15
Welfare State 7 LO 1-13 Develop Personal and Professional Policy
LO 1-5 Learn the Varieties of Social Policies 7 Identities 21
LO 1-6 Explore the Purpose of Social Policies 8 LO 1-14 Seek Common Ground while Honoring
LO 1-7 Understand the Grouping or Clustering of the Ethical Code of the National Association of
Social Policies and Social Problems 9 Social Workers 23
LO 1-8 Identify Policies that Shape Implementation LO 1-15 Treat Each Other with Civility 24
and Funding Systems 10
CHAPTER 2 Making the American Welfare State More Humane—Past, Present,

and Future 27
LO 2-1 Think about the Two-Sided Context: LO 2-5 Use Ethical Reasoning to Decide What Is
Opportunities and Constraints 28 Wrong and What Is Right 40
The Context 28 LO 2-6 Determine the Ethical Merit of Specific
Diagnosing the Context in Legislative Settings and Policies with Reference to Outcomes 41
the Nation 28 Using SNAP to Illustrate Ethical Reasoning With Respect
Three Kinds of Policy Advocacy 32 to Outcomes 41
LO 2-2 Link Micro Policy Advocacy to the American LO 2-7 Determine the Ethical Merit of Specific
Welfare State 37 Policies by Using First Ethical Principles 43
LO 2-3 Link Micro Policy Advocacy to Macro Policy LO 2-8 Analyze How Culture, Self-Interest, and
Advocacy 37 Politics Shape Ethical Reasoning 44
LO 2-4 Examine Policy Practice and Policy LO 2-9 Explore Practical Considerations and
Advocacy 38 Ethical Choices 44
Who Engaged—and Engages—in Policy Practice and LO 2-10 Use an Eclectic Approach to Ethical
Policy Advocacy? 38 Reasoning 45
v
vi Contents
LO 2-11 Examine the Special Ethical Case of LO 2-12 Analyze the Clash Between Liberals and
“Social Justice” 47 Conservatives Over Social Justice 54
Social Injustice Through the Violation of Civil Rights of LO 2-13 Analyze a Relativist View of Social Justice 55
Vulnerable Populations 49 Some Complexities in Thinking About Social Justice 56
Social Injustice Through the Violation of Life Conditions
LO 2-14 Navigate the Social Welfare State to Seek
of Vulnerable Populations 49
Reforms 57
Social Injustice as Illustrated by Denial of Opportunities
Engaging in Policy Advocacy 57
to Vulnerable Populations 51
Looking to the Future 61
The Challenge of Reducing Social Injustice Over Time 52
PART 2 Social Policy in a Developing Nation
CHAPTER 3 Fashioning a New Society in the Wilderness 64

LO 3-1 Understand Feudal Inheritance 65 Discrimination Against White Poor People 84
LO 3-2 Analyze the Colonists 66 LO 3-7 Identify Ominous Signs 84
Patterns of Continuity 66 LO 3-8 Identify Precursors to a Reluctant
Patterns of Change 68 Welfare State 86
LO 3-3 Analyze the American Revolution LO 3-9 Link the Colonial Society to Contemporary
as a Catalyst 70 America 86
From Revolution to Limited Government 71 What We can Learn from Policy Practitioners and
Legitimating Limited Government 73 Advocates of the Colonial Era 86
LO 3-4 Analyze Positive Responses to Social Need 74 What We can Learn from the Persistence of Unmet Needs
and Policy Issues During the Colonial Era 87
LO 3-5 Examine Punitive Policies 75
What We can Learn from Failed Policy Strategies of the
LO 3-6 Examine the Oppression of Vulnerable
Colonial Era 87
Populations 76
What We can Learn from Promising Strategies of the
Oppression of Women 76 Colonial Era 89
Oppression of Native Americans 78 What We can Learn from the Colonial Era about the
Oppression of African Slaves 81 Structure of the American Welfare State 90
PART 3 Social Policy during a Transition to an Industrial Nation
CHAPTER 4 Social Welfare Policy in the 19th Century: 1789–1902 98

LO 4-1 Identify Social Realities in the New Nation 100 Oppression of Irish Immigrants 120
LO 4-2 Understand Immigration and LO 4-8 Examine Precursors of the Reluctant
Urbanization 101 Welfare State 121
LO 4-3 Discuss a Moral Crusade 103 Social Policy at the Frontier 122
LO 4-4 Analyze Social Reform Policies 105 Land Policy 122
Temperance 105 LO 4-9 Discuss the Conquest and Oppression of
Antipauperism Strategies 106 Native Americans and Spanish-Speaking Persons 123
LO 4-5 Identify Character-Building Institutions 109 Finding Laborers 126
LO 4-6 Identify Opportunity-Enhancing LO 4-10 Understand the Appraisal of Frontier
Policies 114 Policy 127
Radical Movements: Conspicuous by Their LO 4-11 Review the Civil War and the Oppression of
Absence 115 Freed Slaves 129
LO 4-7 Analyze the Oppression of Vulnerable Origins of the Civil War 129
Populations or Outgroups in the Early LO 4-12 Explore Social Policy during the War 132
Republic 116 Analyze the Plight of Freed Slaves 135
Oppression of Women 116
Contents vii
LO 4-13 Recognize the Betrayal of Women during LO 4-16 Link the Period of Lost Opportunities to
and after the Civil War 136 Contemporary Society 144
LO 4-14 Recognize the Oppression of What We Can Learn from Policy Practitioners and
Workers during the Early Stages of American Advocates of the 19th Century 145
Industrialization 137 What We Can Learn from the Persistence of Unmet Needs
Industrialization before the Civil War 137 and Policy Issues during the Early Republic* 146
Why Industrialization Took Off and Rapidly What We Can Learn from Failed Policy Strategies of the
Accelerated 138 Early Republic 148
The Victimization of Workers 139 What We Can Learn from Promising Policy Strategies of
the Early Republic 148
LO 4-15 Analyze the Inadequacy of a Primitive
What We Can Learn from the Early Republic about the
Welfare State 142
Structure of the American Welfare State 149
CHAPTER 5 Social Reform in the Progressive Era 157

LO 5-1 Understand Realities in the Early Stages of The Oppression of Women 181
Industrial Society 159 The Oppression of African Americans 183
LO 5-2 Discuss the Genesis of Reform 163 The Oppression of Asian Immigrants 184
Catalytic Events 164 The Oppression of Spanish-Speaking Persons 185
Intellectual Ferment and Aroused Public Opinion 165 LO 5-9 Understand the Alliance of Progressivism
The Specter of Social Unrest 167 and Racism 186
LO 5-3 Identify Regulatory Reforms in the LO 5-10 Analyze the Imposition of a Racist Policy of
Progressive Era 167 Immigration 187
LO 5-4 Assess the Limited Social Programs of the LO 5-11 Discuss the Resilience of Jane Addams and
Progressive Era 168 Her Allies 188
Limited Policy Reforms for Women and Children 168 LO 5-12 Understand the Emergence of Social
Private Philanthropy 170 Work 188
Limited Reforms for Workers and Persons with LO 5-13 Analyze the Evolution of the Reluctant
Mental Illness 171 Welfare State 192
LO 5-5 Analyze Health Reforms within a Flawed LO 5-14 Link the Progressive Era to Contemporary
Capitalistic Model 172 Society 193
LO 5-6 Critique the Limited Nature of Progressives’ What We Can Learn from Policy Advocates of the
Social Reforms 172 Progressive Era 193
Cultural and Policy Realities that Limited Reform 173 What We Can Learn from the Persistence of Unmet Needs
Political Realities that Limited Reform 175 and Policy Issues during the Progressive Era 193
Women and Children: Seizing the Opportunity 176 What We Can Learn from Failed Policy Strategies of the
Progressive Era 196
LO 5-7 Evaluate Social Reformers and the Bull
What We Can Learn from Promising Strategies of the
Moose Campaign of 1912 177
Progressive Era 196
LO 5-8 Recognize the Oppression of Vulnerable What We Can Learn from the Progressive Era about the
Populations or Outgroups in the Progressive Era 181 Structure of the American Welfare State 196
PART 4 Social Policy in a Relatively Liberal Era
CHAPTER 6 Social Policy to Address the Worst Economic Catastrophe

in U.S. History 204
LO 6-1 Understand the Turn toward Conservatism LO 6-5 Evaluate the Era of Emergency Reforms:
in the 1920s 206 1933–1936 211
LO 6-2 Analyze Why the Depression Began 207 The Conflicted Context: Forces that Promoted Major
LO 6-3 Assess the Period of Denial: 1929–1933 209 Reforms 211
LO 6-4 Trace the Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt The Conflicted Context: Forces that Limited Roosevelt’s
as a National Figure 210 Initial Policy Initiatives 213
Battling for Resources as a Prelude to Reform 215
viii Contents
Using the Funds to Finance Emergency Relief 215 Understand Why Roosevelt Prioritized Military
Moving from Cash Assistance to Creating Work Preparedness 235
Programs 216 Understand the Eclipse of Work Programs 235
Developing a Work Relief Program for Complex LO 6-9 Review the Oppression of Vulnerable
Projects 218 Populations in the New Deal 236
Trying to End the Great Depression Itself 219
The Oppression of Women 236
Identify Conservative Pressures on Roosevelt between
The Oppression of Latinos 237
1934 and 1936 221
The Oppression of African Americans 238
LO 6-6 Identify Pivotal New Deal Victories: The Oppression of Asian Americans 239
1934–1936 223
LO 6-10 Analyze the Broadened Role of Social
The Social Security Act 224 Work in the New Deal 243
Protecting Workers’ Right to Strike 227
LO 6-11 Place the New Deal in the Context of the
The Works Progress Administration and the National
Reluctant Welfare State 245
Youth Administration 230
LO 6-12 Link the New Deal to Contemporary
Backsliding in the Supreme Court? 231
Society 247
LO 6-7 Identify Roosevelt’s Landslide Victory Over
What We Can Learn from Policy Advocates of the
Republicans in 1936 231 New Deal 247
LO 6-8 Assess the Era of Stalemate: What We Can Llearn from the Persistence of Unmet
1937–1941 231 Needs and Policy Issues during the New Deal 252
The Disillusionment of the Middle Class 231 What We Can Learn from Failed Policy Strategies
Fears that Roosevelt Sought Too Much Power 232 of the New Deal 253
Reform Fatigue 232 What We Can Learn from Promising Strategies
Several Surprising Policy Successes in 1937 of the New Deal 253
and 1938 232 What We Can Learn from the New Deal about the
Analyze Conservatives’ Ascendance 233 Structure of the American Welfare State 253
CHAPTER 7 The Era of Federal Social Services: The New Frontier and the Great Society 260
The Turn toward Reform 261 LO 7-11 Analyze the Oppression of Vulnerable
LO 7-1 Discuss Domestic Policy during the Populations in the 1960s 282
Kennedy Administration 263 The Oppression of Women 282
LO 7-2 Analyze Poverty and Civil Rights 265 The Oppression of Gay Men and Lesbians 284
The Oppression of Latinos 286
LO 7-3 Identify Failures and Success during the
The Oppression of Native Americans 286
Course of Reform 267
The Oppression of Asian Americans 287
Kennedy and Johnson: A Study in Contrasts 269
The Oppression of People of Color in the Urban
LO 7-4 Evaluate Johnson’s Policy Gluttony 271 Ghettoes 288
Johnson’s Fateful First Choice 271 LO 7-12 Discuss Social Work in
Johnson’s Fateful Second Choice 271 the 1960s 288
Johnson’s Fateful Third Choice 272
LO 7-13 Understand the Evolution of the Reluctant
LO 7-5 Assess Civil Rights Legislation in 1964 Welfare State 289
and 1965 272 LO 7-14 Link the Great Society to Contemporary
Earl Warren and the Supreme Court Buttress Johnson’s Society 291
Domestic Agenda 273 What We Can Learn from Policy Advocates of the Great
LO 7-6 Analyze Medicare, Medicaid, and the Older Society 291
Americans Act in 1965 274 What We Can Learn from the Persistence of Unmet Needs
LO 7-7 Analyze Federal Aid to Education in 1965 276 and Policy Issues During the Great Society 292
LO 7-8 Review the War on Poverty in 1964 and What We Can Learn from Failed Policy Strategies of the
Succeeding Years 276 Great Society 294
LO 7-9 Discuss Welfare Reform in 1967 277
Great Society 294
LO 7-10 Discuss Food Stamps in 1964 278
What We Can Learn from the Great Society about the
The Beleaguered President in a Trap of his Own Making: Structure of the American Welfare State 294
1967–1968 279
Contents ix
CHAPTER 8 The Paradoxical Era: 1968–1980 301

LO 8-1 Analyze Richard Nixon, Political LO 8-10 Recognize the Oppression of Vulnerable
Opportunist 302 Populations in the 1970s 318
Nixon’s Strategy: Floating Coalitions and Oppression of Women: The Women’s Movement 318
Outbidding 303 The Mobilization of New Sets of Vulnerable
From Strategy to Policy 305 Populations 319
LO 8-2 Understand Welfare Policy 305 The 1970s as a Revolution in Rights 320
The Beginnings of Backlash 320
LO 8-3 Understand Social Security 306
LO 8-4 Understand Revenue Sharing and Social LO 8-11 Understand the Evolution of the Reluctant
Services 307 Welfare State 321
LO 8-5 Discuss Civil Rights 308 LO 8-12 Link the Paradoxical Era to Contemporary
Society 321
LO 8-6 Evaluate Health Policy and Other
Legislation 310 What We Can Learn from Policy Advocates of the
Paradoxical Era 321
Housing Legislation 310
What We Can Learn from the Persistence of Unmet Needs
LO 8-7 Critique Nixon’s Shift from Reform to and Policy Issues during the Paradoxical Era 323
Conservatism 310 What We Can Learn from Failed Policy Strategies of the
LO 8-8 Review the Brief Reign of Gerald Ford 315 Paradoxical Era 324
LO 8-9 Assess the Hidden Social Spending What We Can Learn from Promising Strategies of the
Revolution of the 1970s 315 Paradoxical Era 327
Why was the Spending Revolution Hidden? 317 What We Can Learn from the Paradoxical Era about the
Structure of the American Welfare State 327
PART 5 Social Policy in a Period of Conservative Backlash
CHAPTER 9
The Conservative Counterrevolution in the Era of Reagan and G. H. W. Bush 334
LO 9-1 Evaluate the Ascendancy of The Oppression of Poor People and Persons of Color 355
Conservatism 335 The Oppression of Immigrants 357
The Legitimization of Conservatism 337 The Oppression of Gay Men and Lesbians 358
Ronald Reagan as Catalyst 338 The Oppression of People with Disabilities 359
The Oppression of Poor Children 360
LO 9-2 Analyze Reagan’s Emergence as a
The Oppression of Aging Americans 361
National Hero 339
The Oppression of Homeless Persons 362
LO 9-3 Review Supply-Side Economics: A Positive
Way to Be Negative 339 LO 9-14 Discuss the Erosion of Legal Rights 364
LO 9-4 Discuss the Campaign of 1980 341 LO 9-15 Discuss the Social Work Profession 365
LO 9-5 Assess the Reagan Policy Blitzkrieg 342 LO 9-16 Understand the Evolution of the Reluctant
Welfare State 366
LO 9-6 Analyze the Triumph of Conservatism 344
LO 9-17 Link the Conservative Counterrevolution to
LO 9-7 Review OBRA, Tax Reductions, and
Contemporary Society 367
Deregulation 345
What We Can Learn from Policy Advocates of the
LO 9-8 Discuss Reagan’s Loss of Momentum 346
Conservative Counterrevolution 367
LO 9-9 Evaluate Social Security, Job Training, and
What We Can Learn from the Persistence of Unmet
Medicare 347
Needs and Policy Issues during the Conservative
LO 9-10 Assess Moral Reforms 350 Counterrevolution 367
LO 9-11 Review the Election of 1984 350 What We Can Learn from Failed Policy Strategies of the
LO 9-12 Analyze Reagan’s Second Term 351 Conservative Counterrevolution 368
LO 9-13 Recognize the Oppression of Vulnerable What We Can Learn from Promising Strategies of the
Populations in the Era of Reagan and G. H. W. Conservative Counterrevolution 369
Bush 353 What We Can Learn from the Conservative
Predictions Come True 353 Counterrevolution about the Structure of the American
The Oppression of Women 354 Welfare State 370
x Contents
PART 6 The Period of Gridlock and Extreme Inequality
CHAPTER 10 Reluctance Illustrated: Policy Uncertainty during the Presidency of Bill Clinton 378
LO 10-1 Discuss the Ascendancy of Bill Clinton 379 LO 10-9 Identify the Oppression of Vulnerable
The Search for the Real Bill Clinton 379 Populations 402
The Search for the New Democrat 380 The Oppression of Women 402
LO 10-2 Review the Presidential Campaign The Oppression of Persons of Color and the Attack
of 1992 382 on Affirmative Action 403
The Oppression of Immigrants 406
Clinton’s Grim Options 383
The Oppression of Children 407
From Social Investment to Deficit Reduction 384
The Oppression of Gay Men and Lesbians 408
Developing an Economic Package 384
LO 10-10 Recognize the Illustration of
LO 10-3 Analyze the Budget Process 385
Reluctance 409
LO 10-4 Assess the Demise of the Stimulus
LO 10-11 Link Uncertainty during the 1990s
Package 387
to Contemporary Society 411
The Gutting of Social Investments 388
What We Can Learn from Policy Advocates
LO 10-5 Discuss the Fight for Health Reform 388 of the 1990s 411
LO 10-6 Analyze Anticrime Legislation 391 What We Can Learn from the Persistence of Unmet Needs
Conservatives Regroup to Restore Republicans’ Power 392 and Policy Issues during the 1990s 411
LO 10-7 Understand How the House Republicans What We Can Learn from Failed Policy Strategies
Took Charge 394 of the 1990s 412
LO 10-8 Analyze the Budget Confrontation
of 1995 396 1990s 414
What We Can Learn from the 1990s about the Structure
Clinton’s Controversial Welfare Reform 397
of the American Welfare State 414
Clinton’s Second Term 398
CHAPTER 11 George W. Bush’s Quest for Realignment 418

