‘The Routledge Companion to Contemporary Brand Management lives up to its name as a thoroughly

up-to-date, comprehensive guide to some of the very latest and best thinking about brands and
branding. Bringing together some of the finest minds in marketing, the Companion is
enlightening, thought-provoking and enormously useful. It belongs on the bookshelf of anyone
serious about the art and science of brand theory and practice.’
– Kevin Lane Keller, E.B. Osborn Professor of Marketing,
Dartmouth College, USA

‘The Routledge Companion to Contemporary Brand Management is perfect for any aspiring student
of brand management. It gives a comprehensive picture of the current state of academic thinking:
the good, the bad, and the fanciful; the practical and the purely academic.’
– Byron Sharp, Professor of Marketing Science,
University of South Australia, Australia

‘What impresses me most about this volume is the number of new and exciting areas for which
it provides reviews. If you ever needed proof that the concepts and practices of Branding have
very wide applicability, but with important nuanced differences, you will find it here. All from
a mix of well-established leaders in these fields, plus many new faces. Truly a volume that every
scholar and practitioner in any branding domain must study carefully.’
– Rajeev Batra, Kresge Professor of Marketing, Ross School of Business,
University of Michigan, USA

‘The range of topics covered is incredibly broad, interesting and relevant to both academics
and practitioners. No other collection of readings spans from traditional topics such as brand
equity and brand extensions to “new” topics such as branding in base of the pyramid markets.
Each contribution tackles the topic with depth and authority. I congratulate the Editors for
compiling such an impressive compendium of contributors and topics.’
– Bernd Schmitt, Robert D. Calkins Professor of International Business,
Columbia University, USA

‘I was delighted to see this collection of latest thinking in the field of branding. The book is
an extremely useful tool for branding and marketing professionals across all industries.’
– Joe DePinto, President and CEO of 7-Eleven, Inc., USA

‘With many leading brands now valued at multi-billion dollars, and brand management on the
C-Suite agenda globally, this Routledge Companion offers a timely and insightful reflection
on cutting-edge branding issues to managers and academics alike.’
– Rajendra Srivastava, Dean and Novartis Professor of Marketing Strategy
and Innovation, Indian School of Business (ISB), India
This page intentionally left blank
 The Routledge Companion
to Contemporary Brand
Management

The amount and range of brand-related literature published in the last 50 years can be
overwhelming for brand scholars. This Companion provides a uniquely comprehensive overview
of contemporary issues in brand management research, and the challenges faced by brands and
their managers.
Original contributions from an international range of established and emerging scholars from
Europe, US, Asia and Africa, provide a diverse range of insights on different areas of branding,
reflecting the state of the art and insights into future challenges.
Designed to provide not only a comprehensive overview, but also to stimulate new insights,
this will be an essential resource for researchers, educators and advanced students in branding
and brand management, consumer behaviour, marketing and advertising.

Francesca Dall’Olmo Riley is Professor of Brand Management at Kingston Business School,

UK. She has published in the Journal of Business Research, International Journal of Research in Marketing,
Journal of Advertising Research and Journal of Marketing Management. She is Associate Editor of the
Journal of Marketing Management.

Jaywant Singh is Professor of Marketing at Kingston Business School, Kingston University

London, UK. He has published, among others, in the Journal of Business Research, Marketing Letters,
Journal of Advertising Research, Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Business Ethics, and European
Journal of Marketing.

Charles Blankson (PhD Kingston University, UK) is an Associate Professor of Marketing in

the Department of Marketing, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA. He has published
in Journal of Advertising Research, Journal of Business Research and Industrial Marketing Management,
and Journal of Public Policy & Marketing.
 Routledge Companions in Business, Management
and Accounting

Routledge Companions in Business, Management and Accounting are prestige reference works
providing an overview of a whole subject area or sub-discipline. These books survey the state
of the discipline including emerging and cutting edge areas. Providing a comprehensive, up to
date, definitive work of reference, Routledge Companions can be cited as an authoritative source
on the subject.
A key aspect of these Routledge Companions is their international scope and relevance. Edited
by an array of highly regarded scholars, these volumes also benefit from teams of contributors
which reflect an international range of perspectives.
Individually, Routledge Companions in Business, Management and Accounting provide an
impactful one-stop-shop resource for each theme covered. Collectively, they represent a
comprehensive learning and research resource for researchers, postgraduate students and
practitioners.

Published titles in this series include:

The Routledge Companion to Fair Value
and Financial Reporting
Edited by Peter Walton
The Routledge Companion to Nonprofit
Marketing
Edited by Adrian Sargeant and Walter Wymer Jr
The Routledge Companion to Accounting
History
Edited by John Richard Edwards, Stephen P. Walker
The Routledge Companion to Creativity
Edited by Tudor Rickards, Mark A. Runco,
Susan Moger
The Routledge Companion to Strategic
Human Resource Management
Edited by John Storey, Patrick M. Wright,
David Ulrich
The Routledge Companion to
International Business Coaching
Edited by Michel Moral, Geoffrey Abbott
The Routledge Companion to
Organizational Change
Edited by David M. Boje, Bernard Burnes and John
Hassard
The Routledge Companion to Cost
Management
Edited by Falconer Mitchell, Hanne Nørreklit and
Morten Jakobsen
The Routledge Companion to Digital
Consumption
Edited by Russell W. Belk and Rosa Llamas
The Routledge Companion to Identity and
Consumption
Edited by Ayalla A. Ruvio and Russell W. Belk
The Routledge Companion to Public-
Private Partnerships
Edited by Piet de Vries and Etienne B. Yehoue
The Routledge Companion to Accounting,
Reporting and Regulation
Edited by Carien van Mourik and Peter Walton
The Routledge Companion to
International Management Education
Edited by Denise Tsang, Hamid H. Kazeroony and
Guy Ellis
The Routledge Companion to Accounting
Communication
Edited by Lisa Jack, Jane Davison and Russell Craig
The Routledge Companion to Visual
Organization
Edited by Emma Bell, Jonathan Schroeder and
Samantha Warren
The Routledge Companion to Arts
Marketing
Edited by Daragh O’Reilly, Ruth Rentschler and
Theresa Kirchner
 The Routledge
Companion to
Contemporary Brand
Management

Edited by
Francesca Dall’Olmo Riley,
Jaywant Singh and
Charles Blankson
First published 2016
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2016 Francesca Dall’Olmo Riley, Jaywant Singh and Charles Blankson
The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial
material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted
in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Dall’Olmo Riley, Francesca, editor. | Singh, Jaywant, editor. |
Blankson, Charles, editor.
Title: The Routledge companion to contemporary brand management /
edited by Francesca Dall’Olmo Riley, Jaywant Singh and Charles Blankson.
Description: 1 Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2016. | Series:
Routledge companions to business, management and accounting | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015050300| ISBN 9780415747905 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781315796789 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Branding (Marketing) – Management. | Internet
marketing. – Communication in marketing. | Social responsibility of business.
Classification: LCC HF5415.1255 R68 2016 | DDC 658.8/27 – dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015050300

ISBN: 978-0-415-74790-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-79678-9 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo and Stone Sans

by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK
 Contents

List of illustrations xi
List of contributors xv
Editors’ foreword xxv

PART I
What is a brand and how do we measure its market
performance? 1

1 Brand definitions and conceptualizations: the debate 3

Francesca Dall’Olmo Riley

2 Measuring the market performance of brands: applications in

brand management 13
Jaywant Singh and Mark Uncles

3 Consumer-based brand equity 32

Sally Baalbaki and Francisco Guzmán

4 Brand valuation: principles, applications and latest developments 48

Gabriela Salinas

5 Brands and the self 68

Russell Belk

6 Brands and the society 79

Paurav Shukla

7 Dead brand walking: on the paradoxes and perversities of branding 92

Stephen Brown

PART II
Strategic brand management 107

8 Brand architecture design and brand naming decisions 109

C. Whan Park, Deborah J. MacInnis and Andreas B. Eisingerich

vii
Contents

9 Strategic brand alliances: research advances and practical applications 120

Jaywant Singh, La Toya Quamina and Stavros P. Kalafatis

10 Brand extensions 136

Ceren Hayran and Zeynep Gürhan-Canli

11 A brand culture perspective on global brands 153

Jonathan Schroeder, Janet Borgerson and Zhiyan Wu

12 Positioning a brand 164

Charles Blankson

13 New brands: performance and measurement 186

Jaywant Singh and Malcolm Wright

PART III
Managing brand communication 199

14 Brand building via integrated marketing communications 201

William K. Darley

15 Sensory aspects of branding 218

Dipayan Biswas

16 Building brands via corporate social responsibility 228

Adam Lindgreen, François Maon and Christine Vallaster

17 Branding and digital analytics 255

Laurence-Helene Borel and George Christodoulides

PART IV
Branding to different audiences 269

18 Looking at the future of B2B branding 271

Johnny L. Graham and Susan M. Mudambi

19 Towards a better understanding of the ethical brand and its

management 280
Katja H. Brunk

20 Not-for-profit branding 294

Helen Stride

21 Strategic employer branding: current domain, future directions 309

Lara Moroko and Mark Uncles

viii
 Contents

22 Internal branding: dissecting, re-analysing and re-directing the

literature 324
Bill Merrilees

23 Brand culture, halal and the critical Islamic imperative 338

Jonathan A. J. Wilson

24 Branding the entire entity: corporate branding 354

Stuart Roper

25 Branding in emerging markets 366

Suraksha Gupta, Shivani Garg and Kavita Sharma

26 Branding in the base of the pyramid: bases for country and

organizations in Ghana 378
Stanley Coffie and Joseph Darmoe

27 Guinness in Africa: contemporary branding at the base of the pyramid 341

Samuel K. Bonsu and Delphine Godefroit-Winkel

PART V
Branding different entities/products 405

28 Branding higher education 407

Bang Nguyen, Jane Hemsley-Brown and T. C. Melewar

29 Political branding: the case of the Scottish referendum 2014 423

Camille Lannoy, Paul Baines and Roger Mortimore

30 Arts branding 448

Daragh O’Reilly and Finola Kerrigan

31 From nation to neighbourhood: branding and marketing places 458

Nicolas Papadopoulos, Leila Hamzaoui-Essoussi and José I. Rojas-Méndez

32 The challenges of luxury branding 473

Jean-Noël Kapferer

33 Retail branding 492

Steve Burt and Leigh Sparks

34 Service branding: enabling, making and delivering promises 509

Roderick J. Brodie

35 Branding financial services 524

James Devlin

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Contents

36 Branding in sports 536

Gerd Nufer, André Bühler and Simon Chadwick

37 Franchise brand management from a knowledge perspective 552

Audhesh K. Paswan, Sua Jeon, Pramod Iyer and Retno Tanding Suryandari

Index 567

x
 Illustrations

Figures
4.1 Comparison of the 2014 brand valuation estimates for Apple, Google,
Microsoft and IBM published by Brand Finance, Interbrand and Millward
Brown Optimor for Apple, Google, Microsoft and IBM 49
4.2 Interbrand’s brand valuation methodology 53
4.3 Which brand strength factors were discarded, retained, renamed or added
as of 2010? 56
4.4 Brand strength analysis, Interbrand (2010): internal vs external factors 56
4.5 Brand Finance’s brand valuation methodology 58
4.6 Millward Brown Optimor’s methodology 61
12.1 Comprehensive positioning framework (CPF) 175
12.2 Flow of research considerations 178
15.1a–c Visual illusions 220
15.2 Brand advertising and visual illusions 221
16.1 Strategic CSR brand framework 238
16.2 How brand-committed behaviour and shared brand beliefs develop 248
19.1 Ethical augmentation content matrix 284
19.2 Managing ethical augmentations – a process framework for brand
management 285
20.1 Schwartz’s tradition and conformity values 297
20.2 Branding themes 299
21.1 The virtuous circles of employer branding 312
23.1 Expanding halal categories 346
23.2 Basis for halal consumption and halal offering 349
23.3 Hierarchy of Islamic marketing approaches 351
27.1 Promising African talents win Guinness Made of Black track contest 399
29.1 Model of political branding factors that influence voting intentions 426
29.2 A typology of political positioning approaches 427
29.3 Semiotic squares for guilt/pride and fear/hope 437
29.4 Positioning attributes – February 2014 – perceptual map 439
32.1 A functional perspective on luxury segmentation 484
32.2 Positioning of three business models 486
34.1 Stages in the branding 511
34.2 The service brand-promises-value triangle 512
34.3 Model for the business market study 515

xi
Illustrations

34.4 Results for the business market study 516

34.5 Model for the airline market study 517
34.6 Results for the airline market study 518
34.7 Marketing activities for brand New Zealand Wine 520
35.1 How brands add value 525
36.1 Sports marketing model 542
36.2 A brand management model for professional clubs 548
37.1 Franchise brand management from a knowledge perspective 558

Tables
2.1 Research evidence on brand performance metrics 14
2.2 Market performance measures for brands: trends with market-share 16
2.3 Double jeopardy trend: top 10 brands of breakfast cereals 16
2.4 100%-loyal buyers (% brand buyers): trend with market share 17
2.5 Share of category requirements (%): trend with market share 18
2.6 Heavy (5+ times) buyers 19
2.7 Light buyers 19
2.8 Duplication of purchase for brands 21
2.9 Performance measures for top 10 breakfast cereal brands: observed O
and theoretical T 24
2.10 Breakfast cereals: pack-sizes 27
3.1 Brand equity measurement approaches 38
4.1 Brand strength analysis in the Interbrand model (1993) 52
4.2 Brand strength analysis in the Interbrand model (2010) – the old,
the rehashed and the new 55
5.1 Alternate explanations for image congruence 71
9.1 A comparison of the six types of co-brand alliances 122
9.2 Examples of unsuccessful co-brand alliances 127
12.1 Internal environment 168
12.2 External environment 168
12.3 Brand concept image management (BCM) 173
12.4 Generic positioning framework (GPF) 174
16.1 Case companies: profile, CSR and branding, and interview details 230
16.2a Case background and interviews 234
16.2b Case background: CSR commitment and activities 235
16.3 Interview sample 236
16.4 Core components and capabilities in developing a global CSR brand
programme 242
17.1 Engagement metrics for the main social networking sites 260
17.2 Scale of consumer brand engagement 263
21.1 Foundations of employer branding – key literature 314
21.2 Activities and processes that underpin the employer brand – key literature 317
22.1 An internal branding chapter roadmap 335
26.1 Summary of strategic positioning options 385
29.1 Literature summary of tactics used for an emotion to be expressed 428
29.2 Better Together – ‘We want the best of both worlds’ 432
29.3 Yes Scotland – ‘Our choice between two futures . . .’ 434

xii
 Illustrations

29.4 Better Together’s billboards and slogan – deconstruction summary 435

29.5 Yes Scotland’s billboards and slogan – deconstruction summary 436
29A.1 Model summary for MCA on perceptions of positive/negative impacts of
independence 443
30.1 Discursive strands in branding 450
32.1 What luxury means for affluent clients in six major luxury markets 480
32.2 Cultural differences in business models 487
36.1 Overview of the essential differences between general marketing and sports
marketing 540

xiii
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xiv
 Contributors

Sally Baalbaki (PhD University of North Texas), Assistant Professor of Marketing at the
Metropolitan State University of Denver. Her research focuses on branding, brand equity and
cross-cultural issues and has been published in academic journals and conference proceedings.

