PULSE MODULATION

1. INTRODUCTION
 Many Signals in Modern Communication Systems are digital . Also, analog signals
are transmitted digitally.
 Reduced distortion and improvement in signal to noise ratios.
 PAM, PWM , PPM , PCM and DM.
 Data transmission, digital transmission, or digital communications is the physical transfer of
data (a digital bit stream or a digitized analogue signal) over a point-to-point or point-to-
multipoint communication channel.

Ex: optical fibers, wireless channels, computer buses....

 ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Fig.Block diagram of Digital Communication

1. Discrete Information Source: It generates message to be transmitted. Examples are the data
from computers, text data or tele type data.

2. Source Encoder: It assigns codes to the symbols (samples) generated from discrete

1
information source. The code word having n number of bits. Each distinct sample having

2
 distinct(unique) code word. If code word length is 8 bit(n), we can have 256 distinct
symbols(ie.,2^n).

3. Channel Encoder: We know that channel is the major source of notice due to that there are
more chance of getting errors while propagating through channel. To avoid that channel
encoding is required. In that extra bits are added to the binary sequence generated by the
source encoder. These extra bits are called as redundant bits. These bits are defined with
proper logic. The redundant will be helpful to detect the errors at the receiver bit sequence.

4. Digital Modulator: In digital modulator the message signal is digital data and carrier is
analog one, in most cases we use sinusoidal waves. Some examples are
ASK,FSK,PSK.MRI techniques.

5. Channel: It provides the link between transmitter and rceiver. Channel may be wired
or wireless channel.

 Problems associated with channel:

1. Addictive Noise: This noise is occur due to internal solid state devices or resistors used
in channel.

2. Ampltude and Phase Distortion: This noise is occurred due to non-linear characteristics of the
channel.

3. Attenuation: This is due to internal resistance of the channel.

6. Demodulator: This device is used to detect the digital message signal from the
modulated signal.

7. Channel Decoder: This is used to detect and correct the errors that occur in the digital
message signal.

8. Source Decoder: This produces the sampling signal from the given digital message signal.

9. Destination: The sampled signal is converted into audio signal or video signal or any text
signal depending on the signal.

3
 Fig. Basic block diagram of an A/D converter

2. Advantages of digital communication systems

1. Easy way of transmission of signals

2. Connection of more calls through one channel i.e., Multiplexing is possible using Digital
Communication.
3. Source Encoding and Channel Encoding can be used to detect errors at the
received signal.

4. Using repeaters between source and destination, we can reproduce the original
signal with less distortions.
5. Security is the major advantage of digital communication compared to
Analog Communication.
6. Transmitting analogue signals digitally allows for greater signal processing capability.
7. Digital communication can be done over large distances through internet and
other things.
8. The messages can be stored in the device for longer times, without being damaged.
9. Advancement in communication is achieved through Digital Communication.

4
 3. Disadvantages of digital communication systems

1. Sampling Error
2. Digital communications require greater bandwidth than analogue to transmit the same
information.
3. The detection of digital signals requires the communications system to be
synchronized, whereas generally speaking this is not the case with analogue systems.
4. Digital signals are often the approximation of voice signals, ie, we don‟t get the
exact analogue signal.

 TYPES OF MODULATION – TREE DIAGRAM

In Continuous Wave modulation schemes some parameter of modulated wave varies

continuously with message.
In Analog pulse modulation some parameter of each pulse is modulated by a particular sample
value of the message.

5
 Pulse modulation of two types
1. Analog Pulse Modulation
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
 Pulse width Modulation (PWM)
 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
2. Digital Pulse Modulation
 Pulse code Modulation (PCM)
 Delta Modulation (DM)

1. Analog Pulse Modulation

Analog pulse modulation results when some attribute of a pulse varies continuously in one-to-one
correspondence with a sample value. In analog pulse modulation systems, the amplitude, width, or
position of a pulse can vary over a continuous range in accordance with the message amplitude at
the sampling instant, as shown in Figure 6.2. These lead to the following

Three types of pulse modulation:

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
2. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
3. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

PAM: In this scheme high frequency carrier (pulse) is varied in accordance with sampled value
of message signal.