LO 11-1 Discuss Bush’s Ambitious Goal 419 LO 11-7 Discuss the Return to Iraq 438
LO 11-2 Review the Presidential Campaign LO 11-8 Analyze Supreme Court Surprises and
of 2000 422 Uncertainties 438
Two Americas 424 LO 11-9 Understand the Botched Response to
Bush’s Domestic Policies 424 Hurricane Katrina 439
LO 11-3 Discuss September 11, 2001 428 LO 11-10 Review the High Stakes for the
Gridlock 429 Congressional Elections of 2006 440
Bush Shifts the Agenda Abroad 431 Securing Some Initial Social Reforms and Oversight 443
LO 11-4 Evaluate the War with Iraq 432 LO 11-11 Evaluate the Supreme Court’s Move to
American Social Welfare Policy Abroad 433 the Right 444
Moving toward the Pivotal 2008 Elections 445
LO 11-5 Critique Bush’s Domestic Agenda in 2003
and 2004 436 LO 11-12 Identify Reluctance Illustrated in the Bush
LO 11-6 Understand the Outcome of the 2004 Administration 446
Election 437 Vulnerable Populations from 2000 to 2018 446
CHAPTER 12 Would President Barack Obama Reverse the Cycle of History? 450
LO 12-1 Analyze the Historic Nature of Barack The Stimulus Plan: —A Social Welfare Program in
Obama’s Presidential Candidacy 451 Disguise 455
LO 12-2 Analyze the Causes of the Great Recession Saving Financial Institutions 458
of 2007 into 2009 452 Obama’s Personal and Political Style 459
LO 12-3 Analyze Obama’s Landslide Election in The Frustrating Battle Against Foreclosures 461
2008 454 Attacking Unemployment 462
Obama’s Foreign Policy 462
LO 12-4 Understand the First Year of Obama’s
Evaluating Obama’s First Year in Office 463
Presidency 455
Contents xi
LO 12-5 Identify Major Policy Enactments in The Runaway Victory of the Republicans in 2014 484
Obama’s Second Presidential Year 464 LO 12-10 Evaluate the Most Conservative Supreme
Pivot Point 464 Court in Four Decades 485
The Republicans’ Stroke of Luck 465 LO 12-11 Recognize the Oppression of Vulnerable
Rescuing Health Care Reforms 465 Groups 486
Enacting Bank Regulations and Consumer Protections 467 The Continuing Oppression of Poor People 486
The Great Recession Continues 468 The Continuing Oppression of Women 489
The Education Debate 469 The Continuing Oppression of Immigrants 491
Deferred Reforms 471 The Continuing Oppression of Racial and Ethnic
LO 12-6 Analyze Implications of the Republican Vulnerable Populations 494
Landslide in the Mid-Term Elections of 2010 471 The Continuing Oppression of Populations that are
Another Hidden Stimulus Plan 473 Physically or Mentally Challenged 495
LO 12-7 Understand How the Soaring National Debt The Continuing Oppression of Aging Americans 497
and Annual Budget Deficits Led to Budget Battles The Continuing Oppression of the LGBTQ
in 2011 and 2013 473 Population 498
The Continuing Oppression of Persons with Criminal
LO 12-8 Analyze Obama’s Landslide Reelection
Records 499
in 2012 476
Revisiting the Terms Outgroups and Vulnerable
Understanding Obama’s Use of Electoral Community Populations 500
Organization 477
More Budget Battles 480 LO 12-12 Evaluate Barack Obama’s Presidency 501
LO 12-13 Why Obama Couldn’t Sustain the Nation’s
LO 12-9 Describe Obama’s Policy Agenda
Liberal Direction 502
for 2013 482
CHAPTER 13 President Donald Trump: Populist or Conservative? 507

LO 13-1 Trump Controversy: What is True and What LO 13-9 Winning The Presidential Election 523
is False? 509 LO 13-10 Trump’s Hurdles to being a “Successful”
LO 13-2 Trump’s Early Life 510 President 524
LO 13-3 Early Preparation for a Run for Politics 512 Personal Hurdles 524
LO 13-4 From Fantasy to Reality 513 Hurdles Related to the Republican Party 525
LO 13-5 Tactics During the Presidential Campaign Hurdles Related to the Democratic Party 525
of 2016 513 Hurdles Related to His Base of Support 526
Selling his Brand 514 Governing Hurdles 526
Manipulating the Media 514 LO 13-11 Early Signs that Trump Would Govern
Intimidation and Bullying 514 from the Right 527
Hyperbole and Lying 515 LO 13-12 Analyzing Trump’s Early Policies 529
Diversion and Distraction 516 LO 13-13 Repealing and Replacing the ACA 529
Not Using Evidence-Based Findings 516 LO 13-14 Reforming Immigration Policies 532
Creating Divisions and Enemies 516
LO 13-15 Creating Jobs 535
Appealing to the Base 516
Shifting Blame 516 Revising Trade Treaties 535
Relentless Campaigning 517 Promoting Fossil Fuels and Cutting Environmental
Organizing Effective Campaigns 517 Protections 536
Doubling Down 517 Repairing America’s Infrastructure 537
Rousing Large Crowds of Supporters 517 LO 13-16 Trump’s Budget and Tax Priorities 537
Portraying Himself as Independent from Big Donors 517 LO 13-17 Race and Ideology Polarize the United
Getting Free Media Coverage 518 States 538
Race Baiting and Attacking Other Vulnerable LO 13-18 Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria 540
Populations 518 LO 13-19 Sexual Harassment and Mass Murders 541
Ending Obama’s Legacy 518
LO 13-20 Warning Signs for the Trump
Changing Positions and Policy Priorities 518
Movement 542
LO 13-6 Benefiting from the Context 519 LO 13-21 Social Workers as Policy Advocates 543
LO 13-7 Trump’s Remarkable Ascent 519 LO 13-22 Understand the Evolution of the Reluctant
LO 13-8 Defeating Hillary Clinton 521 Welfare State 543
xii Contents
LO 13-23 What We Can Learn from Policy Advocates LO 13-25 What We Can Learn from Failed Policy
in the Trump Presidency 543 Strategies of the Trump Presidency 544
LO 13-24 What We Can Learn from the Persistence LO 13-26 What We Can Learn from Promising
of Unmet Needs during the Trump Presidency 544 Strategies of the Trump Presidency 544
CHAPTER 14 Why Has the American Welfare State Been Reluctant—And What Can We
Do about It? 548
LO 14-1 Decide Whether the Contemporary Welfare Key Education Reforms 572
State Is Morally Flawed 549 Key Workplace Reforms 572
Manifestations of Reluctance 549 Key Block Grants 572
Key Economic Reforms 573
LO 14-2 Examine Other Moral Flaws of the American
Policies Germane To Globalization 573
Welfare State 553
Key Housing Reforms 573
Poverty 556
Key Organizational Changes 573
Homelessness 556
Key Policies for Specific Populations 573
Persons Lacking Medical Insurance 557
Key Immigration Policies 573
Youth Who “Graduate” From Foster Care 557
Key Job Training Reforms 573
Assistance to Persons Who Are in Jail or Who Have
Key Drug Policies 573
Returned to the Community 557
Key Tax Expenditures 573
Low Wages 557
Key Family Planning Reforms 573
Feminization of Poverty 557
Legal Status of Immigrants 557 LO 14-10 Critique Conservatives’ Case Against the
Contextual Causes of Reluctance 557 American Welfare State 573
Reducing Social Spending 574
LO 14-3 Analyze Cultural Factors 558
Delegating Policy Responsibilities to State and Local
Problems and Panaceas 558
Government 574
The Misleading Analogy of the Fair Footrace 558
Privatizing Social Services 575
Beliefs about Markets and Government 559
Seeking Nongovernment Substitutes for Publicly Funded
Beliefs about Equality 559
Programs 575
LO 14-4 Discuss Economic Factors 560 Using Deterrence 576
Low Levels of Taxation 560 Relying on Personal Responsibility 577
Military Spending 560 LO 14-11 Evaluate Contextual Factors That Have
LO 14-5 Discuss Institutional Factors 561 Promoted Enactment of Social Reforms 577
Jurisdictional Confusion 561 Where Do We Stand? 581
LO 14-6 Explore Social Factors 561 Standing on the Shoulders of Policy Advocates 581
Racism and Prejudice 561 LO 14-12 Recognize the Journey Toward Policy
LO 14-7 Understand the Sequence of Events 563 Practice and Policy Advocacy 584
The Late Development of the American Welfare State 563 Participating in Social Movements 584
The Military State Precedes the Welfare State 563 Establishing Advocacy Organizations 585
Legal Factors 563 Seeking Social Reforms From Within the
Political Factors 564 Government 585
Educating the Public as a Prelude to Social Reforms 585
LO 14-8 Understand Reluctance as the Outcome of Electing Reform-Oriented Candidates to Office 585
Numerous Factors 567 Influencing Policy From Organizational Settings 586
LO 14-9 Identify Redeeming Moral Features of the Whistleblowing 586
American Welfare State 568
LO 14-13 Understand How to Move Beyond History
Asserting the Ethical Case for the American Welfare to Policy Advocacy in Contemporary Society 586
State 569
Acquiring Policy Advocacy Skills 586
Not Blaming the Welfare State for Things It Cannot Do 570
Leaving A Better Welfare State for Future
Key Mental Health Reforms 571
Generations 587
Key Health Reforms 571
Key Safety Net Reforms 571
Key Civil Rights Reforms 572
Key Child and Family Reforms 572 Name Index 590
Key Regulatory Reforms 572 Subject Index 594
Preface
I
published the first edition of The Reluctant Welfare meritorious policies of prior eras while not repeating
State in 1988. It was the first analysis of the evolution errors of the past.
of the American welfare state that placed social welfare I’ve used a diversity perspective in this and prior
policy in the broader context of the nation’s politics, cul- editions. I discuss in this edition how members of many
ture, and economics. It discussed the pivotal role of pres- populations have been marginalized in specific histori-
idents. It brought history up to the present. I asked moral cal eras including women; African Americans; Asian
and ethical questions in each chapter, such as whether Americans; older persons; Native Americans; Latinos;
Americans were sufficiently attentive to the needs and children and adolescents; persons with physical and
aspirations of members of specific at-risk populations mental challenges; persons with substance abuse and
and whether the nation sufficiently protected the rights mental health issues; lesbian, gay, bisexual, and trans-
of at-risk populations. More recently, I’ve criticized the gender persons; persons accused of violating laws and
extreme income inequality in the United States that ex- residing in, or released from, correctional institutions;
ceeds levels of 20 other industrialized nations. immigrants; low-income persons; homeless people; and
Every social worker should be versed in social wel- white blue-collar people. I also discuss how members
fare history. It grounds us in the strengths and weak- of these groups have successfully advocated for them-
nesses of the American welfare state. It showcases the selves and with members of other at-risk populations.
work of policy advocates including many social work- I discuss political, economic, and cultural constraints
ers. It gives us insights into specific at-risk popula- that American policy advocates have confronted when
tions, not only how they have been marginalized, but they seek policy reforms. I also discuss political, eco-
how they have empowered themselves. Social welfare nomic, and cultural opportunities that policy advocates
history informs us of many programs and policies in encounter. The thousands of policy achievements in lo-
the American welfare state so that we can inform our cal, state, and federal jurisdictions in American history
clients about their benefits, opportunities, and rights. came from tens of thousands of committed policy advo-
It helps us apply ethical principles to guide profes- cates who helped build a more humane nation.
sional practice by applying standards from the National I present a multi-level advocacy model in Chapter 2
Association of Social Workers (NASW) Social Workers’ that includes micro policy advocacy at the level of indi-
Code of Ethics. viduals, mezzo policy advocacy at the level of commu-
This book contains many inserts that facilitate nities and agencies, and macro policy advocacy at the
these skills by posing specific issues drawn from level of local, state, and federal governments. I refer to
the history of specific eras. These include one titled advocacy at these three levels throughout the book. I’ve
Ethical Analysis of Key Issues and Policies and Crit- augmented my discussion of the presidency of Barack
ical Analysis. It provides a Policy Scoreboard at the Obama in his second term, such as discussing his role
ends of most chapters to summarize the major social in advancing the rights of LGBT people.
policies that constitute the American welfare state. It I discuss in considerable detail the life, candi-
discusses how contemporary Americans can draw on dacy, and presidency of Donald Trump in Chapter 13.
xiii
xiv Preface
I discuss the ethical challenges that his presidency poses ●●

Analysis of one or more policy failures in specific
for the social work profession. Many of his policies, as historical eras to review the need to be alert to ill-
well as his Tweets and speeches, must be viewed through considered policies in contemporary society.
the lens of the Ethical Code of the National Association ●●
Analysis of policy innovations in specific historical
of Social Workers (NASW) that guides the work of mem- eras that could be revived or expanded in the con-
bers of the social work profession. I discuss ethical issues temporary period.
that are posed by his presidency. I present a framework for ●●
A policy scoreboard that identifies specific poli-
engaging these issues in a civil way while not conceding cies enacted in specific historical eras that have
ground when flagrant violations of this Ethical Code take been transmitted to the contemporary era. A master
place. I discuss the adverse impact of his policy choices policy scoreboard in Chapter 14 contains an overall
on members of vulnerable populations. I ask whether he list of social policies that social workers often en-
betrayed the white blue-collar people who he championed gage in their work as they engage in micro, mezzo,
during his presidential campaign. and macro policy advocacy.
I place historical materials for many of the book’s
chapters on the MindTap, where students can delve
into specific topics that enrich their understanding of
specific eras. They can, for example, read about medi-
eval society to better understand the first colonists that
MindTap-Only Content
came to the United States. They can read in greater de- I have included additional readings for chapters 3,
tail about the plight of emancipated slaves in the wake 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 14 in the MindTap for the
of the Civil War. They can better understand the bud- 9th edition. Content includes discussion of the Civil
get conflicts that took place during the presidency of War and Reconstruction, social policy developments in
Barack Obama. I’ve placed these materials in the Mind- the 1950’s, the Congressional budget battle during Bill
Tap for the 9th edition. Instructors can decide which of Clinton’s presidency, and President Bush’s response to
these materials to assign to students. Hurricane Katrina. Information and examples on how
I discuss how to write policy background papers, to write policy advocacy background documents, op-
letters to the editor, Op-Ed essays, and policy briefs in ed articles, and policy briefs is also in the MindTap
the 9th edition MindTap. These can be used to develop (see Chapter 11). Prompts to access these materials can
policies and points of view that can be transmitted to be found in each relevant chapter.
the mass media as assignments at the end of the course.
I provide samples of each of them.
To facilitate classroom and offsite learning, I’ve in-
cluded links to innovative, easily accessible Web ma-
terials throughout the book. This technology enables
Ancillaries
students to interact with history through an array of To help faculty teach social policy history that links to
visual, audio, and graphic materials. Students can see EPAS standards, I have enlarged and revised the In-
homeless people riding trains during the Great Depres- structor’s Manual Creative Ways to Teach Social Policy
sion, listen to audio interviews with former slaves, view History and Link It to Contemporary Society and the
maps and interactive diagrams, listen to presidential de- Profession. PowerPoint lecture slides and Test Bank
bates, and take a virtual tour of a tenement building of questions are provided free of charge to faculty who
the 1880s. They can use these online aids within their adopt the 9th edition.
classrooms or offsite to develop specific assignments. I hope that this edition enhances social workers’
End-of-chapter materials include: practice in contemporary society. I hope that it mo-
●●
Discussion of unmet, persistent needs and policy tivates many students not just to learn about how the
issues in specific historical periods and the contem- American welfare state has evolved, but to engage in
porary period as a means of alerting students to the micro, mezzo, and macro policy advocacy to make it
need for policy advocacy. more humane in the future.
An Invitation to Students Using This Text
Y
ou may enter this course with trepidation, be- throughout the national experience. You will need to ask
lieving that it will focus primarily on memoriz- yourself whether and how these contending views are
ing distant events and myriad policies with scant relevant to the ethics code of the NASW, which asks so-
relevance to contemporary social work practice. View cial workers to advance social justice and meet important
this course, instead, as an opportunity to interact with social needs with effective social policies.
events, issues, beliefs, and past policies to improve This course will help you understand the components
your practice in contemporary society. Realize that this of the American welfare state as specific programs, poli-
course takes you right up to the present at the time of cies, and rights were enacted in different eras—and how
the writing of the 9th edition, including the recent pres- this process continues today. This course provides you
idencies of George W. Bush, Barack Obama, and the with a Policy Scorecard of these policies and rights that
first 11 months of the presidency of Donald Trump. You will be indispensible to effective social work practice.
can better understand contemporary issues when you Indeed, some of you may consider running for office if
view them in the prism of prior periods of time. this book opens up this possibility for you.
This course allows you to hone your ethical skills This course will also help you augment your social
in many ways. You can evaluate whether we even need work practice with three kinds of advocacy: micro policy
a welfare state in the first place by examining how the advocacy (commonly called “patient advocacy” or case
United States fared when it had only a primitive one— advocacy), where you help consumers obtain services,
without the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program rights, and opportunities to which they are entitled; mezzo
(SNAP or Food Stamps), Social Security, Medicare, policy advocacy where you work with communities and
Medicaid, and the Affordable Care Act (ACA). You agencies to improve services and to address community
can ask how Americans fared during recessions and the issues; and macro policy advocacy, where you seek to
Great Depression without unemployment insurance. reform defective policies in local, state, and federal juris-
This course will give you insights, as well, about the dictions. You will learn about many social work leaders and
life experiences of many vulnerable populations as they practitioners who used these interventions in prior eras to
contended with various kinds of adversity in the United help their clients and to make our society a better place. You
States prior to the enactment of civil rights legislation and will develop skills to analyze and develop policies, such as
specific social programs. These groups include women; developing a policy advocacy background document that
African Americans, Asian Americans; older persons; Na- serves as a template for specific reforms in contemporary
tive Americans; Latinos; children and adolescents; persons society. You may also write letters to the editor, Op-Ed es-
with chronic physical challenges; persons with substance says, and policy briefs, discussed at length in the MindTap.
abuse and mental health issues; lesbian, gay, bisexual, and You will find websites that enable you to interact
transgender persons; persons accused of violating laws and with history through documentaries, interactive dia-
residing in, or released from, correctional institutions; im- grams and maps, audio materials, and debates. You will
migrants; low-income persons; and white blue-collar peo- encounter ethical and other questions that will help you
ple. The course will discuss how members of these groups grapple with key social issues in the United States.
used empowerment strategies to contend with adversity. Consider this text to have a policy faculty of thou-
This course allows you to grapple with controversial sands of people who helped establish policies and rights
issues that are rampant in contemporary society, as any to make our society a better place—whether in the past
viewing of FOX News and MSNBC suggests—or with or the present. You will join their ranks as you engage in
the responses of the Republican and Democratic Parties history to advance your practice in contemporary society.
to many current issues. The roots of these controversies I am the Driscoll/Clevenger Professor of Social Policy
lie deep in the national experience; you will not only and Administration at the Suzanne Dworak-Peck School
learn about their origins, but come to see their prevalence of Social Work at the University of Southern California.
xv
Acknowledgments
Many of the changes in this edition were stimulated by Contributors to the Instructor’s Manual with Test
comments from the following reviewers: Bank: Creative Ways to Teach Social Policy History
and to Link It to Contemporary Society and the
Stephen Baldridge
Profession include Tony Bibus, Elizabeth Bussiere,
Aisha Bonner
Richard Cohen, Patrick Cunningham, Elizabeth
Nishesh Chalise
Dane, Susan Einbinder, Ralph Fertig, Esther Gillies,
Carla A Fagan
Rebecca Irwin, Katherine Kranz, Sharon Lardieri,
Jessica Gladden
Edith Lewis, Claire Lipscomb, Emma T. Lucas-Darby,
Heather Jones
Robin Lugar, Edward McKinney, Margaret Mead, Munira
Theresa Kreif
Merchant, Terry Mizrahi, Brij Mohan, Mary Montminy-
Sylvester Amara Lamin
Danna, Barbara Pillsbury, Elizabeth Rogovsky, Tim
Rosalie Schofield
Sampson, Susan Sarnoff, Robert Scheurell, Anneka
Christopher B. Smith
Scranton, Susan Smith, Terry Smith, Katherine van
Mary Banghart Therrien
Wormer, Jim Vanderwoerd, Ruta Wilk, Bonni Zetick, and
Daphne Thomas
Sharyn Zunz.
Leela Thomas
Kathleen Tunney
Kelli White
xvi
PAR T 1
Becoming a Policy Advocate

for Vulnerable Populations
T
he two chapters in Part I provide a gateway discuss micro policy advocacy, mezzo policy advo-
to social policy. They define “social policy” cacy, and macro policy advocacy as ways social work-
and give many examples of them. They de- ers engage in policy practice to improve the lives of
scribe the evolution of policies in the United States. vulnerable populations. They argue that social wel-
They discuss values that shape social policies. They fare history provides skills, perspectives, values, and
discuss empirical findings that are used to decide evidence-based findings that are integral to social
whether specific policies are meritorious. They workers’ practice.
CHAP TE R 1
The Symbiotic and Uneasy