Paul Baines is Professor of Political Marketing at Cranfield School of Management, UK, and
Director, Baines Associates Limited. He is the (co)-author of over a hundred books, articles
and edited chapters on marketing/political marketing. His most recent publication is the four-
volume edited series, Propaganda (Sage, 2013), with Nicholas O’Shaughnessy.

Russell Belk is Kraft Foods Canada Chair in Marketing, Schulich School of Business, York
University, Canada. He is past President of the International Association of Marketing and
Development and is a Fellow, past President and Film Festival co-founder of the Association
for Consumer Research. He also co-initiated the Consumer Behavior Odyssey and the
Consumer Culture Theory Conference. He has received the Paul D. Converse Award and the
Sheth Foundation / Journal of Consumer Research Award for Long-Term Contribution to
Consumer Research. His research involves the meaning of possessions, collecting, gift-giving,
materialism, sharing and global consumer culture.

Dipayan Biswas is Professor at USF and is Editor of the Journal of Consumer Marketing. Research
expertise includes retail atmospherics and sensory marketing. Research has been published in
the Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing and Journal of Marketing Research. His interviews
and research have been featured extensively in over 100 media outlets. He is recipient of numerous
awards/grants, such as from NSF, USDA, ACR, AMA, and AMS.

Charles Blankson (PhD Kingston University, UK) is an Associate Professor of Marketing in

the Department of Marketing, College of Business, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas,
United States. Dr Blankson’s research interests include strategic marketing – positioning and
brand management, advertising, services marketing, small business marketing, and international/
multicultural marketing. He has published in the Journal of Advertising Research, European Journal
of Marketing, Journal of Business Research, Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Public Policy
& Marketing, International Journal of Advertising, Psychology & Marketing, Journal of Product and Brand
Management, International Small Business Journal, Journal of Services Marketing and others.

Samuel K. Bonsu (PhD University of Rhode Island) is currently the Dean (Head Servant) of
the Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA) Business School, Accra,
Ghana. His main research interests are consumer cultures and socio-economic subjectivities in

xv
Contributors

contemporary markets, especially as they relate to Africa and diasporan experiences that inform
theoretical developments. His works have been published in some of the most respected academic
journals including Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Culture and the Journal of
Contemporary Ethnography. He is the recent past President of the International Society for Markets
and Development (ISMD), a society that brings together scholars and practitioners of
development. He has been a member of the Association for Consumer Research, the
International Association for African Business and Development and the American Marketing
Association.

Laurence-Helene Borel is a digital marketing professional with a decade of industry experience

across the automotive, oil and technology sectors. A passionate advocate of social media, Laurence
investigated the antecedents and consequences of branded hashtag engagement during her Masters
of Research at Birkbeck, University of London. She is currently in the early stages of her PhD,
and aims to produce research that bridges the gap between academia and practice.

Janet Borgerson is a Fellow at the Institute for Brands and Brand Relationships, and works
at the intersections of philosophy, business and culture. She earned a BA (Philosophy) from
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, and MA and PhD (Philosophy) from University of
Wisconsin, Madison, completing postdoctoral work at Brown University. Her research has
appeared in a broad range of journals, such as the European Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing
Management, Philosophy Today and Sociological Review, and she is co-author of From Chinese brand
culture to global brands (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). She has served as Malmsten Visiting Professor
at Gothenburg University, Sweden, Research Fellow at University of Auckland, New Zealand,
and Visiting Professor at Walailak University, Thailand, and at the Shanghai Institute of Foreign
Trade.

Roderick J. Brodie is Professor in the Department of Marketing at the University of Auckland

Business School, New Zealand. His 180 publications have appeared in leading international
journals. He is an associate editor for Marketing Theory and the Journal of Service Research and has
served on the editorial boards of the Journal of Marketing, and the International Journal of Research
in Marketing. In 1998 he was the founding president of ANZMAC and in 2004 he was made
one of the founding Fellows. In 2011 he was made a Fellow of EMAC.

Stephen Brown is Professor of Marketing Research at Ulster University. Best known for his
work on the Harry Potter brand, he has published numerous books including Postmodern marketing,
Fail better and Free gift inside. His papers have appeared in all sorts of journals from the Harvard
Business Review to Megaphone, the late lamented newsletter of the Marketing Education Group.
The cultural industries are the principal focus of his research, though it ranges from place brands
to brand mascots.

Katja H. Brunk is a research fellow at the European University Viadrina in Frankfurt (Oder).
Following many years as a marketing practitioner and consultant, she left the corporate sector
to join academia and fully pursue her passion for research.

André Bühler is Professor of Marketing at Nürtingen-Geislingen University in Southern

Germany. Furthermore, he is Director of the German Institute for Sports Marketing. His teaching,
research and consulting specializations are sports management and sports marketing with a focus
on sports sponsorship, relationship marketing, social media marketing and neuromarketing in sports.

xvi
 Contributors

Steve Burt is Professor of Retail Marketing at the Institute for Retail Studies, University of
Stirling, where he researches and teaches on aspects of retail branding and retail international-
ization. He holds degrees from the Universities of Oxford and Stirling and has published
extensively in leading journals.

Simon Chadwick is Professor of Sport Business Strategy and Marketing at Coventry University
in the UK, and Director of Research in Qatar’s Supreme Committee for Delivery and Legacy.
He is an author of journal articles and books, as well as a columnist and writer for several leading
publications. In addition, he has worked with many of the world’s biggest organizations in sport.
He has specific interests in the geopolitics of sport, commercial strategy in sport and sport
marketing (particularly sponsorship, branding and fandom).

George Christodoulides is a Professor of Marketing at Birkbeck, University of London. His

research interests lie in the areas of brand management and e-marketing, particularly consumer-
based brand equity conceptualization and measurement and the impact of interactive/social media
on consumer-brand relationships. He is a regular presenter and invited speaker at international
conferences and his research has appeared in leading scientific journals.

Stanley Coffie is a lecturer in Marketing at the Ghana Institute of Marketing and Public
Administration (GIMPA). Dr Coffie previously lectured at Birkbeck College, University of
London where he obtained his PhD. His research interests are in marketing strategy in
emerging/developing economies, strategic positioning and services marketing. He has published
in internationally refereed journals including the Journal of Strategic Marketing, Thunderbird
International Business Review, and Journal of Product and Brand Management.

Francesca Dall’Olmo Riley is Professor of Brand Management at Kingston Business School,

UK. She has published in the Journal of Business Research, International Journal of Research in Marketing,
Journal of Advertising Research and Journal of Marketing Management. She is Associate Editor of the
Journal of Marketing Management.

William K. Darley (PhD Indiana University) is a Professor of Marketing at King Abdulaziz

University. His research interests include marketing communications and brand strategy. His
research has appeared in the Journal of Marketing, Journal of Advertising, Marketing Science, Journal
of Business Research, Journal of Consumer Research, Psychology & Marketing and elsewhere.

Joseph Darmoe earned his PhD in Public Affairs (Management and Policy) from the University
of Texas in Dallas. He is currently a lecturer at the Ghana Institute of Management and Public
Administration (GIMPA) where he teaches management, policy and administration. His current
research focuses on organizational strategy and policy, leadership and the relationship between
technology and society in the public sector.

James Devlin is Associate Dean (International Relations) and Professor of Financial Decision
Making in the Department of Marketing at Nottingham University Business School. He is also
Director of the Centre for Risk, Banking and Financial Services. James has published over 100
journal articles and conference papers covering marketing and policy issues in financial services,
as well as marketing financial services and other marketing issues. James has also worked at Cass
(then City University) Business School (1997–2000) and the University of Nottingham Malaysia
Campus in Kuala Lumpur (2000–2003).

xvii
Contributors

Andreas B. Eisingerich works as associate professor in marketing at Imperial College Business

School, Imperial College London. He has published on customer–brand relationships, customer
engagement and service management in the Journal of Consumer Psychology, Journal of Marketing,
Journal of Service Research, Journal of Business Research, Harvard Business Review, California Management
Review and MIT Sloan Management Review, among others, and currently services on the editorial
review board of the Journal of Service Research.

Shivani Garg is pursuing a PhD in Marketing from the Department of Commerce, Delhi School
of Economics, Delhi University. At present, she is an Assistant Professor in Shri Ram College
of Commerce, University of Delhi. She has to her credit a book entitled Business Entrepreneurship
and Management. Her research interests focus on exploring branding and other cues effects in
emerging markets and she has presented research papers in IIM-L, IP University and University
of Delhi. She is among the top ranked holders in her post graduation and graduation and has
also supervised undergraduate students in research projects.

Delphine Godefroit-Winkel holds a PhD in Management Science from the University of Lille
(France) and is a Researcher at OPI, Morocco. She has published in the Journal of Macro Marketing.

Johnny L. Graham is a PhD Candidate and Future Faculty Fellow in the Fox School of Business
at Temple University. His research focuses on brand strategy and the co-creation of brand meaning
in online environments. He holds a bachelor’s degree and MBA from the University of
Maryland-College Park.

Suraksha Gupta is a Senior Lecturer at Kent Business School, University of Kent, UK. Her
area of specialization is distribution networks and socially responsible behaviour of brands. She
focuses on emerging markets and covers various contemporary subjects such as engagement of
resellers into sustainability initiatives for superior performance.

Zeynep Gürhan-Canlı is Migros Professor of Marketing at Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey.

Her research interests include consumer information processing in relation to branding and
corporate image. She has published several articles in leading academic journals such as the Journal
of Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Psychology and Journal of Marketing Research.

Francisco Guzmán (PhD Universitat Ramon Llull – ESADE) is Associate Professor of Marketing
at the University of North Texas. His research focuses on branding and social transformation
and has been published in a range of academic journals and book chapters. He currently serves
as the co-editor in chief of the Journal of Product and Brand Management.

Leila Hamzaoui-Essoussi is Associate Professor of International Marketing and Consumer

Behaviour at the Telfer School of Management, University of Ottawa. She is the Director of
the MSc in Management Programme. Her research focuses on brand management and the effects
of a product’s country of origin on consumer behaviour in industrialized and emerging countries.
She is especially interested in international branding issues, place branding and international market
selection. Her work has been published in journals such as the Journal of Business Research, European
Journal of Marketing, International Marketing Review and Journal of Consumer Marketing.

Ceren Hayran is a doctoral candidate in marketing at Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey. Her
research interests include branding and consumer well-being. Prior to beginning her doctoral

xviii
 Contributors

studies, Ceren worked in fast moving consumer goods and telecommunications industries as a
brand manager.

Jane Hemsley-Brown is a Professor at Surrey Business School, University of Surrey, Guildford,

UK. Her research interests focus on higher education marketing, particularly consumer behaviour
in higher education. Jane has published in the Journal of Business Research, the Journal of Marketing
Management, and is the Editor of the Journal of Marketing for Higher Education.

Pramod Iyer is a doctoral candidate in Marketing. His research interests include brand manage-
ment and its related areas, strategy, sustainable marketing, advertising, channels and cross-cultural
marketing. Prior to entering academia, he worked as a Research Manager for one of the largest
research companies in the world.

Sua Jeon, PhD, is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at Texas Wesleyan University. She received
her PhD in Marketing from the University of North Texas in 2015. Given the importance of
knowledge management in the retail industry, her research interest is the relationship between
retailers’ resources and customer value creation. Her work appears in the Journal of Business
Research.

Jean-Noël Kapferer is an international authority on luxury and HEC Paris graduate, PhD Kellogg
Business School (USA). He is co-author of the reference book The luxury strategy, author of
How luxury brands can grow yet remain rare and academic advisor to the INSEEC Luxury Institute.

Finola Kerrigan is a Senior Lecturer in Marketing at Birmingham Business School. Finola is a

Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts and President of the International Society of Markets and
Development. She is also a member of the Executive of the Academy of Marketing and was
chair of the Arts, Heritage, Non-Profit and Social Special Interest Group of the Academy of
Marketing (from 2009–2015). Finola is associate editor of the Journal of Marketing Management
and on the editorial board of the Journal of Macromarketing, Art and the Market and Marketing
Intelligence and Planning. Finola’s research has been published in a range of international journals
and she is the author of Film marketing (2010) and editor of Arts marketing (2004), Marketing the
arts: a fresh approach (2010) and Legends in marketing – Morris Holbrook, Volume 4: esthetics and
tastes, Part 1 (2015).

