Electric motor

An electric motor is an elect rical machine t hat convert s elect rical energy int o mechanical energy. Most elect ric mot ors operat e
t hrough t he int eract ion bet ween t he mot or's magnet ic field and elect ric current in a wire winding t o generat e force in t he form of
t orque applied on t he mot or's shaft . Elect ric mot ors can be powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as from bat t eries, or
rect ifiers, or by alt ernat ing current (AC) sources, such as a power grid, invert ers or elect rical generat ors. An elect ric generat or is
mechanically ident ical t o an elect ric mot or, but operat es wit h a reversed flow of power, convert ing mechanical energy int o
elect rical energy.
Animation showing operation of a brushed DC electric motor.

Elect ric mot ors may be classified by considerat ions such as power source t ype, int ernal const ruct ion, applicat ion and t ype of
mot ion out put . In addit ion t o AC versus DC t ypes, mot ors may be brushed or brushless, may be of various phase (see single-phase,
t wo-phase, or t hree-phase), and may be eit her air-cooled or liquid-cooled.

General-purpose mot ors wit h st andard dimensions and charact erist ics provide convenient mechanical power for indust rial use. The
largest elect ric mot ors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-st orage applicat ions wit h rat ings reaching
100 megawat t s. Elect ric mot ors are found in indust rial fans, blowers and pumps, machine t ools, household appliances, power t ools
and disk drives. Small mot ors may be found in elect ric wat ches. In cert ain applicat ions, such as in regenerat ive braking wit h t ract ion
mot ors, elect ric mot ors can be used in reverse as generat ors t o recover energy t hat might ot herwise be lost as heat and frict ion.

Elect ric mot ors produce linear or rot ary force (t orque) int ended t o propel some ext ernal mechanism, such as a fan or an elevat or.
An elect ric mot or is generally designed for cont inuous rot at ion, or for linear movement over a significant dist ance compared t o it s
size. Magnet ic solenoids are also t ransducers t hat convert elect rical power t o mechanical mot ion, but can produce mot ion over
only a limit ed dist ance.

Elect ric mot ors are much more efficient t han t he ot her prime mover used in indust ry and t ransport at ion, t he int ernal combust ion
engine (ICE); elect ric mot ors are t ypically over 95% efficient while ICEs are well below 50%. They are also light weight , physically
smaller, are mechanically simpler and cheaper t o build, can provide inst ant and consist ent t orque at any speed, can run on
elect ricit y generat ed by renewable sources and do not exhaust carbon int o t he at mosphere. For t hese reasons elect ric mot ors are
replacing int ernal combust ion in t ransport at ion and indust ry, alt hough t heir use in vehicles is current ly limit ed by t he high cost and
weight of bat t eries t hat can give sufficient range bet ween charges.

Cutaway view through stator of induction motor.

History
Early motors

Faraday's electromagnetic experiment, 1821[1]

Before modern elect romagnet ic mot ors, experiment al mot ors t hat worked by elect rost at ic force were invest igat ed. The first
elect ric mot ors were simple elect rost at ic devices described in experiment s by Scot t ish monk Andrew Gordon and American
experiment er Benjamin Franklin in t he 1740s.[2][3] The t heoret ical principle behind t hem, Coulomb's law, was discovered but not
published, by Henry Cavendish in 1771. This law was discovered independent ly by Charles-August in de Coulomb in 1785, who
published it so t hat it is now known wit h his name.[4] Due t o t he difficult y of generat ing t he high volt ages t hey required,
elect rost at ic mot ors were never used for pract ical purposes.

The invent ion of t he elect rochemical bat t ery by Alessandro Volt a in 1799[5] made possible t he product ion of persist ent elect ric
current s. Hans Christ ian Ørst ed discovered in 1820 t hat an elect ric current creat es a magnet ic field, which can exert a force on a
magnet . It only t ook a few weeks for André-Marie Ampère t o develop t he first formulat ion of t he elect romagnet ic int eract ion and
present t he Ampère's force law, t hat described t he product ion of mechanical force by t he int eract ion of an elect ric current and a
magnet ic field.[6] The first demonst rat ion of t he effect wit h a rot ary mot ion was given by Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging
wire was dipped int o a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet (PM) was placed. When a current was passed t hrough t he
wire, t he wire rot at ed around t he magnet , showing t hat t he current gave rise t o a close circular magnet ic field around t he wire.[7]
This mot or is oft en demonst rat ed in physics experiment s, subst it ut ing brine for (t oxic) mercury. Barlow's wheel was an early
refinement t o t his Faraday demonst rat ion, alt hough t hese and similar homopolar mot ors remained unsuit ed t o pract ical applicat ion
unt il lat e in t he cent ury.

Jedlik's "electromagnetic self-rotor", 1827 (Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest). The historic motor still works perfectly today.[8]

An electric motor presented to Kelvin by James Joule in 1842, Hunterian Museum, Glasgow
In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik st art ed experiment ing wit h elect romagnet ic coils. Aft er Jedlik solved t he t echnical
problems of cont inuous rot at ion wit h t he invent ion of t he commut at or, he called his early devices "elect romagnet ic self-rot ors".
Alt hough t hey were used only for t eaching, in 1828 Jedlik demonst rat ed t he first device t o cont ain t he t hree main component s of
pract ical DC mot ors: t he st at or, rot or and commut at or. The device employed no permanent magnet s, as t he magnet ic fields of
bot h t he st at ionary and revolving component s were produced solely by t he current s flowing t hrough t heir
windings.[9][10][11][12][13][14][15]

DC motors

The first commut at or DC elect ric mot or capable of t urning machinery was invent ed by Brit ish scient ist William St urgeon in 1832.[16]
Following St urgeon's work, a commut at or-t ype direct -current elect ric mot or was built by American invent or Thomas Davenport and
his wife, Emily Davenport ,[17] which he pat ent ed in 1837. The mot ors ran at up t o 600 revolut ions per minut e, and powered machine
t ools and a print ing press.[18] Due t o t he high cost of primary bat t ery power, t he mot ors were commercially unsuccessful and
bankrupt ed Davenport . Several invent ors followed St urgeon in t he development of DC mot ors, but all encount ered t he same
bat t ery cost issues. As no elect ricit y dist ribut ion syst em was available at t he t ime, no pract ical commercial market emerged for
t hese mot ors.[19]

Aft er many ot her more or less successful at t empt s wit h relat ively weak rot at ing and reciprocat ing apparat us Prussian/Russian
Morit z von Jacobi creat ed t he first real rot at ing elect ric mot or in May 1834. It developed remarkable mechanical out put power. His
mot or set a world record, which Jacobi improved four years lat er in Sept ember 1838.[20] His second mot or was powerful enough t o
drive a boat wit h 14 people across a wide river. It was also in 1839/40 t hat ot her developers managed t o build mot ors wit h similar
and t hen higher performance.

In 1855, Jedlik built a device using similar principles t o t hose used in his elect romagnet ic self-rot ors t hat was capable of useful
work.[9][15] He built a model elect ric vehicle t hat same year.[21]
A major t urning point came in 1864, when Ant onio Pacinot t i first described t he ring armat ure (alt hough init ially conceived in a DC
generat or, i.e. a dynamo).[6] This feat ured symmet rically-grouped coils closed upon t hemselves and connect ed t o t he bars of a
commut at or, t he brushes of which delivered pract ically non-fluct uat ing current .[22][23] The first commercially successful DC mot ors
followed t he development s by Zénobe Gramme who, in 1871, reinvent ed Pacinot t i's design and adopt ed some solut ions by Werner
Siemens.

A benefit t o DC machines came from t he discovery of t he reversibilit y of t he elect ric machine, which was announced by Siemens in
1867 and observed by Pacinot t i in 1869.[6] Gramme accident ally demonst rat ed it on t he occasion of t he 1873 Vienna World's Fair,
when he connect ed t wo such DC devices up t o 2 km from each ot her, using one of t hem as a generat or and t he ot her as mot or.[24]

The drum rot or was int roduced by Friedrich von Hefner-Alt eneck of Siemens & Halske t o replace Pacinot t i's ring armat ure in 1872,
t hus improving t he machine efficiency.[6] The laminat ed rot or was int roduced by Siemens & Halske t he following year, achieving
reduced iron losses and increased induced volt ages. In 1880, Jonas Wenst röm provided t he rot or wit h slot s for housing t he winding,
furt her increasing t he efficiency.

In 1886, Frank Julian Sprague invent ed t he first pract ical DC mot or, a non-sparking device t hat maint ained relat ively const ant speed
under variable loads. Ot her Sprague elect ric invent ions about t his t ime great ly improved grid elect ric dist ribut ion (prior work done
while employed by Thomas Edison), allowed power from elect ric mot ors t o be ret urned t o t he elect ric grid, provided for elect ric
dist ribut ion t o t rolleys via overhead wires and t he t rolley pole, and provided cont rol syst ems for elect ric operat ions. This allowed
Sprague t o use elect ric mot ors t o invent t he first elect ric t rolley syst em in 1887–88 in Richmond, Virginia, t he elect ric elevat or and
cont rol syst em in 1892, and t he elect ric subway wit h independent ly powered cent rally-cont rolled cars. The lat t er were first
inst alled in 1892 in Chicago by t he Sout h Side Elevat ed Railroad, where it became popularly known as t he "L". Sprague's mot or and
relat ed invent ions led t o an explosion of int erest and use in elect ric mot ors for indust ry. The development of elect ric mot ors of
accept able efficiency was delayed for several decades by failure t o recognize t he ext reme import ance of an air gap bet ween t he
rot or and st at or. Efficient designs have a comparat ively small air gap.[25][a] The St . Louis mot or, long used in classrooms t o illust rat e
mot or principles, is ext remely inefficient for t he same reason, as well as appearing not hing like a modern mot or.[26]

Elect ric mot ors revolut ionized indust ry. Indust rial processes were no longer limit ed by power t ransmission using line shaft s, belt s,
compressed air or hydraulic pressure. Inst ead, every machine could be equipped wit h it s own power source, providing easy cont rol
at t he point of use, and improving power t ransmission efficiency. Elect ric mot ors applied in agricult ure eliminat ed human and animal
muscle power from such t asks as handling grain or pumping wat er. Household uses (like in washing machines, dishwashers, fans, air
condit ioners and refrigerat ors (replacing ice boxes)) of elect ric mot ors reduced heavy labor in t he home and made higher st andards
of convenience, comfort and safet y possible. Today, elect ric mot ors consume more t han half of t he elect ric energy produced in
t he US.[27]

AC motors

In 1824, French physicist François Arago formulat ed t he exist ence of rot at ing magnet ic fields, t ermed Arago's rot at ions, which, by
manually t urning swit ches on and off, Walt er Baily demonst rat ed in 1879 as in effect t he first primit ive induct ion mot or.[28][29][30][31]
In t he 1880s many invent ors were t rying t o develop workable AC mot ors[32] because AC's advant ages in long-dist ance high-volt age
t ransmission were offset by t he inabilit y t o operat e mot ors on AC.