Relationship
Clients, Social Workers, and the Welfare State
Students will learn in this chapter to:

LO 1-1 Analyze the evolution of the American welfare state LO 1-9 Enrich professional practice by placing it in a policy
LO 1-2 Discuss the need for an American welfare state context
LO 1-3 Understand why vulnerable populations especially LO 1-10 Understand policy-sensitive practice
need a welfare state LO 1-11 Trace the gradual evolution of the American welfare
LO 1-4 Move from our imaginary society to a welfare state state
LO 1-5 Learn the varieties of social policies LO 1-12 Recognize polarization and gridlock in the last
35 years
LO 1-6 Explore the purpose of social policies
LO 1-13 Develop personal and professional policy identities
LO 1-7 Understand the grouping or clustering of social
policies and social problems LO 1-14 Seek common ground while honoring the ethical code
of the National Association of Social Workers
LO 1-8 Identify policies that shape implementation and
funding systems LO 1-15 Treat each other with civility
T
hroughout this nation’s history, those who must than other Americans. You will become acutely aware
bear the brunt of social problems—individuals of the social, political, and economic context as it
contending with poverty, discrimination, dis- shapes the lives of your clientele positively and neg-
ease, and other social problems—have depended in atively. You will become aware of the importance of
considerable measure not only on their personal and social policies in the context of your clients, as well
familial tenacity and on community supports but also as of the agencies and programs where you work. You
on the policies of public and nonpublic agencies and will become more adept at ethical reasoning as you
of federal, state, and local governments. At various encounter many situations where you have to take
times, these policies, singly and in combination, have ethical positions with respect to the services you give
provided assistance to some, have left others with to specific persons, as well as the ethical merit of
no assistance, and have worsened the plight of many specific social policies that they encounter. Your jour-
others. ney through America’s history will help you sharpen
Your journey through America’s social welfare his- your motivation to engage in advocacy for specific
tory will help you sharpen many competencies. You clients (micro policy advocacy), to improve agency
will often engage in critical thinking as you ask why policies and to help communities improve policies
vulnerable populations became and remain a cen- that impact them (mezzo policy advocacy), and to im-
tral feature of our nation—and why their members prove government policies (macro policy advocacy)
often are poorer, sicker, and more poorly educated as you see unaddressed social problems. You will
Discuss the Need for an American Welfare State 3
see improvements in the context as specific social parties. You will need to engage in ethical reasoning
reforms are enacted in agency, community, and gov- to determine which policies and positions to oppose
ernment settings. You will be a better and more com- or support. You will consider evidence when making
plete professional by virtue of your journey through your policy choices. You will learn how to engage in
our national history. respectful discourse with persons with different views
You will see that members of the same vulnera- than your own. You will learn how to stand your ground
ble populations that you discussed in previous eras when persons adhere to unethical positions or posi-
continue to confront adversity in the contemporary tions not supported by empirical evidence.
period. You will engage many ethical issues, such If you use this course to achieve these competen-
as deciding whether specific policies are meritori- cies, you will enhance your professional practice con-
ous from ethical and evidence-based viewpoints. You ceptually, ethically, and proactively. We will help you
will see how vulnerable populations empower them- by identifying places in this book that discuss the
selves. You will see how social activists obtain major competencies described in the Invitation to Students
policy gains. at the outset of this book. The book provides spe-
You read this book during a period when the United cial inserts for ethical reasoning, critical thinking, and
States is deeply polarized by ideological divisions, policy practice, as well as websites that allow you to
such as between the Democratic and Republican interact with historical and contemporary events.
Analyze the Evolution

LO 1-1
and identify how we can learn from prior events as
we engage in our professional work in contemporary
of the American Welfare society.
State
Social welfare history is a laboratory where we analyze Discuss the Need for
LO 1-2
how Americans have responded to an array of social
problems that have included homelessness, poverty,
an American Welfare State
malnutrition, mental and physical illness, disrupted Imagine American society—or any
families, orphaned or abused children, violence, income society—with virtually no social pro-
inequality, and discrimination. grams, regulations, or civil rights. Let’s
Americans have fashioned a reluctant welfare state make several assumptions about this imag-
during their history. If they made it more humane EP 1a inary society. Assume that its economy is
through thousands of social reforms and funding EP 3b organized in a capitalist fashion where its
enhancements, they provided uncertain or harsh reme- citizens work in corporate or other busi-
dies for many residents who experience specific social ness settings—and where people are expected to meet
problems—and particularly for vulnerable populations their needs through wages, investments, and savings.
that we discuss throughout this book. We will ask you Also assume that all who live in this society are
at many points in this book to ask whether Americans expected to purchase their medical care, their housing,
have advanced the ethical principle of social justice. their education, and their social services with personal
We will ask you to analyze policies and approaches assets. Assume, as well, that no civil rights laws exist
that might have created humane policies. We will also to protect specific groups or persons who might be
ask you to analyze whether and why some unmet needs subject to violent acts, discrimination in places of work,
of prior eras remain unaddressed in contemporary or other forms of discrimination in schools, communi-
society. ties, medical services, commerce, or social services.
We will ask you, then, to move beyond a mere Assume, as well, that persons purchase their own means
bystander role as you engage the evolution of the of transportation (principally cars). Assume that they
American welfare state in succeeding chapters. We will fund their retirement exclusively from their savings.
ask you to take positions, make arguments, speculate, Also assume that this imaginary society possesses no
4 Chapter 1 The Symbiotic and Uneasy Relationship
regulations over businesses, landlords, drug compa- states, many employers would not purchase machines
nies, or medical providers. Nor does the society possess with safety features, not reduce pollution at the
police, fire, and public health programs. work site, and not curtail workers’ exposure to toxic
To say the least, life in such an imaginary society chemicals—omissions that would endanger the lives of
would be uncertain and difficult. Without a police many employees. With no regulations prohibiting the
force, persons would be subject to violent acts and use of child labor, many employers would hire children
theft. Without fire departments, their homes and busi- even for physically taxing work. With no prohibitions
nesses would be threatened with destruction, as small on making employees work long hours, some employ-
fires became conflagrations. Without public health ers would fire workers who were unwilling to work as
departments that regulate restaurants and markets, much as 14 hours per day.
sewage disposal, and refuse—as well as inoculate Imagine, too, how uncertain persons’ lives would be
people against diseases—communities would encoun- if no safety net programs existed, such as those that
ter devastating epidemics. currently provide food, health care, housing, preschool
If government did not build and maintain roads, education, income, and other basic needs to tens of
bridges, and airports, persons could not travel to work millions of Americans. Many Americans cannot cur-
or other destinations. Without public transportation, rently purchase these necessities because they have lost
the nation would experience gridlock on those roads their work due to downsizing or recessions, are injured
that did exist. Persons lacking the resources to pur- or in poor health, are unable to find work, or receive
chase cars would be mostly unable to work if there extraordinarily low wages. We can surmise that hordes
were no system of public transportation—or get to of people would have to resort to begging or theft to
health facilities, grocery stores, drug stores, and other survive in our imaginary society if they encountered a
destinations essential to their well-being. recession as deep as the one that existed from 2007 to
Even if we gave government some minimal police, 2009 and beyond—or even during periods of economic
fire, and public health functions—and allowed it growth when tens of millions of Americans use SNAP
to construct highways, bridges, and other physical (food stamps), free or subsidized school lunches,
amenities—life would still be brutish and uncertain for Medicare and Medicaid, and rent subsidies.
many people. With no minimum wage requirements, Residents of our imaginary society would be
employers could pay employees whatever the market harmed, as well, if Americans lacked policies to
would bear, regardless of the impact on workers. address global issues. Absent any policies that dealt
Indeed, it is likely that many workers’ wages would with such issues as immigration, the spread of dis-
be comparable to wages in developing nations, such eases across national boundaries, global environmental
as $2.50 per hour. If the United States currently pos- issues such as carbon dioxide emissions that threaten
sesses tens of millions of persons who subsist under global warming, and efforts to address an array of
or near official poverty lines because minimum-wage social problems in developing nations, residents would
jobs pay them at such low levels, imagine how many experience many uncertainties. They might be unpro-
more persons would face this economic crunch if gov- tected against a flu epidemic such as the one that killed
ernment had no minimum wage requirements. 20 million to 50 million persons worldwide in 1918.
The plight of workers would be made even more Lacking protections, immigrants might be attacked
harsh, moreover, because government—under our by xenophobic citizens without any legal protec-
minimalist assumption—would not require or help tions. American workers would find their work safety
fund some fringe benefits that many workers cur- and wages deteriorating if international trade treaties
rently receive. Many American corporations cur- allowed American corporations to victimize workers
rently fund their employees’ health insurance partly in the developing nations where they had moved their
because they receive huge tax incentives from the operations. Such places as Florida, the Gulf Coast,
federal government to do so—incentives that do not New York City, and portions of San Francisco might
exist in our imaginary society. Nor would employers be inundated by the ocean if international treaties
provide workers’ compensation to fund health care failed to avert or slow global warming stemming from
for workers who are injured at work. With no require- the emission of carbon dioxide and other pollutants.
ments for heeding work safety requirements currently Nor would many persons belonging to vulnerable
established by the Occupational Safety and Health populations fare well. Individuals harboring prejudice
Administration (OSHA) or similar agencies in many could prey on persons of color without any restrictions,
Understand Why Vulnerable Populations Especially Need a Welfare State 5
whether by denying them jobs and promotions, forcing pay only a 15% tax on capital gains when they sell
them to attend segregated schools, not allowing them stocks, bonds, houses, property, or other investments at
to live in their neighborhoods, denying them access a profit—and often pay little or no taxes on dividends
to public places like restaurants, or (even) physically or payments they receive from many state-issued bonds
harming or killing them, such as when tens of thou- that pay tax-exempt interest. Many tax loopholes greatly
sands of African Americans were lynched in the South assist affluent Americans to the point that Warren
prior to the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1965. Persons Buffett, worth tens of billions of dollars, argues that his
with physical and mental challenges would receive few secretary pays higher tax rates than himself. Americans
of the work, housing, and transportation accommoda- have two welfare states: one for relatively poor persons,
tions currently required by federal legislation. With no and another for relatively affluent persons. Other tax
civil rights legislation to protect them, women would loopholes greatly assist affluent persons.
suffer discrimination at work with no fear of legal Affluent Americans benefit in many other ways
repercussions by employers or fellow employees—and from the American welfare state. Many of them would
would lack legal protections against sexual harassment contract diseases if the nation lacked public health
at work, in their homes, and in schools. programs that inoculate its residents and screen for
Life would be difficult, too, for tens of millions of such diseases as tuberculosis. Without education, job-
retirees. Roughly half of persons who reach age 65 do training, and social service programs, they could not
not currently own their own homes and lack signifi- employ productive people for their businesses. Without
cant savings—and a significant percentage of them are a publicly subsidized transportation system, they could
significantly in debt. With no government-funded pen- not run businesses that receive and ship raw materials
sions and no subsidized health programs, many of them and products. Affluent people use the nation’s social
would be in desperate straits when confronted with programs when members of their families become dis-
poor health or chronic health conditions. Unless phy- abled, sick, or unemployed. They are entitled to Social
sicians and hospitals agreed to serve them on a chari- Security benefits and pensions as well as Medicare.
table basis, they would lack health care. They would be They write off mortgages on mansions and vacation
unable to purchase medications. Unable to afford rent, homes.
many of them would be forced to live on the streets
unless relatives or charities came to their assistance.
Those middle- and upper-income persons who
believe that they could live easily in our imaginary
Understand Why
LO 1-3
society should reconsider just how much they currently Vulnerable Populations
benefit from an array of social policies. They cur-
rently benefit from the nation’s largest housing subsidy Especially Need a Welfare
program that allows them to deduct much of their
mortgage payments from their income when calculat-
State
ing their federal and state taxes. (These tax benefits are If our imaginary society truly existed,
larger in their cumulative size than all of the nation’s and those persons who lived in it suffered
welfare programs.) We have already discussed how the uncertainty and ill effects, the members of
federal government underwrites their medical insur- vulnerable populations would be placed
ance payments by giving their employers tax breaks EP 1a in particular jeopardy by the absence of
for funding them. Private entrepreneurs are enriched EP 2a government programs, regulations, and
by their ability to write a significant share of their busi- EP 3a civil rights, as our discussion of seniors
ness expenses against their income when computing EP 3b and low-income persons already sug-
their federal and state taxes. EP 5a gests. Such forms of prejudice as racism,
Many American social policies favor affluent Ameri- homophobia, gender-based discrimination,
cans. They greatly increase their resources, for example, ageism, classism, hostility to immigrants, xenophobia,
as they pay relatively low federal taxes as compared to and dislike of persons with mental and physical issues
counterparts in Europe and Canada, even if they often were and are deeply rooted in American society.
think they pay exorbitant taxes. If upper marginal tax Prejudices often profoundly shape the political
rates are around 39% for affluent Americans, they often process and the kinds of policies that affect vulner-
exceed 50% for affluent Europeans. Affluent Americans able populations. Because low-income persons vote in
relatively small numbers and many Americans do not jobs that most citizens did not want and even as they
understand or care about their economic issues, the paid payroll and other taxes.
Congress and state legislatures often enact policies that Our discussion should not suggest that members of
are relatively harsh toward them or that siphon scarce vulnerable populations need or seek handouts. Indeed,
resources toward more affluent persons and interests. their members have often displayed remarkable resil-
Because children cannot vote and often lack substantial ience and ingenuity in addressing their own needs during
support from the broader population, legislatures often specific historical eras and in contemporary society. As
give their programs relatively scant funding—while we discuss at many points in this book, they have devel-
funding at far higher levels programs for elderly popu- oped their own self-help strategies, community institu-
lations that are more powerful politically. Even older tions like churches and businesses, and power resources
men and women encounter remarkably harsh policies, in local communities. They have also advocated for
such as ones that require them to “spend down” their policy reforms, such as civil rights legislation and
assets when they experience catastrophic illnesses until enhanced funding for social programs. They have fought
they become sufficiently poor to qualify for Medicaid. for improvements in their communities, such as enact-
Vulnerable populations need a welfare state, more- ing zoning requirements that decrease the number of bars
over, because they are more likely to experience and liquor stores in low-income areas, funding afford-
poverty, economic uncertainty, and victimization. able housing, promoting good-quality schools, funding
Poverty exists disproportionately, for example, among job-training programs, and promoting the development
single women with children, persons of color, and of healthy neighborhoods with recreation facilities, full-
persons with mental and physical challenges. If no gov- service grocery stores, and safe streets.
ernment safety net programs existed, many members Imagine, too, how the work of professional social
of these groups would not be able to meet their sur- workers would be impeded if virtually no social poli-
vival needs, such as food, medical care, income, and cies had existed during the Great Recession from 2007
housing. to 2009 or during Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria
Vulnerable populations are also more likely than in 2017. After reading Insert 1.1, discuss the following
other groups to be victimized by landlords, employers, questions:
merchants, middle-income and affluent communities, ●●
To what extent can social workers provide effective
credit card companies, and schools. interventions to economically distressed families
Absent protections and rights, immigrants to the if they cannot refer them to the myriad social
United States would find themselves in particular jeop- programs of the American welfare state?
ardy. They might be denied access even to emergency ●●
To what extent is micro policy advocacy—in which
medical services, to schools, to work safety protec- social workers “go to bat” for clients and link them
tions, and to a minimum wage—even as they filled to those services, benefits, and rights provided
INSERT 1.1 Critical Analysis Critically Reflecting on Your Professional Role
Assume that you work with a family whose finances Harvey, Irma, and Maria in 2017. Also assume that
were devastated by the economic recession of 2007 the parents are unable to purchase sufficient food
to 2009 and beyond. Or imagine that you are working for themselves and their two children. Lacking health
with victims of Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria in insurance, the mother is unable to afford medications
2017, whether in Texas or Florida. In this imaginary for her diabetic condition. Assume the family’s car has
situation, there is virtually no welfare state in the United been repossessed because they can no longer make
States. Also assume that you are working with a family payments on the loan they took out to purchase the car
that has two preschool-aged children. Assume that in the Great Recession or that their cars were destroyed
both parents have lost their jobs and have had their by surging water in one of the three hurricanes—so
house foreclosed on because they cannot make their they find it difficult to travel to job interviews or even to
mortgage payments—or lost their homes in Hurricanes go to supermarkets.
Learn the Varieties of Social Policies 7
them by the welfare state—an important profes- Constitutions define the social policy powers of
sional role? (Drawing on your personal knowledge, government at the federal and state levels. As we have
identify how you could provide micro policy advo- already noted, the failure of the federal Constitution to
cacy to this family now, when numerous policies enumerate social welfare functions for the federal gov-
and programs exist that could help them.) ernment was interpreted to mean that such functions
should be left to state and local governments and to the
You will learn about the challenges that confront 18
private sector. As a result, the development of social
vulnerable populations as you move through the history
welfare policies in this country was seriously delayed.
of the American welfare state. These include African
States, too, possess constitutions that establish impor-
American, Latino/a, Asian American, and Native Amer-
tant duties of state governments, as well as how they
ican populations. They include women, older people,
govern themselves.
and people with physical, mental, and substance-abuse
Some social welfare strategies involve public poli-
disabilities. They include children. They include the
cies, laws enacted in local, state, or federal legislatures.
lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and queer (LGBTQ) popu-
These include the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, the
lation, criminal offenders, homeless people, and juve-
Social Security Act of 1935, the Adoption Assistance
nile delinquents. They include some Jewish Americans,
and Child Welfare Act of 1980, the Americans with
some Asian Americans, and some white Americans.
Disabilities Act of 1991, and the Medicaid Program
They include low-income persons. They include immi-
created by adding Title XIX to the Social Security Act
grants. They include veterans. I discuss challenges
in 1965. These public policies can be modified or ter-
that these various groups have confronted in prior and
minated, as illustrated by the effort by President Donald
present periods, as well as the enactment of some poli-
Trump and Congressional Republicans to terminate
cies that have hindered or helped them.
the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010
(ACA).
Move from our
LO 1-4
Court decisions play important roles in American
social policy. By overruling, upholding, and interpret-
Imaginary Society to ing the federal and state constitutions, statutes of legis-
latures, ordinances of local government, and practices
a Welfare State of public agencies such as mental health, police, and
welfare departments, courts establish policies that sig-
Let’s define a welfare state as an organized and
nificantly influence the American response to social
societal response to the needs and rights of residents—
needs. For example, in the 1980s, the courts required
something that our imaginary society does not possess.
the Reagan administration to award disability ben-
A vast array of social policies form the foundation
efits to many persons with mental disabilities even
of welfare states that we can classify by their form,
though many administration officials opposed this
purpose, and the way they have been grouped or clus-
policy. Federal circuit courts declared two proposals
tered in welfare states. We can also identify policies
developed by President Donald John Trump to curtail
that shape implementing and funding systems that allow
immigration from some mostly Muslim nations to be
specific policies to be actualized.
unconstitutional in 2017.
Budget and spending programs are also an expres-
sion of policy, as society cannot respond adequately to
Learn the Varieties
LO 1-5 social problems if resources are not allocated to the rel-
of Social Policies evant programs and institutions. For example, Ameri-
cans chose not to expend a major share of the gross
In its broadest sense, social policy represents a collective national product (GNP) on social programs before the
strategy to address social problems. This collective strat- 1930s but greatly increased levels of spending during
egy is fashioned by government laws, rules, regulations, the Great Depression and in succeeding decades.
budgets, and personnel—that is, enactments that affect Despite the large increases in spending on social pro-
or bind the actions of residents, government officials, grams in the 1960s, the 1970s, and even the 1980s,
professionals, and the staff of social agencies. Let’s con- the nation chose to devote a significant portion of its
sider these aspects of social policy in more detail. federal budget to military spending during the Cold War
and to make successive tax cuts—policies that greatly