Camille Lannoy is a Marketing Assistant at Barry Callebaut. She was awarded an MSc in Strategic
Marketing from Cranfield School of Management in the United Kingdom. Her chapter is based
partly on her thesis entitled ‘The positioning and branding of political campaigns: case of the
2014 Scottish Independence Referendum’.

Adam Lindgreen has been Professor of Marketing at the University of Cardiff’s Business School
since 2011. Professor Lindgreen’s recent publications have appeared in California Management
Review, Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Product
Innovation Management and Journal of World Business. He is the recipient of the Outstanding Article
2005 award from Industrial Marketing Management. His most recent books are (with François
Maon, Sankar Sen and Joëlle Vanhamme) Sustainable value chain management; (with Philip Kotler,
François Maon and Joëlle Vanhamme) A stakeholder approach to corporate social responsibility; Managing
market relationships; and Memorable customer experiences.

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Contributors

Professor Deborah J. MacInnis holds the Charles L. and Ramona I. Hilliard Professor of Business
Administration, and Professor of Marketing Chair at USC Marshall School of Business,
University of Southern California. Professor MacInnis is an expert in marketing communications,
information processing, branding and emotions, who has published in the Journal of Consumer
Research, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Marketing, and Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology among others and the Alpha Kappa PSI Awards. Professor MacInnis received the
Maynard for the most significant contribution to marketing thought in the Journal of Marketing.
She is current co-editor of the Journal of Consumer Research, former associate editor of the Journal
of Consumer Psychology, and past President of the Association for Consumer Research.

François Maon is Associate Professor of Strategy and Corporate Social Responsibility at IESEG
School of Management. His research interests are corporate social responsibility, corporate
citizenship, sustainable development, change management, innovation management and
organizational culture. He was awarded a BAEF honorary fellowship. He has published in the
Journal of Business Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management.

T. C. Melewar (BSc, MBA, PhD) is a Professor of Marketing and Strategy at Middlesex University
Business School, London, UK. His research interests include branding, corporate identity and
international marketing strategy. He has published in the Journal of International Business Studies,
Journal of Marketing Management, Management Decision, Journal of Brand Management and International
Journal of Management Reviews among others.

Bill Merrilees is a Professor of Marketing in the Griffith Business School, Australia. Branding
dominates his research profile and agenda, across many facets: internal branding; corporate
rebranding; city branding; e-branding; SME branding; B2B services branding; franchise branding;
retail branding; global branding and brand co-creation.

Dr Lara Moroko is a lecturer in Management (Marketing) at Macquarie University Graduate

School of Management (MGSM) in Sydney. Lara explores the connection between marketing
and broader corporate strategy, especially interrelationships between marketing, human resources
and corporate strategy. She investigates issues of social responsibility and sustainability in relation
to corporate brand strategy and product development.

Roger Mortimore is Professor of Public Opinion and Political Analysis in the Institute of
Contemporary British History at King’s College London and Director of Political Analysis at
Ipsos MORI. His most recent publication is Explaining Cameron’s coalition (2011), with Sir Robert
Worcester, Paul Baines and Mark Gill.

Susan M. Mudambi is Associate Professor of Marketing at the Fox School of Business, Temple
University. She is a well-published researcher in marketing strategy and international business,
with expertise in branding and IT. She earned her PhD from University of Warwick, and has
extensive international academic and business experience.

Bang Nguyen, PhD, is a faculty member of the Marketing Department at East China University
of Science and Technology (ECUST) in Shanghai, China. His research interests include
customer management, branding and innovation management. Bang has published widely in
journals such as Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Marketing Management, The Service
Industries Journal, Internet Research and so on.

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 Contributors

Gerd Nufer is Professor of Business Administration specializing in Marketing and Sport

Management at ESB Business School, Reutlingen University, Germany. Furthermore, he is
Director of the German Institute for Sports Marketing. His teaching, research and consulting
specializations are sports marketing, event management, marketing communications and
international market research. He has won awards for both his research and teaching.

Daragh O’Reilly is a Senior Lecturer in Creative and Cultural Industries at Sheffield University
Management School. His current research interest lies in the areas of arts marketing and arts
branding. He is the co-editor, with Finola Kerrigan, of Marketing the arts: a fresh approach (2010)
and, with Ruth Rentschler and Theresa Kirchner, of The Routledge companion to arts marketing
(2013). He is also the co-author, with Gretchen Larsen and Krzysztof Kubacki, of Music, markets
and consumption (2013).

Nicolas Papadopoulos is Chancellor’s Professor of Marketing and International Business at the

Sprott School of Business of Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada. His research interests focus
on international strategy and buyer responses to it, including expansion strategy, foreign direct
investment and place images and branding. He has over 300 publications, including seventy-
five journal articles and book chapters and fifteen books, and is a member of the Senior Advisory
or Editorial Review boards of eight journals including the Journal of International Marketing, Journal
of International Business Studies and International Marketing Review.

Professor C. Whan Park holds the Joseph A. DeBell Chair in Business Administration and
Professor of Marketing at USC Marshall School of Business, University of Southern California.
Professor Park has published numerous articles in leading journals, including the Journal of Marketing
Research, Journal of Consumer Research and Journal of Marketing. He was the editor of the Journal
of Consumer Psychology (2008–2012) and serves on the editorial board of the Journal of Marketing
and the Journal of Consumer Psychology. Professor Park is currently director of the Global
Branding Center at USC Marshall School of Business.

Audhesh K. Paswan is a Professor of Marketing. His research interests include franchising, brand
management, channels, strategy, NPD, macromarketing, service marketing, cross-cultural and
global marketing. His work appears in the Journal of the Marketing, Decision Science Journal, Journal
of Retailing, Journal of International Marketing, Journal of Business Research, European Journal of Marketing,
and Industrial Marketing Management among others.

La Toya Quamina is a PhD candidate in Marketing at Kingston Business School, Kingston

University. Her research interest lies in brand alliances, with a focus on spillover effects. Prior
to beginning her doctoral studies, she completed a Masters in marketing communications and
worked in public relations.

José I. Rojas-Méndez is Professor of International Business and Marketing at the Sprott School
of Business, Carleton University, Canada. His research interests include nation branding,
advertising, cross-cultural issues and international marketing. His work has appeared in several
journals including the Journal of Business Research, Journal of Advertising Research, International Journal
of Wine Business Research, Journal of Global Marketing and Corporate Reputation Review. He serves
on six journal editorial boards, including the International Journal of Advertising and European Business
Review. He has taught in many countries including China, Germany, France, Mexico and
Argentina.

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Contributors

Stuart Roper is Professor of Marketing at Bradford University, previously spending 10 years at

Manchester Business School. He is widely published in the field of branding; his latest book,
Corporate reputation, brand and communication deals with contemporary issues, difficulties and
opportunities in managing brands and corporate reputation in the twenty-first century.

Gabriela Salinas is Global Brand Manager at Deloitte and author of The international brand valuation
manual (2009). Her consulting, teaching and research interests include strategic brand
management, brand valuation and brand measurement. She is now a member of ISO Project
Committee for Brand Valuation Standardization.

Jonathan Schroeder is the William A. Kern Professor at Rochester Institute of Technology

in New York. His PhD is from the University of California, Berkeley. He has published
widely on branding, communication, consumer research and identity. He is the author of
Visual consumption (2002), co-author of From Chinese brand culture to global brands (2013), editor
of Conversations on consumption (2013) and Brands: interdisciplinary perspectives (2014) and co-editor
of Brand culture (2006) and the Routledge companion to visual organization (2014). He has held
visiting appointments at Wesleyan University, Göteborg University, University of Auckland,
Bocconi University, Milan, Indian School of Business, Hyderabad, Stockholm University,
Shanghai Institute of Foreign Trade and Walailak University, Thailand.

Kavita Sharma is Associate Professor at the Department of Commerce, Delhi School of

Economics, University of Delhi and has her specialization in the area of marketing. She has
teaching experience of more than 25 years. She has contributed about two dozen research papers
in peer reviewed journals including the Journal of Indian Business Research (JIBR), Vikalpa, Vision
and GSTF Journal of Law and Social Sciences. She has authored two books and has presented
papers in various national and international conferences and also chaired the technical sessions.
Four of her research papers have been adjudged as best papers in international conferences held
in India and abroad. She is the Editor of Journal of Commerce & Business Studies and is the supervisor
for research scholars working in the area of marketing and consumer behaviour.

Paurav Shukla is Professor of Luxury Brand Marketing at the Glasgow Caledonian University,
UK. Paurav’s career began in the industry, and he continues to work hand-in-hand with industry
as a researcher, practitioner and advisor. He has published many articles in top-tier academic
journals, and popular accounts of his work have appeared in global news dailies.

Jaywant Singh is Professor of Marketing at Kingston Business School, Kingston University

London, UK. He has published, among others, in the Journal of Business Research, Marketing Letters,
Journal of Advertising Research, Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Business Ethics and European
Journal of Marketing.

Leigh Sparks is Professor of Retail Studies at the Institute for Retail Studies, University of
Stirling, where he researches and teaches on aspects of retailing and retail supply chain
management and logistics. He holds degrees from the Universities of Cambridge and Wales,
has published frequently in leading journals and has been an advisor to the Scottish Government.

Helen Stride is a member of faculty at Henley Business School (HBS), Reading University.
She is the Subject Area Leader for Reputation and Marketing and teaches Reputation, Corporate
Responsibility and NFP Marketing. Before joining HBS, Helen spent 8 years working in the
NFP sector.

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 Contributors

Retno Tanding Suryandari received her PhD in Marketing from University of North Texas.
She is a Fulbright alumnus and currently a faculty at FEB, Sebelas Maret University, Indonesia.
Her research interests are in the area of innovation and emerging economies, retailing, global
marketing and consumer behaviour. Her work appears in the Journal of Retailing and Consumer
Services.

Professor Mark Uncles is Deputy Dean (Education) and a professor of Marketing at UNSW
Business School in Sydney. Mark has research interests in brand management, consumer loyalty,
retail management and marketing science. He is responsible for providing strategic and
operational leadership for the Business School in relation to academic programmes, learning
and teaching, quality assurance and educational support services.

Christine Vallaster works as a senior lecturer for marketing at the University of Liechtenstein.
Over past years, her research in the fields of corporate brand management, strategy development
and CSR was funded by the Liechtenstein research community (FFF), the Marketing Science
Institute (MSI, USA) and the Alexander von Humboldt-Foundation as well as by the German
Research Community (DFG). Her research has been published in magazines and journals such
as the Journal of World Business, Journal of Business Research, Industrial Marketing Management, California
Management Review, European Journal of Management, Journal of Marketing Management and Qualita-
tive Research: An International Journal. She also writes reports for practically oriented magazines,
such as the Harvard Business Manager.

Jonathan A. J. Wilson’s career spans 20 years – initially as a dedicated advertising and marketing
communications industry professional; and then later as a branding and PR consultant, academic,
writer and trainer. His work on halal branding has attracted worldwide media coverage and
recognition. He is Programme Director, Postgraduate Marketing Suite, University of Greenwich,
London, UK and Editor-in-Chief, Journal of Islamic Marketing.

Malcolm Wright is Professor of Marketing at Massey University. He is interested in branding

and consumer behaviour, and has studied new product performance for over 20 years. His recent
work applies stochastic memory theory to understand how people process stimuli such as new
concepts, brand logos and advertisements.

Zhiyan Wu is Assistant Professor at the School of Management, Shanghai International Business

and Economics University. A native of China, she has worked in the Chinese garment
manufacturing sector, and was a marketing supervisor at CUIPPC, an intellectual property firm
in Beijing. She has a BA in English from Beijing Foreign Studies University, an MSc in Inter-
national Management and a PhD in Management from the University of Exeter, UK. She is
co-author of From Chinese brand culture to global brands (2013).

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 Editors’ foreword

The study of brands and of brand management has historically attracted a great deal of interest
among practitioners and academics. Early scholarly studies by Gardner and Levy (1955), Levy
(1959), Martineau (1959) and Allison and Uhl (1964) spurred much interest among researchers,
and over the past 50 years or so, the number of brand-related works published in academic
journals and brand management books has increased exponentially. Methodologically robust
empirical research has shed light on an array of complex branding issues, pushing the boundaries
of knowledge as well as enriching marketing practice. Novel insights emerging from branding
research have led businesses to adopt and recognize branding as a core marketing activity. Thus,
brands have come to occupy a central space in marketing theory and practice.
Today, branding research is published in journals across all tiers. Two academic journals
(the Journal of Brand Management and the Journal of Product and Brand Management) are entirely
devoted to the study of brands. In addition, a number of Special Issues have focused on specific
topics in branding, for instance: the Journal of Brand Management (2016) on corporate brand
and corporate marketing, the Journal of Marketing Management (2013) on brand orientation, the
Industrial Marketing Management (2012) on B2B branding, the Journal of Consumer Psychology
(2012) on brand insights from psychological and neurophysiological perspectives, the Journal of
Business and Industrial Marketing (2007) on branding in industrial markets, the European Journal
of Marketing (2003) on corporate and service brands, and the Journal of Marketing (1994) on brand
management. In addition, several marketing and consumer behaviour conferences include a
‘branding’ or ‘brand management’ track, which attracts a large number of submissions and
participants.
The above listed sources indicate a vast and detailed body of literature on brands published
in a variety of journals, books and conference proceedings. The exceptionally large and varied
empirical research, often testing highly domain-specific effects, is certainly a positive and
encouraging development. Yet, the amount of research evidence and viewpoints in each domain
could be daunting for branding researchers and practitioners. A broader understanding of the
streams of research on contemporary issues and challenges in brand management, presenting
the ‘big picture’ will help scholars in expanding their research scope, students in their
comprehension of the subject, and practitioners in finding further applications.
The Routledge companion to contemporary brand management is a timely compendium of chapters
on a comprehensive range of branding topics. The Companion brings together original
contributions from internationally reputed established and emerging scholars from four
continents, reflecting state-of-the-art research on an exciting range of ‘traditional’ and ‘new’
topics: from emerging markets to industrial markets, from performance measurement to the
sensory aspects of branding, and from the branding of the arts to the branding of places, sport
and political parties.