The first alt ernat ing-current commut at orless induct ion mot or was invent ed by Galileo Ferraris in 1885. Ferraris was able t o improve
his first design by producing more advanced set ups in 1886.[33] In 1888, t he Royal Academy of Science of Turin published Ferraris's
research det ailing t he foundat ions of mot or operat ion, while concluding at t hat t ime t hat "t he apparat us based on t hat principle
could not be of any commercial import ance as mot or."[31][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45]

Possible indust rial development was envisioned by Nikola Tesla, who invent ed independent ly his induct ion mot or in 1887 and
obt ained a pat ent in May 1888. In t he same year, Tesla present ed his paper A New System of Alternate Current Motors and
Transformers t o t he AIEE t hat described t hree pat ent ed t wo-phase four-st at or-pole mot or t ypes: one wit h a four-pole rot or
forming a non-self-st art ing reluct ance mot or, anot her wit h a wound rot or forming a self-st art ing induct ion mot or, and t he t hird a
t rue synchronous mot or wit h separat ely excit ed DC supply t o rot or winding. One of t he pat ent s Tesla filed in 1887, however, also
described a short ed-winding-rot or induct ion mot or. George West inghouse, who had already acquired right s from Ferraris (US$1,000),
prompt ly bought Tesla's pat ent s (US$60,000 plus US$2.50 per sold hp, paid unt il 1897),[33] employed Tesla t o develop his mot ors,
and assigned C.F. Scot t t o help Tesla; however, Tesla left for ot her pursuit s in 1889.[31][39][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53] The
const ant speed AC induct ion mot or was found not t o be suit able for st reet cars,[32] but West inghouse engineers successfully
adapt ed it t o power a mining operat ion in Telluride, Colorado in 1891.[54][55][56] West inghouse achieved it s first pract ical induct ion
mot or in 1892 and developed a line of polyphase 60 hert z induct ion mot ors in 1893, but t hese early West inghouse mot ors were
t wo-phase mot ors wit h wound rot ors. B.G. Lamme lat er developed a rot at ing bar winding rot or.[46]

St eadfast in his promot ion of t hree-phase development , Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invent ed t he t hree-phase induct ion mot or in
1889, of bot h t ypes cage-rot or and wound rot or wit h a st art ing rheost at , and t he t hree-limb t ransformer in 1890. Aft er an
agreement bet ween AEG and Maschinenfabrik Oerlikon, Doliwo-Dobrowolski and Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown developed larger
models, namely a 20-hp squirrel cage and a 100-hp wound rot or wit h a st art ing rheost at . These were t he first t hree-phase
asynchronous mot ors suit able for pract ical operat ion.[33] Since 1889, similar development s of t hree-phase machinery were st art ed
Wenst röm. At t he 1891 Frankfurt Int ernat ional Elect rot echnical Exhibit ion, t he first long dist ance t hree-phase syst em was
successfully present ed. It was rat ed 15 kV and ext ended over 175 km from t he Lauffen wat erfall on t he Neckar river. The Lauffen
power st at ion included a 240 kW 86 V 40 Hz alt ernat or and a st ep-up t ransformer while at t he exhibit ion a st ep-down t ransformer
fed a 100-hp t hree-phase induct ion mot or t hat powered an art ificial wat erfall, represent ing t he t ransfer of t he original power
source.[33] The t hree-phase induct ion is now used for t he vast majorit y of commercial applicat ions.[57][58] Mikhail Dolivo-
Dobrovolsky claimed t hat Tesla's mot or was not pract ical because of t wo-phase pulsat ions, which prompt ed him t o persist in his
t hree-phase work.[59]

The General Elect ric Company began developing t hree-phase induct ion mot ors in 1891.[46] By 1896, General Elect ric and
West inghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for t he bar-winding-rot or design, lat er called t he squirrel-cage rot or.[46] Induct ion
mot or improvement s flowing from t hese invent ions and innovat ions were such t hat a 100-horsepower induct ion mot or current ly has
t he same mount ing dimensions as a 7.5-horsepower mot or in 1897.[46]

Components
Electric motor rotor (left) and stator (right)

Elect rically, a mot or consist s of t wo component s which move relat ive t o each ot her and which t oget her form a magnet ic circuit :[60]

Field magnet s - This part creat es a magnet ic field which passes t hrough t he armat ure. It is usually a set of elect romagnet s
surrounding t he rot or, consist ing of wire windings on a ferromagnet ic iron core which guides t he magnet ic field. Alt ernat ively it
can be one or more permanent magnet s.

Armat ure - This is t he part t hrough which t he elect ric current flows which develops t he force. Like field coils, it consist s of wire
windings on a ferromagnet ic core. When elect ric current passes t hrough t he wire t he magnet ic field from t he field magnet
exert s a force on it , called t he Lorent z force, t urning t he rot or.

One of t hese component s is mount ed on t he st at or, t he st at ionary part of t he mot or at t ached t o t he frame, t he ot her is on t he
rot or, t he part t hat t urns. The field magnet is usually on t he st at or and t he armat ure on t he rot or, but in some t ypes of mot or t hese
are reversed.

Mechanically, a mot or consist s of t hese part s

Rotor

In an elect ric mot or, t he moving part is t he rot or, which t urns t he shaft t o deliver t he mechanical power. The rot or usually has
conduct ors laid int o it t hat carry current s, which t he magnet ic field of t he st at or exert s force on t o t urn t he shaft . Alt ernat ively,
some rot ors carry permanent magnet s, and t he st at or holds t he conduct ors. Rot ors wit h permanent magnet s offer high efficiency
over a larger operat ing speed and power range.[61]

There must be an air gap bet ween t he st at or and rot or so it can t urn. The widt h of t he gap has a significant effect on t he mot or's
elect rical charact erist ics. It is generally made as small as possible, as a large gap has a st rong negat ive effect on performance. It
is t he main source of t he low power fact or at which mot ors operat e. The magnet izing current increases and t he power fact or
decreases wit h t he air gap, so narrow gaps are bet t er. Very small gaps may pose mechanical problems in addit ion t o noise and
losses.

Bearings

The rot or is support ed by bearings, which allow t he rot or t o t urn on it s axis. The bearings are in t urn support ed by t he mot or
housing. The mot or shaft ext ends t hrough t he bearings t o t he out side of t he mot or, where t he load is applied. Because t he forces
of t he load are exert ed beyond t he out ermost bearing, t he load is said t o be overhung.[62]

Stator

The st at or is t he st at ionary part of t he mot or's elect romagnet ic circuit surrounding t he rot or, and usually consist s of t he field
magnets, which are eit her elect romagnet s consist ing of wire windings around a ferromagnet ic iron core or permanent magnet s. It
creat es a magnet ic field which passes t hrough t he rot or armat ure, exert ing force on t he windings. The st at or core is made up of
many t hin met al sheet s which are insulat ed from each ot her, called laminat ions. Laminat ions are used t o reduce energy losses t hat
would result if a solid core were used. Resin-packed mot ors, used in washing machines and air condit ioners, use t he damping
propert ies of resin (plast ic) t o reduce noise and vibrat ion. These mot ors complet ely encapsulat e t he st at or in plast ic.[63]
Salient-pole rotor

Windings

Windings are wires t hat are laid in coils, usually wrapped around a laminat ed soft iron magnet ic core so as t o form magnet ic poles
when energized wit h current .

Elect ric machines come in t wo basic magnet ic pole configurat ions: salient - and nonsalient -pole configurat ions. In t he salient-pole
machine t he ferromagnet ic cores on t he rot or and st at or have project ions called poles facing each ot her, wit h a wire winding
around each pole below t he pole face, which become nort h or sout h poles of t he magnet ic field when current flows t hrough t he
wire. In t he nonsalient-pole, or dist ribut ed field, or round-rot or, machine, t he ferromagnet ic core does not have project ing poles but
is a smoot h cylinder, wit h t he windings dist ribut ed evenly in slot s about t he circumference. The alt ernat ing current in t he windings
creat es poles in t he core which rot at e cont inuously.[64] A shaded-pole mot or has a winding around part of t he pole t hat delays t he
phase of t he magnet ic field for t hat pole.

Some mot ors have conduct ors t hat consist of t hicker met al, such as bars or sheet s of met al, usually copper, alt ernat ively
aluminum. These are usually powered by elect romagnet ic induct ion.

Commutator
Commutator in a universal motor from a vacuum cleaner. Parts: (A) commutator, (B) brush

A commut at or is a rot ary elect rical swit ch in some mot ors t hat supplies current t o t he rot or. It consist s of a cylinder composed of
mult iple met al cont act segment s on t he rot at ing armat ure of t he machine. Two or more elect rical cont act s called "brushes" made
of a soft conduct ive mat erial like carbon press against t he commut at or, making sliding cont act wit h successive segment s of t he
commut at or as it rot at es, supplying t he current t o t he rot or. The windings on t he rot or are connect ed t o t he commut at or
segment s. The commut at or periodically reverses t he current direct ion in t he rot or windings wit h each half t urn (180°), so t he
t orque t he magnet ic field of t he st at or exert s on t he rot or is always in t he same direct ion.[65][66] Wit hout t his current reversal, t he
direct ion of t orque on each rot or winding would reverse wit h each half t urn, so t he rot or would st op. Commut at ors are inefficient
and commut at ed mot ors have been most ly replaced by brushless direct current mot ors, permanent magnet mot ors, and induct ion
mot ors.