reduced the resources available for social programs.
Explore the Purpose
LO 1-6
President Trump and Congressional Republicans of Social Policies
developed budget policies that made deep cuts in many
social programs and tax policies that mostly enriched Regardless of their specific form, social
affluent Americans and corporations as we discuss in policies can be classified by their ultimate
Chapter 13. purpose in the welfare state as they address
International treaties, as well as policies of the specific social problems or issues, such as:
United Nations, govern an array of economic, social, EP 1b Needs-meeting policies, including pro-
●
migration, environmental, and national security issues EP 3a grams that give persons food, medical
in an era of globalization. EP 3b care, housing, and income (which would
Stated or implied objectives also constitute a form EP 5a include some contemporary programs
of policy. For example, the preambles and titles of EP 5b such as the Supplemental Nutritional
social legislation suggest broad purposes or goals. As Assistance Program [SNAP], Medicare,
its title suggests, the Personal Responsibility and Work Medicaid, rent subsidies and public housing, Sup-
Opportunity and Reconciliation Act that Bill Clinton plementary Security Income [SSI], and Temporary
signed in August 1996 emphasized rules and proce- Assistance to Needy Families [TANF])
dures for getting welfare recipients off welfare rolls ●●
Regulations that restrict the ability of landlords,
rather than providing them with training, education, or employers, corporations, manufacturers of drugs
services. and food, providers of health and mental health
Rules, procedures, and regulations define the way services, and the police to victimize consumers or
in which policies are to be implemented. Legislation persons with whom they deal
often prescribes, for example, the rules or procedures ●●
Opportunity-enhancing policies such as schools,
to be used by agency staff in determining applicants’ preschools, job-training and job-finding programs,
eligibility for specific programs such as Medicaid. subsidies to small businesses, tax incentives to help
Courts often prescribe procedures that the staff of persons start businesses or to encourage corpora-
social agencies must use to safeguard the rights of tions to train low-income persons, and programs
clients, patients, and consumers, such as preserving that help persons become American citizens
the confidentiality of their records or safeguarding ●●
Policies that establish and fund social and medical
the rights of persons before they can be involuntarily services to help persons with a range of personal
committed to mental institutions. Government agen- and familial problems as well as an array of medi-
cies issue administrative regulations to guide the cal problems
implementation of policies, such as requiring agen- ●●
Education policies that provide preschool, primary
cies to provide translation services to people who do and secondary, and postsecondary educational
not speak English. These regulations have the force of programs
law. ●●
Civil rights policies that specify the rights of
Compared with written or official policies, informal specific groups, such as women, men, persons of
policies are subjective views of persons and groups color, persons of every national origin, persons
that influence whether and how they implement spe- with mental and physical challenges, older persons,
cific policies. Assume, for example, that the govern- children and youth, persons of all faiths, and
ment required nursing homes to provide recreational persons with specific sexual orientations
services to their residents (official policy). Also assume ●●
Referral and linkage policies that establish
that the staff of a particular nursing home did not want case-management, ombudsman, and outreach
to provide these services (informal policy). The sub- programs
jective views of the staff would need to be changed to ●●
Equality-enhancing policies that target resources to
implement the formal policy, whether by giving them low-income populations (such as the Earned Income
training, convincing management to enforce the offi- Tax Credit and many means-tested programs) and
cial policy, or by using coercive strategies like with- that tax resources away from affluent persons, such
drawing public funds from nursing homes that failed to as the progressive federal income tax
provide recreational services.
Understand the Grouping or Clustering of Social Policies and Social Problems 9
●●
Asset accumulation policies that help consumers ●●
American policies that shape global environmental
develop savings accounts and real estate as well as problems that powerfully influence the health and
develop small businesses well-being of citizens in all nations
●●
Infrastructure development policies that promote the ●●
National and international security policies that
development of transportation systems and parks not only provide safety to nations around the globe
●●
Economic development policies that provide tax from invasions and terrorism, but that also discour-
incentives and loans to citizens and businesses to age any nation, including the United States, from
stimulate job training for employees and that fa- operating outside the orbit of the Geneva Agree-
cilitate the economic development of low-income ments, the United Nations, and international law
areas
●●
Protective policies that help persons who are sub-
ject to abuse or violent actions of others, such as
protective services for children and policies that LO 1-7Understand
protect women from physical assualt—as well as
policies that promote safe neighborhoods
the Grouping or
●●
Preventive policies that aim to avert the emergence Clustering of Social
of specific social problems such as public health
policies that decrease levels of bacteria in food and Policies and Social
●●
water
Disaster relief policies that shape the immediate
Problems
response to natural disasters such as Hurricanes Social policies, as well as some social problems, are
Katrina in 2005 in New Orleans; Hurricane Sandy grouped or clustered in specific policy sectors, such
in New Jersey and New York State in 2012, and as mental health, health, child and family, safety net,
Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, Jose, and Maria in Texas, welfare, education, gerontology, immigration, crimi-
the Gulf Coast and the Caribbean islands in 2017. nal justice, and civil rights. This grouping or clustering
partly reflects historical traditions where specific poli-
To these domestic policies, we need to add policies
cies were clustered in specialized programs and agen-
that are germane to globalization. With the increasing
cies that addressed specific social problems. “Problems
movement of capital, labor, pollution, and diseases
of the mind” came to be addressed by specific organi-
across national boundaries, Americans have increas-
zations, such as “asylums” (later called hospitals for
ingly had to cope with an array of global issues—even
mentally ill persons), family counseling agencies, com-
if they have developed humane policies only reluc-
munity health centers, and private counseling services
tantly in recent decades. They have had to develop:
with social workers, psychologists, and psychiatrists.
●●
Immigration policies to determine how to deal with Problems of neglected or abused children were clus-
legal and social issues associated with persons who tered in public child welfare agencies, child guidance
cross international boundaries with or without spe- clinics, and family counseling clinics. “Welfare” agen-
cific kinds of visas or other legal documents cies came to subsume public cash assistance to an array
●●
Policies shaping work conditions (wages, work of “needy persons” including single mothers and blind,
safety, child labor, and hours of work) of workers disabled, and elderly persons. Heath problems came to
in the nations with whom the United States con- be subsumed in hospitals and clinics—and to be funded
ducts trade under various trade agreements such by private health insurance and public programs like
as the North American Free Trade Agreement Medicare, Medicaid, and the Children’s Health Insur-
(NAFTA) and treaties of the World Trade ance Program (CHIP).
Organization (WTO) This grouping or clustering of social policies into
●●
American policies germane to festering health, policy sectors has both positive and negative conse-
poverty, economic, and environmental conditions quences. If persons possessed problems of the mind,
in developing nations, such as the HIV/AIDS for example, they knew where to go to get counsel-
epidemic in many African, Asian, and Eastern ing and related services. If persons believed that a
European nations child was abused or neglected, they knew that child
welfare agencies addressed such problems. In similar

fashion, persons with medical, housing, education, and
Identify Policies that
LO 1-8
familial problems knew where to go to get assistance Shape Implementation
with them. Persons who believed their civil rights had
been infringed knew to approach specific enforcement and Funding Systems
agencies such as the Equal Employment Opportunity
No matter their form or purpose—or how they are clus-
Commission (EEOC).
tered or grouped—specific social policies require two
Grouping or clustering also facilitated the training
additional features if they are to be actualized rather
of professionals and staff who came to be employed
than being only policies on paper. These are:
by organizations in these policy sectors. Counsel-
ors, teachers, physicians, nurses, and child welfare ●●
Policies that mandate and shape implementing
workers received training geared toward the social systems to allow these various policies to be placed
problems commonly addressed by specific policy into action so that consumers can use and benefit
sectors. from them—such as administrative regulations,
Yet grouping and clustering also had negative con- policies that allow public agencies to contract with
sequences. It creates relatively independent fiefdoms, private agencies to deliver services, and civil ser-
or silos, in the American welfare state. Persons with vice and other regulations shaping staffing patterns
mental health problems, for example, often need of public and private agencies
counseling, but they may also need help with specific ●●
Policies that establish how funds are raised and
medical and substance abuse problems. If their mental distributed to fund social programs, whether from
distress is caused or exacerbated by their economic budgets of local, state, or federal governments;
condition or homelessness, they may need job training, federal and state income taxes; property taxes; ear-
employment, and housing assistance. Yet they often marked taxes such as the payroll tax used to fund
find it difficult to access these various services due to Social Security and a portion of Medicare; tax con-
their separation from mental health services in separate cessions that subsidize some of the costs of specific
bureaucracies or agencies. services or benefits; or consumer fees.
Many social problems, moreover, defy simple
remedies by a single set of agencies. Many homeless
persons need, for example, a combination of housing,
mental health, substance abuse, welfare, medical, and LO 1-9Enrich Professional
economic assistance. Many persons who graduate
from foster care at age 18 require a similar combina- Practice by Placing it
tion of services and benefits. Professionals and staff
who are trained only to relate to consumers or clients
in a Policy Context
from highly specialized vantage points are often inca- Social workers are required by their code of ethics to
pable of orchestrating services and benefits that speak place the needs of their clients first. They are morally
to their broader needs (see Insert 1.2). obligated to select interventions, diagnostic tests, and
INSERT 1.2 Critical Analysis The Problem of Silos
Let’s return to the family that we discussed in Insert 1.1 their jobs, their home, and their car? Might the problem
that was economically devastated by the deep of “silos” make it difficult for social workers to address
recession from 2007 to 2009 or Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, the family’s needs if they work for a social agency that
and Maria in 2017. What additional social problems specializes in only a specific problem or issue? Can you
might members of this family develop as they descend think about these questions by referencing someone
into extreme poverty, with both parents having lost you know or have seen in your field placement?
Understand Policy-Sensitive Practice 11
treatments that will most enhance their clients’ well- housing costs will often find her health—or the health
being. When credible research suggests that specific of members of her family—to be compromised by this
interventions are likely to help specific clients, profes- reality—no matter how skillfully her physician, attor-
sionals should use them—while relying on their best ney, or social workers help her with the traditional ser-
professional judgments when such research does not vices they often provide. The physician, lawyer, or social
exist. worker who fails to refer her to the Supplemental Nutri-
The evolution of the American welfare state tion Assistance Program (SNAP or the food stamps
strongly suggests, however, that clients’ well-being program)—or to other income-enhancing programs like
extends beyond the scope of specific encounters with the Women’s, Infant, and Children’s Program (WIC) or
professionals. Specific bouts of therapy would not, for to the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC)— is not suffi-
example, have addressed the full range of needs and ciently improving her well-being by neglecting an array
wishes of persons cast into poorhouses because they of her needs and the needs of her family members.
were unemployed in the 19th century, whether due to Our analysis of the evolution of the American
recessions, physical or mental challenges, or discrimi- welfare state gives abundant examples of the impact
nation. Nor would they have addressed the major needs of economic, housing, civil rights, environmental,
of freed slaves, low-wage industrial workers in the and other external forces on the lives of members of
1880s, unemployed persons in the Great Depression, vulnerable populations. Through most of the nations’
or African American soldiers returning from World history, a range of public safety net programs did not
War II to Jim Crow laws and segregation in the even exist, so persons and families were thrown back
American South or to growing segregated communities on their own resources, as well as the resources of
in Northern American cities. Subjected to sexism in their networks and communities. Imagine hardships
workplaces, schools, homes, and professions, women experienced by settlers on the frontier who had to
often need more than counseling to address a full range devote several years to getting their first crops planted
of issues confronting them. and harvested when virtually no safety net programs
Social welfare history forces us to view human existed—or immigrants who arrived with no resources;
behavior in its broader societal and policy context. It the victims of recessions and depressions; and women
leads us to examine societal factors and forces that, who were widowed with no inheritance or employment
singly and in tandem, limit life prospects for some vul- prospects under the same circumstances. It was pre-
nerable populations. It places human beings in their cisely because voters and public officials recognized
broader context rather than viewing them as sepa- that persons’ well-being was compromised by the
rated from it. It leads us to consider policy-sensitive absence of a minimum threshold of resources and ser-
and policy-related practice, as well as empowerment vices that the American welfare state gradually evolved
strategies, that move beyond traditional therapeutic, from a primitive toward a more advanced one—even
medical, and legal services to give services that address if this evolution required more than 200 years even
a full range of the needs of their clients. It leads us to to yield the very imperfect American welfare state of
consider policy-advocacy practice when we believe contemporary society. Social welfare history sensitizes
that existing social policies contribute to their clients’ us to the environments of persons and populations as
problems or needs—such as micro policy advocacy, they were buffeted by adverse economic and social
mezzo policy advocacy, and macro policy advocacy. conditions in many preceding eras, as well as in the
contemporary period.
Policy-sensitive practice also requires profession-
als to recognize the importance of rights and entitle-
Understand Policy-
LO 1-10 ments to people. Through most of American history,
Sensitive Practice they hardly existed for members of the 18 vulnerable
populations identified in this book. Imagine the impact
All professionals should engage in their work with con- on members of these groups when they were subject to
sumers with the knowledge that their well-being often random and systematic racism not just from neighbors
extends beyond the scope of the traditional services that and other residents, but even from government offi-
they provide. A woman who cannot afford an adequate cials, social agencies, churches, public transportation,
diet for her children due to day care, transportation, and hotels, restaurants, bankers, real estate agents, and
landlords—with virtually no protections codified in federal government to their states will be more poorly
law and virtually no government bodies charged with funded than ones in more liberal states—and will be
monitoring and protecting their rights. Persons subject administered with more punitive guidelines. Means-
to unfair treatment suffer not just short-term problems tested programs often possess unacceptably low eligi-
such as restrictions on their employment, resources, bility levels—and their benefits are often inadequate.
recreation, ability to vote or hold public office, and The culture of poor laws and poorhouses still exists in
movement around the countryside, but also assaults to the United States as reflected by punitive policies of
their mental and physical health, not to mention their welfare legislation enacted in 1996 and mostly still in
sense of personhood. Many civil rights laws and reg- force. Funding levels for many programs can be sud-
ulations developed only relatively recently in Ameri- denly cut or entire programs eliminated. Certain kinds
can history, whether the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and of persons are not allowed to get benefits under some
1965, immigration legislation in 1966, the Americans programs, such as (until recently) single parents for the
with Disabilities Act of 1990, and the U.S. Supreme EITC Program (see Insert 1.3). The United States pos-
Court’s decision in Obergefell v. Hodges in 2015 that sesses the highest level of economic inequality among
guaranteed marriage equality for same-sex couples. 21 industrialized nations, partly due to social policies
Professionals need to be aware of the importance of that are less generous than these other nations.
rights and entitlements as they serve specific persons Americans do possess a reluctant welfare state that
to see if they are denied specific rights and entitle- often creates or even exacerbates problems for resi-
ments. They also need to know that many members of dents. Awareness of the reluctance of the American
vulnerable populations are still denied basic rights or welfare state helps professionals better understand
find their rights to not be monitored or enforced— their clients’ predicaments—and requires them to
or are unaware that they even possess specific rights or be creative in helping clients deal with the imperfect
entitlements under existing laws and regulations. social policies they confront.
By the same token, professionals in contemporary Social welfare history teaches us not only that many
society should be sensitized by their knowledge of policies are deficient, but also that they are poorly mon-
the evolution of the American welfare state to specific itored or implemented. The U.S. Department of Labor
gaps and omissions in its current social policies. As failed to monitor the extent to which corporations actu-
we learn from studying the evolution of the American ally paid immigrant laborers that repaired New Orleans
welfare state, social policies evolve through a politi- after Hurricane Katrina. The Equal Employment
cal process that often brings unfortunate compromises Opportunity Commission (EEOC) sometimes fails to
that impede their fairness or effectiveness. Profession- monitor or enforce job discrimination against women,
als who work in relatively conservative states should such as when they become pregnant or give birth.
recognize that many programs devolved from the Child welfare programs in some jurisdictions were so
INSERT 1.3 Ethical Analysis of Key Issues and Policies The Case of Persons
Imprisoned for Use of Drugs
The United States has had relatively harsh policies some states. Is counseling and other services readily
toward specific vulnerable populations for long available for persons incarcerated for this offense,
periods of time. Take, for example, policies toward as well as job training and employment services?
persons placed in prison for violating the nation’s Can you find evidence that persons of color are
drug laws. Go online to find the number of persons disproportionately imprisoned for drug-related
currently in prison for drug-related offenses—and offenses and, if so, why? Has this harsh orientation
specifically for use or selling of marijuana. See if you toward persons who commit drug offenses long
can locate a rough estimate of the cost to society existed in the United States? In light of our research,
of imprisoning persons who use or sell marijuana do you think American drug policy is fair, or does it
other than for medicinal reasons that is allowed by discriminate against persons of color?
Trace the Gradual Evolution of the American Welfare State 13
poorly implemented in the 1980s to the present period well as the establishment of civil rights laws. Reformers
that federal courts ordered that many of them be placed in the early 1970s emphasized provision of cash bene-
under state management or other agencies. fits to people rather than social services, which received
more attention in the 1960s. Democrats sought in the
presidency of Barack Obama to rebuild some powers
of the federal government by increasing government
Trace the Gradual
LO 1-11 regulation of banks, oil companies, and the health care
system. Republicans sought during the early part of the
Evolution of the American presidency of Donald Trump to repeal the Affordable
Welfare State Care Act and climate-control regulations. This book
provides “Policy Scorecards” at the end of each chapter
This book chronicles and analyzes the emergence and that describe the policies developed in specific eras—
evolution of the American welfare state. Only gradually and provides a master Policy Scorecard in Chapter 14
did the elements of the contemporary American welfare that summarizes these policies.
state emerge over this time span. While many back- The intensity of reform describes the rate of policy
ground cultural, economic, demographic, and other activity. Relatively few policy changes occurred in the
factors played a part, policy advocates were the key 1920s and 1950s, for example, but many changes were
precipitators of the rise and development of the Ameri- initiated in the 1930s, 1960s, and 1980s.
can welfare state. Singly and in tandem in specific time American social welfare policy has evolved in a
periods, they mobilized support and resources for addi- series of phases (see Table 1.1) that are described by
tions to the American welfare state—often facing con- Parts 2–6 of this book. Part 2 discusses social policy in
siderable opposition from other persons, groups, and a developing nation from the early 17th century to 1800.
interests. They also fought against efforts to downsize It discusses how settlers established small settlements
or eliminate specific policies in specific historical eras along the Atlantic seaboard, declared independence
and in contemporary society. from England, drafted and enacted a Constitution, and
The history of American social policy can be elected its first two presidents (George Washington
divided into a series of policy eras—specific periods and John Adams). The federal government had little
that have an identifiable policy direction, substance, resources or power as the colonists mostly relied on
and intensity. The policy direction of an era describes local government for its few social policies. The U.S.
the general nature of the policies enacted then. In rela- Constitution did not mention “social policy” because
tively conservative periods, the emphasis of policy its framers believed local governments and states
makers was and is on maintaining the status quo, would implement the relatively few and small social
eliminating reforms established in a preceding era, or programs needed by a rural society. The Constitution
making major amendments to prior enactments. As we declared slavery to be legal in Southern states—and left
discuss in succeeding chapters, many conservatives unanswered whether new states on the Western fron-
favor devolution (ceding federal policy roles to states tier would be slave or free. The nation practiced geno-
and local governments) or privatization (ceding public cide against Native Americans. Nor did it sufficiently
policy roles to for-profit corporations and private protect women’s rights.
markets). 2 In relatively liberal eras, policy makers Part 3 (1800–1932) discusses how the emerging
enact major new reforms that redistribute services and nation transitioned rapidly from a rural to an industrial
resources or that increase the role of government. power during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The
The substance of policy refers to the general strate- United States was mostly a rural society prior to the
gies favored by decision makers in a specific era. For advent of the Civil War in 1860. It developed an initial
example, between roughly 1905 and 1917, legislators set of social policies mostly at local and state levels
enacted regulatory reforms that established minimum during this period that included almshouses and insti-
public health, housing, and work safety standards. tutions for the mentally ill and orphans. The federal
Decision makers in the 1930s placed far more emphasis government auctioned off millions of acres of land
on legislation that redistributed resources and jobs to on the frontier to immigrants and others. The nation
unemployed and poor persons. Reformers in the 1960s maintained an open immigration system. It devel-
emphasized provision of social and medical services, as oped a system of public schools. It rapidly became
an industrial nation in the decades leading up to 1900 Rights Laws of 1964 and 1965, a War on Poverty,
when it became the world’s largest industrial power. Medicare, Medicaid, many housing programs, federal
It drew upon the labor of millions of immigrants from assistance to schools, and many others. With collabo-
Asia, Mexico, Europe, and Russia. The nation devel- ration from the Democratic Congress, Richard Nixon
oped only a small welfare state in the 19th century that enacted many programs that rivaled the Great Society,
increasingly became inadequate as the nation indus- including an expansion of Food Stamps; passage of
trialized and as low-income immigrants migrated to housing programs and the Earned Income Tax Credit;
the United States. The so-called Progressive Move- and establishment of the Environmental Protection
ment of the early 20th century, when the social work Agency (EPA). These many social programs were
profession was born, created a series of regulations often underfunded, however, as social reformers found
mostly in local and state governments over housing, resources depleted by military spending in the Cold
food, and drugs—but that distributed few resources to War, as well as the Korean and Vietnam Wars.
low-income persons. While slaves were freed during Part 5 (1981–1992) discusses the rise of the con-
the Civil War in the middle of the 19th century, Jim servative backlash against social polices enacted in the
Crow Laws in the Southern states did not allow them prior era, It was initiated by President Ronald Reagan
to vote, use public places, or serve on juries. Nor were and continued by President George H. W. Bush,
they given sufficient land and resources to lift many of Sr. Reagan markedly cut taxes and social spending while
them from poverty. The United States wrested lands greatly increasing military spending. He moved many
from Mexico in the American Southwest by invading programs from the federal government to states by cre-
Mexico City—and exploited Latinos by mostly rel- ating so-called block grant programs. He drew heavily
egating them to agricultural labor and denying them on the economic theory of Arthur Laffer who contended
the vote. Native Americans were subjected to vio- that huge tax cuts would spur economic growth without
lence from private citizens and the military and mostly increasing federal deficits—a theory that was disproven
placed on reservations with few rights and resources. by the creation of debts larger than all previous presi-
Irish, Italian, and Asian American immigrants, and dents combined. President George Bush, Sr. succeeded
other immigrants were subjected to considerable preju- Reagan in 1989—and maintained his conservative poli-
dice from the indigenous white population even as the cies. He also maintained Reagan’s high military spend-
nation used their labor to make goods in factories and ing, frugal domestic budget, and low federal taxes. While
build railroads. the rights of disabled persons were advanced by enact-
Part 4 (1933–1980) discusses how the United States ment of the Americans with Disabilities Act in 1990,
developed an array of social policies during a relatively neither President Reagan nor Bush, Sr. significantly
liberal era. It enacted scores of major social policies advanced the rights of other vulnerable populations.
during the Great Depression of the 1930s, the Great Part 6 (1992 to the present) discusses an era of grid-
Society of the 1960s, and the Presidency of Richard lock and polarization lasting during the presidencies
Nixon in the early 1970s. President Franklin Roosevelt of Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, Jr, Barack Obama,
initiated an array of federal social policies for the first and Donald Trump. Bill Clinton hoped to enact social
time in American history to address the survival needs investments that enhance economic opportunities for
of a nation with unemployment that ranged from 20% millions of Americans and national health insurance, but
to 60% of the entire population. For the first time, accomplished neither goal during a presidency where
the United States had a “welfare state” even if it was Republicans often controlled one or both houses of
poorly funded—a welfare state that was significantly Congress. President George Bush, Jr. hoped to privatize
funded by the federal government even as public edu- Social Security and Medicare but accomplished neither
cation was mostly funded by local units of government of these conservative goals as Democrats often con-
and states. While Roosevelt’s work relief programs trolled one nor both chambers of Congress. President
were terminated in World War II, Social Security, Barack Obama, the first African American president,
unemployment insurance, and some welfare programs successfully steered the nation out of the Great Reces-
remained intact—as did many federal regulations such sion of 2007 through 2009, enacted the Affordable Care
as abolition of child labor and the minimum wage. Act, and advanced the civil rights of the LGBTQ popu-
President Lyndon Johnson enacted scores of federal lation. But much of his presidency was marked by grid-
programs during the Great Society, including the Civil lock between the two parties and between liberals and
Recognize Polarization and Gridlock in the Last 35 Years 15
TABLE 1.1 Social Welfare Policy Eras in U.S. History