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Editors’ foreword

The Companion is structured in five thematic sections. Part 1 is earmarked for definitions,
conceptual and measurement issues and Parts 2 and 3 are assigned to the topics on strategic
brand management and the management of brand communication. Part 4 includes chapters
on brand management to different customers or audiences, such as employer branding, ethical
and not-for-profit branding, branding at the ‘base of the pyramid’ and Islamic branding. Part
5 focuses on branding of different entities and contexts, such as political, higher education, retail,
sports, and luxury branding. Throughout the thematic sections, the chapters reflect the latest
developments in brand management research, providing a balanced overview of current
knowledge, identifying issues and presenting the relevant debates. The chapters are written in
an analytical yet easy-to-read style; most contributors also reflect on where the research agenda
is likely to advance in the future. We summarize the content and the ‘spirit’ of each chapter
in the Companion below.
The opening chapter of the Companion is an introduction to the diverging perspectives
evident throughout the volume and particularly apparent in the first two Parts. Francesca
Dall’Olmo Riley kick-starts the Companion with a discussion of the popular definitions of the
‘brand’ construct and the related debate on the conceptualization and measurement of ‘brand
equity’. This leads to the examination of diverging approaches to managing a brand for growth,
either through building brand differentiation and brand loyalty or through increasing the number
of customers and their mental associations concerning the brand. Consistent with this debate,
in Chapter 2 Jaywant Singh and Mark Uncles take the reader through a young brand manager’s
journey in their discovery of empirically grounded brand performance metrics, how these metrics
help in comprehending the nature of brand loyalty, and how a robust theory can benchmark
a brand’s performance. The outcome of this ‘journey of discovery’ is a number of key learnings
for brand managers for making informed decisions regarding their brand; first and foremost is
the learning that loyalty patterns are dominated by how big each brand is (i.e. its market share)
and not, or hardly, by any idiosyncratic attributes or characteristics of a brand. Hence, the growth
of a brand is highly dependent on increasing the number of customers rather than on brand
differentiation.
The debate on different perspectives of the brand equity construct and how brand equity
should be measured continues in Chapters 3 and 4. In Chapter 3, Sally Baalbaki and Francisco
Guzmán provide an overview of brand equity in general and consumer-based brand equity
(CBBE) in particular. Their review of past efforts of measuring brand equity highlights the gap
between understanding the construct of ‘customer-based brand equity’ conceptually and finding
valid and reliable methods of operationalization and measurement. They conclude with the
suggestion that a market-oriented scale development approach is a suitable way of closing the
gap between conceptual models of brand equity and their operationalization. The discussion
on operationalization and measurement of brand equity continues in Chapter 4, where Gabriela
Salinas addresses the thorny issue of measuring a brand’s financial value. Here Gabriela presents
an in-depth review of the main models as well as the main applications of financial brand valuation,
to conclude that the choice of the appropriate methodology will depend on the purpose of the
valuation. The final outcome of the review is a set of principles that should be observed when
choosing among different valuation techniques, or when interpreting their results.
Moving on from the issue of brand equity conceptualization, operationalization and
measurement, in Chapter 5 Russell Belk broadens the discussion to the relationship between
brands and consumers and examines the literature on the ‘self’ and brands, with attention to
such constructs as self-concept, extended self, singularization, brand communities, brand
constellations and cultural branding. Fundamentally, the chapter addresses the question of not
only how brands help to define the ‘self’, but how the ‘self’ also helps to define brands, especially

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 Editors’ foreword

in an age of social media, the Internet and consumer co-creation of brand meanings. The
relationship between brands and individuals is expanded by Paurav Shukla in Chapter 6, with
the discussion of the role of brands within society as a whole. The chapter highlights the numerous
research streams that specifically focus on the benefits offered by brands above and beyond the
functional characteristics of a product in a societal setting. Reflecting on the variety of societal
functions performed by brands for their owners and their significant others, this chapter also
captures how consumers use brands to generate both positive and negative value perceptions
to associate or dissociate themselves from others.
As a very pertinent conclusion of the issues debated in Part 1 as a whole and in the last two
chapters in particular, in Chapter 7 Stephen Brown engages the reader in the exploration of
the incongruities of branding and develops a four-category typology that captures branding’s
principal paradoxical forms: definitional paradoxes; conceptual paradoxes; practitioner paradoxes;
and the plenitude paradox. Paradoxes in branding, he concludes, are a good thing.
Part 2 of the Companion is dedicated to strategic brand management issues, starting from
the design of brand architecture, in Chapter 8. C. Whan Park, Deborah J. MacInnis and Andreas
B. Eisingerich focus on one important element of brand architecture design, namely brand naming
methods. After the examination of a number of brand naming options, the authors address
unresolved questions related to how firms can assess which options maximize their brand
architecture design.
Alternative strategic options for firms are discussed in the next two chapters. In Chapter 9,
Jaywant Singh, La Toya Quamina and Stavros P. Kalafatis present a state-of-the-art review of
the theoretical underpinnings of brand alliance research, including the underpinning theories
from social and experimental psychology, economics and organizational behaviour. Drawing
upon these multiple streams of literature, they discuss the factors that drive co-branding successes
and failures from the perspective of the organization, and offer an in-depth understanding of
the antecedents and consequences associated with this increasingly popular branding strategy.
This is followed in Chapter 10 by Ceren Hayran and Zeynep Gürhan-Canli’s in-depth review
of the extensive and complex literature on brand extensions. Importantly, the authors of this
chapter present research evidence on the diverse individual and contextual factors that are critical
to brand extension success, and highlight findings that help to enhance consumers’ attitudes
toward extensions in the marketplace.
A brand culture approach is put forward in Chapter 11 by Jonathan Schroeder, Janet Borgerson
and Zhiyan Wu as an alternative to standardization or adaptation strategies for global branding.
Global branding is reviewed from a cultural perspective that takes into account aspects of aesthetics,
diaspora, history and nostalgia to understand how consumers connect with brands symbolically.
The co-creation and circulation of brands and cultures represent key opportunities for developing
global brands, as revealed by examples from a Chinese context.
The central tenet of strategy, positioning, and its relationship with brand management is the
focus of Chapter 12. In this chapter, Charles Blankson provides a general overview of the literature
on the concepts of positioning and brand management and then puts forward a comprehensive
conceptual framework showing the role played by the concept of positioning and brand
management in creating competitive advantages for firms. The framework provides propositions,
strategies and brand management tactics to support intended positions.
We return to brand performance measurement in the last chapter of Part 2, this time in
relation to assessing the vital marketing question on the performance of a new brand launch.
In Chapter 13, Jaywant Singh and Malcolm Wright critically evaluate the empirical evidence
on buyer behaviour towards new brands, including traditional approaches to the forecasting
and performance measurement of new brands and line extensions. The chapter considers recent

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Editors’ foreword

developments in forecasting and measuring new brand performance, reviews latest knowledge
and identifies directions for future research.
Part 3 has four chapters outlining the importance of old and new (social) media in brand
building and brand communication. In Chapter 14, William K. Darley discusses how a firm
needs to choose the best option(s) for coordinating and integrating the offline and online
marketing communication alternatives, as well as for assimilating traditional and new media
platforms to build a brand while maintaining relevant, interesting and engaging brand identity.
Communication of a brand’s identity can also make use of sensory cues associated with the
visual, auditory, olfactory, haptic and gustatory properties of a product. This is the focus of Chapter
15, where Dipayan Biswas offers a fascinating overview of the potential of sensory cues to
subliminally influence consumer brand experiences and behavioural outcomes. Dipayan notes
that sensory cues are becoming important points of brand differentiation and are tools that facilitate
memorable and enjoyable brand experiences. While these sensory cues have individual influences,
they also interact with each other in shaping consumer perceptions and behaviours.
Effective and truthful communication of a brand’s corporate social responsibility activities is
the core of Chapter 16. Adam Lindgreen, François Maon and Christine Vallaster make the
important point that it’s important not only to communicate overall brand values externally,
but also to explain the meaning of these values in an employee’s own work context. To induce
brand commitment and shared brand beliefs among employees, firms should communicate their
values better, as this can lead to a better workplace environment, especially if employees participate
in brand-related communication.
The final chapter of Part 3 returns to issues of measuring brand performance, this time in
the context of the challenges faced by marketers when managing and measuring brand efforts
in the digital world. In Chapter 17, Laurence-Helene Borel and George Christodoulides
highlight the significance of engagement in digital branding and discuss how marketers can
measure this engagement to mobilize word-of-mouth. The chapter concludes with a discussion
of how brands can successfully manage different dimensions of engagement, with topical
examples of successful engagement campaigns.
Parts 4 and 5 of the Companion consider brand management to an eclectic range of customers
or audiences (e.g. employees and under-privileged customers in Part 4) and in diverse contexts
(e.g. the arts, higher education and sport in Part 5).
The future of branding to Business-to-Business (B2B) customers is the focus of Johnny L.
Graham and Susan M. Mudambi’s discussion in Chapter 18. They note that the development of
B2B marketing principles in the dynamic business environments shaped by online networks and
communities, specifically social media, has much potential to expand the B2B branding domain.
On the other hand, in Chapter 19 Katja H. Brunk draws upon recent empirical findings on
how consumers form ethical perceptions of brands, challenging prevalent managerial thinking
that assumes ethical brand augmentations are by their nature intentional and controlled by
marketing activity. Based on an extended conceptualization of the ‘ethics as augmentation’
framework as well as a broad range of recent academic research, Katja offers essential branding
lessons aimed at preventing and counteracting negative brand augmentations and/or fostering
positive ones. In a similar vein, in Chapter 20 Helen Stride asks if it is not time for the not-
for-profit (NFP) sector to question its blinkered devotion to branding and develop an identity
of its own. Helen poses the question: given the importance of values within the not-for-profit
context, is brand personality really a useful metaphor or do we not need to find something
more suitable? As the sector faces a crisis in confidence, should we not be drawing on the theories
of reputation and trust to help us build a sector-wide identity to both restore confidence and
provide society with a much-needed moral compass?

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 Editors’ foreword

Chapters 21 and 22 address the topics of branding to prospective and current employees,
respectively. Lara Moroko and Mark Uncles review the foundations of the recently developed
area of employer branding, including definitions, claiming benefits as a pathway toward value
creation, particularly as an effective and profitable way to attract talent. The authors also map
the evolution of employer branding, highlighting that research into employer branding has drawn
upon concepts from quite disparate theoretic domains. Current themes are identified from recent
conceptual studies and practical applications and future directions are proposed. In Chapter 22,
Bill Merrilees notes that a top-down approach to creating and building corporate brands no
longer works and it is increasingly necessary to get buy-in and support from below – employees
in particular. Internal branding is a major component of corporate branding and in many ways
brings the corporate brand to life, as a living organism. The chapter reviews both practice and
academic studies, revealing different ways that brand collaboration is achieved. Communication
and support are important internal branding tools, but culture and leadership also have potential
roles. Seven areas for future research are shown, including greater focus on brand champions,
buy-in and co-creation.
The emerging area of research of brand theory and practice within a Halal paradigm
(permissibility according to Islam) is tackled by Jonathan A. J. Wilson in Chapter 23. Jonathan
takes a critical position, noting that too often halal branding has been limited to the hygiene
factors of functional and ingredient compliance, with the assumption that if a branded commodity
is halal, then it will be more attractive, trusted and valued by Muslims. This approach has,
however, curtailed further brand development and inhibited the creation of seductive, emotive
and compelling brands.
Another exciting addition to Part 4 of the Companion is the analysis of corporate branding
by Stuart Roper in Chapter 24. Over the last two decades brand management has put increased
emphasis on corporate branding. One reason for this is that the corporate brand is capable of
cutting through the huge amount of information customers are subjected to and can provide
a focal point for the organization in response to a declining trust in companies. But whilst
corporate branding has been applied to all kinds of organizations, from non-profit to public
limited companies, corporate brands require their own strategies, and a new focus is required
to deal with their multiple stakeholders. The challenge of presenting a coherent offering to
multiple stakeholders can be tackled by careful management of both the internal (corporate
identity) and external (corporate image) sides of the company.
Finally, the last three chapters of Part 4 revolve around the theme of branding in the non-
Western context: branding in emerging markets and branding at the base of the pyramid (BoP).
In Chapter 25 Suraksha Gupta, Shivani Garg and Kavita Sharma note that in emerging markets,
with a myriad of local brands available, it is particularly important for marketers to differentiate
themselves through building strong brand credibility, a favourable brand personality and good
recall value for the brand. A strong, favourable and unique brand personality should strengthen
the influence of brand credibility on consumers’ purchase intentions.
Branding in African countries is the focus of both Chapter 26 and Chapter 27. In Chapter
26, Stanley Coffie and Joseph Darmoe assess the nature of branding in Ghana as they relate to
the country and organizations. For the country, there is no resounding established basis for
branding at present; the proposition is that efforts towards branding should be grounded in the
exploitation of the environment and the advantages that the ecology of Ghana offers. For
organizations, it is argued that the consumer-based positioning model that identifies three strategic
options of service reliability, social responsibility and branding strategy offers strong opportunities
for successful branding.