PWM: In this width of carrier pulses are varied in accordance with sampled values of message
signal. Example: Speed control of DC Motors.

PPM: In this scheme position of high frequency carrier pulse is changed in accordance with
the sampled values of message signal.

6
 Fig. Representation of Various Analog Pulse Modulations

2. Digital Pulse Modulation

In systems utilizing digital pulse modulation, the transmitted samples take on only discrete
values. Two important types of digital pulse modulation are:
1. Delta Modulation (DM)

2. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

7
 4. ANALOG PULSE MODULATION

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):

In pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of regular interval of periodic pulses or

electromagnetic pulses is varied in proposition to the sample of modulating signal or message
signal. This is an analog type of modulation. In the pulse amplitude modulation, the message
signal is sampled at regular periodic or time intervals and this each sample is made proportional to
the magnitude of the message signal. These sample pulses can be transmitted directly using wired
media or we can use a carrier signal for transmitting through wireless.

Fig. Pulse Amplitude Modulation Signal

There are two types of sampling techniques for transmitting messages using pulse amplitude
modulation, they are
 FLAT TOP PAM: The amplitude of each pulse is directly proportional to instantaneous
modulating signal amplitude at the time of pulse occurrence and then keeps the amplitude
of the pulse for the rest of the half cycle.

8
 Fig. Flat Top PAM
 Natural PAM: The amplitude of each pulse is directly proportional to the instantaneous
modulating signal amplitude at the time of pulse occurrence and then follows the amplitude
of the modulating signal for the rest of the half cycle.

Fig. Natural PAM

Flat top PAM is the best for transmission because we can easily remove the noise and we can also
easily recognize the noise. When we compare the difference between the flat top PAM and natural
PAM, flat top PAM principle of sampling uses sample and hold circuit. In natural principle of
sampling, noise interference is minimum. But in flat top PAM noise interference maximum. Flat
top PAM and natural PAM are practical and sampling rate satisfies the sampling criteria.

There are two types of pulse amplitude modulation based on signal polarity
1. Single polarity pulse amplitude modulation

2. Double polarity pulse amplitude modulation

9
In single polarity pulse amplitude modulation, there is fixed level of DC bias added to the
message signal or modulating signal, so the output of modulating signal is always positive. In the
double polarity pulse amplitude modulation, the output of modulating signal will have both
positive and negative ends.

/*

10
 5. Advantages of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):

 It is the base for all digital modulation techniques and it is simple process for both
modulation and demodulation technique.
 No complex circuitry is required for both transmission and reception. Transmitter
and receiver circuitry is simple and easy to construct.
 PAM can generate other pulse modulation signals and can carry the message or
information at same time.

6. Disadvantages of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):

 Bandwidth should be large for transmitting the pulse amplitude modulation signal. Due to
Nyquist criteria also high bandwidth is required.
 The frequency varies according to the modulating signal or message signal. Due to these
variations in the signal frequency, interferences will be there. So noise will be great. For
PAM, noise immunity is less when compared to other modulation techniques. It is almost
equal to amplitude modulation.
 Pulse amplitude signal varies, so power required for transmission will be more, peak power
is also, even at receiving more power is required to receive the pulse amplitude signal.

7. Applications of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):

 It is mainly used in Ethernet which is type of computer network communication, we know

that we can use Ethernet for connecting two systems and transfer data between the systems.
Pulse amplitude modulation is used for Ethernet communications.
 It is also used for photo biology which is a study of photosynthesis.
 Used as electronic driver for LED lighting.
 Used in many micro controllers for generating the control signals etc.

11
 8. DIGITAL PULSE MODULATION

Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier signal in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the message signal.

1. PULSE CODE MODULATION(PCM)

The message signal is the signal which is being transmitted for communication and the carrier
signal is a high frequency signal which has no data, but is used for long distance transmission.
There are many modulation techniques, which are classified according to the type of modulation
employed. Of them all, the digital modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM).
A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into a binary sequence, i.e., 1s
and 0s. The output of a PCM will resemble a binary sequence. The following figure shows an
example of PCM output with respect to instantaneous values of a given sine wave.

Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits, and hence this process is
called as digital. Each one of these digits, though in binary code, represent the approximate
amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.
In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses. This
message signal is achieved by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and
amplitude.
12
 9. Basic Elements of PCM

The transmitter section of a Pulse Code Modulator circuit consists of Sampling,

Quantizing and Encoding, which are performed in the analog-to-digital converter section. The
low pass filter prior to sampling prevents aliasing of the message signal.
The basic operations in the receiver section are regeneration of impaired signals,
decoding, and reconstruction of the quantized pulse train. Following is the block diagram of
PCM which represents the basic elements of both the transmitter and the receiver sections.

 Low Pass Filter

This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input analog signal which
is greater than the highest frequency of the message signal, to avoid aliasing of the message
signal.

 Sampler
This is the technique which helps to collect the sample data at instantaneous values of message
signal, so as to reconstruct the original signal. The sampling rate must be greater than twice the
highest frequency component W of the message signal, in accordance with the sampling
theorem.

 Quantizer
Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and confining the data. The
13
sampled output when given to Quantizer reduces the redundant bits and compresses the
value.

14
  Encoder

Encoder assigns code words to quantized sampled values. This coding techniques uses bits 0 and
1. If number of quantized levels are 16 then each sample is assigned with 4 bit code word.

 Regenerative repeater:

The PCM has an ability to control the distortion and noise caused by the transmission of bits along
the channel. This ability is accomplished by several regenerative repeaters located at sufficient
placing along channel.

Regenerative repeaters have three functions.

1. Equalizing
2. Timing circuits
3. Decision making device

Equalizer shapes the received pulse so as to compensate amplitude and phase distortion caused by the
channel.

Timing circuits provides periodic pulse trains.

 Decision making device compares amplitude of equalized pulse plus noise to the pre-defined
threshold levels to make decisions whether the pulse is present or not.
 If the pulse is present (i.e. decision is yes), clean new pulse is generated and transmitted
through channel to next regenerative pulse. If the pulse is not present (i.e. the decision is no),
it generates clean base line to next regenerative repeater, provided the noise too large caused
bit error by taking the wrong decision

 Decoder

Decoder reboots all the received bits to make more words then it decodes as quantized PAM signals.

15
  Reconstruction Filter:
All coded words are passed through low pass filter so that analog signal can be reconstructed from
quantized PAM signal.The cut off frequency of low pass filter is f m Hz which is equal to band width
of message signal.

 Destination
It receives the signal from the reconstructive filter output is analog signal.

Fig.PCM waveform

10. Bit rate and bandwidth requirements of PCM :

 The bit rate of a PCM signal can be calculated form the number of bits per sample × the
sampling rate. Bit rate =𝑛𝑏×𝑓𝑠 The bandwidth required to transmit this signal depends on
the type of line encoding used.
 A digitized signal will always need more bandwidth than the original analog signal. Price
we pay for robustness and other features of digital transmission.

11. Important Relations

 Quantization Noise (𝑁𝑞)=Δ2/2
 Signal to Noise ratio
(𝑆𝑄𝑁𝑅)=32.22𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑄𝑁𝑅 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵=1.76+6.02𝑛≅(1.8+6𝑛)𝑑𝐵
 𝐵𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒=𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒×𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒=𝑛𝑓𝑠
 Bandwidth for PCM signal
=n.fm Where,
n – No. of bits in PCM code

16
Fm – signal bandwidth
fs – sampling rate

17
 12. SAMPLING, QUANTIZATION AND CODING
1. Sampling
 Definition: Sampling is defined as ―The process of measuring the instantaneous
values of continuous-time signal in a discrete form.‖
 Sample is a piece of data taken from the whole data which is continuous in the time domain.

When a source generates an analog signal and if that has to be digitized, having 1s and 0s i.e., High
or Low, the signal has to be discretized in time. This discretization of analog signal is called as
Sampling.
The following figure indicates a continuous-time signal x (t) and a sampled signal xs (t). When x (t)
is multiplied by a periodic impulse train, the sampled signal xs (t) is obtained.

13. Sampling Rate

To discretize the signals, the gap between the samples should be fixed. That gap can be
termed as a sampling period Ts.
Sampling Frequency fs=1/Ts
Where,
Ts is the sampling time
fs is the sampling frequency or the sampling rate

Sampling frequency -is the reciprocal of the sampling period. This sampling frequency, can be
simply called as Sampling rate. The sampling rate denotes the number of samples taken per
18
second, or for a finite set of values.

