Journal of Energy Storage 28 (2020) 101201

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Role of metal foam on ice storage performance for a cold thermal energy T
storage (CTES) system
⁎
Cheng Yua, Quan Penga, Xiangdong Liua, , Peng Caoa, Feng Yaob
a
College of Electrical, Energy and Power Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225127, China
b
Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Micro and Nano Heat Fluid Flow Technology and Energy Application, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of
Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The cold thermal energy storage (CTES) is of great significance for the sake of decline of fossil energy usage.
Metal foam However, there exhibits a low energy charging and discharging efficiency, due to the poor thermal conductivity
Ice storage of phase change material (PCM). In this context, the metal foam is utilized to improve the ice storage perfor-
Solidification mance of the CTES device in this paper. The solidification performance of PCM in a horizontal shell-tube CTES
Optimization
system with fins is numerically studied with consideration of natural convection. The ice front evolutions and the
dynamic temperature distribution for the case with metal foam is analyzed and compared with these without
metal foam. Moreover, the influence of the porosity on the ice storage performance for the CTES system with
metal foams is analyzed as well. The results imply that the addition of metal foam effectively improves the
thermal performance of the CTES system, the distribution of the temperature in the shell-tube CTES system is
more uniform and the freezing speed of PCM is faster due to coupled effects of thermal conduction enhancement
and the suppression of the natural convection. The porosity of the metal foam plays an essential role in the ice
storage performance of the CTES system. The smaller porosity of the metal foam induces faster freezing speed
and more uniform temperature distribution. Therefore, a smaller porosity is recommended for faster energy
discharging rate in practical engineering applications.

1. Introduction
Over the past decades, the latent heat thermal energy storage
(LHTES) technology is becoming a highly attractive energy conversion
technique and the best-suited option in renewable energy utilization
[1–3], waste energy recovery [4–6], air-conditioning control [7,8], and
other industrial applications [9,10]. Storing a large amount of thermal
energy in phase change material (PCM) through a process has the
nearly constant temperature and small volume variation, the wide gap
between the supply and demand of energy is effectively bridged
[11,12]. In the CTES system, the cold energy is released as the PCM
turns from solid to liquid, which can be implemented to lower the
electricity consumption of building air-conditioning system [13,14].
The CTES systems are usually the shell-tube structure with PCM
filled between the tube and the shell [15,16]. During the solidification
process, the liquid PCM is solidified and transformed to the solid-state
by the heat transfer fluid (HTF) at low temperature flowing inside the
tube [17]. Kalaiselvam et al. [18] enhanced the heat transfer perfor-
mance of an ice slurry air conditioning system with a tube-fin heat
exchanger. Talukdar et al. [18] designed a novel CTES system with
metal fins and an optimized structure for solar cold storage applica-
tions. The solidification and melting processes of PCMs in CTES system
have been investigated numerically and experimentally. However, the
heat transfer rate is seriously limited by the low thermal conductivity of
PCM, which ranges from 0.1 W/(m K) to 1 W/(m K) for most paraffin
waxes and inorganic salts. Moreover, the efficiency of the CTES system
decreases with continue solidification process because the decreased
temperature gradient between PCM and HTF. Therefore, the applica-
tions of the CTES system suffer from the prolonged system response
time and low charging and discharging rate [19].
Many attempts through the structure optimization of the shell-tube
unit have been performed to correct the limitation in the literature
[20]. Pourakabar and Darzi [21] numerically investigated how the shell
shape affects the charging and discharging performance of PCMs.
Shahsavar et al. [22] designed a new heat exchanger with sinusoidal
wavy channels and analyzed the effect of the wave length and wave
amplitude on the charging and discharging performance. Based on the
enthalpy method, Mahdi and Nsofor [23] developed a two-dimensional

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: liuxd@yzu.edu.cn (X. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.101201
Received 29 October 2019; Received in revised form 22 December 2019; Accepted 6 January 2020
2352-152X/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Yu, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 28 (2020) 101201