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Editors’ foreword

In Chapter 27, Samuel K. Bonsu and Delphine Godefroit-Winkel discuss an emerging

conceptualization of branding that relies on stakeholder immaterial and affective labour and
illustrate this new branding in Africa, with campaigns by Guinness. Their starting point is the
perspective of branding that emphasizes a set of dynamic social processes that rely on the active
participation of consumers and other cultural actors to create value for the firm. Indeed the
analysis of Guinness’ pan-African advertisements leads the authors to conclude that it is the
interactions between the brand and the consumers that hold the brand together. Differentiated
meaning and value are created, circulated and valorized through consumers, firms and other
cultural actors working together. The resulting brand develops social and communicative
relations that harness and manage the affective capacities of consumers and relevant cultural
actors.
The final ten chapters of the Companion are grouped in Part 5 as they are all related to the
branding of different entities and products. First is the discussion of the role of branding in the
higher education sector by Bang Nguyen, Jane Hemsley-Brown and T. C. Melewar in Chapter
28. The analysis focuses on contemporary issues such as brand equity in higher education, the
positioning of the university brand, the branding of business schools and their MBA programmes,
the emergence of online programmes, brand personality and communication, and student
perceptions of the university brand. The outcome of this review is suggestions on how branding
can be used to create a successful brand in the higher education sector, for example through
careful management of the Web presence to maintain (or gain) market share, establish a clear
advantage in brand identity, and take advantage of inherent resources.
The focus shifts to political branding in Chapter 29, with the highly topical analysis of branding
by opposite sides in the 2014 Scottish Independence Referendum. Camille Lannoy, Paul Baines
and Roger Mortimore dissect how the Yes and No camps positioned their campaigns to voters.
Semiotic analysis of promotional materials uncovers the adoption of emotional appeals –
guilt/pride for Yes Scotland and hope/fear for Better Together – although Better Together
used a pseudo-rational approach. The notion that both camps were quickly established as strong
brands despite the relatively short period of time undertaken for campaigning is supported by
the analysis of polling data. Differences in actual and intended positioning are uncovered
by combining the analysis of the two research methods, suggesting that non-political brands
might also use this mixed-method approach to improve their branding strategies.
In Chapter 30, Daragh O’Reilly and Finola Kerrigan argue for an understanding of art brand
theoretics as a special case or category of thinking about branding, and advocate a socio-cultural
approach to the subject, with the emphasis placed on people and meaning-making. Both art
and branding discourses involve the historically situated production, consumption and regulation
of meaning in a cultural context. These meanings are textual, textural and intertextual. In order
to help capture these aspects of art brands, the authors present the Art Brand Marketing Frame-
work, containing twenty-nine keywords or constructs. The ‘29 Cs’ of arts branding integrate
aspects of marketing strategy, the marketing mix and artistic issues, and offer a means of developing
rich and thick descriptions of art brands.
The branding and marketing of places is discussed by Nicolas Papadopoulos, Leila Hamzaoui-
Essoussi and José I. Rojas-Méndez in Chapter 31. The chapter comprises a broad survey of
nation branding and place marketing and contributes new insights into how they are
conceptualized and understood. Its three main sections trace the evolution of the field, outline
models of nation branding and highlight selected key issues for future research and practice.
Among other contributions, the chapter discusses the notion of ‘brand love’ in the place branding
context, the new ‘nation brand molecule’ approach, and the need for improved sector-specific

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 Editors’ foreword

applications, such as branding to attract foreign investment, as well as holistic approaches that
encompass multiple facets of a nation’s image.
Moving from the challenges of place branding, to those of luxury branding, in Chapter 32,
Jean-Noël Kapferer notes that, in mature countries, because of their history, luxury evokes the
dreamed lifestyle of the happy few. But the reality of luxury today is that of a very profitable
industry, quite concentrated, that makes luxury products and services accessible to the upper
middle class, especially from fast-growing emerging countries. Based on most recent research
Jean-Noël addresses the challenges facing the luxury industry and asks: how to grow yet remain
desirable? How to remain specific on the Internet? Aren’t luxury and sustainability contradictory?
How to keep one’s identity when China represents a third of luxury brands’ clients?
For Steve Burt and Leigh Sparks (Chapter 33), branding in retailing has evolved from the
level of the product to the level of the company, via the retail store, and there is a growing
recognition of the holistic approach needed in modern retail branding. By presenting a clear
image based on both economic and socio-cultural considerations, and by turning all activities
into support activities for the retailer brand, retailers have become clear leaders in branding and
marketing. The interrelationships between, and meanings among, the various levels of retail
branding and their relationships with customers provide the foci for future research into retail
branding.
Chapters 34 and 35 share the theme of services branding: first in general terms then in the
specific setting of financial services. In Chapter 34 Roderick J. Brodie develops a perspective
of ‘the brand’ that goes beyond seeing the brand only functioning as an entity and that also sees
the brand functioning as a relational process. This leads to an integrated framework which is
referred to as the service brand. The framework is on the concepts enabling, making and delivering
promises where the brand as an entity is used in branding as a process. The framework is illustrated
with applications in a business, an airline and a wine market, respectively. Similarly, James Devlin
provides a detailed overview of the role, importance and saliency of brands in financial services,
as well as the main branding strategies that financial services providers may adopt. The potential
impact of so-called ‘challenger banks’ and other recent entrants to the sector is also explored.
Given the characteristics and complexity of many financial services then, in theory at least,
branding should have a crucial role to play in the marketing of financial services and in assisting
consumer decision-making processes. The arguments in favour of this assertion are considered
in the chapter, as is the evidence as to the strength, or otherwise, of branding in the financial
services. The main challenges associated with branding financial services successfully are also
explored.
Branding in the context of sports is discussed by Gerd Nufer, André Bühler and Simon
Chadwick in Chapter 36. This chapter begins by examining the development of sport marketing,
and then moves on to analyse the nature of sport products and sport consumers. Thereafter,
issues in sports brands and branding are addressed, in particular the types, importance and
management of sports brands. The background is the dramatic rise of sport marketing activities
over the last 10 years, among both academics and practitioners. This has created some exciting
opportunities for researchers given the unique features of sport products and the relationships
that consumers have with them.
Last, but not least is the conclusive chapter of the Companion, dedicated to franchise brand
management, a surprisingly neglected area, given that brands are the single most important asset
of a franchise firm. Here Audhesh K. Paswan, Sua Jeon, Pramod Iyer and Retno Tanding
Suryandari take a knowledge-based perspective and propose a franchise brand management system
consisting of five key and broad tasks – creating brand value expectation, network-branding,

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Editors’ foreword

fulfilment of brand value expectation, a knowledge feedback loop, and developing the franchise
brand management capability.
Through its eclectic range of topics and contributions, The Routledge companion to contemporary
brand management provides a broad overview of the roles of brands for consumers and for
organizations, in the context of the challenges and opportunities in the first two decades of the
twenty-first century. Overall, the academic and practitioner perspectives featured in this
Companion indicate that the fundamental axioms of the roles of brands for consumers and for
organizations remain essentially the same, notwithstanding the context and economic, social
and technological changes in the environment.
For consumers, brands remain indispensable tools as identifiers, guarantees, shorthand and
risk-reducers, whether purchasing fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) or industrial products,
in-store or online, and whether in the context of sport, politics or the arts. Besides these
unchanged utilitarian roles, brands also enable consumers to create meanings for themselves in
the social world of consumption. While the role of brands as self-expressive devices is not new,
technological advances such as online brand communities have enhanced the opportunities for
consumers to express themselves through the brands they use or, even, through the ones they
reject.
For organizations of all kinds, the brand continues to be the most valuable asset, in terms of
the economic, strategic, marketing and financial advantages they offer. As such, brands are leveraged
by organizations as a banner over a wide range of goods and services, enabling reputational
economies of scope and economies of scale for the firm. For example, brand extensions and brand
alliances find widespread use as a strategy for growth when entering new markets.
We hope that this Companion to contemporary brand management will encourage readers,
including brand management students, practitioners, academics and policy-makers to explore
new areas and applications of branding, to introspect and challenge traditional views of how
brands should be managed.

Francesca Dall’Olmo Riley

Jaywant Singh
Charles Blankson

References
Allison, R. I. and Uhl, K. P. (1964), “Brand identification and perception”, Journal of Marketing Research,
1 (August): 80-5.
Gardner, B. B. and Levy, S. J. (1955), “The product and the brand”, Harvard Business Review, 33 (March–
April): 33–9.
Levy, S. J. (1959) “Symbols for sale”, Harvard Business Review, 37 (March–April): 117–24.
Martineau, P. (1959), “Sharper focus for the corporate image”, Harvard Business Review, 36 (1): 49–58.

xxxii
 Part I
What is a brand and
how do we measure its
market performance?
This page intentionally left blank
 1
Brand definitions and
conceptualizations
The debate1
Francesca Dall’Olmo Riley

Keywords
brand construct, brand definition, brand differentiation, brand elements, brand equity, brand
growth.

Introduction
The starting point of this Companion to contemporary brand management is necessarily the
debate related to the fundamental question of ‘what is a brand’ and the definition of ‘the brand’
construct. Although, as Keller (2006: 260) notes, ‘much progress has been made’, de Chernatony
and Dall’Olmo Riley’s (1998: 417) observation that ‘a theory of the brand remains missing’ still
holds true today and there is wide disagreement among researchers particularly with regard to:

• defining ‘the brand’ construct;

• conceptualizing and measuring ‘brand equity’;
• establishing the relative importance of ‘tangible’ versus ‘intangible’ or ‘emotional’ brand
elements, particularly with regard to the ‘behavioural’ versus ‘attitudinal’ brand loyalty debate;
• whether a ‘romantic’ or a ‘realist’ standpoint on brands and their management should prevail.

The examination of what a brand is or, more importantly, how it is understood, is related to
different perspectives on the construct of ‘brand equity’ and to the diverging standpoints on
brand management. After an outline of the ongoing debate in defining the brand construct,
this chapter presents an overview of perspectives about brand equity in brand management
research and the ensuing challenges for researchers and practitioners. The chapter sets the scene
for the extensive discussions relating to the measurement of brand performance in Chapter 2
(and in Chapter 13), the measurement of customer-based brand equity in Chapter 3 and the
financial value of a brand in Chapter 4.

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Dall’Olmo Riley

A theory of ‘the brand’?

There is no universally accepted definition of the brand construct. The American Marketing
Association’s (AMA) 1960 definition of the brand as a ‘name, term, sign, symbol, or design or
a combination of them intended to identify the goods and services of one seller or group
of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competitors’ is widely cited, particularly in
the academic literature and textbooks originating from North America (e.g. Aaker, 1991; Keller,
1993 and 2008; Kotler and Armstrong, 2007). With few exceptions (e.g. Ewing et al., 2009),
the 1960 version of the AMA’s definition is the one still cited today, instead of the more recent,
shorter but conceptually equivalent version that is currently found in the online Dictionary of
Marketing Terms available on the AMA website: ‘a name, term, design, symbol or any other
feature that identifies one seller’s good or service as distinct from those of other sellers’
(www.ama.org/resources/Pages/Dictionary.aspx?dLetter=B, accessed 23 November 2015).
Interestingly, the AMA’s Dictionary of Marketing Terms also reports an ‘added definition’
of ‘brand and branding’ as:

A brand is a customer experience represented by a collection of images and ideas; often,

it refers to a symbol such as a name, logo, slogan, and design scheme. Brand recognition
and other reactions are created by the accumulation of experiences with the specific product
or service, both directly relating to its use, and through the influence of advertising, design,
and media commentary.
(www.ama.org/resources/Pages/Dictionary.aspx?dLetter=B,
accessed 23 November 2015).

This ‘added definition’ reflects the fact that, in spite of its popularity, the original 1960s AMA
definition is often criticized as too preoccupied with the product (e.g. Crainer, 1995), too
mechanical (Arnold, 1992), ‘deconstructionist’ (Kapferer, 1992), reductionist and restrictive (de
Chernatony and Dall’Olmo Riley, 1998) and out of touch with reality, being focused on the
notion of a ‘small b’ brand versus the practising managers’ preference for a ‘big B’ Brand
perspective (see Keller, 2006).
A ‘small b’ brand notion focuses mainly on the firm’s input activity (de Chernatony, 1993)
of differentiating its offering by means of a name and a visual identity, enabling consumers to
recognize different brands at the point of purchase. This is akin to the interpretation of the
brand as a ‘logo’. According to this perspective, there is little difference between a ‘brand’ and
a ‘trademark’, as defined by the US Federal Trademark Act (Lanham Act): ‘any word, name,
symbol, or device, or any combination thereof adopted and used by manufacturers or merchants
to identify their goods’ (see Cohen, 1986: 62). As a matter of fact, the AMA Dictionary of
Marketing Terms notes that a trademark is: ‘A legal term meaning the same as brand. A trademark
identifies one seller’s product and thus differentiates it from products of other sellers. A
trademark also aids in promotion and helps protect the seller from imitations.’ (www.ama.org/
resources/Pages/Dictionary.aspx?dLetter=T, accessed 23 November 2015).
Thus, while the interpretation of the brand as a ‘logo’ enables recognition, the brand as a
‘legal instrument’ enables prosecution of infringers. In either case, however, the brand concept
is devoid of deeper meaning, hence its ‘small b’.
In contrast, a ‘big B’ Brand notion sees brands as more than mere identifiers and legal
instruments, but as complex entities and value systems. As stated as early as 1955 by Gardner
and Levy: ‘A brand name is more than the label employed to differentiate among the manu-
facturers of a product. It is a complex symbol that represents a variety of ideas and attributes’

4
 Brand definitions and conceptualizations

(1955: 35). More recently, Kapferer (2008: 171) added to this, asserting: ‘A brand is not the
name of a product. It is the vision that drives the creation of products and services under that
name. That vision, the key belief of the brands and its core values is called identity.’ However,
a more holistic stance of the ‘big B’ Brand blends the input of the firm (brand elements and
brand identity), with the ‘output’ perspective (de Chernatony, 1993) of the brand as an image,
or set of mental associations in consumers’ minds, which add to the perceived value of a product
or service (Keller, 2008). Taking this a step forward, the brand can be conceptualized as a ‘“value
system” which transforms the usage experience through the subjective meanings the brand
represents for consumers.’ (de Chernatony and Dall’Olmo Riley, 1998: 427).
De Chernatony and McDonald’s (2003: 25) definition of a successful brand as:

an identifiable product, service, person or place, augmented in such a way that a buyer or
user perceives relevant and unique added values which match their needs more closely.
Furthermore its success results from being able to sustain these added values in the face of
competition

reflects the holistic ‘big B’ notion of the Brand. While retaining the ‘input’ (what the company
does) perspective of the brand as an ‘identifier’, de Chernatony and McDonald introduce the
notion of the brand as adding value to a product and, importantly, that a brand’s success is
dependent upon consumers’ perceptions of whether the brand matches their needs better than
other brands in the product category. It then follows that being able to sustain consumer percep-
tions of a brand’s differential value is the key to successful brand management. For the firm,
therefore, a well managed brand becomes an important instrument of differentiation and of
competitive advantage (Porter, 1976; Hamel and Prahalad, 1996). Furthermore, the differentiation
achieved through branding constitutes a barrier to entry, by making it difficult for competitors
to emulate the company’s offerings (Jones, 1986; de Chernatony and McDonald, 2003).
The concept of the brand as perceptions in consumers’ minds and of the added value a brand
brings either to the consumer or to the organization is at the basis of the so-called ‘equity’ of
the brand. This is the second contentious area in the branding literature.

