QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Non-experimental Experimental
Survey Studies True Experimental Designs
Correlational Studies Quasi-Experimental Designs
Comparative Studies Pre-Experimental Designs

❑ NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
All nonexperimental research is descriptive because there is no manipulation or control of
variables, and the researcher can describe the phenomenon only as it exists.

1. Survey Studies
➢ are investigations in which self-report data are collected from samples with the purpose of
describing populations on some variable(s) of interest.
➢ The control exercised by the researcher in survey research lies in the sampling technique.
➢ The ability to generalize sample results to the population of interest depends on the
sampling method.
➢ It generally ask subjects to report their attitudes, opinions, perceptions, or behaviors.
➢ participants may be studied using a cross-sectional (subjects are studied at one point in
time) or a longitudinal approach (surveys follow subjects over an extended period of time).
➢ most common data-collection techniques used are questionnaires and interviews.
➢ Advantages:
− its ability to provide accurate information on populations while using relatively
small samples
− concerns the large amount of data that can be obtained rather quickly and with
minimal cost
➢ Disadvantage: self-report responses may be unreliable because people may provide
socially acceptable responses.

2. Correlational Studies
➢ The researcher examines the strength of relationships between variables by
determining how changes in one variable are associated with changes in another
variable.
➢ A correlation indicates the extent to which one variable (X) is related to another
variable (Y). Ex. As X increases, does Y increase or decrease?
➢ It is reported through various statistics such as the Pearson’s product-moment
correlation (more commonly called the Pearson r) and the Spearman rho.

Correlation Coefficient
• This indicates the magnitude and direction of the relationship between two variables.
• may be positive (+) or negative (-)
• range from -1.00 (perfect negative correlation) to 1.00 (perfect positive correlation)
• A correlation coefficient of .00 indicates there is no relationship between variables
 Positive Correlation

• direct relationship, means that as the value of one variable increases, the value of
the other variable increases
• Suppose data are gathered on age and assertiveness levels of registered nurse:
− A correlation coefficient of .80 would indicate a fairly strong positive
relationship between age and assertiveness levels of registered nurses. The
older the nurse, the more assertive she or he is.

Negative Correlation

• or inverse relationship, means that as the value of one variable increases, the value
of the other variable decreases.
• Suppose data are gathered on age and assertiveness levels of registered nurse:
− A correlation coefficient of -.80 would indicate a strong negative relationship.
The older the nurse, the less assertive she or he is.

3. Comparative Studies
➢ examine the differences between intact groups on some dependent variable of interest
➢ there is no manipulation of the independent variable
➢ Frequently, the independent variable is some inherent characteristic of the subjects,
such as personality type, educational level, or medical condition.
➢ Comparative studies are frequently classified as retrospective or prospective.

Retrospective Studies
• The dependent variable (effect) is identified in the present (a disease condition, for
example), and an attempt is made to determine the independent variable (cause of the
disease) that occurred in the past.

Prospective studies
• The independent variable or presumed cause (high cholesterol blood levels, for
example) is identified at the present time, then subjects are followed in the future to
observe the dependent variable (incidence of coronary artery disease, for example).

Ex Post Facto Studies

• Variations in the independent variable are studied after the variations have
occurred, rather than at the time of the occurrence.
• It is also referred to as causal-comparative research (Salkind, 2010).
• For example, a researcher might be interested in the fear responses of children
during physical examinations. A study might be conducted to examine previous
unpleasant experiences during physical exams that might have influenced the
children’s present behaviors. These previous experiences might be considered the
“cause”, and the present fear responses might be the “effect.”

❑ EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
➢ It uses the scientific method to establish cause and effect relationship.
➢ At least one independent variable is manipulated, other relevant variables are controlled, and
the effect on one or more dependent variables is observed.

1. True Experimental Designs

➢ are those in which the researcher has a great deal of control over the research situation
➢ Threats to the internal validity of the study are minimized.
➢ With these types of designs, the researcher has some confidence that the independent
variable was the cause of the change in the dependent variable.
➢ A true experimental design has three criteria:
a. The researcher manipulates the experimental variable(s).
Manipulation - means that the independent, or experimental, variable is controlled
by the researcher. The researcher has control over the type of experimental treatment
administered and who will receive the treatment.
b. At least one experimental and one comparison group are included in the study.
Control group - usually indicates a group in an experimental study that does not
receive the experimental treatment.
c. Subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the comparison group.
Random assignment - concerns the equality of groups in experimental studies. The
random assignment of subjects to groups eliminates selection bias as a threat to the
internal validity of the study. Random assignment is different from random sampling.