19
 For an analog signal to be reconstructed from the digitized signal, the sampling rate should be
highly considered. The rate of sampling should be such that the data in the message signal should
neither be lost nor it should get over-lapped. Hence, a rate was fixed for this, called as Nyquist
rate

14. Nyquist Rate

Suppose that a signal is band-limited with no frequency components higher than W Hertz.
That means, W is the highest frequency. For such a signal, for effective reproduction of the
original signal, sampling rate should be twice the highest frequency.
This means,
fs=2W
Where,
fs is the sampling rate
W is the highest frequency
This rate of sampling is called as Nyquist rate.

A theorem called, Sampling Theorem, was stated on the theory of this Nyquist rate.

15. Sampling Theorem

The sampling theorem, which is also called as Nyquist theorem, delivers the theory of sufficient
sample rate in terms of bandwidth for the class of functions that are band limited.

The sampling theorem states that, ― a signal can be exactly reproduced if it is sampled at the rate
fs which is greater than twice the maximum frequency W.

To understand this sampling theorem, let us consider a band-limited signal, i.e., a signal
whose value is non-zero between some –W and W Hertz.
Such a signal is represented as x(f)=0for|f|>W

For the continuous-time signal x (t), the band-limited signal in frequency domain, can be

20
represented as shown in the following figure.

21
.

We need a sampling frequency, a frequency at which there should be no loss of information,

even after sampling. For this, we have the Nyquist rate that the sampling frequency should be
two times the maximum frequency. It is the critical rate of sampling.

If the signal x(t) is sampled above the Nyquist rate, the original signal can be recovered, and if it
is sampled below the Nyquist rate, the signal cannot be recovered.
The following figure explains a signal, if sampled at a higher rate than 2w in the frequency domain.

The above figure shows the Fourier transform of a signal xs(t). Here, the information is
reproduced without any loss. There is no mixing up and hence recovery is possible.

The Fourier Transform of the signal

xs(t) is Xs (w)=1Ts∑n=−∞∞X(w−nw0)
Where Ts = Sampling Period and w0=2πTs

Let us see what happens if the sampling rate is equal to twice the highest
frequency (2W) That means,
22
Fs =2W

23
 Where,
Fs is the sampling frequency
W is the highest frequency

The result will be as shown in the above figure. The information is replaced without any loss.
Hence, this is also a good sampling rate.
Now, let us look at the condition,
Fs <2W
The resultant pattern will look like the following figure

We can observe from the above pattern that the over-lapping of information is done, which
leads to mixing up and loss of information. This unwanted phenomenon of over-lapping is
called as Aliasing

24
 16. Aliasing

Aliasing can be referred to as ―the phenomenon of a high-frequency component in the

spectrum of a signal, taking on the identity of a low-frequency component in the spectrum of
its sampled version.‖
The corrective measures taken to reduce the effect of Aliasing are −
 In the transmitter section of PCM, a low pass anti-aliasing filter is employed, before the
sampler, to eliminate the high frequency components, which are unwanted.
 The signal which is sampled after filtering, is sampled at a rate slightly higher than the
Nyquist rate.
This choice of having the sampling rate higher than Nyquist rate, also helps in the easier
design of the reconstruction filter at the receiver.

17. Scope of Fourier Transform

It is generally observed that, we seek the help of Fourier series and Fourier transforms in
analyzing the signals and also in proving theorems. It is because −

 The Fourier Transform is the extension of Fourier series for non-periodic signals.
 Fourier transform is a powerful mathematical tool which helps to view the signals in
different domains and helps to analyze the signals easily.
 Any signal can be decomposed in terms of sum of sines and cosines using this Fourier
transform. The digitization of analog signals involves the rounding off of the values which are
approximately equal to the analog values. The method of sampling chooses a few points on
the analog signal and then these points are joined to round off the value to a near stabilized
value. Such a process is called as Quantization.

25
 18. Quantizing an Analog Signal

The analog-to-digital converters perform this type of function to create a series of digital values out
of the given analog signal. The following figure represents an analog signal. This signal to get converted
into digital has to undergo sampling and quantizing

The quantizing of an analog signal is done by discretizing the signal with a number of
quantization levels.

Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a finite set of levels, which
means converting a continuous-amplitude sample into a discrete-time signal.
The following figure shows how an analog signal gets quantized. The blue line represents analog
signal while the brown one represents the quantized signal.

Both sampling and quantization result in the loss of information. The quality of a Quantizer
output depends upon the number of quantization levels used. The discrete amplitudes of the
quantized output are called as representation levels or reconstruction levels. The spacing
between the two adjacent representation levels is called a quantum or step-size.
26
The following figure shows the resultant quantized signal which is the digital form for the given
analog signal.

This is also called as Stair-case waveform, in accordance with its shape.

19. Types of Quantization

There are two types of Quantization - Uniform Quantization and Non-uniform Quantization.

1. The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are uniformly spaced is termed as a

20. Uniform Quantization.

2. The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are unequal and mostly the relation
between them is logarithmic, is termed as a Non-uniform Quantization.

There are two types of uniform quantization.

1. Mid-Rise type
2. Mid-Tread type.

27
 The following figures represent the two types of uniform quantization

Figure 1 shows the mid-rise type and figure 2 shows the mid-tread type of uniform quantization.

1. The Mid-Rise type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a raising part
of the stair- case like graph. The quantization levels in this type are even in number.
2. The Mid-tread type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a tread of
the stair-case like graph. The quantization levels in this type are odd in number.

Both the mid-rise and mid-tread type of uniform quantizer are symmetric about the origin.
Δ= (𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑚𝑖𝑛)𝐿
𝑛𝑏=𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝐿

21. Quantization Error

For any system, during its functioning, there is always a difference in the values of its input and output.
The processing of the system results in an error, which is the difference of those values.The difference
between an input value and its quantized value is called a Quantization Error.

A Quantizer is a logarithmic function that performs Quantization (rounding off the value). An
analog-to- digital converter (ADC) works as a quantizer.

28
The following figure illustrates an example for a quantization error, indicating the difference
between the original signal and the quantized signal.

22. Quantization Noise

It is a type of quantization error, which usually occurs in analog audio signal, while quantizing it
to digital. For example, in music, the signals keep changing continuously, where a regularity is
not found in errors. Such errors create a wideband noise called as Quantization Noise.

PULSE MODULATION

23. INTRODUCTION
 Many Signals in Modern Communication Systems are digital . Also, analog signals
are transmitted digitally.
 Reduced distortion and improvement in signal to noise ratios.
 PAM, PWM , PPM , PCM and DM.
1
  Data transmission, digital transmission, or digital communications is the physical transfer of
data (a digital bit stream or a digitized analogue signal) over a point-to-point or point-to-
multipoint communication channel.

Ex: optical fibers, wireless channels, computer buses....

 ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Fig.Block diagram of Digital Communication

6. Discrete Information Source: It generates message to be transmitted. Examples are the data
from computers, text data or tele type data.

7. Source Encoder: It assigns codes to the symbols (samples) generated from discrete
information source. The code word having n number of bits. Each distinct sample having

2
 distinct(unique) code word. If code word length is 8 bit(n), we can have 256 distinct
symbols(ie.,2^n).

8. Channel Encoder: We know that channel is the major source of notice due to that there are
more chance of getting errors while propagating through channel. To avoid that channel
encoding is required. In that extra bits are added to the binary sequence generated by the
source encoder. These extra bits are called as redundant bits. These bits are defined with
proper logic. The redundant will be helpful to detect the errors at the receiver bit sequence.

9. Digital Modulator: In digital modulator the message signal is digital data and carrier is
analog one, in most cases we use sinusoidal waves. Some examples are
ASK,FSK,PSK.MRI techniques.

10. Channel: It provides the link between transmitter and rceiver. Channel may be wired
or wireless channel.

 Problems associated with channel:

4. Addictive Noise: This noise is occur due to internal solid state devices or resistors used
in channel.

5. Ampltude and Phase Distortion: This noise is occurred due to non-linear characteristics of the
channel.

6. Attenuation: This is due to internal resistance of the channel.

10. Demodulator: This device is used to detect the digital message signal from the
modulated signal.

11. Channel Decoder: This is used to detect and correct the errors that occur in the digital
message signal.

12. Source Decoder: This produces the sampling signal from the given digital message signal.

13. Destination: The sampled signal is converted into audio signal or video signal or any text
signal depending on the signal.