Conceptualizing and measuring ‘brand equity’

As also evident from Chapters 2, 3 and 4, ‘brand equity’ is a very much discussed, complex
and multifaceted concept which has caused great controversy among academic researchers and
practitioners alike. Disagreement between researchers persists on the dimensions of ‘brand equity’
and, particularly, on the issue of its measurement. Some even question the usefulness and relevance
of the ‘brand equity’ concept.
First, as Kapferer (2008) remarks, two ‘brand equity’ paradigms do exist: the first is customer-
oriented, is based on the relationships consumers have with the brands they buy, from
indifference to attachment, and focuses on the consequent relative ‘strength’ of the brand. This
paradigm is the focus of Chapters 2 and 3. In contrast, the second ‘brand equity’ paradigm is
concerned with the brand’s financial value, as a separable asset (e.g. Simon and Sullivan, 1993;
Chu and Keh, 2006; and Chapter 4 in this Companion). To these two approaches, Feldwick
adds a third interpretation of ‘brand equity’ as a ‘description of the associations and beliefs the
consumer has about the brand’ (1996a: 87) (see Chapter 3 of this Companion).
Within the customer-oriented paradigm of ‘brand equity’ is Keller’s (1993) definition in terms
of ‘the marketing effects uniquely attributable to the brand’ (p. 1); more precisely Keller defines
customer-based brand equity as ‘the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response

5
Dall’Olmo Riley

to the marketing of the brand’ (p. 2). As noted by Barwise (1993) and by Ailawadi et al. (2003),
this notion of differential effect or ‘added value’ is found in many customer-oriented definitions
of brand equity. For example Farquhar (1989: 24) defines brand equity as the ‘“added value”
with which a given brand endows a product’. Similarly, from an information economics
perspective, Erdem and Swait (1998) note that brands act as a signal of a product’s position in
the marketplace and, as such, they increase consumer-expected utility by decreasing both
information cost and perceived purchase risk: ‘consequently, consumer-based brand equity can
be defined as the value of a brand as a signal to consumers’ (Erdem and Swait, 1998: 140). An
outcome of this differential effect or consumer-expected utility and, possibly, a measure of a
brand’s equity, is consumers’ willingness to pay a premium price for the brand. Hence, Axelrod
(1992) defines brand equity as: ‘the incremental amount your customer will pay to obtain your
brand rather than a physically comparable product without your brand name’.
Overall, these customer-based, added value perspectives of brand equity fit within the ‘big
B’ notion of the Brand put forward by the definition of de Chernatony and McDonald (2003)
and with the concept of a brand’s differentiation and strength as a measure of its success.
The brand equity perspective of the firm is also concerned with the notion of the differential
effects that accrue to a product due to its brand name. For example, Farquhar (1989: 25) notes
that ‘brand equity also imparts competitive advantages to the firm’, in terms of providing
opportunities for licensing and brand extensions. Brand equity also makes the brand more resilient
to crisis situations and competitive attack, as well as more readily accepted and more prominently
displayed by the trade. The financial paradigm of brand equity also takes the perspective of the
firm and is generally expressed in terms of the incremental cash flow or profit that can be attributed
to a brand (Barwise et al., 1990; Simon and Sullivan, 1993). However, value can be subtracted
as well as added, as remarked by Aaker’s (1996: 7) definition: ‘Brand equity is a set of assets
(and liabilities) linked to a brand’s name and symbol that adds (or subtracts from) the value
provided by a product or service to a firm and/or that firm’s customers’.
Despite overall agreement among researchers on the general notion of brand equity in terms
of the differential effects attributable to the brand, disagreement persists on whether equity should
be measured from the consumer or from the firm perspective, even though the two are clearly
interrelated (Ailawadi et al., 2003; Keller and Lehmann, 2003). Furthermore, within both
paradigms – customer-based and financial – there are substantial measurement issues, with no
agreed measures (or methodologies) for either ‘customer-based’ or ‘financial’ brand equity.
Several researchers have promoted the use of survey-based methods, including a variety of
customer mindset measures such as awareness, attitudes, associations, attachments and loyalty
(e.g. Aaker, 1991, 1996; Park and Srinivasan, 1994; Dillon et al., 2001; Lehmann et al., 2008).
This approach has also been adopted by a number of commercial consultancies, such as
Millward Brown’s Brand Z and Young and Rubicam’s Brand Asset Valuator (see Chapter 3).
Ailawadi et al. (2003) note that while these measures offer rich information on the sources of
brand equity, being based on consumer surveys they ‘are not easy to compute and do not pro-
vide a single, simple, objective measure of brand performance’ (Ailawadi et al., 2003: 2). An
additional difficulty, highlighted by Barwise (1993), is that short-term measures of brand
strength such as brand loyalty, perceived quality, brand awareness and associations may not be
guarantee of the brand’s long-term performance.
Other researchers advocate product-market measures of brand equity, reflecting the outcomes
of customer-based brand equity in terms of the brand’s performance in the marketplace. Early
examples of this approach are the studies by Kamakura and Russell (1993) and Swait et al. (1993)
published in the International Journal of Research in Marketing Special Issue on Brand Equity.

6
 Brand definitions and conceptualizations

Kamakura and Russell (1993) used scanner data to estimate a Brand Value measure containing
both tangible (from product features) and intangible (from brand name associations and other
perceptual distortions) components. Instead, choice experiments were used by Swait et al. (1993)
to estimate the ‘Equalization Price’: the hypothetical price at which each brand would have the
same market share for an individual consumer’s purchases. A brand with high consumer-based
brand equity would have a high average Equalization Price, across consumers within a segment
or the whole market. Several other subsequent studies mention price premium, or the ability
of a brand to charge a price higher than an unbranded equivalent, as a measure of brand equity
(e.g. Agarwal and Rao, 1996; Sethuraman and Cole, 1997; Sethuraman, 2000). Ailawadi et al.
(2003) note that measuring brand equity in terms of product-market outcomes is an improvement
on single customer mindset measures, also from the point of view of quantifying the incremental
benefit due to the brand name. However, measures of price premium are often highly reliant
on customer judgment and are therefore subjective and dependent on the context (e.g. Swait
et al.’s choice experiments), while measures such as the ones employed by Kamakura and Russell
or other conjoint-based measures suffer from the disadvantage of being over-complex.
Furthermore, Ailawadi et al. (2003) also remark that price premium may not always be a measure
of a brand’s equity, since many brands have successfully adopted a ‘low price’ positioning (e.g.
low cost airlines and supermarket discounters). Ailawadi et al. propose revenue premium (the
difference in revenue between a branded good and a corresponding private label), as a more
complete, stable over time, conceptually and theoretically grounded product-market measure
of brand equity.
Finally, various measures of financial brand equity have been proposed by academic
researchers and by commercial consultancies (see Chapter 4 for a more extensive evaluation).
These measures vary from the residual approach proposed by Simon and Sullivan (1993), to
the estimate of the brand equity component in the price paid for mergers and acquisitions
(e.g. Rao et al., 1991; Mahajan et al., 1994), to the ‘present value of future cash flows that
accrue to a branded offering’ (Bahadir et al., 2008: 49). The consultancy Interbrand also takes
a discounted cash flow approach, in combination with product-market measures (http://inter
brand.com/newsroom/interbrand-releases-2015-best-global-brands-report/, accessed 23 November 2015).
On the other hand, the consultancy Millward Brown combines financial measures with customer
mindset measures (www.millwardbrown.com/brandz/top-global-brands/2015, accessed 23 November
2015). The discrepancies between Interbrand and Millward Brown in the financial value
attributed to the same brands are a striking sign of the difficulties in achieving an objective
estimate of a brand’s equity (e.g. see Ritson, 2006, 2015; The Economist, 2014). As Barwise
(1993) and Barwise et al. (1990) discuss, brand valuation is inherently subjective for three reasons.
First, ‘value’ is per se a subjective construct, as also illustrated by Bahadir et al. (2008) in the
context of the financial value of brands in mergers and acquisitions. Second, it is difficult, if
not impossible, to separate a brand’s intangible value from the rest of the firm’s assets. Third,
brand valuation usually relies on some kind of forecasting, which again requires subjective,
context-specific assumptions.
Partially because of the difficulties and disagreements highlighted in the previous pages, some
scholars challenge altogether the existence of ‘brand equity’, on the basis that beyond the relative
market share size of brands there is no empirical evidence supporting the notion of ‘strong’
versus ‘weak’ brands (e.g. Ehrenberg, 1993). Indeed, most behavioural and attitudinal brand
measures are in practice highly correlated with the brand’s market share (e.g. Ehrenberg et al.,
1990; Ehrenberg et al., 2004) (see Chapter 2 for a full discussion). Finally, while rejecting
Ehrenberg’s strict point of view that brand strength and brand size are the same, Feldwick (1996b)

7
Dall’Olmo Riley

suggests that it may be better to evaluate brands in terms of a variety of short- and long-term
performance measures, rather than focusing on the single, but rather elusive, concept of Brand
Equity.

Tangible versus intangible brand elements and the brand loyalty

debate: the ‘romantics’ versus the ‘realists’?
Somewhat related to the debates on brand definition and on brand equity, is the disagreement
concerning brand differentiation, brand personality, salience and behavioural versus attitud-
inal loyalty. Disagreement in these areas could be said to be polarized between the ‘big B’
view of Brands epitomized by the proponents of brand differentiation, deep attachment
and relationships between consumers and their brands (e.g. Fournier, 1998; Keller, 2001;
de Chernatony and McDonald, 2003), versus the view of brands emerging from the work of
Andrew Ehrenberg and his followers (e.g. Ehrenberg, 2001; Ehrenberg et al., 2004; Romaniuk
et al., 2007).
The concepts of customer-based brand equity (Keller, 1993) and of brand strength (Keller,
2001) discussed in the previous section are highly reliant upon the notion of consumers
choosing brands on the basis of perceived differentiation and of strong attitudinal attachment
towards the brands they are loyal to. According to this perspective, consumers purchase brands
on the basis of perceived ‘relevant and unique added values which match their needs more
closely’ (de Chernatony and McDonald, 2003: 25) and towards which they feel some kind of
attachment or relationship (e.g. Fournier, 1998). Consumer involvement with brands therefore
is regarded as high, with consumers selecting brands with ‘personalities’ matching their own
(e.g. Aaker et al., 2001). Different brands are deemed to appeal to different segments of
consumers (e.g. Grover and Srinivasan, 1987, 1989; Kannan and Wright, 1991), with positioning
and differentiation at the core of the brand strategy (e.g. MacMillan and McGrath, 1997; Keller
et al., 2002). It follows that ‘true’ brand loyalty is much more than repeat purchase behaviour
and is the expression of the strength of the relationship (mediated by social norms and situational
factors) between an individual’s relative attitude towards a brand and repeat patronage (Dick
and Basu, 1994). Cognitive, affective and conative antecedents of relative attitude are identified
by Dick and Basu (1994) as contributing to loyalty, along with motivational, perceptual and
behavioural consequences. According to this perspective, a persuasive message which modifies
cognitive, affective and conative processes should therefore be used by management to improve
relative attitudes, thus stimulating brand loyalty and market shares growth.
In contrast, empirical evidence accumulated over several decades by Andrew Ehrenberg and
his followers portrays a very different picture (see also Chapter 2). First, their findings indicate
the lack of brand differentiation, as the basis for consumer choice. For example, Sharp and Dawes
(2001) note how competitive brands within a market are similarly differentiated: any difference
in brand image ratings between brands is correlated with the size of the brand itself (or the
number of its users), almost irrespective of the attribute (see also Bird et al., 1970; Barwise and
Ehrenberg, 1985; Romaniuk and Sharp, 2000). In support of the lack of brand differentiation
is the finding that the user profiles of competing brands are very similar in terms of demographics
or other consumer segmentation criteria (see Hammond et al., 1996; Kennedy et al., 2000;
Kennedy and Ehrenberg, 2001). Occasionally, segmentation or market partitioning does,
however, occur at the category or sub-category level: e.g. between pre-sweetened cereal brands
(eaten more by children) and ‘all-bran’ cereal brands (eaten more by adults), but by and large
brands are found to ‘share’ customers with other brands in line with their relative share (the