POLICY TIME PERIOD
Social policy in a developing nation Early 17th century to 1800
Social policy in a nation transitioning from a rural to an industrial nation 1800–1932
Development of an American welfare state in a relatively liberal era 1933–1980
Social policy in a period of conservative backlash 1981–1992
Social policy in a period of gridlock and polarization 1992–present
conservatives. While Obama won landslide victories in social needs that the nation confronts as it moves into
2008 and 2012, Republicans came to control Congress the next decade as illustrated by two examples. The
in landslide victories in 2010 and 2014 as well as many United States currently possesses extreme economic
governorships. Republican Donald Trump defeated inequality where the top 1% own 20% of the nation’s
Democrat Hillary Clinton in a close victory in 2016, income, while people in the bottom 50% often live
but accomplished few of his legislative goals in his first paycheck to paycheck and live in or near poverty.
eleven months in office due to opposition from Demo- Experts contend, as well, that automation, robots, and
crats and elements of the Republican Party. self-driving technology could drastically reduce avail-
We place the policy eras described in Parts 2–6 in able jobs of workers in manufacturing, truck-driving,
Table 1.1. It should be noted that some of the eras can warehouse workers, janitors, and many other occupa-
be described as relatively liberal, others as relatively tions. Were this to happen, economic inequality could
conservative, and others as gridlocked. While some become even more severe in the future.
social work historians view the so-called Progressive
era (from roughly 1900–1917) as a relatively liberal
era, it failed to enact major policies at the federal level
of government, which is a hallmark of the liberal eras Recognize
LO 1-12
of the New Deal and the Great Society augmented by
the reforms of President Nixon in the wake of the Great Polarization and Gridlock
Society. The presidency of Donald Trump is described
only in its first eleven months in Chapter 13 due to the
in the Last 35 Years
date of the publication of this book. As Table 1.1 suggests, the United States has been
This book discusses the paradoxical nature of the locked in ideological polarization and political grid-
American welfare state in Part 7 in Chapter 14—that is, lock from 1992 to the present during the presidencies
its reluctance (on the one hand), yet its significant size of Clinton, Bush, Jr., and Obama, as well as the first
and growth (on the other hand). I explain its paradoxi- year of Trump’s presidency. The presidencies of Ronald
cal nature by examining contextual cultural, economic, Reagan and George Bush, Sr., could also be described
political, and other factors that have led to this result. I as gridlocked with the exception of 1981 when Reagan
provide POLICY SCOREBOARDS at the end of chap- enacted many conservative policies and when George
ters to follow the growth of the American welfare state Bush, Sr. enacted very few domestic policies.
during different eras, as well as a summary POLICY Ideological polarization is not new to American
SCORECARD in Chapter 14 of important social policy politics. Many conservative Republicans disliked, even
reforms that currently exist that have critical impor- hated, Franklin Roosevelt and Lyndon Johnson. Many
tance to Americans. I identify flaws, omissions, and Democrats viewed President Nixon with disdain.
gaps in the American welfare state that need to be reme- Democrats gridlocked Congress during portions of the
died or addressed by policy advocacy by social workers Presidency of Ronald Reagan and George Bush, Sr.
and others. I discuss in Chapter 14 challenges facing Deep ideological divisions existed in prior eras. As
Americans in sustaining effective social programs and illustrated by Hamilton, the Broadway play, Thomas
augmenting them in light of unaddressed and emerging Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton, key figures in the
TABLE 1.2 Comparison of Different Ideologies

CONSERVATIVES LIBERTARIANS LIBERALS RADICALS
Views of federal Negative, except in Negative Relatively positive Positive, unless it

government military and international is under control of
policy and as source of monied interests
subsidies for business
Views of state and Relatively positive Negative Divided, but federal Less positive than
local government government is often views of federal
preferred government
Views of causes of Emphasis on personal Unclear More emphasis than Environmental factors
social problems and cultural factors conservatives on generated by monied
environmental factors interests
Views of Positive Positive Positive, but Negative, unless

capitalism regulations are workers are
favored empowered
Views of human Relatively optimistic Favor policies Relatively optimistic Pessimistic about
nature about affluent people, that maximize about poor people monied interests, but
less optimistic about the liberty of all but less optimistic optimistic about other
poor people people about rich people people
Views of safety Want relatively meager Unclear Want relatively Favor generous safety
net safety net generous safety net net
Attitudes toward Divided, but a Dislike Usually oppose Often oppose

abortion and other significant faction favors government restrictions on restriction of social
moral issues government controls regulation of abortion but favor matters
social matters restrictions on drugs
Core value Liberty, though some Liberty Liberty, but social Social justice
government incentives justice is also
and regulations are important
favored
Views of Favor nongovernment Favor Favor a mixture Favor government

nongovernment initiatives nongovernment of both programs, but often
and government initiatives recommend worker
programs or citizen inclusion in
government decisions
Views of Tend to deny their Unclear Favor some Emphasize oppression

subgroups who existence or minimize redistribution and of out-groups and
lag behind others discrimination strong civil rights seek major corrective
in economic status action
or who experience
discrimination
forming of the American Republic, possessed diver- We explore causes of extreme polarization in Chap-
gent views about the power and roles of the federal ters 10–13. We identify competing belief systems in
government. If Jefferson emphasized the role of states, this chapter, as illustrated in Table 1.2.
Hamilton emphasized the role of the federal govern- Some people (we often label them conservatives
ment. Many Republicans labeled President Franklin today) opposed the development of policy initiatives
Roosevelt as a dictator and worse. to address the social needs of people—such as the
use of federal funds to build mental institutions in the Democratic Socialist when he sought the Democratic
1840s, the development of civil rights legislation in the nomination for the presidency in 2016—and was the
1960s, and the development of major initiatives to help only presidential candidate that spoke out against
homeless people in the 1990s. Contemporary conser- extreme economic inequality. American radicals trace
vatives view themselves as ideological descendants their heritage to union organizers and legendary radical
of the founding fathers, 19th-century capitalism, and figures of the 19th and 20th centuries, such as Eugene
presidents Coolidge, Hoover, Eisenhower, and Reagan. Debs and Norman Thomas, as well as the socialists
Libertarians, as Republican Senator Rand Paul from and communists of the 1930s. They often identify
Kentucky, have sought to curtail government control with grassroots social movements, including move-
or regulation of individuals. Emphasizing the Bill of ments to abolish imprisonment for debt and to end
Rights, they oppose laws that outlaw the use of drugs slavery before the Civil War, the Industrial Workers of
like cocaine, that prohibit abortion, or that censor pub- the World in the progressive era, the Southern Tenant
lications. They want to enhance the freedom of individ- Farmers Association, the unemployed workers move-
uals to the extent possible, in contrast to conservatives, ment, the industrial workers movement in the New
who support the criminalization of specific drugs and Deal, the civil rights and welfare rights movements
abortion. Social reformers (today, we often refer to of the 1960s, organizations representing homeless
those who seek social reforms as liberals), includ- persons in the 1980s, and the Occupy America move-
ing Dorothea Dix, Jane Addams, Franklin Roosevelt, ment in 2011 (Figure 1.1).
Lyndon Johnson, and Barack Obama, obtained enact- People in societies with conflicting policies and
ment of a range of policy reforms despite the con- relatively harsh traditions must at some point shape
certed opposition of conservatives and many interest their personal values. As we study the evolution of
groups. Contemporary liberals perceive themselves as the American welfare state, we engage in a voyage of
ideological descendants of presidents Theodore and personal discovery in which we develop our personal
Franklin Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, John Kennedy, policy identity as we encounter specific developments
and Lyndon Johnson; professional leaders like social and perspectives. Do we share the values of contempo-
worker Jane Addams; and activists like Reverend rary American conservatives, libertarians, liberals, or
Martin Luther King Jr. and Cesar Chavez. These indi- radicals? Do we favor the expansion of the federal gov-
viduals were in the vanguard of the movement to build ernment’s social welfare role, advocate the status quo,
an American welfare state, even if the political opposi- or want reductions in existing programs? What policies
tion that they encountered meant that it was a reluc- do we advocate with respect to contemporary social
tant welfare state. American radicals, including union problems such as homelessness and the provision of
organizers, socialists, and communists, have periodi- medical care to those who cannot afford insurance?
cally pressured liberals and conservatives to consider While recognizing that they are not homogeneous
major expansions of the welfare state, just as various groups, we can compare conservatives, libertarians,
social movements have sought reforms for specific liberals, and radicals with respect to 10 dimensions,
causes. Senator Bernie Sanders described himself as a as illustrated in Table 1.2. They differ in their attitudes
Gary Dwight Miller/ZUMA Press, Inc./Alamy Stock Photo
Mark Wilson/Getty Images
Bettmann/Getty Images
FIGURE 1.1 (Left) An American conservative, House Speaker Paul Ryan; (center) an American liberal:
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt; (right) American radicals: Occupy Wall Street Members.
toward the federal government and state and local gov- tend to be relatively optimistic about persons in the
ernments; in their beliefs about the causes of social upper economic strata. Far from contending that
problems; in their views of capitalism, human nature, wealth or inheritances might corrupt those individuals,
the safety net, abortion, nongovernment associations conservatives want them to retain much of their wealth,
and agencies, and subgroups; and in the core values on the assumption that they will place it in job-creating
they consider most important. investments that will ultimately spur economic growth.
For conservatives, freedom is fundamental; they In seeking the causes of social problems, conserva-
value the freedom to retain personal wealth and to tives often implicate personal or cultural factors. They
conduct enterprises with minimal public regulation. contend that many people use social programs because
Conservatives are optimistic that unfettered capital- they do not want to work or because American culture
ism will produce prosperity if government does not fails to emphasize “personal responsibility.”
place excessive regulations on it. Rather than favor- Conservatives do not emphasize disparities in eco-
ing government programs or tax policies that redis- nomic and social status among subgroups (such as
tribute wealth, they believe that economic growth African Americans or women) and the general popula-
will “trickle down” to persons in the lower economic tion and often dispute data suggesting that these dis-
strata. Many conservatives believe, as well, that com- parities are wide or growing. Conservatives such as
munities, families, churches, and nongovernment Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush, Sr. opposed
organizations can meet most needs of individuals and civil rights legislation in the 1960s. Conservatives tend
that these nongovernment entities can even replace to oppose affirmative action, as well as redistributive
many public programs—for example, by encourag- policies such as increasing the tax rates on affluent
ing individuals and communities to care for home- Americans. They often question whether widespread
less persons. To the extent that social programs are discrimination exists or discount its importance.
developed, many conservatives prefer to have them Conservatives are not a homogeneous group, as an
vested not with the federal government but with local examination of the contemporary Republican Party
and state governments, which would bear their full makes clear. Persons from the “religious right,” who
funding and implementation—or with the private constitute a large proportion of the contemporary con-
sector, whether corporations or faith-based organiza- servative movement, strongly believe the government
tions. If local resources are unavailable to implement should act to restrict abortion, censor pornographic
specific programs, conservatives often favor policies literature, outlaw certain drugs, and allow prayer in
such as block grants, where state and local units of public schools. They have often clashed with other
government receive fixed annual allowances from the conservatives who oppose some of these policies.
federal authority in a particular realm (such as welfare Some conservatives, such as Newt Gingrich, carry an
or housing and community development) and are free antigovernment ethos far further than do moderate
within broad guidelines to decide precisely how to Republicans like Senator Susan Collins from Maine,
use them. who are more supportive of government programs, less
Conservatives are relatively pessimistic about the inclined to cut domestic spending deeply, and more
fundamental nature of human beings, particularly those inclined to retain many government regulations. While
of limited means. They tend to believe that people in often criticizing big government, conservatives support
need can be corrupted by social programs—that is, that tax deductions for mortgage-holders, tax reductions
those who receive benefits will rely on them instead on dividends and capital gains, and other policies that
of seeking gainful employment. To counter what they advance their economic interests.
regard as the “perverse incentives” provided by welfare Nor do conservatives always act in a manner that
and other social programs, many conservatives want to is consistent with their stated principles. Even as they
make social benefits less munificent and to set time often oppose the expanding size of government, they
limits and other conditions to their receipt. To prevent also support specific social programs. Farmers in rela-
large numbers in the population from using social pro- tively conservative areas often support the Supplemen-
grams, conservatives usually want to tighten eligibil- tal Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP or the Food
ity requirements. In contrast to their pessimism about Stamps Program), partly because it expands markets for
persons in the lower economic strata, conservatives their products. Conservatives often support Medicare
and Social Security programs partly because their rela- can solve or address major social problems without
tives, as well as many constituents of conservative leg- government assistance; however, they often support
islators, use and like them. Many persons who voted partnerships between government and these entities.
for Donald Trump protested Republicans’ attempts to Liberals are more optimistic about government’s ability
repeal the Affordable Care Act because they received to ameliorate major social problems such as poverty
health insurance from the ACA. Others protested cuts and homelessness, whereas conservatives emphasize
in Medicaid sought by Republicans because it funds the negative qualities of government bureaucracy and
treatment and counseling for poisoning from opioid regulations, liberals are more inclined to support them.
drugs that killed roughly 60,000 persons in 2016. Liberals recognize disparities in economic and social
Libertarians like Representative Ron Paul agree status between vulnerable populations (such as women
with conservatives about the primacy of freedom, or African Americans) and the mainstream population.
but—unlike conservatives—they oppose policies They favor redistributive policies, such as the progres-
that enforce a single standard of public morality. For sive income tax, and redistributive programs like Med-
example, they oppose laws that restrict abortions, icaid, as well as the Patient Protection and Affordable
criminalize drugs, or impose censorship of journalism Care Act of 2010 (ACA). Many liberals have supported
or art. Like conservatives, libertarians favor relatively civil rights laws for many vulnerable populations.
low taxes, since they regard them as infringing on Just as conservatives are not a homogeneous group,
the economic independence of individuals. Libertar- varieties of liberals exist. If some liberals favor a
ians are often critical about the sheer size of military relatively expansive welfare state that attempts both
involvements of the United States. to equalize opportunity and to decrease economic
However, liberals like President Barack Obama inequality (stalwart liberals), others are content to
wanted to keep government powers more limited than equalize opportunity through Head Start and similar
do radicals, they are less sanguine than conservatives programs and a minimal set of safety net programs
about unfettered capitalism. Left to its own devices, such as food stamps, now known as the Supplemen-
they contend, capitalism often produces considerable tal Nutrition Assistance Program, or SNAP (tradi-
inequality, as is apparent from the disparities between tional liberals). Stalwart liberals favor relatively
wages, salaries, and private wealth that exist in the generous welfare programs, tax policies that redistrib-
United States today. Moreover, they contend that many ute resources to people in the lower economic strata,
capitalists victimize people, such as avaricious land- and affirmative action programs that provide special
lords, entrepreneurs who pay low wages, banks that assistance to groups who lag behind the rest of the
engage in fraud or that issue mortgages and loans to population. Allies of Senator Bernie Sanders, who
people who lack resources to fund them, and purvey- often call themselves progressive Democrats, strongly
ors of tainted food and drugs. Believing that many support national health insurance. Hillary Clinton,
people are subjected to discrimination in employment, by contrast, is somewhat more cautious about major
education, use of public places, and accommodations, social reforms and is more like traditional liberals like
liberals often favored the enactment of civil rights leg- Presidents John Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson, who
islation to protect rights of persons of color, disabled emphasized educational, medical, and job-training
people, and women. Placing somewhat more empha- supports for individuals, In the 1980s, the Democratic
sis on equality than do conservatives and wanting to Leadership Conference (DLC) was established to
restrict the victimization of people, liberals favor an develop a centrist position. Calling themselves “New
array of government regulations and programs, such as Democrats,” they favored social reforms that promoted
minimum-wage legislation; regulation of working con- personal responsibility and opportunity. When DLC
ditions; subsidies for persons of low income through cofounder Bill Clinton became president from 1993
welfare programs, Medicare, Medicaid, and SNAP; and through 2000, he often followed a “moderately liberal”
job-training and Head Start programs to provide indi- course, a course also favored by Al Gore, Democratic
viduals with the skills and knowledge necessary to be contender for the presidency in 2000.4
productive persons. Liberals are less inclined than are The personal views of specific politicians are some-
conservatives to believe that nongovernment associa- times obscured by actions they take in response to their
tions, not-for-profit agencies, churches, or civic groups opposition.
It is often difficult to know what specific politi-