Motor supply and control

Motor supply

A DC mot or is usually supplied t hrough a split ring commut at or as described above. AC mot ors' commut at ion can be achieved using
eit her a slip ring commut at or or ext ernal commut at ion, can be fixed-speed or variable-speed cont rol t ype, and can be synchronous
or asynchronous t ype. Universal mot ors can run on eit her AC or DC.

Motor control

DC mot ors can be operat ed at variable speeds by adjust ing t he DC volt age applied t o t he t erminals or by using pulse-widt h
modulat ion (PWM).

AC mot ors operat ed at a fixed speed are generally powered direct ly from t he grid or t hrough mot or soft st art ers.

AC mot ors operat ed at variable speeds are powered wit h various power invert er, variable-frequency drive or elect ronic commut at or
t echnologies.

The t erm elect ronic commut at or is usually associat ed wit h self-commut at ed brushless DC mot or and swit ched reluct ance mot or
applicat ions.

Types

Elect ric mot ors operat e on t hree dist inct physical principles: magnet ism, elect rost at ics and piezoelect ricit y.

In magnet ic mot ors, magnet ic fields are formed in bot h t he rot or and t he st at or. The product bet ween t hese t wo fields gives rise
t o a force, and t hus a t orque on t he mot or shaft . One, or bot h, of t hese fields must change wit h t he rot at ion of t he rot or. This is
done by swit ching t he poles on and off at t he right t ime, or varying t he st rengt h of t he pole.

The main t ypes are DC mot ors and AC mot ors,[67] wit h t he lat t er replacing t he former.

AC elect ric mot ors are eit her asynchronous or synchronous.[68]

Once st art ed, a synchronous mot or requires synchrony wit h t he moving magnet ic field's speed for all normal t orque condit ions.
In synchronous machines, t he magnet ic field must be provided by means ot her t han induct ion, such as from separat ely excit ed
windings or permanent magnet s.

A fract ional-horsepower mot or eit her has a rat ing below about 1 horsepower (0.746 kW), or is manufact ured wit h a st andard-frame
size smaller t han a st andard 1 HP mot or. Many household and indust rial mot ors are in t he fract ional-horsepower class.
Type of motor commutation[69][70][71][72][73][74][75]
Self-commutated Externally commutated

Mechanical commutator Electronic commutator [75][b] Asynchronous Synchronous 2

AC [76][c] DC AC 5,6 AC 6

Three-phase:
SCIM 3, 8

WRIM 4, 7,8 WRSM, PMSM or BLAC:[75]

Elect rically
excit ed: IPMSM

Separat ely Two-phase

Universal SPMSM
PM rot or: (condenser)
excit ed
(AC commut at or BLDC SyRM
series[74] or Series Hyst eresis
Ferromagnet ic rot or: Single-phase:
AC/DC[73])1 Hybrid:
Shunt
SRM Auxiliary winding
Repulsion SyRM-PM hybrid
Compound (split -phase:
PM resist ance or Hyst eresis-reluct ance
capacit or st art )
St epper
Shaded-pole

Asymmet rical st at or

Rect ifier,
More elaborat e Most elaborat e
Simple elect ronics linear t ransist or(s)
elect ronics elect ronics (VFD), when provided
or DC chopper

Not es:
 Rot at ion is independent of t he frequency of t he AC volt age.

Rot at ion is equal t o synchronous speed (mot or-st at or-field speed).

In SCIM, fixed-speed operat ion rot at ion is equal t o synchronous speed, less slip speed.

In non-slip energy-recovery syst ems, WRIM is usually used for mot or-st art ing but can be used t o vary load speed.

Variable-speed operat ion.

Whereas induct ion- and synchronous-mot or drives are t ypically wit h eit her six-st ep or sinusoidal-waveform out put , BLDC-mot or
drives are usually wit h t rapezoidal-current waveform; t he behavior of bot h sinusoidal and t rapezoidal PM machines is, however,
ident ical in t erms of t heir fundament al aspect s.[77]

In variable-speed operat ion, WRIM is used in slip-energy recovery and double-fed induct ion-machine applicat ions.

A cage winding is a short ed-circuit ed squirrel-cage rot or, a wound winding is connect ed ext ernally t hrough slip rings.

Most ly single-phase wit h some t hree-phase.

Abbreviat ions:

BLAC – Brushless AC

BLDC – Brushless DC

BLDM – Brushless DC mot or

EC – Elect ronic commut at or

PM – Permanent magnet

IPMSM – Int erior permanent -magnet synchronous mot or

PMSM – Permanent magnet synchronous mot or

SPMSM – Surface permanent magnet synchronous mot or

 SCIM – Squirrel-cage induct ion mot or

SRM – Swit ched reluct ance mot or

SyRM – Synchronous reluct ance mot or

VFD – Variable-frequency drive

WRIM – Wound-rot or induct ion mot or

WRSM – Wound-rot or synchronous mot or

LRA – Locked-rot or amps: The current you can expect under st art ing condit ions when you apply full volt age. It occurs inst ant ly
during st art -up.

RLA – Rat ed-load amps: The maximum current a mot or should draw under any operat ing condit ions. Oft en mist akenly called
running-load amps, which leads people t o believe, incorrect ly, t hat t he mot or should always pull t hese amps.

FLA – Full-load amps: Changed in 1976 t o "RLA – rat ed-load amps".

Self-commutated motor

Brushed DC motor

By definit ion, all self-commut at ed DC mot ors run on DC elect ric power. Most DC mot ors are small permanent magnet (PM) t ypes.
They cont ain a brushed int ernal mechanical commut at ion t o reverse mot or windings' current in synchronism wit h rot at ion.[78]

Electrically excited DC motor

Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-pole rotor and PM stator. ("N" and "S" designate polarities on the inside faces of the magnets; the outside faces have
opposite polarities.)

A commut at ed DC mot or has a set of rot at ing windings wound on an armat ure mount ed on a rot at ing shaft . The shaft also carries
t he commut at or, a long-last ing rot ary elect rical swit ch t hat periodically reverses t he flow of current in t he rot or windings as t he
shaft rot at es. Thus, every brushed DC mot or has AC flowing t hrough it s rot at ing windings. Current flows t hrough one or more pairs
of brushes t hat bear on t he commut at or; t he brushes connect an ext ernal source of elect ric power t o t he rot at ing armat ure.

The rot at ing armat ure consist s of one or more coils of wire wound around a laminat ed, magnet ically "soft " ferromagnet ic core.
Current from t he brushes flows t hrough t he commut at or and one winding of t he armat ure, making it a t emporary magnet (an
elect romagnet ). The magnet ic field produced by t he armat ure int eract s wit h a st at ionary magnet ic field produced by eit her PMs or
anot her winding (a field coil), as part of t he mot or frame. The force bet ween t he t wo magnet ic fields t ends t o rot at e t he mot or
shaft . The commut at or swit ches power t o t he coils as t he rot or t urns, keeping t he magnet ic poles of t he rot or from ever fully
aligning wit h t he magnet ic poles of t he st at or field, so t hat t he rot or never st ops (as a compass needle does), but rat her keeps
rot at ing as long as power is applied.
Many of t he limit at ions of t he classic commut at or DC mot or are due t o t he need for brushes t o press against t he commut at or.
This creat es frict ion. Sparks are creat ed by t he brushes making and breaking circuit s t hrough t he rot or coils as t he brushes cross
t he insulat ing gaps bet ween commut at or sect ions. Depending on t he commut at or design, t his may include t he brushes short ing
t oget her adjacent sect ions—and hence coil ends—moment arily while crossing t he gaps. Furt hermore, t he induct ance of t he rot or
coils causes t he volt age across each t o rise when it s circuit is opened, increasing t he sparking of t he brushes. This sparking limit s
t he maximum speed of t he machine, as t oo-rapid sparking will overheat , erode, or even melt t he commut at or. The current densit y
per unit area of t he brushes, in combinat ion wit h t heir resist ivit y, limit s t he out put of t he mot or. The making and breaking of elect ric
cont act also generat es elect rical noise; sparking generat es RFI. Brushes event ually wear out and require replacement , and t he
commut at or it self is subject t o wear and maint enance (on larger mot ors) or replacement (on small mot ors). The commut at or
assembly on a large mot or is a cost ly element , requiring precision assembly of many part s. On small mot ors, t he commut at or is
usually permanent ly int egrat ed int o t he rot or, so replacing it usually requires replacing t he whole rot or.

While most commut at ors are cylindrical, some are flat discs consist ing of several segment s (t ypically, at least t hree) mount ed on
an insulat or.

Large brushes are desired for a larger brush cont act area t o maximize mot or out put , but small brushes are desired for low mass t o
maximize t he speed at which t he mot or can run wit hout t he brushes excessively bouncing and sparking. (Small brushes are also
desirable for lower cost .) St iffer brush springs can also be used t o make brushes of a given mass work at a higher speed, but at t he
cost of great er frict ion losses (lower efficiency) and accelerat ed brush and commut at or wear. Therefore, DC mot or brush design
ent ails a t rade-off bet ween out put power, speed, and efficiency/wear.

DC machines are defined as follows:[79]

Armat ure circuit – A winding where t he load current is carried, such t hat can be eit her st at ionary or rot at ing part of mot or or
generat or.

Field circuit – A set of windings t hat produces a magnet ic field so t hat t he elect romagnet ic induct ion can t ake place in elect ric
machines.

Commut at ion: A mechanical t echnique in which rect ificat ion can be achieved, or from which DC can be derived, in DC machines.
A: shunt B: series C: compound f = field coil

There are five t ypes of brushed DC mot or:

DC shunt -wound mot or

DC series-wound mot or

DC compound mot or (t wo configurat ions):

Cumulat ive compound

Different ially compounded

PM DC mot or (not shown)

Separat ely excit ed (not shown).

Permanent magnet DC motor

A PM (permanent magnet ) mot or does not have a field winding on t he st at or frame, inst ead relying on PMs t o provide t he magnet ic
field against which t he rot or field int eract s t o produce t orque. Compensat ing windings in series wit h t he armat ure may be used on
large mot ors t o improve commut at ion under load. Because t his field is fixed, it cannot be adjust ed for speed cont rol. PM fields
(st at ors) are convenient in miniat ure mot ors t o eliminat e t he power consumpt ion of t he field winding. Most larger DC mot ors are of
t he "dynamo" t ype, which have st at or windings. Hist orically, PMs could not be made t o ret ain high flux if t hey were disassembled;
field windings were more pract ical t o obt ain t he needed amount of flux. However, large PMs are cost ly, as well as dangerous and
difficult t o assemble; t his favors wound fields for large machines.