8
 Brand definitions and conceptualizations

so-called ‘Duplication of Purchase Law’, Ehrenberg et al., 2004). Consistent with the lack of
brand differentiation and consumer segmentation is the evidence that few consumers buy
exclusively one brand within a product category, i.e. are sole or 100 per cent loyal brand buyers
in a typical purchase cycle period of a quarter or a year. Typically, only about 30 per cent of
the buyers of a brand in a quarter are sole buyers of it and about 10 per cent in the year (e.g.
Ehrenberg, 1972, 1988), while most consumers tend to buy more than one brand over a period
of time (e.g. Ehrenberg 1972, 1988; Uncles et al., 1994). The average number of brands bought
increases with the frequency of purchasing of the product category; sole brand buyers tend to
be infrequent buyers of the product. For instance, Ehrenberg (1972, 1988) reported 3.6 brands
bought, on average, by heavy buyers over a year, compared with 1.9 for light buyers (an overall
average of 2.5 brands per buyer of the product field). In line with split brand loyalty is the
apparent absence of attitudinal attachment towards brands over time: consumer evaluations of
brands are highly variable over time (Dall’Olmo Riley et al., 1997).
On the basis of the evidence just described, Ehrenberg (2001) deems the view of ‘brand
equity’ put forward by Aaker (1996), Keller (1993) and their followers as ‘romantic’, or remote
from experience, favouring instead what he regards as a more ‘realist’ and achievable standpoint
on brand marketing. For instance, brand advertising is deemed to have a ‘publicizing’, rather
than a ‘persuasive’, role focusing on salience (keeping consumers’ habitual propensities to buy
the brand as high as before or higher), rather than on brand differentiation, which empirical
evidence shows to be elusive (Ehrenberg et al., 1997; Ehrenberg and Scriven, 1997).
Compelling evidence for a ‘realist’ approach to brand management and brand growth is offered
by Sharp (2010) and Romaniuk and Sharp (2015). Drawing on ‘(d)ecades of research into how
buyers buy and how brand compete . . .’ (Sharp 2010: xiii), they show that gaining popularity
by increasing the number of customers (even those who buy the brand occasionally) is a strategy
much more effective than trying to increase customer loyalty for growing a brand’s market
share. Indeed Sharp (2010) and Romaniuk and Sharp (2015) provide extensive evidence that
differences in the market share of competing brands are due mostly to differences in the number
of buyers than to differences in brand loyalty. Hence, according to Sharp (2010), what constitutes
brand equity is physical availability and mental availability, the opportunity for consumers to
find products in shop and their propensity to think about the brand when shopping. To do
that, ‘. . . marketers need to improve the branding of their product (i.e. it needs to stand out)
and to continuously reach large audiences of light buyers cost effectively’ (Sharp, 2010: xiii).
This puts emphasis on the importance of the brand’s elements: name, packaging, colour,
characters, celebrities, etc. in making the brand distinctive (rather than differentiated) (Romaniuk
et al., 2007).
In essence, this more ‘realist’ view of what brand management should aim to achieve appears
consistent with the ‘small b’ definition of the brand construct, in contrast with a ‘big B’ Brand
notion focusing on added value, brand differentiation and attitudinal loyalty.

Conclusions
This chapter presents an overview of the debate concerning the definition and conceptualization
of the brand construct, as well as the conceptualization and measurement of ‘brand equity’.
These debates and different approaches to brand management for growth are evident throughout
the Companion and particularly in the diverging and multifaceted perspectives of the contributors
to Parts 1 and 2 of this volume.

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Dall’Olmo Riley

Notes
1 This chapter is adapted, with permission, from: Dall’Olmo Riley, F. (2009), “Editor’s introduction:
brand management”. In: Dall’Olmo Riley, F. (ed.) Brand management, London: Sage. (SAGE library
in marketing) ISBN 9781848602083.

Further reading
de Chernatony, L. and Dall’Olmo Riley, F. (1998), “Defining a ‘brand’: beyond the literature with experts’
interpretations”, Journal of Marketing Management, 14 (5): 417–43.
de Chernatony, L. and Dall’Olmo Riley, F. (1999), “Modelling the components of a brand”, European
Journal of Marketing, 32 (11/12): 1074–90.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C., Uncles, M. and Goodhardt, G. (2004), “Understanding brand performance measures:
using Dirichlet benchmarks”, Journal of Business Research, 57 (12): 1307–25.

References
Aaker, D. A. (1991 and 1996), Building strong brands, New York: Free Press.
Aaker, J. L., Benet-Martinez, V. and Garolera, J. (2001), “Consumption symbols as carriers of culture: a
study of Japanese and Spanish brand personality constructs”, Journal of Personality and Psychology, 81 (3):
492–508.
Agarwal, M. K. and Rao, V. (1996), “An empirical comparison of consumer-based measures of brand
equity”, Marketing Letters, 7 (3): 237–47.
Ailawadi, K. L., Lehmann, D. R. and Neslin, S. A. (2003), “Revenue premium as an outcome measure
of brand equity”, Journal of Marketing, 67 (October): 1–17.
American Marketing Association (1960), Marketing definitions: a glossary of marketing terms, Chicago, IL:
American Marketing Association.
American Marketing Association (2015), Dictionary of Marketing Terms. Available at: www.ama.org/
resources/Pages/Dictionary (accessed 23 November 2015).
Arnold, D. (1992), The handbook of brand management, Century Business, The Economist Books.
Axelrod, J. N. (1992), “The use of experimental design in monitoring brand equity”, ESOMAR Seminar,
The Challenge of Branding Today and in the Future, Brussels, October: 13–26.
Bahadir, S. C., Bharadwaj, S. G. and Srivastava, R. K. (2008), “Financial value of brands in mergers and
acquisitions: is value in the eye of the beholder”, Journal of Marketing, 72 (November): 49–64.
Barwise, T. P. (1993), “Brand equity: snark or boojum”, International Journal of Research in Marketing, 10
(1): 93–104.
Barwise, T. P. and Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (1985), “Consumer beliefs and brand usage”, Journal of the Market
Research Society, 27 (2): 81–93.
Barwise, T. P., Higson, C., Likierman, A. and Marsh, P. (1990), “Brands as ‘separable assets’”, Business
Strategy Review, 1 (Summer): 43–59.
Bird, M., Channon, C. and Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (1970), “Brand image and brand usage”, Journal of Marketing
Research, 7 (August): 307–14.
Chu, S. and Keh, H. T. (2006), “Brand value creation: analysis of the Interbrand-Business Week brand
value rankings”, Marketing Letters, 14 (4): 323–31.
Cohen, D. (1986), “Trademark strategy”, Journal of Marketing, 50 (January): 61–74.
Crainer, S. (1995), The real power of brands: making brands work for competitive advantage, London: Pitman
Publishing.
Dall’Olmo Riley, F., Ehrenberg, A. S. C., Castleberry, S. B., Barwise, T. P. and Barnard, N. R. (1997),
“The variability of attitudinal repeat-rates”, International Journal of Research in Marketing, 14 (5): 437–50.
de Chernatony, L. (1993), “Categorizing brands: evolutionary processes underpinned by two key
dimensions”, Journal of Marketing Management, 5 (2): 173–88.
de Chernatony, L. and Dall’Olmo Riley, F. (1998), “Defining a ‘brand’: beyond the literature with experts’
interpretations”, Journal of Marketing Management, 14 (4/5): 417–43.
de Chernatony, L. and McDonald, M. (2003), Creating powerful brands in consumer, service and industrial markets
(3rd edn), Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.

10
 Brand definitions and conceptualizations

Dick, A. S. and Basu, K. (1994), “Customer loyalty: toward an integrated conceptual framework”, Journal
of the Academy of Marketing Science, 22 (2): 99–113.
Dillon, W. R., Madden, T. J., Kirmani, A. and Mukherjee, S. (2001), “Understanding what’s in a brand
rating: a model for assessing brand and attribute effects and their relationship to brand equity”, Journal
of Marketing Research, 38 (November): 415–29.
The Economist (2014), “What are brands for?”, 30 August: 53–4.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (1972, 1988), Repeat-buying: facts, theory and applications, London: Edward Arnold (Charles
Griffin); New York: Oxford University Press.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (1993), “If you are so strong, why aren’t you bigger?”, Admap, 28 (333 – October).
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (2001), “Marketing: romantic or realist?”, Marketing Learning 5, R&D Initiative, London
South Bank University.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. and Scriven, J. (1997), “Added values or propensities to buy”, Admap, 376: 36–40.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C., Barnard, N. and Scriven, J. (1997), “Differentiation or salience”, Journal of Advertising
Research, 37 (November-December): 7–14.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C., Goodhardt, G. and Barwise, T. P. (1990), “Double jeopardy revisited”, Journal of
Marketing, 54 (3): 82–91.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C., Uncles, M. and Goodhardt, G. (2004), “Understanding brand performance measures:
using dirichlet benchmarks”, Journal of Business Research, 57 (12): 1307–25.
Erdem, T. and Swait, J. (1998), “Brand equity as a signaling phenomenon”, Journal of Consumer Psychology,
7 (2): 131–57.
Ewing, M. T., Jevons, C. P. and Khalil, E. L. (2009), “Brand death: a developmental model of senescence”,
Journal of Business Research, 62 (3): 332–8.
Farquhar, P. H. (1989), “Managing brand equity”, Marketing Research, 1 (September): 24–33.
Feldwick, P. (1996a), “What is brand equity anyway, and how do you measure it?”, Journal of the Market
Research Society, 38 (2): 85–104.
Feldwick, P. (1996b), “Do we really need ‘Brand Equity’?”, The Journal of Brand Management, 4 (1): 9–28.
Fournier, S. (1998), “Consumers and their brands: developing relationship theory in consumer research”,
Journal of Consumer Research, 24 (4): 343–73.
Gardner, B. B. and Levy, S. J. (1955), “The product and the brand”, Harvard Business Review, 33 (March–
April): 33–9.
Grover, R. and Srinivasan, V. (1987), “A simultaneous approach to market segmentation and market
structuring”, Journal of Marketing Research, 24 (May): 139–53.
Grover, R. and Srinivasan, V. (1989), “An approach for tracking within-segment shifts in market shares”,
Journal of Marketing Research, 26 (May): 230–6.
Hamel, G. and Prahalad, C. K. (1996), Competing for the future, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School
Press.
Hammond, K., Ehrenberg, A. S. C. and Goodhardt, G. (1996), “Market segmentation for competitive
brands”, European Journal of Marketing, 30 (12): 39–49.
Interbrand (2009), “Best Global Brands”. Available at: http://interbrand.com/newsroom/interbrand-
releases-2015-best-global-brands-report/ (accessed 23 November 2015).
Jones, P. J. (1986), What’s in a name?, Aldershot: Gower.
Kamakura, W. A. and Russell, G. J. (1993), “Measuring brand value with scanner data”, International Journal
of Research in Marketing, 10: 9–22.
Kannan, P. K. and Wright, G. P. (1991), “Modeling and testing structured markets: a nested logit approach”,
Marketing Science, 10 (1): 58–82.
Kapferer, J. N. (1992), Strategic brand management (1st edn), London: Kogan Page.
Kapferer, J. N. (2008), Strategic brand management (4th edn), London: Kogan Page.
Keller, K. L. (1993), “Conceptualising, measuring and managing customer-based brand equity”, Journal of
Marketing, 57 (January): 1–22.
Keller, K. L. (2001), “Building customer-based brand equity: a blueprint for creating strong brands”, Marketing
Management, 10 (July–August): 15–19.
Keller, K. L. (2006), “Branding and brand equity”. In: Weitz, B. and Wensley, R., Handbook of marketing,
London: Sage.
Keller, K. L. (2008), Strategic brand management (3rd edn), Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Keller, K. L. and Lehmann, D. R. (2003), “How do brands create value?”, Marketing Management, 12
(May/June): 26–31.

11
Dall’Olmo Riley

Keller, K. L., Sternthal, B. and Tybout, A. (2002), “Three questions you need to ask about your brand”,
Harvard Business Review, 80 (September): 80–6.
Kennedy, R. and Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (2001), “Competing retailers generally have the same sort of shoppers”,
Journal of Marketing Communications, 7 (1): 19–26.
Kennedy, R., Ehrenberg, A. S. C. and Long, S. (2000), “Competing brand user-profiles hardly differ”.
In: The Market Research Society Conference Proceedings, Brighton, UK, 17 March.
Kotler, P. and Armstrong, G. (2007), Principles of marketing, Pearson International Edition.
Lehmann, D. R., Keller, K. L. and Farley, J. U. (2008), “The structure of survey-based brand metrics”,
Journal of International Marketing, 16 (4): 29–56.
MacMillan, I. C. and McGrath, R. G. (1997), “Discovering new points of differentiation”, Harvard Business
Review, 75 (July–August): 133–45.
Mahajan, V., Rao, V. R. and Srivastava, R. K. (1994), “An approach to assess the importance of brand
equity in acquisition decisions”, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 11 (3): 221–35.
Millward Brown Optimor (2015), “BRANDZ Top 100 Most Valuable Brands”. Available at:
www.millwardbrown.com/brandz/top-global-brands/2015 (accessed 23 November 2015).
Park, C. S. and Srinivasan, V. (1994), “A survey-based method for measuring and understanding brand
equity and its extendibility”, Journal of Marketing Research, 31 (May): 271–88.
Porter, M. E. (1976), Interbrand choice, strategy and bilateral market power, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Rao, V. R., Mahajan, V. and Baraya, N. P. (1991), “A balance model for evaluating firms for acquisition”,
Management Science, 37 (3): 331–49.
Ritson, M. (2006), “Strength in numbers”, Marketing, 5 April: 16.
Ritson, M. (2015), “What is the point of brand valuations if those doing the valuing are so off target?”,
Marketing Week, 22 April. Available at: www.marketingweek.com/2015/04/22/what-is-the-point-of-
brand-valuations-if-those-doing-the-valuing-are-so-off-target/?cmpid=mwbreak_1069507&utm_
medium=email&utm_source=newsletter&utm_campaign=mw_daily (accessed 23 November 2015).
Romaniuk, J. and Sharp, B. (2000), “Using known patterns of image data to determine brand positioning”,
International Journal of Market Research, 42 (2): 219–30.
Romaniuk, J. and Sharp, B. (2015), How brands grow 2, Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University.
Romaniuk, J., Sharp, B. and Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (2007), “Evidence concerning the importance of perceived
brand differentiation”, Australasian Marketing Journal, 15 (2): 42–54.
Sethuraman, R. (2000), “What makes consumers pay more for national brands than for store brands: image
or quality?”, Report No. 00–110, Marketing Science Institute Paper Series, Cambridge, MA.
Sethuraman, R. and Cole, C. (1997), “Why do consumers pay more for national brands than for store
brands?”, Working Paper No. 97–126, Marketing Science Institute, Cambridge, MA.
Sharp, B. (2010), How brands grow: what marketers don’t know, Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University.
Sharp, B. and Dawes, J. G. (2001), “What is differentiation and how does it work?”, Journal of Marketing
Management, 17 (7/8): 739–59.
Simon, C. J. and Sullivan, M. W. (1993), “The measurements and determinants of brand equity: a financial
approach”, Marketing Science, 12 (Winter): 28–52.
Swait, J., Erdem, T., Louviere, J. and Dubelaar, C. (1993), “The equalization price: a measure of
consumer-perceived brand equity”, International Journal of Research in Marketing, 10 (March): 23–45.
Uncles, M., Hammond, K., Ehrenberg, A. S. C. and Davis, R. E. (1994), “A replications study of two
brand-loyalty measures”, European Journal of Operational Research, 76 (2): 375–84.

