Elementary Education (Basic Education)

The Ethiopian school system consists of eight years of elementary education, divided into two
cycles of four years, and four years of secondary education, divided into two stages of two years
(4+4+2+2). Education is technically compulsory for all children until grade eight, but actual
participation in elementary education is far from universal. Low enrollment rates, particularly in
rural areas, and widespread attrition are two reasons why. According to government statistics from
2011, 20 percent of children dropped out as early as grade two, and only about 50 percent of
pupils remained in school until grade eight.

Prior to entering elementary education, pupils can attend kindergartens, which are mostly run by
non-governmental organizations, faith-based organizations, and other private providers. However,
the availability of preschool programs varies considerably by region and is extremely limited in
some areas. The number of children attending kindergarten is still small, but growing quickly—the
nationwide GER in preschool education was 39 percent in 2015 (up from 5.2 percent in 2011).11

Elementary education is provided free of charge at public schools, as well as by fee-charging

private schools, which tend to have better facilities and better-educated teachers. About 7 percent
of elementary schools were private as of 2012/13, most of them located in Addis Ababa. Private
providers in the capital charge monthly tuition fees anywhere from a few dollars to more than
USD$75, in addition to other fees for registration and teaching materials, putting these schools out
of reach for poor households. There are also a number of international schools in Addis Ababa that
charge exorbitant tuition fees by Ethiopian standards and therefore cater only to wealthy elites and
expatriates. The overall share of enrollments in private schools among all elementary enrollments
was 5 percent in 2015 (UIS).

Most pupils enter elementary education at the age of seven, although there are a sizable number of
overaged children in Ethiopia’s schools. The majority of public schools don’t have formal
entry requirements, but private schools often have selection mechanisms in place, such as
interviews and examinations.

As stated earlier, the core curriculum is standardized nationwide, but there are some variations,
including the language of instruction, at the local level. The subjects taught in the first stage
(grades one to four) are Amharic, mother tongue, English, mathematics, environmental science,
and arts and physical education. The second stage (grades five to eight) includes the same
language subjects, mathematics and physical education, but also features civics, integrated
science, social studies, and visual arts and music, as well as biology, chemistry, and physics in
higher grades.

Promotion is based on continual assessment during the first phase, while term-end examinations
are introduced in the second phase. At the end of grade eight, pupils sit for a region-wide external
examination and are awarded a Primary School Leaving Certificate, which is a prerequisite for
admission into secondary school. Pupils who fail the exams need to repeat grade eight before they
can retake the test.
Alternative Basic Education
Given the high number of out-of-school children in rural regions, Ethiopia has an alternative basic
education (ABE) system in place to educate underserved children, mostly from pastoral
communities, outside of the formal school system. ABE affords children in critical areas the
opportunity to study the first-stage elementary curriculum on flexible class schedules that are
adjusted to accommodate traditional ways of living. Classes are set up mostly in rudimentary local
ABE centers and makeshift mobile schools that rely on local intra-communal instructors. ABE
allows marginalized children to receive at least a basic, foundational education. Upon the
completion of ABE, children can transfer into the second cycle of elementary education at regular
schools. There were 821,988 children enrolled in ABE programs nationwide in 2011. In addition
to ABE, radio broadcasts and pre-recorded audiocassettes and videotapes are used to provide
educational programming.

Secondary Education
Participation in secondary education in Ethiopia is mostly a privilege of affluent households in
urban areas. Enrollments in rural regions accounted for only 11.2 percent in lower-secondary
education and 3.6 percent in upper-secondary education as of 2011. Overall enrollments in
secondary education in the nation of 105 million people are remarkably low by international
standards. There were only around 795,000 students enrolled in upper-secondary education in
2015, compared with 982,000 students in Afghanistan and one million in Sudan, both of which are
countries with considerably smaller populations. Until very recently (UIS), merely 10 percent of
Ethiopian youths in relevant age cohorts participated in upper-secondary education.

The first stage of secondary education in Ethiopia is referred to as general secondary education
and lasts for two years (grades nine and 10). There are no entrance examinations at public schools,
and education is tuition-free until grade 10, whereas upper-secondary students have to pay school
fees. Private education is still nascent in general secondary education, where less than 5 percent of
students are enrolled in private schools, but the share of private enrollments jumps pointedly to
around 15 percent at the upper-secondary stage (2015, per UIS).

The general secondary curriculum covers three languages (mother tongue, English, and Amharic),
mathematics, information technology, civics, biology, chemistry, physics, geography, history and
physical education. The language of instruction is English, which can represent a challenge since
the English-language abilities of both teachers and students tend to be limited.