theoretical model of the PCM solidification process in a triplex-tube (3) The flow inside the tank is considered to be laminar;
container with nanoparticle-metal foam combination. Among these (4) The local equilibrium thermal condition is considered between PCM
attempts, such as integration with fins, the inclusion of metal foams, and metal foam;
insertion of heat pipes, et al., the addition of metal foam seems more (5) The outer shell of the ice storage tank is insulated.
attractive than others in terms of thermal conductivity [24,25]. In the
available literature, the applications of metal foams in the CTES system 2.1. Governing equations
mainly focus on the energy charging and discharging enhancement
[26,27]. Open-cell metal foams were applied to enhance the phase In order to quantitatively characterize the unsteady ice storage
change heat transfer by Yang et al. [28]. Due to the increased heat process, the enthalpy-porosity method [30] is used. The continuity
conduction, the complete solidification time was reduced by 3 times. equation is expressed as
Vogel and Johnson [29] analyzed the impact of natural convection on
∂ρ ∂ (ρu) ∂ (ρv )
melting heat transfer in four shell-tube systems with extended fin. Re- + + =0
sults indicated that the impact of natural convection was negligible for ∂t ∂x ∂y (1)
the system with smaller tube spacing and higher fin volume fraction. where ρ is the density of the water, and u and v is the velocity along x
However, few reports on the heat transfer characteristics along the and y axis which can be calculated from the momentum equation [31]:
radial and circumferential directions of the CTES system can be found
in the available literature. ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂p
ρ⎛ +u + v ⎞ = μ⎛ 2 + 2 ⎞ − + Sx
⎜ ⎟

Therefore, in order to improve the energy discharging performance, ⎝ ∂t ∂x ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ∂x (2)

this study attempts to combine the advantages of metal foams and fins
together to enhance the solidification of PCMs in CTES systems. In this ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂p
ρ⎛ +u + v ⎞ = μ⎛ 2 + 2 ⎞ − ⎜ + Sy ⎟

context, we develop a two-dimensional model of the ice storage process ⎝ ∂t ∂x ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ∂y (3)

in the finned CTES system. The evolution of the ice front morphology
and dynamic temperature response during the ice storage process with (1 − β )2 μ 1
Sx = Am u + u + Ci ρu u
and without metal foam are analyzed to investigate how the metal foam (β 3 + ω) a 2 (4)
enhance the ice storage performance. Moreover, the effect of porosity
(1 − β )2 μ 1
on the ice storage process is analyzed as well for energy discharging Sy = Am v + v + Ci ρv v − ρgγ (T − T0)
performance optimization. (β 3 + ω) a 2 (5)
where μ is the dynamic viscosity of the water, p is the pressure, g is the
2. Theoretical models gravity acceleration, Sx and Sy is the source term, β is the volume
fraction of liquid, Am = 108 kg/(m3 s) is the consecutive number for the
The present work aims to analyze the effect of metal foam on the mixture region [32], the permeability is
performance of the CTES system. The schematic of ice storage system is a = 0.00073(1 − ε )−0.224df−1.11 dp0.89 and the inertial coefficient is
illustrated in the Fig. 1, including a circular ice storage tank, a tube df
Ci = 0.00212(1 − ε )−0.132 ( d )−1.63 . In the full liquid zone β = 1. When it is
with six fins and metal foam. The radius of the ice storage tank is p

R2 = 85 mm. The inner and outer radius of the tube is R0 = 20 mm and the solid phase, β tends to be zero, so a small constant ω (ω < 0.0001)
R1 = 25 mm, respectively. The length and thickness of the fin are is introduced to avoid singularity. And df and dp is the ligament dia-
H = 30 mm and Δ = 3 mm, respectively. The porosity of the metal meter and the pore diameter of the metal foam, respectively. At the
foam filled in the tank is ε and the pore density of the metal foam is 20 right side of the Eqs. (4) and (5), the second and third terms account for
PPI (pores per inch). Water is used as PCM in the paper. the viscous resistance and the inertia resistance attributing to the metal
The following presumptions are made to simplify the simulation: foam, i.e. Darcy law and Forchheimer law, respectively. The fourth
term of Eq. (5) accounts for the buoyancy effect.
(1) The water is isotropic in both liquid and solid state, and the phy- The equilibrium thermal model is applied to simulate the heat
sical parameters are constant except density; transfer in porous media, and the energy conservation equations are
(2) The volume variation and the super-cooling effect are neglected, expressed ad:
and the phase transition temperature of PCM is fixed; ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ⎞ ∂β
ρc ⎛
⎜ +u + v ⎞ = keff ⎛ 2 +
⎟ − ερp L
⎜ ⎟

⎝ ∂t ∂x ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂ x ∂y 2 ⎠ ∂t (6)
where ρc = (1 − ε ) ρm cm + ερw c w , ρm and ρw are the densities of metal
foam and water, cm and cw are the specific heats of metal foam and
water. keff is the effective thermal conductivity k eff = (1 − ε ) km + εk w ,
where km and kw are the densities of metal foam and water.
In this study, physical property parameters are listed in Table 1.
The role of natural convection on ice formation is essential, so that
the Boussinesq approximation is adopted in this study. Since the density
of the water is highest at 4°C and the density of water as a function of
temperature follows the Boussinesq assumption:
ρ = ρ0 (1 − γ T − T0 ) (7)
−6
where ρ0 = 999.972 kg/m , γ = 9.297173 × 10 , T0 = 4.02935 °C.
3