To minimize overall weight and size, miniat ure PM mot ors may use high energy magnet s made wit h neodymium or ot her st rat egic
element s; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. Wit h t heir higher flux densit y, elect ric machines wit h high-energy PMs are at
least compet it ive wit h all opt imally designed singly-fed synchronous and induct ion elect ric machines. Miniat ure mot ors resemble
t he st ruct ure in t he illust rat ion, except t hat t hey have at least t hree rot or poles (t o ensure st art ing, regardless of rot or posit ion)
and t heir out er housing is a st eel t ube t hat magnet ically links t he ext eriors of t he curved field magnet s.

Electronic commutator (EC) motor

Brushless DC motor

Some of t he problems of t he brushed DC mot or are eliminat ed in t he BLDC design. In t his mot or, t he mechanical "rot at ing swit ch"
or commut at or is replaced by an ext ernal elect ronic swit ch synchronised t o t he rot or's posit ion. BLDC mot ors are t ypically 85–90%
efficient or more. Efficiency for a BLDC mot or of up t o 96.5% have been report ed,[80] whereas DC mot ors wit h brushgear are
t ypically 75–80% efficient .

The BLDC mot or's charact erist ic t rapezoidal count er-elect romot ive force (CEMF) waveform is derived part ly from t he st at or
windings being evenly dist ribut ed, and part ly from t he placement of t he rot or's permanent magnet s. Also known as elect ronically
commut at ed DC or inside out DC mot ors, t he st at or windings of t rapezoidal BLDC mot ors can be wit h single-phase, t wo-phase or
t hree-phase and use Hall effect sensors mount ed on t heir windings for rot or posit ion sensing and low cost closed-loop cont rol of
t he elect ronic commut at or.

BLDC mot ors are commonly used where precise speed cont rol is necessary, as in comput er disk drives or in video casset t e
recorders, t he spindles wit hin CD, CD-ROM (et c.) drives, and mechanisms wit hin office product s, such as fans, laser print ers and
phot ocopiers. They have several advant ages over convent ional mot ors:
 Compared t o AC fans using shaded-pole mot ors, t hey are very efficient , running much cooler t han t he equivalent AC mot ors. This
cool operat ion leads t o much-improved life of t he fan's bearings.

Wit hout a commut at or t o wear out , t he life of a BLDC mot or can be significant ly longer compared t o a DC mot or using brushes
and a commut at or. Commut at ion also t ends t o cause a great deal of elect rical and RF noise; wit hout a commut at or or brushes, a
BLDC mot or may be used in elect rically sensit ive devices like audio equipment or comput ers.

The same Hall effect sensors t hat provide t he commut at ion can also provide a convenient t achomet er signal for closed-loop
cont rol (servo-cont rolled) applicat ions. In fans, t he t achomet er signal can be used t o derive a "fan OK" signal as well as provide
running speed feedback.

The mot or can be easily synchronized t o an int ernal or ext ernal clock, leading t o precise speed cont rol.

BLDC mot ors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed mot ors, making t hem bet t er suit ed t o environment s wit h volat ile
chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking generat es ozone, which can accumulat e in poorly vent ilat ed buildings risking harm t o
occupant s' healt h.

BLDC mot ors are usually used in small equipment such as comput ers and are generally used in fans t o get rid of unwant ed heat .

They are also acoust ically very quiet mot ors, which is an advant age if being used in equipment t hat is affect ed by vibrat ions.

Modern BLDC mot ors range in power from a fract ion of a wat t t o many kilowat t s. Larger BLDC mot ors up t o about 100 kW rat ing
are used in elect ric vehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance elect ric model aircraft .

Switched reluctance motor

6/4 pole switched reluctance motor

The SRM has no brushes or permanent magnet s, and t he rot or has no elect ric current s. Inst ead, t orque comes from a slight
misalignment of poles on t he rot or wit h poles on t he st at or. The rot or aligns it self wit h t he magnet ic field of t he st at or, while t he
st at or field windings are sequent ially energized t o rot at e t he st at or field.

The magnet ic flux creat ed by t he field windings follows t he pat h of least magnet ic reluct ance, meaning t he flux will flow t hrough
poles of t he rot or t hat are closest t o t he energized poles of t he st at or, t hereby magnet izing t hose poles of t he rot or and creat ing
t orque. As t he rot or t urns, different windings will be energized, keeping t he rot or t urning.

SRMs are used in some appliances[81] and vehicles.[82]

Universal AC/DC motor

Modern low-cost universal motor, from a vacuum cleaner. Field windings are dark copper-colored, toward the back, on both sides. The rotor's laminated core is gray
metallic, with dark slots for winding the coils. The commutator (partly hidden) has become dark from use; it is toward the front. The large brown molded-plastic piece
in the foreground supports the brush guides and brushes (both sides), as well as the front motor bearing.

A commut at ed elect rically excit ed series or parallel wound mot or is referred t o as a universal mot or because it can be designed t o
operat e on AC or DC power. A universal mot or can operat e well on AC because t he current in bot h t he field and t he armat ure coils
(and hence t he result ant magnet ic fields) will alt ernat e (reverse polarit y) in synchronism, and hence t he result ing mechanical force
will occur in a const ant direct ion of rot at ion.

Operat ing at normal power line frequencies, universal mot ors are oft en found in a range less t han 1000 wat t s. Universal mot ors also
formed t he basis of t he t radit ional railway t ract ion mot or in elect ric railways. In t his applicat ion, t he use of AC t o power a mot or
originally designed t o run on DC would lead t o efficiency losses due t o eddy current heat ing of t heir magnet ic component s,
part icularly t he mot or field pole-pieces t hat , for DC, would have used solid (un-laminat ed) iron and t hey are now rarely used.

An advant age of t he universal mot or is t hat AC supplies may be used on mot ors t hat have some charact erist ics more common in
DC mot ors, specifically high st art ing t orque and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The negat ive aspect is t he
maint enance and short life problems caused by t he commut at or. Such mot ors are used in devices, such as food mixers and power
t ools, t hat are used only int ermit t ent ly, and oft en have high st art ing-t orque demands. Mult iple t aps on t he field coil provide
(imprecise) st epped speed cont rol. Household blenders t hat advert ise many speeds frequent ly combine a field coil wit h several
t aps and a diode t hat can be insert ed in series wit h t he mot or (causing t he mot or t o run on half-wave rect ified AC). Universal
mot ors also lend t hemselves t o elect ronic speed cont rol and, as such, are an ideal choice for devices like domest ic washing
machines. The mot or can be used t o agit at e t he drum (bot h forwards and in reverse) by swit ching t he field winding wit h respect t o
t he armat ure.

Whereas SCIMs cannot t urn a shaft fast er t han allowed by t he power line frequency, universal mot ors can run at much higher
speeds. This makes t hem useful for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high speed and light
weight are desirable. They are also commonly used in port able power t ools, such as drills, sanders, circular and jig saws, where t he
mot or's charact erist ics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed t rimmer mot ors exceed 10,000 rpm, while many similar miniat ure
grinders exceed 30,000 rpm.

Externally commutated AC machine

The design of AC induct ion and synchronous mot ors is opt imized for operat ion on single-phase or polyphase sinusoidal or quasi-
sinusoidal waveform power such as supplied for fixed-speed applicat ion from t he AC power grid or for variable-speed applicat ion
from VFD cont rollers. An AC mot or has t wo part s: a st at ionary st at or having coils supplied wit h AC t o produce a rot at ing magnet ic
field, and a rot or at t ached t o t he out put shaft t hat is given a t orque by t he rot at ing field.

Induction motor
Large 4,500 hp AC induction motor.

Cage and wound rotor induction motor

An induct ion mot or is an asynchronous AC mot or where power is t ransferred t o t he rot or by elect romagnet ic induct ion, much like
t ransformer act ion. An induct ion mot or resembles a rot at ing t ransformer, because t he st at or (st at ionary part ) is essent ially t he
primary side of t he t ransformer and t he rot or (rot at ing part ) is t he secondary side. Polyphase induct ion mot ors are widely used in
indust ry.

Induct ion mot ors may be furt her divided int o Squirrel Cage Induct ion Mot ors and Wound Rot or Induct ion Mot ors (WRIMs). SCIMs
have a heavy winding made up of solid bars, usually aluminum or copper, elect rically connect ed by rings at t he ends of t he rot or.
When one considers only t he bars and rings as a whole, t hey are much like an animal's rot at ing exercise cage, hence t he name.

Current s induced int o t his winding provide t he rot or magnet ic field. The shape of t he rot or bars det ermines t he speed-t orque
charact erist ics. At low speeds, t he current induced in t he squirrel cage is nearly at line frequency and t ends t o be in t he out er part s
of t he rot or cage. As t he mot or accelerat es, t he slip frequency becomes lower, and more current is in t he int erior of t he winding. By
shaping t he bars t o change t he resist ance of t he winding port ions in t he int erior and out er part s of t he cage, effect ively a variable
resist ance is insert ed in t he rot or circuit . However, t he majorit y of such mot ors have uniform bars.
In a WRIM, t he rot or winding is made of many t urns of insulat ed wire and is connect ed t o slip rings on t he mot or shaft . An ext ernal
resist or or ot her cont rol devices can be connect ed in t he rot or circuit . Resist ors allow cont rol of t he mot or speed, alt hough
significant power is dissipat ed in t he ext ernal resist ance. A convert er can be fed from t he rot or circuit and ret urn t he slip-
frequency power t hat would ot herwise be wast ed back int o t he power syst em t hrough an invert er or separat e mot or-generat or.

The WRIM is used primarily t o st art a high inert ia load or a load t hat requires a very high st art ing t orque across t he full speed range.
By correct ly select ing t he resist ors used in t he secondary resist ance or slip ring st art er, t he mot or is able t o produce maximum
t orque at a relat ively low supply current from zero speed t o full speed. This t ype of mot or also offers cont rollable speed.