At the end of grade 10, students must sit for the nationwide external Ethiopian General School
Leaving Certificate Examination (EGSLCE), a multiple-choice test federally administered by the
National Educational Assessment and Examination Agency. The EGSLCE usually includes nine
test subjects, graded on an A-E letter grading scale. To qualify for progression into upper-
secondary education, students must pass at least five subjects with a grade of C or higher. Failure
rates in the exam are relatively high with about one-third of test takers failing in 2015.12

Depending on their grade average, students who pass can continue in the university-preparatory
upper-secondary track, or enroll in vocational programs (discussed below). The government
currently prioritizes technical training and seeks to stream the majority of grade 10 graduates into
vocational education programs amid capacity shortages in higher education: In 2013/14, 45
percent of graduates transitioned into vocational education, while 30 percent to 35 percent of
students continued in the university-preparatory track.

Upper-Secondary Education (Preparatory Secondary School)

University-preparatory education lasts two years (grades 11 and 12) and is open to all holders of
the EGSLCE with sufficiently high grades. Students can choose between a natural science track
and a social science track. Both streams have a common core curriculum that makes up 60 percent
of the study load and includes English, civics, information communications technology,
mathematics, physical education and an elective language (Amharic or local languages). The
courses taught in the natural sciences track are biology, chemistry, physics, and technical drawing,
whereas the social science track covers geography, history, economics, and business.

At the end of grade 12, students sit for the nationwide external Ethiopian University Entrance
Examination (EUEE), which tests their knowledge in seven subjects, including mathematics,
English, civics, general academic aptitude, and three stream-related specialization subjects. The
examinations are quite demanding: In 2017, only 41 percent of the 285,628 students who sat for
the examinations scored high enough to be admitted into university. Exam performance is graded
on a numerical 0–100 point scale with a total possible score of 700 in the seven test subjects
combined. Cutoff scores for university admission vary by year depending on the number of
available seats, but a minimum overall grade average of 295 was required for admission to higher
education in 2017 (see also the section on university admissions below).

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET)

The majority of Ethiopian students who continue education after grade 10 enroll in TVET
programs, of which there are a great variety offered by both public and private providers. These
programs range from informal short-term training courses to formal certificate programs lasting
between one and three years. The Ethiopian government has recently undertaken heightened
efforts to standardize TVET by developing official vocational competency standards and a TVET
qualifications framework. Strengthening vocational training is a top priority as the country seeks
to expand its manufacturing sector and advance the employability of Ethiopian youth.

As of lately, the TVET sector has expanded rapidly with annual growth rates averaging 30 percent
between 2004 and 2009, but the supply of training programs is still vastly insufficient to
accommodate the surging demand. According to government statistics, there were 352,144
students enrolled in formal programs in 2015 (up from 191,151 students in 2007). More than 75
percent of these students were enrolled in private institutions.

The current TVET system was codified in a 2011 TVET law and is overseen by a dedicated
federal TVET agency which develops model curricula and sets overall training standards.
Regional TVET agencies or education bureaus have some leeway to customize the curricula to
accommodate local industry needs. Private providers must seek accreditation from regional
authorities and apply for re-accreditation every three years.
Grade 10 graduates can enroll in TVET programs at public or private colleges and training
centers, as long as they meet set minimum grade thresholds in the EGSLCE exams, which vary by
year and region depending on the number of available slots. Training is free at public institutions
for recent secondary school graduates, but older students and those attending private institutions
pay tuition fees. Private for-profit providers are primarily located in urban areas and tend to have
better facilities, but do not necessarily provide better training.

Secondary-level TVET qualifications are grouped into four categories (I-IV), depending on the
length and complexity of the program: Level I programs last one year, level II programs two
years, and level III and level IV programs, three years, with level IV programs being designed to
prepare students for supervisory roles in the workforce.

Upon graduation, students earn a certificate of completion of middle level technical and vocational
education and training. However, students must also pass an external vocational skills test to earn
a formal, nationally recognized certificate of competency or national qualification certificate. The
federal TVET agency has developed training curricula for at least 379 vocations, but Ethiopian
TVET providers offered only 197 of these curricula as of 2012. Common fields of study in TVET
include agriculture, construction, business, information technology, manufacturing, hospitality,
nursing, and midwifery. Students can progress sequentially from level I to level IV programs, and
external candidates who have adequate work experience may also obtain a certificate of
competency by taking the vocational skills assessment test without completing a training program.

TVET curricula are highly applied rather than theoretical, and include a practical training
component of 70 percent that comprises a mandatory industrial internship. Theoretical instruction
makes up only 30 percent and incorporates a general education component (mathematics, English,
civics, and business). Holders of level III and level IV certificates can apply for admission into
university programs after two years of employment and may receive advanced standing in some
fields.

In addition to upper-secondary TVET programs entered after grade 10, there are “basic” and
“junior” TVET programs that can be entered upon completion of elementary education and
provide a pathway to middle level programs. At the post-secondary level, TVET colleges and
some HEIs offer vocationally oriented diploma programs classified as level V, which require a
level III/IV certificate or the EUEE for admission and are mostly two years in length, although
one-year and three-year programs also exist. These programs are primarily designed to prepare
students for specialized employment, but study completed in applied diploma programs may
sometimes be transferred into bachelor’s degree programs at universities.