Three Types of True Experimental Designs:

• Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
- is probably the most frequently used experimental design.
- In this design:
a) the subjects are randomly assigned to groups,
b) a pretest is given to both groups,
c) the experimental group receives the experimental treatment and the
comparison group receives the routine treatment or no treatment, and
d) a posttest is given to both groups.

- The disadvantage of this design concerns the external threat of the reactive effects
of the pretest. The results of the study can be generalized only to situations in
which a pretest would be administered before the treatment.

Example:

A nurse researcher might be interested in the usefulness of a diabetic teaching

film. A group of clients with diabetes are randomly assigned to the experimental
or comparison group. Both groups are then pretested on their knowledge of
diabetes. Members of the experimental group watch the diabetic teaching film.
Members of the comparison group are asked to read printed material that is similar
to the information covered in the teaching film. Both groups are then posttested
on their knowledge of diabetes. Finally, the difference between the posttest scores
of the two groups is compared.

• Posttest-Only Control Group Design

a) subjects are randomly assigned to groups,
 b) the experimental group receives the experimental treatment and the
comparison group receives the routine treatment or no treatment, and
c) a posttest is given to both groups

− researcher does not have to be concerned with the reactive effects of the
pretest on the posttest
− posttest-only control group design should be used when it is not possible to
administer a pretest or when it would not make sense to administer a pretest

• Solomon Four-Group Design

a) subjects are randomly assigned to one of the four groups;
b) two of the groups, experimental group 1 and comparison group 1, are
pretested;
c) two of the groups, experimental group 1 and experimental group 2, receive
the experimental
d) treatment, whereas two of the groups, comparison group 1 and comparison
group 2, receive the routine treatment or no treatment; and
e) a posttest is given to all four groups.

2. Quasi-Experimental Designs
➢ are those in which there is either no comparison group or subjects are not randomly
assigned to groups
➢ researcher uses existing, or intact, groups for the experimental and comparison groups

Two Types of Quasi-Experimental Designs

• Nonequivalent Control Group Design
− Similar to the pretest-posttest control group design except there is no random
assignment of subjects to the experimental and comparison groups.

A researcher might choose a group of patients with diabetes on one hospital

floor for the experimental group and a group of patients with diabetes on another
floor for the comparison group. The experimental treatment would be
administered to the experimental group; the comparison group would receive the
routine treatment or some alternative treatment.
− The biggest threat to internal validity is selection bias. As the two groups may
not be similar at the beginning of the study, it is possible to test statistically
for differences in the groups.
− A statistical test called analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) can be used to help
control for differences that might have existed, through chance, between the
experimental and control groups at the beginning of the study.

• Time-Series Design
− The researcher periodically observes or measures the subjects. Experimental
treatment is administered between two of the observations.
For instance, a researcher might assess the pain levels of a group of
clients with low back pain. After three weeks of pain assessment (O1, O2,
O3), subjects could be taught a special exercise to alleviate low back pain.
During the next three weeks, pain levels would again be measured (O4, O5,
 O6). The results of this study would help the researcher determine if low back
pain persists, if a specific exercise is effective in reducing low back pain, and
if the effectiveness of the exercise persists.

3. Pre-Experimental Designs
➢ Name applied by Campbell and Stanley (1963) to experimental designs that are considered
very weak and in which the researcher has little control over the research.
➢ Sometimes these types of designs are discussed to provide examples of how not to do
research.

Two Types of Pre-Experimental Designs

• One-Shot Case Study
− a single group is exposed to an experimental treatment and observed after the
treatment
For instance, a group of patients with diabetes might attend a diabetic
education class (X) and be tested on their knowledge of diabetes (O) after the class
is completed. This design does not call for any comparisons to be made. There is
no way to determine if the level of knowledge about diabetes was the result of the
class. The patients could have already possessed this knowledge before the class.

• One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

− provides a comparison between a group of subjects before and after the
experimental treatment

A group of patients with diabetes could be given a pretest of their diabetes

knowledge (O1). This group would then attend a diabetic education class (X) and
be posttested (O2) at the end of the class.
References
Fraenkel, J., & Wallen, N. (2009). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Nieswiadomy, R., & Souter, S. (2018). Quantitative Research Designs. In R. Nieswiadomy, & C.
Bailey, Foundations of Nursing Research (7th ed., pp. 124-151). United States of America:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Salkind, N. (2010). Encyclopedia of Research Design (Vol. 1). United States of America: SAGE
Publications, Inc.