Mot or speed can be changed because t he t orque curve of t he mot or is effect ively modified by t he amount of resist ance
connect ed t o t he rot or circuit . Increasing t he value of resist ance will move t he speed of maximum t orque down. If t he resist ance
connect ed t o t he rot or is increased beyond t he point where t he maximum t orque occurs at zero speed, t he t orque will be furt her
reduced.

When used wit h a load t hat has a t orque curve t hat increases wit h speed, t he mot or will operat e at t he speed where t he t orque
developed by t he mot or is equal t o t he load t orque. Reducing t he load will cause t he mot or t o speed up, and increasing t he load
will cause t he mot or t o slow down unt il t he load and mot or t orque are equal. Operat ed in t his manner, t he slip losses are dissipat ed
in t he secondary resist ors and can be very significant . The speed regulat ion and net efficiency is also very poor.

Torque motor

A t orque mot or is a specialized form of elect ric mot or t hat can operat e indefinit ely while st alled, t hat is, wit h t he rot or blocked
from t urning, wit hout incurring damage. In t his mode of operat ion, t he mot or will apply a st eady t orque t o t he load (hence t he
name).

A common applicat ion of a t orque mot or would be t he supply- and t ake-up reel mot ors in a t ape drive. In t his applicat ion, driven
from a low volt age, t he charact erist ics of t hese mot ors allow a relat ively const ant light t ension t o be applied t o t he t ape whet her
or not t he capst an is feeding t ape past t he t ape heads. Driven from a higher volt age, (and so delivering a higher t orque), t he t orque
mot ors can also achieve fast -forward and rewind operat ion wit hout requiring any addit ional mechanics such as gears or clut ches. In
t he comput er gaming world, t orque mot ors are used in force feedback st eering wheels.

Anot her common applicat ion is t he cont rol of t he t hrot t le of an int ernal combust ion engine in conjunct ion wit h an elect ronic
governor. In t his usage, t he mot or works against a ret urn spring t o move t he t hrot t le in accordance wit h t he out put of t he governor.
The lat t er monit ors engine speed by count ing elect rical pulses from t he ignit ion syst em or from a magnet ic pickup and, depending
on t he speed, makes small adjust ment s t o t he amount of current applied t o t he mot or. If t he engine st art s t o slow down relat ive
t o t he desired speed, t he current will be increased, t he mot or will develop more t orque, pulling against t he ret urn spring and
opening t he t hrot t le. Should t he engine run t oo fast , t he governor will reduce t he current being applied t o t he mot or, causing t he
ret urn spring t o pull back and close t he t hrot t le.

Synchronous motor

A synchronous elect ric mot or is an AC mot or dist inguished by a rot or spinning wit h coils passing magnet s at t he same rat e as t he
AC and result ing in a magnet ic field t hat drives it . Anot her way of saying t his is t hat it has zero slip under usual operat ing condit ions.
Cont rast t his wit h an induct ion mot or, which must slip t o produce t orque. One t ype of synchronous mot or is like an induct ion mot or
except t he rot or is excit ed by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes are used t o conduct current t o t he rot or. The rot or poles connect
t o each ot her and move at t he same speed hence t he name synchronous mot or. Anot her t ype, for low load t orque, has flat s ground
ont o a convent ional squirrel-cage rot or t o creat e discret e poles. Yet anot her, such as made by Hammond for it s pre-World War II
clocks, and in t he older Hammond organs, has no rot or windings and discret e poles. It is not self-st art ing. The clock requires manual
st art ing by a small knob on t he back, while t he older Hammond organs had an auxiliary st art ing mot or connect ed by a spring-loaded
manually operat ed swit ch.

Finally, hyst eresis synchronous mot ors t ypically are (essent ially) t wo-phase mot ors wit h a phase-shift ing capacit or for one phase.
They st art like induct ion mot ors, but when slip rat e decreases sufficient ly, t he rot or (a smoot h cylinder) becomes t emporarily
magnet ized. It s dist ribut ed poles make it act like a permanent magnet synchronous mot or (PMSM). The rot or mat erial, like t hat of
a common nail, will st ay magnet ized, but can also be demagnet ized wit h lit t le difficult y. Once running, t he rot or poles st ay in place;
t hey do not drift .
Low-power synchronous t iming mot ors (such as t hose for t radit ional elect ric clocks) may have mult i-pole permanent magnet
ext ernal cup rot ors, and use shading coils t o provide st art ing t orque. Telechron clock mot ors have shaded poles for st art ing t orque,
and a t wo-spoke ring rot or t hat performs like a discret e t wo-pole rot or.

Doubly-fed electric machine

Doubly fed elect ric mot ors have t wo independent mult iphase winding set s, which cont ribut e act ive (i.e., working) power t o t he
energy conversion process, wit h at least one of t he winding set s elect ronically cont rolled for variable speed operat ion. Two
independent mult iphase winding set s (i.e., dual armat ure) are t he maximum provided in a single package wit hout t opology
duplicat ion. Doubly-fed elect ric mot ors are machines wit h an effect ive const ant t orque speed range t hat is t wice synchronous
speed for a given frequency of excit at ion. This is t wice t he const ant t orque speed range as singly-fed elect ric machines, which
have only one act ive winding set .

A doubly-fed mot or allows for a smaller elect ronic convert er but t he cost of t he rot or winding and slip rings may offset t he saving
in t he power elect ronics component s. Difficult ies wit h cont rolling speed near synchronous speed limit applicat ions.[83]

Special magnetic motors

Rotary

Ironless or coreless rotor motor

A miniature coreless motor

Not hing in t he principle of any of t he mot ors described above requires t hat t he iron (st eel) port ions of t he rot or act ually rot at e. If
t he soft magnet ic mat erial of t he rot or is made in t he form of a cylinder, t hen (except for t he effect of hyst eresis) t orque is
exert ed only on t he windings of t he elect romagnet s. Taking advant age of t his fact is t he coreless or ironless DC motor, a
specialized form of a permanent magnet DC mot or.[78] Opt imized for rapid accelerat ion, t hese mot ors have a rot or t hat is
const ruct ed wit hout any iron core. The rot or can t ake t he form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-support ing st ruct ure
comprising only t he magnet wire and t he bonding mat erial. The rot or can fit inside t he st at or magnet s; a magnet ically soft
st at ionary cylinder inside t he rot or provides a ret urn pat h for t he st at or magnet ic flux. A second arrangement has t he rot or winding
basket surrounding t he st at or magnet s. In t hat design, t he rot or fit s inside a magnet ically soft cylinder t hat can serve as t he
housing for t he mot or, and likewise provides a ret urn pat h for t he flux.

Because t he rot or is much light er in weight (mass) t han a convent ional rot or formed from copper windings on st eel laminat ions, t he
rot or can accelerat e much more rapidly, oft en achieving a mechanical t ime const ant under one millisecond. This is especially t rue if
t he windings use aluminum rat her t han t he heavier copper. But because t here is no met al mass in t he rot or t o act as a heat sink,
even small coreless mot ors must oft en be cooled by forced air. Overheat ing might be an issue for coreless DC mot or designs.
Modern soft ware, such as Mot or-CAD, can help t o increase t he t hermal efficiency of mot ors while st ill in t he design st age.

Among t hese t ypes are t he disc-rot or t ypes, described in more det ail in t he next sect ion.

The vibrat ing alert of cellular phones is somet imes generat ed by t iny cylindrical permanent -magnet field t ypes, but t here are also
disc-shaped t ypes t hat have a t hin mult ipolar disc field magnet , and an int ent ionally unbalanced molded-plast ic rot or st ruct ure wit h
t wo bonded coreless coils. Met al brushes and a flat commut at or swit ch power t o t he rot or coils.

Relat ed limit ed-t ravel act uat ors have no core and a bonded coil placed bet ween t he poles of high-flux t hin permanent magnet s.
These are t he fast head posit ioners for rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives. Alt hough t he cont emporary design differs considerably from
t hat of loudspeakers, it is st ill loosely (and incorrect ly) referred t o as a "voice coil" st ruct ure, because some earlier rigid-disk-drive
heads moved in st raight lines, and had a drive st ruct ure much like t hat of a loudspeaker.

Pancake or axial rotor motor

The print ed armat ure or pancake mot or has t he windings shaped as a disc running bet ween arrays of high-flux magnet s. The
magnet s are arranged in a circle facing t he rot or wit h space in bet ween t o form an axial air gap.[84] This design is commonly known
as t he pancake mot or because of it s flat profile. The t echnology has had many brand names since it s incept ion, such as ServoDisc.

The print ed armat ure (originally formed on a print ed circuit board) in a print ed armat ure mot or is made from punched copper sheet s
t hat are laminat ed t oget her using advanced composit es t o form a t hin rigid disc. The print ed armat ure has a unique const ruct ion in
t he brushed mot or world in t hat it does not have a separat e ring commut at or. The brushes run direct ly on t he armat ure surface
making t he whole design very compact .

An alt ernat ive manufact uring met hod is t o use wound copper wire laid flat wit h a cent ral convent ional commut at or, in a flower and
pet al shape. The windings are t ypically st abilized wit h elect rical epoxy pot t ing syst ems. These are filled epoxies t hat have
moderat e, mixed viscosit y and a long gel t ime. They are highlight ed by low shrinkage and low exot herm, and are t ypically UL 1446
recognized as a pot t ing compound insulat ed wit h 180 °C (356 °F), Class H rat ing.
The unique advant age of ironless DC mot ors is t he absence of cogging (t orque variat ions caused by changing at t ract ion bet ween
t he iron and t he magnet s). Parasit ic eddy current s cannot form in t he rot or as it is t ot ally ironless, alt hough iron rot ors are
laminat ed. This can great ly improve efficiency, but variable-speed cont rollers must use a higher swit ching rat e (>40 kHz) or DC
because of decreased elect romagnet ic induct ion.

These mot ors were originally invent ed t o drive t he capst an(s) of magnet ic t ape drives, where minimal t ime t o reach operat ing
speed and minimal st opping dist ance were crit ical. Pancake mot ors are widely used in high-performance servo-cont rolled syst ems,
robot ic syst ems, indust rial aut omat ion and medical devices. Due t o t he variet y of const ruct ions now available, t he t echnology is
used in applicat ions from high t emperat ure milit ary t o low cost pump and basic servos.