12
Brand definitions and conceptualizations
de Chernatony, L. and Dall’Olmo Riley, F. (1998), “Defining a ‘brand’: beyond the literature with experts’
interpretations”, Journal of Marketing Management, 14 (5): 417–443.
de Chernatony, L. and Dall’Olmo Riley, F. (1999), “Modelling the components of a brand”, European Journal
of Marketing, 32 (11/12): 1074–1090.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. , Uncles, M. and Goodhardt, G. (2004), “Understanding brand performance measures:
using Dirichlet benchmarks”, Journal of Business Research, 57 (12): 1307–1325.
Aaker, D. A. (1991 and 1996), Building strong brands, New York: Free Press.
Aaker, J. L. , Benet-Martinez, V. and Garolera, J. (2001), “Consumption symbols as carriers of culture: a
study of Japanese and Spanish brand personality constructs”, Journal of Personality and Psychology, 81 (3):
492–508.
Agarwal, M. K. and Rao, V. (1996), “An empirical comparison of consumer-based measures of brand equity”,
Marketing Letters, 7 (3): 237–247.
Ailawadi, K. L. , Lehmann, D. R. and Neslin, S. A. (2003), “Revenue premium as an outcome measure of
brand equity”, Journal of Marketing, 67 (October): 1–17.
American Marketing Association (1960), Marketing definitions: a glossary of marketing terms, Chicago, IL:
American Marketing Association.
American Marketing Association (2015), Dictionary of Marketing Terms. Available at:
www.ama.org/resources/Pages/Dictionary (accessed 23 November 2015 ).
Arnold, D. (1992), The handbook of brand management, Century Business, The Economist Books.
Axelrod, J. N. (1992), “The use of experimental design in monitoring brand equity”, ESOMAR Seminar, The
Challenge of Branding Today and in the Future, Brussels, October: 13–26.
Bahadir, S. C. , Bharadwaj, S. G. and Srivastava, R. K. (2008), “Financial value of brands in mergers and
acquisitions: is value in the eye of the beholder”, Journal of Marketing, 72 (November): 49–64.
Barwise, T. P. (1993), “Brand equity: snark or boojum”, International Journal of Research in Marketing, 10
(1): 93–104.
Barwise, T. P. and Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (1985), “Consumer beliefs and brand usage”, Journal of the Market
Research Society, 27 (2): 81–93.
Barwise, T. P. , Higson, C. , Likierman, A. and Marsh, P. (1990), “Brands as ‘separable assets’”, Business
Strategy Review, 1 (Summer): 43–59.
Bird, M. , Channon, C. and Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (1970), “Brand image and brand usage”, Journal of
Marketing Research, 7 (August): 307–314.
Chu, S. and Keh, H. T. (2006), “Brand value creation: analysis of the Interbrand-Business Week brand value
rankings”, Marketing Letters, 14 (4): 323–331.
Cohen, D. (1986), “Trademark strategy”, Journal of Marketing, 50 (January): 61–74.
Crainer, S. (1995), The real power of brands: making brands work for competitive advantage, London:
Pitman Publishing.
Dall’Olmo Riley, F. , Ehrenberg, A. S. C. , Castleberry, S. B. , Barwise, T. P. and Barnard, N. R. (1997), “The
variability of attitudinal repeat-rates”, International Journal of Research in Marketing, 14 (5): 437–450.
de Chernatony, L. (1993), “Categorizing brands: evolutionary processes underpinned by two key
dimensions”, Journal of Marketing Management, 5 (2): 173–188.
de Chernatony, L. and Dall’Olmo Riley, F. (1998), “Defining a ‘brand’: beyond the literature with experts’
interpretations”, Journal of Marketing Management, 14 (4/5): 417–443.
de Chernatony, L. and McDonald, M. (2003), Creating powerful brands in consumer, service and industrial
markets (3rd edn), Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
Dick, A. S. and Basu, K. (1994), “Customer loyalty: toward an integrated conceptual framework”, Journal of
the Academy of Marketing Science, 22 (2): 99–113.
Dillon, W. R. , Madden, T. J. , Kirmani, A. and Mukherjee, S. (2001), “Understanding what’s in a brand rating:
a model for assessing brand and attribute effects and their relationship to brand equity”, Journal of Marketing
Research, 38 (November): 415–429.
The Economist (2014), “What are brands for?”, 30 August: 53–54.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (1972, 1988), Repeat-buying: facts, theory and applications, London: Edward Arnold
(Charles Griffin); New York: Oxford University Press.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (1993), “If you are so strong, why aren’t you bigger?”, Admap, 28 (333 – October).
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (2001), “Marketing: romantic or realist?”, Marketing Learning 5, R&D Initiative, London
South Bank University.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. and Scriven, J. (1997), “Added values or propensities to buy”, Admap, 376: 36–40.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. , Barnard, N. and Scriven, J. (1997), “Differentiation or salience”, Journal of Advertising
Research, 37 (November-December): 7–14.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. , Goodhardt, G. and Barwise, T. P. (1990), “Double jeopardy revisited”, Journal of
Marketing, 54 (3): 82–91.
Ehrenberg, A. S. C. , Uncles, M. and Goodhardt, G. (2004), “Understanding brand performance measures:
using dirichlet benchmarks”, Journal of Business Research, 57 (12): 1307–1325.
Erdem, T. and Swait, J. (1998), “Brand equity as a signaling phenomenon”, Journal of Consumer
Psychology, 7 (2): 131–157.
Ewing, M. T. , Jevons, C. P. and Khalil, E. L. (2009), “Brand death: a developmental model of senescence”,
Journal of Business Research, 62 (3): 332–338.
Farquhar, P. H. (1989), “Managing brand equity”, Marketing Research, 1 (September): 24–33.
Feldwick, P. (1996a), “What is brand equity anyway, and how do you measure it?”, Journal of the Market
Research Society, 38 (2): 85–104.
Feldwick, P. (1996b), “Do we really need ‘Brand Equity’?”, The Journal of Brand Management, 4 (1): 9–28.
Fournier, S. (1998), “Consumers and their brands: developing relationship theory in consumer research”,
Journal of Consumer Research, 24 (4): 343–373.
Gardner, B. B. and Levy, S. J. (1955), “The product and the brand”, Harvard Business Review, 33
(March–April): 33–39.
Grover, R. and Srinivasan, V. (1987), “A simultaneous approach to market segmentation and market
structuring”, Journal of Marketing Research, 24 (May): 139–153.
Grover, R. and Srinivasan, V. (1989), “An approach for tracking within-segment shifts in market shares”,
Journal of Marketing Research, 26 (May): 230–236.
Hamel, G. and Prahalad, C. K. (1996), Competing for the future, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School
Press.
Hammond, K. , Ehrenberg, A. S. C. and Goodhardt, G. (1996), “Market segmentation for competitive
brands”, European Journal of Marketing, 30 (12): 39–49.
Interbrand (2009), “Best Global Brands”. Available at: http://interbrand.com/newsroom/interbrand-releases-
2015-best-global-brands-report/ (accessed 23 November 2015 ).
Jones, P. J. (1986), What’s in a name?, Aldershot: Gower.
Kamakura, W. A. and Russell, G. J. (1993), “Measuring brand value with scanner data”, International Journal
of Research in Marketing, 10: 9–22.
Kannan, P. K. and Wright, G. P. (1991), “Modeling and testing structured markets: a nested logit approach”,
Marketing Science, 10 (1): 58–82.
Kapferer, J. N. (1992), Strategic brand management (1st edn), London: Kogan Page.
Kapferer, J. N. (2008), Strategic brand management (4th edn), London: Kogan Page.
Keller, K. L. (1993), “Conceptualising, measuring and managing customer-based brand equity”, Journal of
Marketing, 57 (January): 1–22.
Keller, K. L. (2001), “Building customer-based brand equity: a blueprint for creating strong brands”,
Marketing Management, 10 (July–August): 15–19.
Keller, K. L. (2006), “Branding and brand equity”. In: Weitz, B. and Wensley, R. , Handbook of marketing,
London: Sage.
Keller, K. L. (2008), Strategic brand management (3rd edn), Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Keller, K. L. and Lehmann, D. R. (2003), “How do brands create value?”, Marketing Management, 12
(May/June): 26–31.
Keller, K. L. , Sternthal, B. and Tybout, A. (2002), “Three questions you need to ask about your brand”,
Harvard Business Review, 80 (September): 80–86.
Kennedy, R. and Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (2001), “Competing retailers generally have the same sort of
shoppers”, Journal of Marketing Communications, 7 (1): 19–26.
Kennedy, R. , Ehrenberg, A. S. C. and Long, S. (2000), “Competing brand user-profiles hardly differ”. In: The
Market Research Society Conference Proceedings, Brighton, UK, 17 March.
Kotler, P. and Armstrong, G. (2007), Principles of marketing, Pearson International Edition.
Lehmann, D. R. , Keller, K. L. and Farley, J. U. (2008), “The structure of survey-based brand metrics”,
Journal of International Marketing, 16 (4): 29–56.
MacMillan, I. C. and McGrath, R. G. (1997), “Discovering new points of differentiation”, Harvard Business
Review, 75 (July–August): 133–145.
Mahajan, V. , Rao, V. R. and Srivastava, R. K. (1994), “An approach to assess the importance of brand
equity in acquisition decisions”, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 11 (3): 221–235.
Millward Brown Optimor (2015), “BRANDZ Top 100 Most Valuable Brands”. Available at:
www.millwardbrown.com/brandz/top-global-brands/2015 (accessed 23 November 2015 ).
Park, C. S. and Srinivasan, V. (1994), “A survey-based method for measuring and understanding brand
equity and its extendibility”, Journal of Marketing Research, 31 (May): 271–288.
Porter, M. E. (1976), Interbrand choice, strategy and bilateral market power, Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Rao, V. R. , Mahajan, V. and Baraya, N. P. (1991), “A balance model for evaluating firms for acquisition”,
Management Science, 37 (3): 331–349.
Ritson, M. (2006), “Strength in numbers”, Marketing, 5 April: 16.
Ritson, M. (2015), “What is the point of brand valuations if those doing the valuing are so off target?”,
Marketing Week, 22 April. Available at: www.marketingweek.com/2015/04/22/what-is-the-point-of-brand-
valuations-if-those-doing-the-valuing-are-so-off-
target/?cmpid=mwbreak_1069507&utm_medium=email&utm_source=newsletter&utm_campaign=mw_daily
(accessed 23 November 2015 ).
Romaniuk, J. and Sharp, B. (2000), “Using known patterns of image data to determine brand positioning”,
International Journal of Market Research, 42 (2): 219–230.
Romaniuk, J. and Sharp, B. (2015), How brands grow 2, Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University.
Romaniuk, J. , Sharp, B. and Ehrenberg, A. S. C. (2007), “Evidence concerning the importance of perceived
brand differentiation”, Australasian Marketing Journal, 15 (2): 42–54.
Sethuraman, R. (2000), “What makes consumers pay more for national brands than for store brands: image
or quality?”, Report No. 00–110, Marketing Science Institute Paper Series, Cambridge, MA.
Sethuraman, R. and Cole, C. (1997), “Why do consumers pay more for national brands than for store
brands?”, Working Paper No. 97–126, Marketing Science Institute, Cambridge, MA.
Sharp, B. (2010), How brands grow: what marketers don’t know, Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University.
Sharp, B. and Dawes, J. G. (2001), “What is differentiation and how does it work?”, Journal of Marketing
Management, 17 (7/8): 739–759.
Simon, C. J. and Sullivan, M. W. (1993), “The measurements and determinants of brand equity: a financial
approach”, Marketing Science, 12 (Winter): 28–52.
Swait, J. , Erdem, T. , Louviere, J. and Dubelaar, C. (1993), “The equalization price: a measure of consumer-
perceived brand equity”, International Journal of Research in Marketing, 10 (March): 23–45.
Uncles, M. , Hammond, K. , Ehrenberg, A. S. C. and Davis, R. E. (1994), “A replications study of two brand-
loyalty measures”, European Journal of Operational Research, 76 (2): 375–384.

Measuring the market performance of brands

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Towards a better understanding of the ethical brand and its management

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Strategic employer branding

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Branding the entire entity

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Branding in the base of the pyramid

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Arts branding
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