cians personally favor because they often are forced
Wally McNamee/Corbis Historical/Getty Images

to respond to their opponents. Take the case of Demo-
crat Barack Obama,who was elected to the presidency
in 2008 and reelected in 2012. He seemed somewhat
more liberal than President Bill Clinton, but encoun-
AP Images/Ruth Fremson
tered a gridlocked Congress. While he secured the
enactment of national health insurance, bank regu-
lations, and a huge stimulus program in his first
two years in office in 2009 and 2010, he might have
sought and obtained even more social reforms had
Republican majorities in the Congress allowed him to FIGURE 1.2 Hybrid politicians: Richard Nixon (left)
enact them. and Bill Clinton (right).
Like their counterparts of other political ideolo-
gies, liberals do not always follow their stated prin- and conservative groups, such as American free-trade
ciples. Favoring more equality, they often support tax policies that often enrich corporations while ignoring
loopholes and other tax concessions for large corpora- working people in the United States and developing
tions. Even when they seek greater funding of social nations. Some radicals view government programs
policies, they sometimes favor large tax cuts that as a conspiracy to defuse pressure for social change
deplete the Treasury. by making relatively small concessions to working-
Many kinds of radical positions exist. Emphasiz- class persons. They often advocate grassroots orga-
ing equality, radicals are deeply pessimistic about the nizing to develop constituencies for radical policies,
efficacy of unfettered capitalism in advancing social such as by unionizing workers in low-wage service
justice. Some radicals, such as socialists, want to industries.
transform capitalistic institutions into publicly run More than some liberals, radicals link the oppres-
industries or favor worker ownership of corporations. sion of vulnerable populations to the economic and
Realizing that these policies are difficult to achieve political subjugation of the working class, which
because of the sheer power of corporations, radicals subsumes many persons in those populations. To
favor the major redistribution of wealth through tax upgrade the economic and political status of women
policies, as well as far-reaching government pro- and African Americans, for example, they would
grams that both provide services and benefits to all favor sweeping economic reforms, such as curtailing
people residing in America and target them to less the ability of corporations to move their operations
affluent residents. Senator Bernie Sanders favors to low-wage nations, seeking “living wage” policies,
a universal health programs that he calls Medicare and decreasing high wages of corporate officials. (To
for All. While liberals favor government programs see or view discussions of the way persons with dif-
and progressive taxes but usually want to keep them ferent ideologies view social policy, see websites in
within certain limits, radicals have fewer inhibitions Insert 1.4.)
about far-reaching government interventions. Some Some people don’t neatly fit into the four kinds of
radicals emphasize far-reaching reforms to help spe- ideologies that we have discussed. Presidents Richard
cific groups, such as African Americans and women. Nixon and Bill Clinton often acted like liberals,
Some feminists favor, for example, far-reaching seeking to enact major social programs while also
policies to equalize conditions between women and seeking conservative measures as I discuss in Chapters
men—for example, children’s allowances, remu- 8 and 10. Donald Trump espoused liberal programs
neration for raising families, affirmative action, during his candidacy for the Republican nomination
aggressive collection of child support from former as he advocated large infrastructure programs and
spouses, paid family leave, and a constitutional (even) national health insurance. Yet he also sounded
amendment to guarantee equal rights for women (see conservative themes—and many members of his
Figure 1.2). cabinet were multimillionaires or billionaires. I titled
Radicals are often critical of existing social policies, Chapter 13, “Donald Trump: Populist or Conservative
which, they argue, reflect the interests of corporate Republican?”
Develop Personal and Professional Policy Identities 21
INSERT 1.4 Critical Analysis Using the Web to Understand Policy in a Society
with Conflicting Tendencies
Visit www.cengagebrain.com to view these links and a Future?” (Discussants are E.J. Dionne, Todd Gitlin,
variety of study tools. Ronald Waters, and Will Marshall in April 1996.) To what
Go to http://www.loc.gov I recommend going extent does the discussion support the assertion that
to this website in many succeeding chapters because different kinds of “liberalism” exist? Are observations
the Library of Congress (loc) is a vast repository of made in 1996 still relevant today?
historical materials, which are often digitalized. Click Go to http://www.pbs.org/thinktank/show_252
on “Memory” to locate current online exhibits and .html Read “The Heart and Soul of Conservatism,” a
familiarize yourself with the kinds of digital materials you discussion by Christopher DeMuth, John Judis, David
will use at this site while reading subsequent chapters. Brooks, and Bill Kauffman in March 1996. Does this
Go to http://www.archives.gov I will recommend discussion support the contention that different kinds
this website of the National Archives in many succeed- of conservatism exist? Are observations made in 1996
ing chapters because it, too, is a vast repository of his- still relevant today?
torical materials in digital format. Click on “educators G o t o h t t p : / / w w w. s t u d e n t n e w s d a i l y. c o m
and students” and proceed to “online exhibits.” Visit /other/conservative-vs-liberal-beliefs/ This site
one of these online exhibits to familiarize yourself with contrasts liberal and conservative positions on 21
the kinds of online materials that you can visit in subse- contemporary issues, such as immigration, affirmative
quent chapters of this text. action, abortion, health care, gun control, and same-
G o t o h t t p : / / w w w. p b s . o r g / t h i n k t a n k sex marriage. Select one of them and see if you can
/transcript305.html Read an interesting discussion identify possible sources of compromise. What did you
about liberalism called “Does Liberalism Have a learn from this experience about values?
Develop Personal
LO-13
in the South in the first half of the 20th century—with
crowds often gathering in a festive atmosphere to witness
and Professional Policy these executions.
As we view these raw social needs and develop-
Identities ments, we also observe how Americans responded to
them. Once again, we do not have the luxury of neu-
The “raw stuff” of social welfare history
trality. We ask, for example, were the work relief pro-
provides a powerful tool for a personal
grams of the New Deal meritorious (as many liberals
voyage of discovery that helps us develop
contended) or manifestations of “big government” (as
our own personal policy identities. We
many conservatives contended)? We ask if the Civil
EP 1a do not have the luxury of being neutral or
Rights Acts of 1964 and 1965 were meritorious (as
above the fray when we examine an array
many Democrats and moderate Republicans contended)
of specific policies that were encountered by vulner-
or ill-considered (as such Republicans as Ronald
able populations from the colonial period onward. We
Reagan and George H. W. Bush contended)? We ask if
see firsthand major American catastrophes like the Civil
the ACA of 2010 was meritorious, as all congressional
War, the depression of 1893, the Great Depression of the
Democrats decided, or poor legislation, as virtually all
1930s—when as many as 25% of Americans (and 75%
congressional Republicans and Donald Trump decided?
of persons of color) became unemployed in a society that
We can use our perspectives from the past to inform
lacked virtually any safety net programs including unem-
our positions in contemporary society. For example,
ployment insurance—and the Great Recession of 2007
we might think contemporary policies are deficient
to 2009 and beyond. We view competition between mili-
when we learn that:
tary spending and domestic spending in such eras as the
1950s, when roughly three-fourths of the entire federal ●●
An estimated 51,000 people experience homeless-
budget was consumed by military spending. We see the ness in a single urban county (Los Angeles), includ-
widespread lynching (hanging) of African Americans ing roughly 9,000 veterans and 12,500 chronically
homeless—persons or families that have been civil rights prior to 1964. Courageous policy advocates
homeless for one year or longer and possess serious often did emerge—sometimes even endangering their
health, mental health, or substance abuse problems5 lives when they championed unpopular causes.
●●
Three times more seriously mentally ill persons We can criticize policies in bygone eras even when
reside in jails and prisons than in hospitals6 little or no dissent existed during them. Even though
●●
The United States ranks 31st of 34 members relatively few white Americans opposed the public
of the Organization for Economic Cooperation lynching of African Americans in the South in the
and Development (OECD) in income inequality, 19th century and well into the 20th century, we can
ranking ahead of only Chile, Mexico, and Turkey7 say that this practice violated the ethical principle of
●●
About 40% of persons who “graduate” from foster not killing. Even though most Americans agreed that
care at age 18 become homeless in the next three women ought not go into professions mostly reserved
years—and many become incarcerated for men in the 19th century, we can strongly disagree
●●
About 50 million Americans lacked health insurance with this exclusionary policy on the grounds that it
in 2013.8 Moreover, the Republican House of Repre- violates women’s civil rights.
sentatives supported a repeal of the Affordable Care Social workers should expect to be outside main-
Act that would have deprived 23 million Americans stream opinion on some issues because of the nature of
of health insurance in summer 2017, as estimated by their work. We see firsthand persons widely regarded
the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) with indifference or suspicion by other citizens who do
not actually work with homeless persons, persons with
As we examine such complex social problems substance abuse, ex-offenders, or persons on welfare,
in American history as drug addiction, alcoholism, As we examine the life stories of members of vulner-
serious mental disorders, juvenile delinquency, and able populations, we often discover that many factors
child abuse, we learn that easy answers or panaceas shaped their lives in ways that make it difficult to
seldom exist. Since these problems are often caused blame or condemn them for their problems—such as
by a variety of personal, familial, genetic, community, being abused as children or as adults, living in extreme
economic, cultural, and other factors, panaceas rarely poverty, lacking education, and suffering from other
work. Promising strategies nonetheless exist that can traumas. We also discover that people who do not
ameliorate major social problems even if they cannot know these life stories and who have not interacted
eliminate them. with such persons often marginalize them.
In making judgments about policies in prior histori- Social policy history provides us, then, with an ideal
cal eras, we also learn that we must make them with means of evolving our personal and professional policy
due recognition of realities that reformers encoun- identities, which consist of a set of explicit values and
tered. Federal, state, and local governments had rela- positions that shape our selection or rejection of policy
tively few resources in many historical eras compared choices. In our personal lives, we decide what causes
with contemporary society—and they often possessed and what public officials to support—or not to support.
relatively primitive administrative or implementing We decide what personal commitments to make to
capabilities. Americans in some historical eras had policy advocacy outside of our employment. In our
relatively low expectations about specific social prob- professional lives, we decide what policies to question
lems, such as not even favoring civil rights legislation as an employee of an agency, when to participate with
prior to the 1960s. Scant knowledge existed about other social workers to seek to change specific poli-
the causes and incidence of specific social problems. cies, when to use agency resources to register voters,
While we may rightly criticize the failure of public and when to support specific political candidates by
officials to address specific problems in prior eras, contributing to the political action arm of the National
we often cannot expect them to exercise some policy Association of Social Workers (see Insert 1.5).
options that might be feasible in contemporary society. The reading of social welfare history serves, then, as
These provisos should not discourage us from devel- a stepping stone into the contemporary era. It provides
oping our personal identities as we examine historical a safe environment in which to discuss controversial
developments. We will discover that dissenting points issues because it deals with historical events. It helps
of view often did exist in prior eras, such as opposi- us ponder the merits of the contemporary welfare state
tion to slavery prior to 1860 and a desire for federal because it discusses eras when it did not exist or hardly
Seek Common Ground while Honoring the Ethical Code of the National Association of Social Workers 23
INSERT 1.5 Critically Reflecting on Your Professional Role Where Am I at the Start
of this Course?
All of us are products of our families, communities, social had with family members or a client or personally? Place
class, education, employment, and many other factors. As your ideas in a brief essay. You might reread your essay
you begin this course, what is your vision for our nation? when you reach Chapter 13 to see if you would make any
How would you like to see it improve? What do you changes to it—after you have used social welfare history
view as its current strengths and weaknesses? Can you to develop your identity as a professional social worker.
ground your views in specific experiences that you have You can do this by yourself or as part of a group.
existed. It allows us to examine the merits of the federal 2. Social workers should act to expand choice and
government compared with state and local govern- opportunity for all people, with special regard
ments, as well as the private sector, because the federal for vulnerable, disadvantaged, oppressed, and
government possessed a relatively small role until the exploited people and groups.
Great Depression compared with the contemporary 3. Social workers should promote conditions that
federal government. It allows us to gain understanding encourage respect for cultural and social diversity
of diversity because of the sheer number of vulnerable within the United States and globally. Social
populations who peopled the nation from its outset. workers should promote policies and practices that
demonstrate respect for difference, support the
expansion of cultural knowledge and resources,
advocate for programs and institutions that
Seek Common
LO 1-14 demonstrate cultural competence, and promote
Ground while Honoring policies that safeguard the rights of and confirm
equity and social justice for all people.
the Ethical Code of the 4. Social workers should act to prevent and eliminate
domination of, exploitation of, and discrimination
National Association of against any person, group, or class on the basis of
Social Workers race, ethnicity, national origin, color, sex, sexual
orientation, age, marital status, political belief,
As we develop our policy identities as professional religion, or mental or physical disability.”
social workers, we need to honor the profession’s Code
Social workers implement this Code of Ethics
of Ethic as developed by the National Association of
whenever they engage in micro, mezzo, and macro
Social Workers. (NASW). The Code of Ethics requires
policy advocacy. They help persons obtain rights,
social workers to engage in “Political and Social
services, benefits, and opportunities that they might
Action,” as outlined in the society’s Code of Ethics that
not otherwise obtain through micro policy advocacy.
states:
They advance the well-being of persons, families, and
1. “Social workers should engage in social and communities when they engage in mezzo policy advo-
political action that seeks to ensure that all people cacy to reform dysfunctional agency policies or to
have equal access to the resources, employment, work with community persons and groups to improve
services, and opportunities they require to meet living conditions in specific neighborhoods or juris-
their basic human needs and to develop fully. dictions. They engage in social and political action
Social workers should be aware of the impact of when they participate in macro policy advocacy to
the political arena on practice and should advocate reform government policies at local, state, and federal
for changes in policy and legislation to improve levels. They prioritize the needs of vulnerable popula-
social conditions in order to meet basic human tions when they engage in advocacy at each of these
needs and promote social justice. three levels.
Social workers often can question specific asser- Roosevelt’s Administration supported the incarceration of
tions on ethical or empirical grounds. Here are some Japanese Americans during World War II on the false pre-
cases where empirical evidence can be used to question tense that they were a threat to the nation’s security—and
assertions as cited by Jansson (2017) in Becoming an concealed data that was finally made public in a Supreme
Effective Policy Advocate (Boston: Cengage): Court decision in 1986. Lyndon Johnson convinced the
U.S. Congress to wage war against North Vietnam in
●●
Few users of safety-net programs work (in fact,
1965 by falsely claiming its Navy had attacked an Ameri-
most work)
can warship off the Vietnam coast. President George W.
●●
Low-income African American children rarely have
Bush falsely claimed that the Saddam Hussein, the leader
heads of households who are employed (in fact,
of Iraq, had weapons of mass destruction (WMD) to get
most work)
Congress to declare war on Iraq.
●●
Medical savings accounts would render Medicaid
We have discussed in this chapter how specific
unnecessary as a federal-state program for low-
assertions or policies can be questioned on ethical
income persons (in fact, they would not make Med-
grounds. Take the case of Montel Williams, an Ameri-
icaid unnecessary)
can television personality, who criticized a specific
●●
Increases in welfare or Medicaid benefits in a spe-
version of the draft of a replacement for the Afford-
cific state will lure low-income people to it from
able Care Act on CNN on June 23, 2017. Noting that
other states in large numbers (in fact, relatively few
more than 100 million Americans have chronic dis-
people move)
eases that require medications and other medical treat-
●●
Bilingual programs harm the education perfor-
ments, he criticized the draft version on grounds that it
mance of Latinos (in fact, they do not harm their
would make deep cuts in Medicaid that allowed many
education performance)
of these Americans to obtain necessary medical treat-
●●
Tax increases for millionaires will cut the nation’s
ment. Some unknown number of them will die because
economic growth (in fact, economic growth from
of their access to health care, he said, at a time when
1952 through the 1970s, on average, was relatively
most legislators have expensive health plans provided
high when millionaires top marginal rates exceeded
to them by the government. Why not, he argued, enact a
70% on average as compared with less than 40%
law that requires members of Congress to use the same
currently)
health coverage as other Americans so that they do not
●●
Welfare reforms in 1996 at the federal and state
enact laws as unfair and uncaring as this draft version?
levels, which made access to welfare considerably
more difficult for single heads of households, have
greatly increased the incomes of low-income mi-
nority women by forcing them into the workplace
(in fact, incomes of low-income minority women in Treat Each Other
LO 1-15
the workplace remain unacceptably low) with Civility
Political campaigns are often filled with false claims
Here are some rules that may often help us to have
and arguments as was illustrated in the presidential
respectful dialogue in academic and other settings in a
election of 2016. Take findings of PolitiFact, a winner
polarized nation, yet not concede values expressed in
of the Pulitizer Prize, that analyzes the accuracy of poli-
NASW’s Ethical Code. These guidelines appeared in
ticians’ assertions. It contended that Donald Trump had
Bruce Jansson, Social Welfare Policy and Advocacy
made roughly 110 false statements and Hilllary Clinton
(2016), SAGE, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 35–36.
had made 20 false statements during their presidential
campaigns in 2016. Both of them had also made con- ●●
Guideline #1. Acknowledge that some policy issues
siderable numbers of “mostly true,” “half true,” and are complex in nature since they involve ethical
“mostly false” statements (see Aaron Sharockman, and scientific dimensions, so they do not lend
“Truth check: Clinton and Trump on the Truth-O- themselves to consensus, even among reasonable
Meter,” November 1, 2016, accessed December 2, 2016 people who share the same ideology, much less
at www.Politifact.com). conflicting ones.
Trump and Hillary Clinton have lots of company ●●
Guideline #2. Identify commonalities if they can
as we shall see in ensuing chapters. President Franklin be found, such as such goals as reducing poverty,
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
quite impervious, but becoming—at any rate in the case of the larger
and more important pair—open previous to the final ecdysis. We
have mentioned the contradictory opinions of Réaumur and Dufour,
and will now add the views of some modern investigators. Oustalet
says[341] that there are two pairs of spiracles in the nymphs; the first
pair is quite visible to the naked eye, and is situate between pro- and
meso-notum; it is in the nymph closed by a membrane. The other
pair of spiracles is placed above the posterior pair of legs, is small
and completely closed. He does not state what stage of growth was
attained by the nymphs he examined. Palmén was of opinion that
not only thoracic but abdominal spiracles exist in the nymph,[342] and
that they are completely closed so that no air enters them; he says
that the spiracles have tracheae connected with them, that at each
moult the part closing the spiracles is shed with some of the tracheal
exuviae attached to it. The breathing orifices are therefore for a short
time at each ecdysis open, being subsequently again closed by
some exudation or secretion. This view of Palmén's has been
thought improbable by Hagen and Dewitz, who operated by placing
nymphs in alcohol or warm water and observing the escape of
bubbles from the spots where the supposed breathing orifices are
situate. Both these observers found much difference in the results
obtained in the cases of young and of old nymphs. Hagen concludes
that the first pair of thoracic spiracles are functionally active, and that
abdominal stigmata exist though functionless; he appears to be of
opinion that when the first thoracic stigma is closed this is the result
of the abutting against it of a closed trachea. Dewitz found[343] that
in the adult nymph of Aeschna the thoracic stigma is well developed,
while the other stigmata—to what number and in what position is not
stated—are very small. In a half-grown Aeschnid nymph he found
the thoracic stigma to be present in an undeveloped form. On
placing a full-grown nymph in alcohol, gas escaped from the stigma
in question, but in immature nymphs no escape of gas occurred
although they were subjected to a severe test. A specimen that,
when submitted to the above-mentioned immersion, emitted gas,
subsequently moulted, and thereafter air escaped from the spiracle
previously impervious. The observations of Hagen and Dewitz are
perhaps not so adverse to the views of Palmén as has been
supposed, so that it would not be a matter for surprise if Palmén's
views on this point should be shown to be quite correct.
The number of species of Odonata or Libellulidae that have been