Anot her approach (Magnax) is t o use a single st at or sandwiched bet ween t wo rot ors. One such design has produced peak power of
15 kW/kg, sust ained power around 7.5 kW/kg. This yokeless axial flux mot or offers a short er flux pat h, keeping t he magnet s furt her
from t he axis. The design allows zero winding overhang; 100 percent of t he windings are act ive. This is enhanced wit h t he use of
rect angular-sect ion copper wire. The mot ors can be st acked t o work in parallel. Inst abilit ies are minimized by ensuring t hat t he t wo
rot or discs put equal and opposing forces ont o t he st at or disc. The rot ors are connect ed direct ly t o one anot her via a shaft ring,
cancelling out t he magnet ic forces.[85]

Magnax mot ors range in size from .15–5.4 met res (5.9 in–17 ft 8.6 in) in diamet er.[85]

Servo motor

A servomot or is a mot or, very oft en sold as a complet e module, which is used wit hin a posit ion-cont rol or speed-cont rol feedback
cont rol syst em. Servomot ors are used in applicat ions such as machine t ools, pen plot t ers, and ot her process syst ems. Mot ors
int ended for use in a servomechanism must have well-document ed charact erist ics for speed, t orque, and power. The speed vs.
t orque curve is quit e import ant and is high rat io for a servo mot or. Dynamic response charact erist ics such as winding induct ance
and rot or inert ia are also import ant ; t hese fact ors limit t he overall performance of t he servomechanism loop. Large, powerful, but
slow-responding servo loops may use convent ional AC or DC mot ors and drive syst ems wit h posit ion or speed feedback on t he
mot or. As dynamic response requirement s increase, more specialized mot or designs such as coreless mot ors are used. AC mot ors'
superior power densit y and accelerat ion charact erist ics compared t o t hat of DC mot ors t ends t o favor permanent magnet
synchronous, BLDC, induct ion, and SRM drive applicat ions.[84]

A servo syst em differs from some st epper mot or applicat ions in t hat t he posit ion feedback is cont inuous while t he mot or is
running. A st epper syst em inherent ly operat es open-loop—relying on t he mot or not t o "miss st eps" for short t erm accuracy—wit h
any feedback such as a "home" swit ch or posit ion encoder being ext ernal t o t he mot or syst em.[86] For inst ance, when a t ypical dot
mat rix comput er print er st art s up, it s cont roller makes t he print head st epper mot or drive t o it s left -hand limit , where a posit ion
sensor defines home posit ion and st ops st epping. As long as power is on, a bidirect ional count er in t he print er's microprocessor
keeps t rack of print -head posit ion.

Stepper motor

A stepper motor with a soft iron rotor, with active windings shown. In 'A' the active windings tend to hold the rotor in position. In 'B' a different set of windings are
carrying a current, which generates torque and rotation.

St epper mot ors are a t ype of mot or frequent ly used when precise rot at ions are required. In a st epper mot or an int ernal rot or
cont aining permanent magnet s or a magnet ically soft rot or wit h salient poles is cont rolled by a set of ext ernal magnet s t hat are
swit ched elect ronically. A st epper mot or may also be t hought of as a cross bet ween a DC elect ric mot or and a rot ary solenoid. As
each coil is energized in t urn, t he rot or aligns it self wit h t he magnet ic field produced by t he energized field winding. Unlike a
synchronous mot or, in it s applicat ion, t he st epper mot or may not rot at e cont inuously; inst ead, it "st eps"—st art s and t hen quickly
st ops again—from one posit ion t o t he next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on t he
sequence, t he rot or may t urn forwards or backwards, and it may change direct ion, st op, speed up or slow down arbit rarily at any
t ime.

Simple st epper mot or drivers ent irely energize or ent irely de-energize t he field windings, leading t he rot or t o "cog" t o a limit ed
number of posit ions; more sophist icat ed drivers can proport ionally cont rol t he power t o t he field windings, allowing t he rot ors t o
posit ion bet ween t he cog point s and t hereby rot at e ext remely smoot hly. This mode of operat ion is oft en called microst epping.
Comput er cont rolled st epper mot ors are one of t he most versat ile forms of posit ioning syst ems, part icularly when part of a digit al
servo-cont rolled syst em.

St epper mot ors can be rot at ed t o a specific angle in discret e st eps wit h ease, and hence st epper mot ors are used for read/writ e
head posit ioning in comput er floppy disket t e drives. They were used for t he same purpose in pre-gigabyt e era comput er disk
drives, where t he precision and speed t hey offered was adequat e for t he correct posit ioning of t he read/writ e head of a hard disk
drive. As drive densit y increased, t he precision and speed limit at ions of st epper mot ors made t hem obsolet e for hard drives—t he
precision limit at ion made t hem unusable, and t he speed limit at ion made t hem uncompet it ive—t hus newer hard disk drives use voice
coil-based head act uat or syst ems. (The t erm "voice coil" in t his connect ion is hist oric; it refers t o t he st ruct ure in a t ypical (cone
t ype) loudspeaker. This st ruct ure was used for a while t o posit ion t he heads. Modern drives have a pivot ed coil mount ; t he coil
swings back and fort h, somet hing like a blade of a rot at ing fan. Nevert heless, like a voice coil, modern act uat or coil conduct ors
(t he magnet wire) move perpendicular t o t he magnet ic lines of force.)

St epper mot ors were and st ill are oft en used in comput er print ers, opt ical scanners, and digit al phot ocopiers t o move t he opt ical
scanning element , t he print head carriage (of dot mat rix and inkjet print ers), and t he plat en or feed rollers. Likewise, many comput er
plot t ers (which since t he early 1990s have been replaced wit h large-format inkjet and laser print ers) used rot ary st epper mot ors
for pen and plat en movement ; t he t ypical alt ernat ives here were eit her linear st epper mot ors or servomot ors wit h closed-loop
analog cont rol syst ems.

So-called quart z analog wrist wat ches cont ain t he smallest commonplace st epping mot ors; t hey have one coil, draw very lit t le
power, and have a permanent magnet rot or. The same kind of mot or drives bat t ery-powered quart z clocks. Some of t hese
wat ches, such as chronographs, cont ain more t han one st epping mot or.

Closely relat ed in design t o t hree-phase AC synchronous mot ors, st epper mot ors and SRMs are classified as variable reluct ance
mot or t ype.[87] St epper mot ors were and st ill are oft en used in comput er print ers, opt ical scanners, and comput er numerical
cont rol (CNC) machines such as rout ers, plasma cut t ers and CNC lat hes.

Linear motor

A linear mot or is essent ially any elect ric mot or t hat has been "unrolled" so t hat , inst ead of producing a t orque (rot at ion), it produces
a st raight -line force along it s lengt h.

Linear mot ors are most commonly induct ion mot ors or st epper mot ors. Linear mot ors are commonly found in many roller-coast ers
where t he rapid mot ion of t he mot orless railcar is cont rolled by t he rail. They are also used in maglev t rains, where t he t rain "flies"
over t he ground. On a smaller scale, t he 1978 era HP 7225A pen plot t er used t wo linear st epper mot ors t o move t he pen along t he
X and Y axes.[88]

Comparison by major categories

Comparison of motor types
Type Advantages Disadvantages Typical application Typical drive, output

Self-commutated motors

Maint enance
St eel mills
Simple speed (brushes)
Paper making machines Rect ifier, linear t ransist or(s) or DC
Brushed DC cont rol Medium lifespan
Treadmill exercisers chopper cont roller.[89]
Low init ial cost Cost ly commut at or
Aut omot ive accessories
and brushes

Brushless Rigid ("hard") disk drives

Higher init ial cost Synchronous; single-phase or t hree-
DC mot or Long lifespan CD/DVD players
Requires EC cont roller phase wit h PM rot or and t rapezoidal
(BLDC) Low maint enance Elect ric vehicles
wit h closed-loop st at or winding; VFD t ypically VS PWM
or High efficiency RC Vehicles
cont rol invert er t ype.[84][90][91]
(BLDM) UAVs

Mechanical resonance
Long lifespan possible
Low maint enance High iron losses
Swit ched Appliances
High efficiency Not possible: PWM and various ot her drive t ypes,
reluct ance Elect ric Vehicles
No permanent * Open or vect or which t end t o be used in very
mot or Text ile mills
magnet s cont rol specialized / OEM applicat ions.[92][93]
(SRM) Aircraft applicat ions
Low cost * Parallel operat ion
Simple const ruct ion Requires EC
cont roller[87]

Universal High st art ing t orque, Maint enance Handheld power t ools, Variable single-phase AC, half-wave or
mot or compact , high (brushes) blenders, vacuum cleaners, full-wave phase-angle cont rol wit h
speed. Short er lifespan insulat ion blowers t riac(s); closed-loop cont rol opt ional.[89]
Usually acoust ically
 noisy
Only small rat ings are
economical

AC asynchronous motors

Fixed-speed, t radit ionally,

SCIM t he world's workhorse
AC
especially in low-
polyphase Fixed-speed, low-performance
performance applicat ions of
squirrel- applicat ions of all t ypes.
Self-st art ing all t ypes
cage Variable-speed, t radit ionally, WRIM
Low cost High st art ing current Variable-speed, t radit ionally,
or drives or fixed-speed V/Hz-cont rolled
Robust Lower efficiency low-performance variable-
wound-rot or VSDs.
Reliable due t o need t orque pumps, fans, blowers
induct ion Variable-speed, increasingly, vect or-
Rat ings t o 1+ MW for magnet izat ion. and compressors.
mot or cont rolled VSDs displacing DC, WRIM
St andardized t ypes. Variable-speed, increasingly,
(SCIM) and single-phase AC induct ion mot or
ot her high-performance
or drives.
const ant -t orque and
(WRIM)
const ant -power or dynamic
loads.