HIGHER EDUCATION
University Admissions
Ethiopia has a centralized admissions system in which undergraduate admissions criteria are set by
the federal MOE for all HEIs, public and private. Admission is generally based on the EUEE and
is highly selective, given the scarcity of university seats. Each academic year, the MOE sets
minimum grade requirements and quotas for different programs based on the number of available
seats, which means that concrete requirements vary from year to year. The government’s
objective over the past years has been to steer 70 percent of students into engineering and natural
science programs and 30 percent into the humanities and social sciences. Cutoff grades for
admission into public universities are higher than for private institutions, so that public HEIs
receive the best students, while lower-performing students tend to be funneled into the private
sector.

The minimum EUEE grade average to enroll in any higher education program was 295 in 2017,
but the grade cutoff for admission into natural science programs at a public HEI was significantly
higher at 352, while admission into social science programs required an average of 335.
Disadvantaged groups are granted preferential admission via lower GPA requirements. For
example, female students needed only a score of 320 to qualify for admission into social science
programs—a threshold lowered even further for women from pastoral communities and other
special needs regions, which required an average of only 300. That said, these measures have had
limited impact thus far on diversifying Ethiopia’s student population, which continues to be
dominated by mostly male, affluent students from urban areas (only 35 percent of undergraduate
students and 24 percent of graduate students were female in 2015).

As mentioned above, alternative entry pathways exist for holders of TVET certificates of
competency (level III or higher) after two years of employment. Additional university entrance
examinations may be required in disciplines like architecture, medicine, veterinary medicine, or
pharmacy.

Higher Education Institutions

Ethiopia’s higher education ecosystem has not only grown and diversified rapidly over the past
few decades, it is bound to expand exponentially in the years ahead, driven by factors like
population growth, rising income levels, and climbing upper-secondary enrollments. In 2013 the
British Council projected that the number of tertiary students in Ethiopia will increase by an
additional 1.7 million by 2025.

In light of these trends, the federal government in 2015 greenlighted the construction of 11 new
universities; Ethiopia is now on the verge of having 44 operational public universities (up from
30). Private sector enrollments, meanwhile, have fluctuated and flattened in recent years after
surging rapidly since the 1990s. However, private HEIs enrolled at least 15 percent of
undergraduate students in 2015,13 and the private sector still has tremendous potential for growth.
Notably, foreign distance education providers like the University of South Africa and India’s
Indira Gandhi National Open University have also begun to offer programs in Ethiopia, either
independently or in collaboration with Ethiopian providers.

The size and scope of public universities in Ethiopia varies significantly, but a majority are multi-
disciplinary institutions that offer undergraduate and graduate programs while concentrating on
providing mass education rather than research. Public universities are directly funded by the
federal government, although they raise part of their revenues from modest fees for tuition and on-
campus housing. Addis Ababa University is the country’s largest and most preeminent HEI with
48,673 students and 70 undergraduate and 293 graduate programs. Another reputable public
research university with more than 40,000 students is Jimma University located in the Oromia
region.

Ethiopian universities trail institutions from other East African countries in terms of international
reputation. They are not included in standard world university rankings, such as the Times Higher
Education ranking of Africa’s best universities, which features both Uganda’s Makerere
University (ranked in fifth position) and the University of Nairobi.

In addition to public universities, there are 32 public teacher training colleges , as well as a
number of public institutions supervised by other federal government ministries, including
military academies and the Ethiopian Civil Service University.

Private institutions tend to be smaller for-profit colleges specializing in fields like business
administration and computer science and information technology, as well as allied health fields
and nursing. Most private providers enroll not more than a few thousand students and offer only
undergraduate programs. Just a handful of institutions, such as St. Mary’s University, offer
master’s programs. There are presently 61 accredited private HEIs, predominantly clustered in
Addis Ababa.

Most private HEIs have sprung up over the past 15 years and don’t have the best reputation in
Ethiopia. While there are a number of quality providers, several are considered to be substandard,
profit-driven, institutions with poor facilities whose unqualified teaching staff teach curricula
directly copied from other institutions. While such claims cannot be verified independently,
Wondwosen Tamrat, a professor at St. Mary’s University, alleges that some institutions also
obtained accreditation by fraudulent means, yet circumvented scrutiny because they’re protected
by powerful patrons in Ethiopia’s government.

Another quality-related problem stems from Ethiopia’s centralized admissions system which
steers top students into public institutions, so that private HEIs absorb mostly less-qualified
students who get locked out of the public system. As one university administrator put it,
“students we admit are in some way “leftovers” because the best ones (with highest scores)
will go to public institutions.”14 As in many other African countries, private HEIs in Ethiopia are
demand-absorbing institutions unable to effectively compete with public providers.