described is somewhat less than two thousand, but constant
additions are made to the number, and when the smaller and more
fragile forms from the tropics are collected and worked out it will
probably be found that the number of existing species is somewhere
between five and ten thousand. They are distributed all over the
world, but are most numerous in species in the warmer regions, and
their predominance in any one locality is very much regulated by the
existence of waters suitable for the early stages of their lives.
A good work on the British Odonata is still a desideratum.[344] In

Britain about forty-six species are believed to be native. They are
said to be of late years less numerous than they used to be.
Notwithstanding their great powers of flight, dragon-flies are
destroyed by birds of various kinds; several hawks are said to be
very fond of them, and Merops persicus to line its nest with their
wings. The number of Insects killed by dragon-flies in places where
they are abundant must be enormous; the nymphs, too, are very
destructive in the waters they inhabit, so that dragon-flies have no
doubt been no mean factor in maintaining that important and delicate
balance of life which it is so difficult for us to appreciate. The nymphs
are no doubt cannibals, and this may perhaps be an advantage to
the species, as the eggs are sometimes deposited in large numbers
in a limited body of water, where all must perish if the nymphs did
not, after exhausting other food, attack one another. Martin, speaking
of the Odonata of the Département de l'Indre in France, says:[345]
"The eggs, larvae, and nymphs are the prey of several fishes,
snakes, newts, Coleoptera, aquatic Hemiptera, and of some diving
birds. Sometimes the destruction is on a considerable scale, and one
may notice the dragon-flies of some piece of water to diminish
gradually in numbers, while the animals that prey on them increase,
so that a species may for a time entirely disappear in a particular
spot, owing to the attacks of some enemy that has been specially
prosperous, and also eager in their pursuit. De Selys found that from
a pond filled with carp, roach, perch, and eels, several of the dragon-
fly denizens disappeared directly the bream was introduced." On the
other hand, there can be little doubt that the nymphs are sometimes
injurious to fish; it has been recorded that in a piscicultural
establishment in Hungary 50,000 young fishes were put into a pond
in spring; in the following autumn only fifty-four fish could be found,
but there were present an enormous quantity of dragon-fly nymphs.
Odonata are among the few kinds of Insects that are known to form
swarms and migrate. Swarms of this kind have been frequently
observed in Europe and in North America; they usually consist of
species of the genus Libellula, but species of various other genera
also swarm, and sometimes a swarm may consist of more than one
species. L. quadrimaculata is the species that perhaps most
frequently forms these swarms in Europe; a large migration of this
species is said to occur every year in the Charente inférieure from
north to south.[346] It is needless to say that the instincts and stimuli
connected with these migrations are not understood.
The nymphs are capable, under certain circumstances, of

accommodating themselves to very peculiar conditions of life. The
Sandwich Islands are extremely poor in stagnant waters, and yet
there exist in this remote archipelago several highly peculiar species
of Agrioninae. Mr. R. C. L. Perkins has recently discovered that the
nymphs of some of these are capable of maintaining their existence
and completing their development in the small collections of water
that accumulate in the leaves of some lilies growing on dry land.
These nymphs (Fig. 271) have a shorter mask than occurs, we
believe, in any other Odonata, and one would suppose that they
must frequently wait long for a meal, as they must be dependent on
stray Insects becoming immersed in these tiny reservoirs. The
cannibal habits of the Odonata probably stand these lily-dwellers in
good stead; Mr. Perkins found that there were sometimes two or
three nymphs of different sizes together, and we may suspect that it
sometimes goes hard with the smaller fry. The extension in the
length of the body of one of these lily-frequenting Agrions when it
leaves the water for its aerial existence is truly extraordinary.
Fig. 271.—Under side of Agrionid nymph, with short mask, living in

water in lilies. Hawaiian Islands. × 3.
The Odonata have no close relations with any other group of Insects.
They were associated by Latreille with the Ephemeridae, in a family
called Subulicornia. The members of the two groups have, in fact, a
certain resemblance in some of the features of their lives, especially
in the sudden change, without intermediate condition, from aquatic to
aerial life; but in all important points of structure, and in their
dispositions, dragon-flies and may-flies are totally dissimilar, and
there is no intermediate group to connect them. We have already,
said that the Odonata consist of two very distinct divisions—
Anisopterides and Zygopterides. The former group comprises the
subfamilies Gomphinae, Cordulegasterinae, Aeschninae,
Corduliinae, and Libellulinae,—Insects having the hinder wings
slightly larger than the anterior pair; while the Zygopterides consist of
only two subfamilies—Calepteryginae and Agrioninae; they have the
wings of the two pairs equal in size, or the hinder a little the smaller.
The two groups Gomphinae and Calepteryginae are each, in several
respects, of lower development than the others, and authorities are
divided in opinion as to which of the two should be considered the
more primitive. It is therefore of much interest to find that there exists
an Insect that shares the characters of the two primitive subfamilies
in a striking manner. This Insect, Palaeophlebia superstes (Fig. 272),
has recently been discovered in Japan, and is perhaps the most
interesting dragon-fly yet obtained. De Selys Longchamps refers it to
the subfamily Calepteryginae, on account of the nature of its wings;
were the Insect, however, deprived of these organs, no one would
think of referring Palaeophlebia to the group in question, for it has
the form, colour, and appearance of a Gomphine Odonate.
Moreover, the two sexes differ in an important character,—the form
of the head and eyes. In this respect the female resembles a
Gomphine of inferior development; while the male, by the shape and
large size of the ocular organs, may be considered to combine the
characters of Gomphinae and Calepteryginae. The Insect is very
remarkable in colour, the large eyes being red in the dead examples.
We do not, however, know what may be their colour during life, as
only one pair of the species is known, and there is no record as to
the life-history and habits. De Selys considers the nearest ally of this
Insect to be Heterophlebia dislocata, a fossil dragon-fly found in the
Lower Lias of England.
Fig. 272.—Palaeophlebia superstes. A, The Insect with wings of one

side and with two legs removed; B, front view of head of female;
C, of male. (After De Selys.)
Numerous fossil dragon-flies are known; the group is well

represented in the Tertiary strata, and specimens have been found in
amber. In strata of the Secondary age these Insects have been
found as far back as the Lower Lias; their remains are said to exist in
considerable variety in the strata of that epoch, and some of them to
testify to the existence at that period of dragon-flies as highly
specialised as those now living. According to Hagen[347]
Platephemera antiqua and Gerephemera simplex, two Devonian
fossils, may be considered as dragon-flies; the evidence as to this
appears inadequate, and Brongniart refers the latter Insect to the
family Platypterides, and considers Platephemera to be more allied
to the may-flies.
One of the most remarkable of the numerous discoveries lately
made in fossil entomology is the finding of remains of huge Insects,
evidently allied to dragon-flies, in the Carboniferous strata at
Commentry. Brongniart calls these Insects Protodonates,[348] and
looks on them as the precursors of our Odonata. Meganeura monyi
was the largest of these Insects, and measured over two feet across
the expanded wings. If M. Brongniart be correct in his restoration of
this giant of the Insect world, it much resembled our existing dragon-
flies, but had a simple structure of the thoracic segments, and a
simpler system of wing-nervures. On p. 276 we figured
Titanophasma fayoli, considered by Scudder and Brongniart as allied
to the family Phasmidae, and we pointed out that this supposed
alliance must at best have been very remote. This view is now taken
by M. Brongniart himself,[349] he having removed the Insect from the
Protophasmides to locate it in the Protodonates near Meganeura.
There appears to be some doubt whether the wings supposed to
belong to this specimen were really such, or belonged rather to
some other species.
CHAPTER XIX
AMPHIBIOUS NEUROPTERA CONTINUED—EPHEMERIDAE, MAY-FLIES
Fam. VII. Ephemeridae—May-flies.
Delicate Insects with atrophied mouth and small, short antennae;

with four membranous wings having much minute cross-veining;
the hinder pair very much smaller than the other pair, sometimes
entirely absent: the body terminated by three or two very
elongate slender tails. The earlier stages are passed through in
water, and the individual then differs greatly in appearance from
the winged Insect; the passage between the two forms is
sudden; the creature in its first winged state is a subimago,
which by shedding a delicate skin reveals the final form of the
individual.
Fig. 273.—Ephemera danica, male, Britain.
The may-flies are well known—in literature—as the types of a brief

and ineffective life. This supposed brevity relates solely to their
existence in the winged form. In the earlier stages the may-fly is so
unlike its subsequent self that it is not recognised as a may-fly by the
uninitiated. The total life of the individual is really quite as long as
that of most other Insects. The earlier stages and life-histories of
these Insects are of great importance. The perfect Insects are so
delicate and fragile that they shrivel much in drying, and are very
difficult to preserve in a condition suitable for study.
The mouth of the imago is atrophied, the trophi scarcely existing as

separate parts. Packard says that in Palingenia bilineata he could
discover no certain traces of any of the mouth-parts, but in
Leptophlebia cupida he found, as he thought, the rudiments of the
maxillae and labium, though not of the mandibles. The antennae are
always short, and consist of one or two thick basal joints succeeded
by a delicate needle-like segment, which, though comparatively long,
is not divided. The ocular organs are remarkable for their large size
and complex development; they are always larger in the male than
they are in the female. The compound eyes of the former sex are in
certain species, e.g. Cloëon (Fig. 274), quite divided, so that each
eye becomes a pair of organs of a different character; one part forms
a pillar facetted at its summit, while the other part remains as a true
eye placed on the side of the head; in front of these compound eyes
there are three ocelli. Thus the Insect comes to have three different
kinds of eyes, together seven in number.
Fig. 274.—Front of head of Cloëon, male. a, Pillared eye; b, sessile

eye; c, ocellus.
The prothorax is small, the pronotum being, however, quite distinct.

The mesothorax is very large; its notum forms by far the larger part
of the upper surface of the thoracic region, the metathorax being
small and different in structure, resembling in appearance a part of
the abdomen, so that the hind wings look as if they were attached to
a first abdominal segment. The mesosternum is also
disproportionately large in comparison with the homologous piece
preceding it, and with that following it. The pleural pieces are large,
but their structure and disposition are only very imperfectly
understood. The coxae are small and are widely separated, the
anterior being, however, more elongate and approximate than the
others. The other parts of the legs are slender; the number of joints
in the tarsi varies from five to one. The legs throughout the family
exhibit a considerable variety of structure, and the front pair in the
males of some species are remarkably long. The abdomen is usually
slender, and consists of ten segments; the terminal one bears three,
or two, very long flexible appendages. The first dorsal plate of the
abdomen is either wanting or is concealed to a considerable extent
by the metanotum. The wings are peculiar; the anterior pair vary a
great deal in their width, but are never very long in proportion to the
width; the hind pair are always disproportionately small, and
sometimes are quite wanting. The venation consists of a few, or of a
moderate number, of delicate longitudinal veins that do not pursue a
tortuous course, but frequently are gracefully curved, and form a
system of approximately similar curves, most of the veins being of
considerable length; close to the anterior margin of the wing there
are two or three sub-parallel veins. Frequently there are very
numerous fine, short cross-veinlets, but these vary greatly and may
be entirely wanting.
Fig. 275.—Wings of Ephemera danica. (After Eaton.)
The earlier stages of the life of Ephemeridae are, it is believed, in the

case of all the species, aquatic. May-flies, indeed, during the period
of their post-embryonic development are more modified for an
aquatic life than any other Insects, and are provided with a complex
apparatus of tracheal gills. The eggs are committed to the waters
without any care or foresight on the part of the parent flies, thus the
embryonic development is also aquatic; little, however, is known of it.
According to Joly[350] the process in Palingenia virgo is slow. The
larva on emerging from the egg has no respiratory system, neither
could Joly detect any circulation or any nervous system. The
creature on emergence is very like Campodea in form, possessing
long antennae and tails—caudal setae. Owing to the organisation
being inferior, the creature in its earlier stages is called a larvule; in
its later stages it is usually spoken of as a nymph, but the term larva
is also frequently applied to it. Soon the gills begin to appear in the
form of small tubular caeca placed in the posterior and upper angles
of the abdominal rings; in fifteen days the gills begin to assume their
characteristic form, are penetrated by tracheae, and the circulation
can be seen. The amount of growth accomplished after hatching
between March and September is but small.
Fig. 276.—Nymph of Cloëon dipterum.[351] Wing-sheath of left side,
gills of right side, removed; g, tracheal gills. (After Vayssière.)
Fig. 277.—Larvule of Cloëon dimidiatum. (After Lubbock.)
The metamorphosis of Cloëon has been described by Sir John

Lubbock; he informs us that the young creature undergoes a
constant and progressive development, going through a series of
more than twenty moults, each accompanied by a slight change of
form or structure. His observations were made on captured
specimens, so that it is not certain that what he calls[352] the first
stage is really such. He found no tracheae in the earliest stages; the
small first rudiments of the gills became visible in the third stage,
when there were no tracheae; the fourth instar possessed tracheae,
and they could be seen in the gills. The wing rudiments could first be
detected in the ninth and tenth stages. The changes of skin during
the winter months are separated by longer intervals than those
occurring at other periods of the year.
Fig. 278.—Adult nymph of Ephemera vulgata. (After Eaton.) Britain.
The nymphs differ greatly in the structure and arrangement of their

tracheal gills, and display much variety in their general form and
habits; some of them are very curious creatures. Pictet[353] divides
them in accordance with their habits into four groups: (1) Fossorial
larvae: these live in the banks of streams and excavate burrows for
shelter; they are of cylindrical form, possess robust legs, abundant
gills at the sides of the body, and frequently processes projecting
forwards from the head: examples, Ephemera (Fig. 278) and
Palingenia. (2) Flat larvae: these live attached to rocks, but run with
rapidity when disturbed; they prefer rapid streams, have the
breathing organs attached to the sides of the body and not reposing
on the back; they are exclusively carnivorous, while the fossorial
forms are believed to obtain their nutriment by eating mud: example,
Baëtis. (3) Swimming larvae: elongate delicate creatures, with feeble
legs, and with strongly ciliated caudal setae: example, Cloëon (Fig.
276). (4) Climbing larvae: these live in slowly-moving waters,
especially such as have much slimy mud in suspension, and they
have a habit of covering themselves with this mud sometimes to
such an extent as to become concealed by it: example,
Potamanthus.
Fig. 279.—Nymph of Oligoneuria garumnica, France. g2 and g7, two of
the dorsal tracheal gills. (After Vayssière.)
The anatomy of the nymphs has been treated by Vayssière,[354] who

arranges them in five groups in accordance with the conditions of the
tracheal gills: (1) The gills are of large size, are exposed and
furnished at the sides with respiratory fringes: example, Ephemera
(Fig. 278). (2) The branchiae are blade-like, not fringed, and are
exposed at the sides of the body: example, Cloëon (Fig. 276). (3)
The respiratory tubes are placed on the under surface of plates
whose upper surface is not respiratory: example, Oligoneuria
garumnica (Fig. 279). (4) The anterior gill is modified to form a plate
that covers the others: example, Tricorythus (Fig. 282, B). (5) The
gills are concealed in a respiratory chamber: example, Prosopistoma
(Fig. 280). The last of these nymphs is more completely adapted for
an aquatic life than any other Insect at present known; it was for long
supposed to be a Crustacean, but it has now been shown to be the
early stage of a may-fly, the sub-imago having been reared from the
nymph. The carapace by which the larger part of the body is covered
is formed by the union of the pro- and meso-thorax with the sheaths
of the anterior wings, which have an unusually extensive
development; under the carapace there is a respiratory chamber, the
floor and sides of which are formed by the posterior wing-sheaths,
and by a large plate composed of the united nota of the metathorax
and the first six abdominal segments. In this chamber there are
placed five pairs of tracheal gills; entrance of water to the chamber is
effected by two laterally-placed orifices, and exit by a single dorsal
aperture. These nymphs use the body as a sucker, and so adhere
strongly to stones under water. When detached they swim rapidly by
means of their caudal setae; the form of these latter organs is
different from that of other Ephemerid nymphs. This point and other
details of the anatomy of this creature have been described in detail
by Vayssière.[355] These nymphs have a very highly developed
tracheal system; they live in rapid watercourses attached to stones
at a depth of three to six inches or more under the water. Species of
Prosopistoma occur in Europe, Madagascar, and West Africa.
Fig. 280.—Prosopistoma punctifrons, nymph. France. (After Vayssière.)