There is a thermal equilibrium between the water and the fins [33],
which is given by:
Tfin, Ω = Tw, Ω (8)

∂Tfin ⎞ = −λ ⎛ ∂Tw
− λ fin ⎛⎜ ⎟ w⎜
⎞
⎟
Fig. 1. Schematic of ice storage system. ⎝ ∂n Ω⎠ ⎝ ∂n Ω⎠ (9)

2
C. Yu, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 28 (2020) 101201

Table 1
Physical property parameters.
Material Density ρ (kg/m3) Specific heat cm, cw (kJ/ Thermal conductivity λ (W/ Dynamic viscosity μ Latent heat Lp (kJ/ Phase transformation point Tm
kg K) m K) (Pa s) kg) (°C)

Aluminum 2700 0.963 180 – – –

Water Vary with temperature 4.182 0.61 0.00162 334 0.0
Ice 900 2.217 2.22 – 334 0.0

where the subscript fin denotes the fins of the tube, subscript w denotes
water, and subscript Ω is the boundaries between the water and the
fins. And n represents the normal direction of heat flux.
2.2. Boundary conditions
(1) The velocity of water is zero, and the temperatures of the water and
fin are both 10 °C at initial time;
(2) The outer wall of the ice storage tank is insulated from the ambient;
(3) The temperature of the inner wall of the tube is constant as −4 °C
when the solidification process starts.
2.3. Grid geometry and numerical solutions
In this study, the uneven structured hexahedral grid system is ap-
plied in the computational domain, as displayed in Fig. 2. In particular,
the meshes are refined near the fins and tube to achieve accurate si-
mulation for the capture of high temperature gradient. The red meshes
represent the fins and tube, and the green meshes represent the water
domain considering the contact thermal resistance. The thin layer of
water is introduced to simulate the contact thermal resistance which
agrees with the actual situation when metal foam and any other solid
wall is in contact. This method virtually could obtain continuous tem-
perature profiles across the interfaces [34].
The governing equations are solved numerically using commercial
CFD package of FLUENT 6.3. The higher-order differencing QUICK
(Quadratic Upstream Interpolation for Convective Kinematics) scheme,
is utilized to solve the partial differential momentum and energy
equations numerically [35]. Before all simulation work, the time-step
independence test and the grid independence test are performed.
Considering the calculation cost and the independence test results, the
time-step 0.01 s and the number of meshes 20740 are applied. The
iteration stops when the average temperature residual is less than
1 × 10−6 in each time step.
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Effect of metal foam on ice font evolution
Fig. 3 shows the evolution of the ice distribution during the ice
Fig. 2. Grid system of the finned CTES system.
storage process with and without metal foam. The ice storage perfor-
mance is enhanced by the metal foam. For the ice storage process
without metal foam, the ice formation is initially observed around the
fins. As time goes on, the shape of the ice front becomes like a gear, as
the heat transfer in the fin is faster than that of PCM. Due to the natural
convection, the water with lower temperature moves downward, re-
sulting in more ice at the lower part of the tank. However, for the ice
storage process with metal foam, there is no difference of the ice for-
mation between the upper and lower part of the tank, attributing the
suppression of natural convection caused by the porous structure of
foam metal. Therefore, the ice storage performance is enhanced due to
the coupled effect of heat transfer enhancement and the suppression of
the natural convection arising from the metal foam.
To give a clearer understanding of the effect of the metal foam on
the freezing speed, the ice volume fraction in the finned CTES systems
as a function of time is shown in Fig. 4. The volume fraction of the ice
has a rapid increase initially. However, as the thickness of the ice gets
larger, the freezing speed slows down. Benefiting from the heat transfer
enhancement by the metal foam, the freezing speed is larger for the
finned CTES system with metal foam. Moreover, the smaller porosity of
the metal foam induces a faster freezing speed.
3.2. Effect of the metal foam on the temperature distribution
To better understand the heat transfer enhancement by metal foam,
the temperature distributions of the finned CTES systems with different
configurations are depicted in Fig. 5. There is a significant influence of
the metal foam on the temperature distribution. Without metal foam,
the temperature gradient in the tank is large, and the temperature in the
upper part of the ice storage tank is smaller than that in the lower part
due to the influence of natural convection. The results indicate that the
thermal energy accumulates in the lower part, which is not conducive
to ice storage. By adding the metal foam, the temperature distribution is
more uniform attributing to the heat transfer enhancement of the metal
foam. With lower porosity of the metal foam, the temperature gradient
is smaller. Besides, there is no difference between the temperature in
the upper part and the lower part, as the metal foam suppresses the
natural convection. Generally speaking, the ice storage performance is
enhanced by the metal foam.
For further insight into the influence of metal foam on the natural
convection, Fig. 6 shows the temperature distribution and the stream-
line distribution in the finned CTES system with metal foam at typical
time. Compared with the ice storage process without metal foam, the
temperature distribution is more uniform due to the more extensive
radius of the vortex. Therefore, the natural convection is suppressed by
the metal foam.
To analyze the heat transfer characteristics along the radial and
circumference directions, the dynamic temperature evolutions of PCM
in the finned CTES system with metal foam are presented in Fig. 7. As
shown in Fig. 7 (a), the points P1, P3, and P5 are on the same cir-
cumference, and the points P2, P3 and P4 are in the same radial di-
rection. Fig. 7 (b) illustrates that the temperatures of the points P1, P3,
and P5 all decrease quickly at the beginning, and then keep stable for a
while due to the isothermal solidification process. The decrease rates of
the temperatures at the points P1, P3 and P5 are low when the duration
from 1000 s to 4200 s. However, since there is no thermal energy