AC SCIM Speed slight ly below Fixed or variable single-phase AC,

split -phase High power synchronous Appliances variable speed being derived, t ypically,
capacit or- high st art ing t orque St art ing swit ch or St at ionary Power Tools by full-wave phase-angle cont rol wit h
st art relay required t riac(s); closed-loop cont rol opt ional.[89]

AC SCIM Moderat e power Speed slight ly below Indust rial blowers

split -phase High st art ing t orque synchronous Indust rial machinery
capacit or- No st art ing swit ch Slight ly more cost ly
run
 Comparat ively long
life

AC SCIM
Speed slight ly below
split -phase,
Moderat e power synchronous Appliances
auxiliary
Low st art ing t orque St art ing swit ch or St at ionary power t ools
st art
relay required
winding

Speed slight ly below

AC induct ion synchronous
Low cost Fans, appliances, record
shaded-pole Low st art ing t orque
Long life players
mot or Small rat ings
low efficiency

AC synchronous motors

Synchronous speed
Wound-rot or Fixed or variable speed, t hree-phase;
Inherent ly
synchronous VFD t ypically six-st ep CS load-
more efficient More cost ly Indust rial mot ors
mot or commut at ed invert er t ype or VS PWM
induct ion mot or,
(WRSM) invert er t ype.[89][91]
low power fact or

Accurat e speed
cont rol Clocks, t imers, sound
Hyst eresis Low noise producing or recording Single-phase AC, t wo-phase capacit or-
Very low efficiency
mot or No vibrat ion equipment , hard drive, st art , capacit or run mot or[94][95]
High st art ing capst an drive
t orque

Synchronous Equivalent t o SCIM Requires a cont roller Appliances VFD can be st andard DTC t ype or VS
reluct ance except more robust , Not widely available Elect ric vehicles invert er PWM t ype.[96]
mot or more efficient , runs High cost Text ile mills
(SyRM) cooler, smaller Aircraft applicat ions
foot print
Compet es wit h PM
synchronous mot or
wit hout
demagnet izat ion
issues

Specialty motors

Pancake
Compact design Office Equip
or axial Medium cost Drives can t ypically be brushed or
Simple speed Fans/Pumps, fast indust rial
rot or Medium lifespan brushless DC t ype.[84]
cont rol and milit ary servos
mot ors[84]

Posit ioning in print ers and

St epper Precision posit ioning Some can be cost ly Not a VFD. St epper posit ion is
floppy disc drives; indust rial
mot or High holding t orque Require a cont roller det ermined by pulse count ing.[97][98]
machine t ools

Electromagnetism

Force and torque

The fundament al purpose of t he vast majorit y of t he world's elect ric mot ors is t o elect romagnet ically induce relat ive movement in
an air gap bet ween a st at or and rot or t o produce useful t orque or linear force.

According t o Lorent z force law t he force of a winding conduct or can be given simply by:
or more generally, t o handle conduct ors wit h any geomet ry:

The most general approaches t o calculat ing t he forces in mot ors use t ensors.[99]

Power

Where rpm is shaft speed and T is t orque, a mot or's mechanical power out put P em is given by,[100]

in Imperial unit s wit h T expressed in foot -pounds,

(horsepower), and,

in SI unit s wit h shaft angular speed expressed in radians per second, and T expressed in newt on-met ers,

(wat t s).

For a linear mot or, wit h force F expressed in newt ons and velocit y v expressed in met ers per second,

(wat t s).

In an asynchronous or induct ion mot or, t he relat ionship bet ween mot or speed and air gap power is, neglect ing skin effect , given by
t he following:

, where

Rr – rot or resist ance

I r2 – square of current induced in t he rot or
 s – mot or slip; i.e., difference bet ween synchronous speed and slip speed, which provides t he relat ive movement needed for
current induct ion in t he rot or.

Back EMF

Since t he armat ure windings of a direct -current or universal mot or are moving t hrough a magnet ic field, t hey have a volt age induced
in t hem. This volt age t ends t o oppose t he mot or supply volt age and so is called "back elect romot ive force (emf)". The volt age is
proport ional t o t he running speed of t he mot or. The back emf of t he mot or, plus t he volt age drop across t he winding int ernal
resist ance and brushes, must equal t he volt age at t he brushes. This provides t he fundament al mechanism of speed regulat ion in a
DC mot or. If t he mechanical load increases, t he mot or slows down; a lower back emf result s, and more current is drawn from t he
supply. This increased current provides t he addit ional t orque t o balance t he new load.[101]

In AC machines, it is somet imes useful t o consider a back emf source wit hin t he machine; as an example, t his is of part icular
concern for close speed regulat ion of induct ion mot ors on VFDs.[101]

Losses

Mot or losses are mainly due t o resist ive losses in windings, core losses and mechanical losses in bearings, and aerodynamic losses,
part icularly where cooling fans are present , also occur.

Losses also occur in commut at ion, mechanical commut at ors spark, and elect ronic commut at ors and also dissipat e heat .

Efficiency

To calculat e a mot or's efficiency, t he mechanical out put power is divided by t he elect rical input power:

where is energy conversion efficiency, is elect rical input power, and is mechanical out put power:
where is input volt age, is input current , is out put t orque, and is out put angular velocit y. It is possible t o derive analyt ically
t he point of maximum efficiency. It is t ypically at less t han 1/2 t he st all t orque.

Various regulat ory aut horit ies in many count ries have int roduced and implement ed legislat ion t o encourage t he manufact ure and
use of higher-efficiency elect ric mot ors. Elect ric mot ors have efficiencies ranging from at least 15% for shaded pole mot ors, up t o
98% for permanent magnet mot ors,[102][103] wit h efficiency also being dependent on load. Peak efficiency is usually at 75% of t he
rat ed mot or load. So (as an example) a 10 HP mot or is most efficient when driving a load t hat requires 7.5 HP.[104] Efficiency also
depends on mot or size; larger mot ors t end t o be more efficient .[105] Some mot ors can not operat e cont inually for more t han a
specified period of t ime (e.g. for more t han an hour per run) [106]

Goodness factor

Eric Lait hwait e [107] proposed a met ric t o det ermine t he 'goodness' of an elect ric mot or:[108]

Where:

is t he goodness fact or (fact ors above 1 are likely t o be efficient )

are t he cross sect ional areas of t he magnet ic and elect ric circuit
are t he lengt hs of t he magnet ic and elect ric circuit s
is t he permeabilit y of t he core
is t he angular frequency t he mot or is driven at

From t his, he showed t hat t he most efficient mot ors are likely t o have relat ively large magnet ic poles. However, t he equat ion only
direct ly relat es t o non PM mot ors.
 Performance parameters

Torque capability of motor types

All t he elect romagnet ic mot ors, and t hat includes t he t ypes ment ioned here derive t he t orque from t he vect or product of t he
int eract ing fields. For calculat ing t he t orque it is necessary t o know t he fields in t he air gap. Once t hese have been est ablished by
mat hemat ical analysis using FEA or ot her t ools t he t orque may be calculat ed as t he int egral of all t he vect ors of force mult iplied
by t he radius of each vect or. The current flowing in t he winding is producing t he fields and for a mot or using a magnet ic mat erial t he
field is not linearly proport ional t o t he current . This makes t he calculat ion difficult but a comput er can do t he many calculat ions
needed.

Once t his is done a figure relat ing t he current t o t he t orque can be used as a useful paramet er for mot or select ion. The maximum
t orque for a mot or will depend on t he maximum current alt hough t his will usually be only usable unt il t hermal considerat ions t ake
precedence.

When opt imally designed wit hin a given core sat urat ion const raint and for a given act ive current (i.e., t orque current ), volt age, pole-
pair number, excit at ion frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and air-gap flux densit y, all cat egories of elect ric mot ors or generat ors
will exhibit virt ually t he same maximum cont inuous shaft t orque (i.e., operat ing t orque) wit hin a given air-gap area wit h winding slot s
and back-iron dept h, which det ermines t he physical size of elect romagnet ic core. Some applicat ions require burst s of t orque
beyond t he maximum operat ing t orque, such as short burst s of t orque t o accelerat e an elect ric vehicle from st andst ill. Always
limit ed by magnet ic core sat urat ion or safe operat ing t emperat ure rise and volt age, t he capacit y for t orque burst s beyond t he
maximum operat ing t orque differs significant ly bet ween cat egories of elect ric mot ors or generat ors.

Capacit y for burst s of t orque should not be confused wit h field weakening capabilit y. Field weakening allows an elect ric machine
t o operat e beyond t he designed frequency of excit at ion. Field weakening is done when t he maximum speed cannot be reached by
increasing t he applied volt age. This applies t o only mot ors wit h current cont rolled fields and t herefore cannot be achieved wit h
permanent magnet mot ors.
Elect ric machines wit hout a t ransformer circuit t opology, such as t hat of WRSMs or PMSMs, cannot realize burst s of t orque higher
t han t he maximum designed t orque wit hout sat urat ing t he magnet ic core and rendering any increase in current as useless.
Furt hermore, t he permanent magnet assembly of PMSMs can be irreparably damaged, if burst s of t orque exceeding t he maximum
operat ing t orque rat ing are at t empt ed.

Elect ric machines wit h a t ransformer circuit t opology, such as induct ion machines, induct ion doubly-fed elect ric machines, and
induct ion or synchronous wound-rot or doubly-fed (WRDF) machines, exhibit very high burst s of t orque because t he emf-induced
act ive current on eit her side of t he t ransformer oppose each ot her and t hus cont ribut e not hing t o t he t ransformer coupled
magnet ic core flux densit y, which would ot herwise lead t o core sat urat ion.

Elect ric machines t hat rely on induct ion or asynchronous principles short -circuit one port of t he t ransformer circuit and as a result ,
t he react ive impedance of t he t ransformer circuit becomes dominant as slip increases, which limit s t he magnit ude of act ive (i.e.,
real) current . St ill, burst s of t orque t hat are t wo t o t hree t imes higher t han t he maximum design t orque are realizable.

The brushless wound-rot or synchronous doubly-fed (BWRSDF) machine is t he only elect ric machine wit h a t ruly dual port ed
t ransformer circuit t opology (i.e., bot h port s independent ly excit ed wit h no short -circuit ed port ).[109] The dual port ed t ransformer
circuit t opology is known t o be unst able and requires a mult iphase slip-ring-brush assembly t o propagat e limit ed power t o t he rot or
winding set . If a precision means were available t o inst ant aneously cont rol t orque angle and slip for synchronous operat ion during
mot oring or generat ing while simult aneously providing brushless power t o t he rot or winding set , t he act ive current of t he BWRSDF
machine would be independent of t he react ive impedance of t he t ransformer circuit and burst s of t orque significant ly higher t han
t he maximum operat ing t orque and far beyond t he pract ical capabilit y of any ot her t ype of elect ric machine would be realizable.
Torque burst s great er t han eight t imes operat ing t orque have been calculat ed.