o, Orifice of exit from respiratory chamber.
According to Eaton,[356] in the nymphs of some Ephemeridae the

rectum serves, to a certain extent, as a respiratory agent; he
considers that water is admitted to it and expelled after the manner
we have described in Odonata, p. 421.
Fig. 281.—A, Last three abdominal segments and bases of the three
caudal processes of Cloëon dipterum: r, dorsal vessel; kl, ostia
thereof; k, special terminal chamber of the dorsal vessel with its
entrance a; b, blood-vessel of the left caudal process; B, twenty-
sixth joint of the left caudal process from below; b, a portion of the
blood-vessel; o, orifice in the latter. (After Zimmermann.)
The internal anatomy of the nymphs of Ephemeridae shows some

points of extreme interest. The long caudal setae are respiratory
organs of a kind that is almost if not quite without parallel in the other
divisions of Insecta. The dorsal vessel for the circulation of the blood
is elongate, and its chambers are arranged one to each segment of
the body. It drives the blood forwards in the usual manner, but the
posterior chamber possesses three blood-vessels, one of which is
prolonged into each caudal seta. This terminal chamber is so
arranged as to drive the blood backwards into the vessels of the
setae; on the under surface of the vessels there are oval orifices by
which the blood escapes into the cavity of the seta so as to be
submitted to the action of the surrounding medium for some of the
purposes of respiration. This structure has been described by
Zimmermann,[357] who agrees with Creutzberg[358] that the organ by
which the blood is propelled into the setae is a terminal chamber of
the dorsal vessel; Verlooren,[359] who first observed this accessory
system of circulation, thought the contractile chamber was quite
separate from the heart. The nature of the connexion between this
terminal chamber that drives the blood backwards and the other
chambers that propel the fluid forwards appears still to want
elucidation.
Fig. 282.—A, Nymph of Ephemerella ignita with gills of left side

removed; g, gills: B, nymph of Tricorythus sp. with gill cover of
right side removed; g.c, gill cover; g, g′, gills. (After Vayssière.)
The nymphs of the Ephemeridae being creatures adapted for

existence in water, the details of their transformation into creatures
having an entirely aerial existence cannot but be of much interest. In
the nymphs the tracheal system is well developed, but differs from
that of air-breathing Insects in the total absence of any spiracles.
Palmén has investigated this subject,[360] and finds that the main
longitudinal tracheal trunks of the body of the nymph are not
connected with the skin of the body by tracheae, but are attached
thereto by ten pairs of slender strings extending between the
chitinous integument and the tracheal trunks. When the skin is shed
these strings—or rather a chitinous axis in each one—are drawn out
of the body, and bring with them the chitinous linings of the tracheae.
Thus notwithstanding the absence of spiracles, the body wall is at
each moult pierced by openings that extend to the tracheae. After
the ordinary moults these orifices close immediately, but at the
change to the winged state they remain open and form the spiracles.
At the same time the tracheal gills are completely shed, and the
creature is thus transformed from a water-breather to an Insect
breathing air as usual. In addition to this change there are others of
great importance, such as the development of the great eyes and the
complete atrophy of the mouth-parts. The precise manner of these
changes is not known; they occur, however, within the nymph skin.
The sudden emergence of the winged Insect from the nymph is one
of the most remarkable facts in the life-history of the may-fly; it has
been observed by Sir John Lubbock,[361] who describes it as almost
instantaneous. The nymph floats on the water, the skin of the back
opens, and the winged Insect flies out, upwards and away; "from the
moment when the skin first cracks not ten seconds are over before
the Insect has flown away." The creature that thus escapes has not,
however, quite completed its transformation. It is still enveloped in a
skin that compresses and embarrasses it; this it therefore rapidly
gets rid of, and thus becomes the imago, or final instar of the life-
cycle. The instar in which the creature exists winged and active,
though covered with a skin, is called the sub-imago. The parts of the
body in the sub-imago are as a whole smaller than they are in the
imago, and the colour is more dingy; the appendages—wings, legs,
and caudal setae—are generally considerably shorter than they are
in the imago, but attain their full length during the process of
extraction. The creatures being, according to Riley, very impatient
and eager to take to the wing, the completion of the shedding of the
skin of the sub-imago is sometimes performed while the Insect is
flying in the air.
Fig. 283.—Lingua of Heptagenia longicauda, × 16. m, Central; l, lateral

pieces. (After Vayssière.)
The food of young Ephemeridae is apparently of a varied and mixed

nature. Eaton says[362] that though sometimes the stronger larvae
devour the weaker, yet the diet is even in these cases partly
vegetable. The alimentary canal frequently contains much mud; very
small organisms, such as diatoms and confervae, are thought to
form a large part of the bill of fare of Ephemerid nymphs. Although
the mouth is atrophied in the imago, yet it is highly developed in the
nymphs. This is especially notable in the case of the lingua or
hypopharynx (Fig. 283); indeed Vayssière[363] seems to incline to the
opinion that this part of the mouth may be looked on in these Insects
as a pair of appendages of a head-segment (see p. 96 ante), like the
labium or maxillae.
The life-history has not been fully ascertained in the case of any
species of may-fly; it is known, however, that the development of the
nymph sometimes occupies a considerable period, and it is thought
that in the case of some species this extends to as much as three
years. It is rare to find the post-embryonic development of an Insect
occupying so long a period, so that we are justified in saying that
brief as may be the life of the may-fly itself, the period of preparation
for it is longer than usual. Réaumur says, speaking of the winged fly,
that its life is so short that some species never see the sun. Their
emergence from the nymph-skin taking place at sunset, the duties of
the generation have been, so far as these individuals are concerned,
completed before the morning, and they die before sunrise. He
thinks, indeed, that individuals living thus long are to be looked on as
Methuselahs among their fellows, most of whom, he says, live only
an hour or half an hour.[364] It is by no means clear to which species
these remarks of Réaumur refer; they are doubtless correct in
certain cases, but in others the life of the adult is not so very short,
and in some species may, in all probability, extend over three or four
days; indeed, if the weather undergo an unfavourable change so as
to keep them motionless, the life of the flies may be prolonged for a
fortnight.
The life of the imago of the may-fly is as remarkable as it is brief; in

order to comprehend it we must refer to certain peculiarities of the
anatomy with which the vital phenomena are connected. The more
important of these are the large eyes of the males, the structure of
the alimentary canal, and that of the reproductive organs. We have
already remarked that the parts of the mouth in the imago are
atrophied, yet the canal itself not only exists but is even of greater
capacity than usual; it appears to have much the same general
arrangement of parts as it had in the nymph. Its coats are, however,
of great tenuity, and according to Palmén[365] the divisions of the
canal are separated by changes in the direction of certain portions
anterior to, and of others posterior to, its central and greater part—
the stomach—in such a manner that the portions with diverted
positions act as valves. The stomach, in fact, forms in the interior of
the body a delicate capacious sac; when movement tends to
increase the capacity of the body cavity then air enters into the
stomachic sac by the mouth orifice, but when muscular contractions
result in pressure on the sac they close the orifices of its extremities
by the valve-like structures we have mentioned above; the result is,
that as complex movements of the body are made the stomach
becomes more and more distended by air. It was known even to the
old naturalists that the dancing may-fly is a sort of balloon, but they
were not acquainted with the exact mode of inflation. Palmén says
that in addition to the valve-like arrangements we have described,
the entry to the canal is controlled by a circular muscle, with which
are connected radiating muscles attached to the walls of the head.
Palmén's views are adopted, and to a certain extent confirmed, by
Fritze,[366] who has examined the alimentary canal of the may-fly,
and considers that though the normal parts of the canal exist, the
function is changed in the imago, in which the canal serves as a sort
of balloon, and aids the function of the reproductive organs. The
change in the canal takes place in an anticipatory manner during the
nymph and sub-imago stages.
The sexual organs of Ephemeridae are remarkable for their

simplicity; they are destitute of the accessory glands and diverticula
that, in some form or other, are present in most other Insects. Still
more remarkable is the fact that the ducts by which they
communicate with the exterior continue as a pair to the extremity of
the body, and do not, as in other Insects, unite into a common duct.
Thus in the female there is neither bursa copulatrix, receptaculum
seminis, nor uterine portion of oviduct, and there is no trace of an
ovipositor; the terminations of the ducts are placed at the hind
margin of the seventh ventral plate, just in front of which they are
connected by a fold of the integument. The ovary consists of a very
large number of small egg-tubes seated on one side of a sac, which
forms their calyx, and one of whose extremities is continued
backwards as one of the pair of oviducts. The male has neither
vesiculae seminales, accessory glands, nor ductus ejaculatorius.
The testes are elongate sacs, whose extremities are prolonged
backwards forming the vasa deferentia; these open separately at the
extremity of the body, each on a separate intromittent projection of
more or less complex character, the two organs being, however,
connected by means of the ninth ventral plate, of which they are,
according to Palmén, appendages. We should remark that this
authority considers Heptagenia to form, to some extent, an exception
as regards the structures of the female; while Polymitarcys is in the
male sex strongly aberrant, as the two vasa deferentia, instead of
being approximately straight, are bent inwards at right angles near
their extremities so as to meet, and form in the middle a common
cavity, which then again becomes double to pass into the pair of
intromittent organs.
According to the views of Exner and others, the compound eyes of
Insects are chiefly organs for the perception of movement; if this
view be correct, movements such as those made during the dances
of may-flies may, by the number of the separate eyes, by their
curved surfaces and innumerable facets, be multiplied and
correlated in a manner of which our own sense of sight allows us to
form no conception. We can see on a summer's evening how
beautifully and gracefully a crowd of may-flies dance, and we may
well believe that to the marvellous ocular organs of the flies
themselves (Fig. 274) these movements form a veritable ballet. We
have pointed out that by this dancing the peculiarly formed
alimentary canal becomes distended, and may now add that Palmén
and Fritze believe that the unique structure of the reproductive
organs is also correlated with the other anatomical peculiarities, the
contents of the sexual glands being driven along the simple and
direct ducts by the expansion of the balloon-like stomach. During
these dances the momentary conjugation of the sexes occurs, and
immediately thereafter the female, according to Eaton, resorts to the
waters appropriate for the deposition of her eggs. As regards this,
Eaton says:[367] "Some short-lived species discharge the contents of
their ovaries completely en masse, and the pair of fusiform or
subcylindrical egg-clusters laid upon the water rapidly disintegrate,
so as to let the eggs sink broadcast upon the river-bed. The less
perishable species extrude their eggs gradually, part at a time, and
deposit them in one or other of the following manners: either the
mother alights upon the water at intervals to wash off the eggs that
have issued from the mouths of the oviducts during her flight, or else
she creeps down into the water to lay her eggs upon the under-side
of stones, disposing them in rounded patches, in a single layer
evenly spread, and in mutual contiguity." The eggs are very
numerous, and it is thought may sometimes remain in the water as
much as six or seven months before they hatch.
The number of individuals produced by some kinds of may-flies is

remarkable. Swarms consisting of millions of individuals are
occasionally witnessed. D'Albertis observed Palingenia papuana in
countless myriads on the Fly River in New Guinea: "For miles the
surface of the river, from side to side, was white with them as they
hung over it on gauzy wings; at certain moments, obeying some
mysterious signal, they would rise in the air, and then sink down
anew like a fall of snow." He further states that the two sexes were in
very disproportionate numbers, and estimates that there was but a
single female to every five or six thousand males.
Ephemeridae in the perfect state are a favourite food of fishes, and it

is said that on some waters it is useless for the fly-fisher to try any
other lure when these flies are swarming. Most of the "duns" and
"spinners" of the angler are Ephemeridae; so are several of the
"drakes," our large E. danica and E. vulgata being known as the
green drake and the gray drake. Ronalds says[368] that the term
"dun" refers to the pseud-imago condition, "spinner" to the perfect
Insect. E. danica and E. vulgata are perhaps not distinguished by
fishers; Eaton says that the former is abundant in rapid, cool
streams, while E. vulgata prefers warmer and more tranquil rivers.
These sensitive creatures are unable to resist the attractions of

artificial lights. Réaumur noticed this fact many years ago, and since
the introduction of the electric light, notes may frequently be seen in
journals recording that myriads of these Insects have been lured by it
to destruction. Their dances may frequently be observed to take
place in peculiar states of light and shade, in twilight, or where the
sinking sun has its light rendered broken by bushes or trees;
possibly the broken lights are enhanced in effect by the ocular
structures of the Insects. It has recently been ascertained that a
species of Teleganodes is itself luminous. Mr. Lewis,[369] who
observed this Insect in Ceylon, states that in life the whole of the
abdomen was luminous, not brightly so, but sufficient to serve as a
guide for capturing the Insect on a dark night. It has also been
recorded that the male of Caenis dimidiata gives a faint blue light at
night.
Nearly 300 species of Ephemeridae are known, but this may be only
a fragment of what actually exist, very little being known of may-flies

Ebook The Reluctant Welfare State Engaging History To Advance Social Work Practice in Contemporary Society PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ebook The Reluctant Welfare State Engaging History To Advance Social Work Practice in Contemporary Society PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Reluctant Welfare State: Engaging

History to Advance Social Work

Study with digital flashcards, listen to audio

Review your current course grade and compare

Get the free MindTap Mobile App and learn

Break Limitations. Create your

MINDTAP. POWERED BY YOU.

Competencies and Component Behaviors Chapter(s) Where

Competency 1 Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior:

a. Apply their understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,

Competency 5 Engage in Policy Practice:

a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in- 3, 6, 7

a. Critically choose and implement interventions to achieve practice goals and 2, 7

a. Select and use appropriate methods for evaluation of outcomes

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

Project Manager: Seth Schwartz

Art Director: Vernon Boes

Cengage is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with

Cengage products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd.

To learn more about Cengage platforms and services, visit

Printed in the United States of America

PART 1  Becoming a Policy Advocate for Vulnerable Populations

PART 2  Social Policy in a Developing Nation

PART 3  Social Policy during a Transition to an Industrial Nation

PART 4  Social Policy in a Relatively Liberal Era

PART 5  Social Policy in a Period of Conservative Backlash

PART 6  The Period of Gridlock and Extreme Inequality

PART 1 Becoming a Policy Advocate for Vulnerable Populations

CHAPTER 1 The Symbiotic and Uneasy Relationship: Clients, Social Workers,

CHAPTER 2 Making the American Welfare State More Humane—Past, Present,

PART 2 Social Policy in a Developing Nation

CHAPTER 3 Fashioning a New Society in the Wilderness 64

PART 3 Social Policy during a Transition to an Industrial Nation

CHAPTER 4 Social Welfare Policy in the 19th Century: 1789–1902 98

CHAPTER 5 Social Reform in the Progressive Era 157

PART 4 Social Policy in a Relatively Liberal Era

CHAPTER 6 Social Policy to Address the Worst Economic Catastrophe

CHAPTER 8 The Paradoxical Era: 1968–1980 301

PART 5 Social Policy in a Period of Conservative Backlash

PART 6 The Period of Gridlock and Extreme Inequality

CHAPTER 11 George W. Bush’s Quest for Realignment 418

CHAPTER 13 President Donald Trump: Populist or Conservative? 507

I discuss the ethical challenges that his presidency poses ●●

Becoming a Policy Advocate

The Symbiotic and Uneasy

Students will learn in this chapter to:

Analyze the Evolution

INSERT 1.1 Critical Analysis Critically Reflecting on Your Professional Role

and to make successive tax cuts—policies that greatly

welfare agencies addressed such problems. In similar

INSERT 1.2 Critical Analysis The Problem of Silos

TABLE 1.1 Social Welfare Policy Eras in U.S. History

Social policy in a developing nation Early 17th century to 1800

Social policy in a nation transitioning from a rural to an industrial nation 1800–1932

Development of an American welfare state in a relatively liberal era 1933–1980

Social policy in a period of conservative backlash 1981–1992

Social policy in a period of gridlock and polarization 1992–present

TABLE 1.2 Comparison of Different Ideologies

Views of federal Negative, except in Negative Relatively positive Positive, unless it

Views of Positive Positive Positive, but Negative, unless

Attitudes toward Divided, but a Dislike Usually oppose Often oppose

Views of Favor nongovernment Favor Favor a mixture Favor government

Views of Tend to deny their Unclear Favor some Emphasize oppression

PART 1 Becoming a Policy Advocate for Vulnerable Populations

PART 2 Social Policy in a Developing Nation

PART 3 Social Policy during a Transition to an Industrial Nation

PART 4 Social Policy in a Relatively Liberal Era

PART 5 Social Policy in a Period of Conservative Backlash

PART 6 The Period of Gridlock and Extreme Inequality

CHAPTER 1 The Symbiotic and Uneasy Relationship: Clients, Social Workers,

CHAPTER 2 Making the American Welfare State More Humane—Past, Present,

CHAPTER 3 Fashioning a New Society in the Wilderness 64

CHAPTER 4 Social Welfare Policy in the 19th Century: 1789–1902 98

CHAPTER 5 Social Reform in the Progressive Era 157

CHAPTER 6 Social Policy to Address the Worst Economic Catastrophe

CHAPTER 8 The Paradoxical Era: 1968–1980 301

CHAPTER 11 George W. Bush’s Quest for Realignment 418

CHAPTER 13 President Donald Trump: Populist or Conservative? 507

INSERT 1.1 Critical Analysis Critically Reflecting on Your Professional Role

INSERT 1.2 Critical Analysis The Problem of Silos