3
C. Yu, et al.
Fig. 3. Ice front morphology evolution in the finned CTES systems. The red region represents the liquid phase. The blue region represents the solid phase. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 4. Dynamic ice volume fraction in the finned CTES systems.
released when the solidification stage is over, so that the temperature of
the ice drops sharply. Due to the heat transfer enhancement of the metal
foam, the temperatures of the points on the same circumference are
very close as expected. However, there is a clear difference between the
temperatures of the points P2, P3, and P4, as shown in Fig. 7 (c). For the
point P2, the nearest point from the tube, the solidification duration is
4
Journal of Energy Storage 28 (2020) 101201
very short due to the excellent heat transfer at this point. The farther
away from the tube, the heat transfer is weaker, and the solidification
duration is longer.
To evaluate the heat transfer performance of the ice storage tank,
the effect of the metal foam on the energy discharging rate is shown in
Fig. 8. The energy discharging rate is large at the beginning due to the
large temperature gradient between fin and PCM. However, as time
goes on, the temperature gradient drops sharply and the energy dis-
charging rate decreases as well. Resulting from the heat transfer en-
hancement of the metal foam, the energy discharging rate for the CTES
system with metal foam is larger than that without metal foam.
Moreover, the smaller porosity of the metal foam induces faster freezing
speed and more uniform temperature distribution. Therefore, a smaller
porosity is recommended for faster energy discharging rate in practical
engineering applications.
4. Conclusions
In this paper, a two-dimensional model of the ice storage process in
a finned CTES system was numerically analyzed with focus on the role
of metal foam in heat transfer enhancement of the CTES system. The ice
front evolutions and the dynamic temperature distribution for the
finned CTES system with metal foam were analyzed and compared with
C. Yu, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 28 (2020) 101201

Fig. 5. Dynamic temperature distribution in the finned CTES systems.

(1) Since the natural convection plays less important role in the ice
storage performance of the CTES system, the ice front is symme-
trically distributed for the cases with and without metal foam. The
migration rate of the ice front for the CTES system with metal foam
is faster than that without metal foam due to the coupled effects of
thermal conduction enhancement and the suppression of the nat-
ural convection.
(2) The addition of metal foam effectively enhances the thermal con-
duction of the CTES system. Compared with the case without metal
foam, a fast heat flow path in the radial and circumference direc-
tions is provided by the metal foam, which augments the thermal
conduction of PCM and accelerates the thermal diffusion rate,
contributing to a more uniform temperature distribution.
(3) The porosity of the metal foam plays an important role in the ice
storage performance of the CTES system. The smaller porosity of
the metal foam induces faster freezing speed and more uniform
Fig. 6. Temperature and streamline distribution in the finned CTES system at
temperature distribution. Therefore, a smaller porosity is re-
t = 1500 s.
commended for faster energy discharging rate in practical en-
gineering applications.
these without metal foam. Moreover, the effect of the porosity on the
ice storage performance for the CTSE system with metal foams was
analyzed as well. The conclusions are drawn as follow:

5
C. Yu, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 28 (2020) 101201

Fig. 7. Dynamic temperature evolution of PCM in the finned CTES system: (a) point arrangement; (b) along the circumference direction; (c) along the radial
direction.

Acknowledgments

This work is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of

China (51876184), Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province
(No. BK20180102), Six-talent Peak Project of Jiangsu Province (No.
JNHB-074), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Nos.
2017M621835 and 2019T120469) and Jiangsu Planned Projects for
Postdoctoral Research Funds (No. 1701188B) .

References

Fig. 8. Effect of metal foam on the energy discharging rate.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Cheng Yu: Methodology, Investigation, Writing - original draft.
Quan Peng: Investigation. Xiangdong Liu: Supervision, Project ad-
ministration. Peng Cao: Investigation. Feng Yao: Writing - review &
editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
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