Continuous torque density

The cont inuous t orque densit y of convent ional elect ric machines is det ermined by t he size of t he air-gap area and t he back-iron
dept h, which are det ermined by t he power rat ing of t he armat ure winding set , t he speed of t he machine, and t he achievable air-gap
flux densit y before core sat urat ion. Despit e t he high coercivit y of neodymium or samarium-cobalt permanent magnet s, cont inuous
t orque densit y is virt ually t he same amongst elect ric machines wit h opt imally designed armat ure winding set s. Cont inuous t orque
densit y relat es t o met hod of cooling and permissible period of operat ion before dest ruct ion by overheat ing of windings or
permanent magnet damage.

Ot her sources st at e t hat various e-machine t opologies have differing t orque densit y. One source shows t he following:[110]

Electric machine type Specific torque density (Nm/kg)

SPM – brushless ac, 180° current conduct ion 1.0

SPM – brushless ac, 120° current conduct ion 0.9–1.15

IM, asynchronous machine 0.7–1.0

IPM, int erior permanent magnet machine 0.6–0.8

VRM, doubly salient reluct ance machine 0.7–1.0

where—specific t orque densit y is normalized t o 1.0 for t he SPM—brushless ac, 180° current conduct ion, SPM is surface permanent
magnet machine.

Torque densit y is approximat ely four t imes great er for elect ric mot ors which are liquid cooled, as compared t o t hose which are air
cooled.

A source comparing direct current (DC), induct ion mot ors (IM), permanent magnet synchronous mot ors (PMSM) and swit ched
reluct ance mot ors (SRM) showed:[111]

Characteristic dc IM PMSM SRM

Torque densit y 3 3.5 5 4

Power densit y 3 4 5 3.5

Anot her source not es t hat permanent -magnet synchronous machines of up t o 1 MW have considerably higher t orque densit y t han
induct ion machines.[112]

Continuous power density

The cont inuous power densit y is det ermined by t he product of t he cont inuous t orque densit y and t he const ant t orque speed range
of t he elect ric machine. Elect ric mot ors can achieve densit ies of up t o 20KW/KG, meaning 20 Kilowat t s of out put power per
Kilogram of weight .[113]

Acoustic noise and vibrations

Acoust ic noise and vibrat ions of elect ric mot ors are usually classified in t hree sources:

mechanical sources (e.g. due t o bearings)

aerodynamic sources (e.g. due t o shaft -mount ed fans)

magnet ic sources (e.g. due t o magnet ic forces such as Maxwell and magnet ost rict ion forces act ing on st at or and rot or
st ruct ures)

The lat t er source, which can be responsible for t he "whining noise" of elect ric mot ors, is called elect romagnet ically induced
acoust ic noise.

Standards

The following are major design, manufact uring, and t est ing st andards covering elect ric mot ors:

American Pet roleum Inst it ut e: API 541 Form-Wound Squirrel Cage Induct ion Mot ors – 375 kW (500 Horsepower) and Larger

American Pet roleum Inst it ut e: API 546 Brushless Synchronous Machines – 500 kVA and Larger
 American Pet roleum Inst it ut e: API 547 General-purpose Form-Wound Squirrel Cage Induct ion Mot ors – 250 Hp and Larger

Inst it ut e of Elect rical and Elect ronics Engineers: IEEE St d 112 St andard Test Procedure for Polyphase Induct ion Mot ors and
Generat ors

Inst it ut e of Elect rical and Elect ronics Engineers: IEEE St d 115 Guide for Test Procedures for Synchronous Machines

Inst it ut e of Elect rical and Elect ronics Engineers: IEEE St d 841 St andard for Pet roleum and Chemical Indust ry – Premium
Efficiency Severe Dut y Tot ally Enclosed Fan-Cooled (TEFC) Squirrel Cage Induct ion Mot ors – Up t o and Including 370 kW (500
Hp)

Int ernat ional Elect rot echnical Commission: IEC 60034 Rot at ing Elect rical Machines

Int ernat ional Elect rot echnical Commission: IEC 60072 Dimensions and out put series for rot at ing elect rical machines

Nat ional Elect rical Manufact urers Associat ion: MG-1 Mot ors and Generat ors (ht t p://www.nema.org/St andards/Pages/Informat io
n-Guide-for-General-Purpose-Indust rial-AC-Small-and-Medium-Squirrel-Cage-Induct ion-Mot or-St andards.aspx)

Underwrit ers Laborat ories: UL 1004 – St andard for Elect ric Mot ors

Indian St andard: IS:12615-2018 – Line Operat ed Three Phase a.c. Mot ors (IE CODE) “Efficiency Classes and Performance
Specificat ion” (Third Revision)

Non-magnetic motors

An elect rost at ic mot or is based on t he at t ract ion and repulsion of elect ric charge. Usually, elect rost at ic mot ors are t he dual of
convent ional coil-based mot ors. They t ypically require a high-volt age power supply, alt hough very small mot ors employ lower
volt ages. Convent ional elect ric mot ors inst ead employ magnet ic at t ract ion and repulsion, and require high current at low volt ages.
In t he 1750s, t he first elect rost at ic mot ors were developed by Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Today, t he elect rost at ic
mot or finds frequent use in micro-elect ro-mechanical syst ems (MEMS) where t heir drive volt ages are below 100 volt s, and where
moving, charged plat es are far easier t o fabricat e t han coils and iron cores. Also, t he molecular machinery t hat runs living cells is
oft en based on linear and rot ary elect rost at ic mot ors.
A piezoelect ric mot or or piezo mot or is a t ype of elect ric mot or based upon t he change in shape of a piezoelect ric mat erial when
an elect ric field is applied. Piezoelect ric mot ors make use of t he converse piezoelect ric effect whereby t he mat erial produces
acoust ic or ult rasonic vibrat ions t o produce linear or rot ary mot ion.[114] In one mechanism, t he elongat ion in a single plane is used t o
make a series of st ret ches and posit ion holds, similar t o t he way a cat erpillar moves.[115]

An elect rically powered spacecraft propulsion syst em uses elect ric mot or t echnology t o propel spacecraft in out er space, most
syst ems being based on elect rically powering propellant t o high speed, wit h some syst ems being based on elect rodynamic t et hers
principles of propulsion t o t he magnet osphere.[116]

See also

Elect ric generat or

Regenerat ive brake

Goodness fact or

Mot or capacit or

Tract ion mot or

Notes

a. Ganot provides a superb illustration of one such early electric motor designed by Froment.[25]

b. The term 'electronic commutator motor' (ECM) is identified with the heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) industry, the distinction
between BLDC and BLAC being in this context seen as a function of degree of ECM drive complexity with BLDC drives typically being with
simple single-phase scalar-controlled voltage-regulated trapezoidal current waveform output involving surface PM motor construction and
BLAC drives tending towards more complex three-phase vector-controlled current-regulated sinusoidal waveform involving interior PM motor
construction.[75]
c. The universal and repulsion motors are part of a class of motors known as AC commutator motors, which also includes the following now
largely obsolete motor types: Single-phase – straight and compensated series motors, railway motor; three-phase – various repulsion motor
types, brush-shifting series motor, brush-shifting polyphase shunt or Schrage motor, Fynn-Weichsel motor.[76]

References

1. Faraday, Michael (1822). "On Some New Electro-Magnetical
Motion, and on the Theory of Magnetism" (https://archive.org/deta
ils/quarterlyjournal12jour) . Quarterly Journal of Science,
Literature and the Arts. Royal Institution of Great Britain. XII: 74 (h
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Bibliography

Fink, Donald G.; Beaty, H. Wayne (2000). Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (https://books.google.com/books?id=bmfgtgEACAAJ) .
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-022005-8.

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American Technical Book Company 1897, published by P.F. Collier and Sons New York, 1902

Kuphaldt, Tony R. (2000–2006). "Chapter 13 AC Motors" (http://www.ibiblio.org/obp/electricCircuits/AC/AC_ 13.html) . Lessons In Electric

Circuits – Volume II. Retrieved 2006-04-11.

Rosenblatt, Jack; Friedman, M. Harold (1984). Direct and Alternating Current Machinery (https://books.google.com/books?id=xxOgQgAACA
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Stölting, Hans-Dieter D.; Kallenbach Eberhard; Amrhein, W., eds. (2008). Handbook of Fractional-Horsepower Drives (https://books.google.co
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Further reading

Bedford, B.D.; Hoft, R.G. (1964). Principles of Inverter Circuits (https://books.google.com/books?id=iyZTAAAAMAAJ) . New York: Wiley.
ISBN 978-0-471-06134-2.
 Bose, Bimal K. (2006). Power Electronics and Motor Drives : Advances and Trends (https://books.google.com/books?id=ywiBVSnYm6IC) .
Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-088405-6.

Chiasson, John (2005). Modeling and High-Performance Control of Electric Machines (https://books.google.com/books?id=cq6RPPsOyt8C&p
g=PA14) (Online ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-68449-7.

Fitzgerald, A.E.; Kingsley, Charles, Jr.; Umans, Stephen D. (2003). Electric Machinery (https://books.google.com/books?id=YBKk4kWSle0C)
(6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 688 pages. ISBN 978-0-07-366009-7.

Pelly, B.R. (1971). Thyristor Phase-Controlled Converters and Cycloconverters : Operation, Control, and Performance (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=l9YiAAAAMAAJ) . Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-67790-1.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media relat ed t o Electric motors.

SparkMuseum: Early Elect ric Mot ors (ht t p://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM)

The Invent ion of t he Elect ric Mot or 1800 t o 1893 (ht t p://www.et i.kit .edu/english/1376.php) , host ed by Karlsrushe Inst it ut e of
Technology's Mart in Doppelbauer

MAS.865 2018 How t o Make Somet hing t hat Makes (almost ) Anyt hing (ht t p://fab.cba.mit .edu/classes/865.18/mot ion/brushles
s/index.ht ml) , slow mot ion gifs and oscillograms for many kinds of mot ors.

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