3
 Fig. Basic block diagram of an A/D converter

24. Advantages of digital communication systems

1. Easy way of transmission of signals

2. Connection of more calls through one channel i.e., Multiplexing is possible using Digital
Communication.
3. Source Encoding and Channel Encoding can be used to detect errors at the
received signal.

4. Using repeaters between source and destination, we can reproduce the original
signal with less distortions.
5. Security is the major advantage of digital communication compared to
Analog Communication.
6. Transmitting analogue signals digitally allows for greater signal processing capability.
7. Digital communication can be done over large distances through internet and
other things.
8. The messages can be stored in the device for longer times, without being damaged.
9. Advancement in communication is achieved through Digital Communication.

4
 25. Disadvantages of digital communication systems

5. Sampling Error
6. Digital communications require greater bandwidth than analogue to transmit the same
information.
7. The detection of digital signals requires the communications system to be
synchronized, whereas generally speaking this is not the case with analogue systems.
8. Digital signals are often the approximation of voice signals, ie, we don‟t get the
exact analogue signal.

 TYPES OF MODULATION – TREE DIAGRAM

In Continuous Wave modulation schemes some parameter of modulated wave varies

continuously with message.
In Analog pulse modulation some parameter of each pulse is modulated by a particular sample
value of the message.

5
 Pulse modulation of two types
1. Analog Pulse Modulation
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
 Pulse width Modulation (PWM)
 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
2. Digital Pulse Modulation
 Pulse code Modulation (PCM)
 Delta Modulation (DM)

3. Analog Pulse Modulation

Analog pulse modulation results when some attribute of a pulse varies continuously in one-to-one
correspondence with a sample value. In analog pulse modulation systems, the amplitude, width, or
position of a pulse can vary over a continuous range in accordance with the message amplitude at
the sampling instant, as shown in Figure 6.2. These lead to the following

Three types of pulse modulation:

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
2. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
3. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

PAM: In this scheme high frequency carrier (pulse) is varied in accordance with sampled value
of message signal.

PWM: In this width of carrier pulses are varied in accordance with sampled values of message
signal. Example: Speed control of DC Motors.

PPM: In this scheme position of high frequency carrier pulse is changed in accordance with
the sampled values of message signal.

6
 Fig. Representation of Various Analog Pulse Modulations

4. Digital Pulse Modulation

In systems utilizing digital pulse modulation, the transmitted samples take on only discrete
values. Two important types of digital pulse modulation are:
1. Delta Modulation (DM)

2. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

7
 26. ANALOG PULSE MODULATION

2. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):

In pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of regular interval of periodic pulses or

electromagnetic pulses is varied in proposition to the sample of modulating signal or message
signal. This is an analog type of modulation. In the pulse amplitude modulation, the message
signal is sampled at regular periodic or time intervals and this each sample is made proportional to
the magnitude of the message signal. These sample pulses can be transmitted directly using wired
media or we can use a carrier signal for transmitting through wireless.

Fig. Pulse Amplitude Modulation Signal

There are two types of sampling techniques for transmitting messages using pulse amplitude
modulation, they are
 FLAT TOP PAM: The amplitude of each pulse is directly proportional to instantaneous
modulating signal amplitude at the time of pulse occurrence and then keeps the amplitude
of the pulse for the rest of the half cycle.

8
 Fig. Flat Top PAM
 Natural PAM: The amplitude of each pulse is directly proportional to the instantaneous
modulating signal amplitude at the time of pulse occurrence and then follows the amplitude
of the modulating signal for the rest of the half cycle.

Fig. Natural PAM

Flat top PAM is the best for transmission because we can easily remove the noise and we can also
easily recognize the noise. When we compare the difference between the flat top PAM and natural
PAM, flat top PAM principle of sampling uses sample and hold circuit. In natural principle of
sampling, noise interference is minimum. But in flat top PAM noise interference maximum. Flat
top PAM and natural PAM are practical and sampling rate satisfies the sampling criteria.

There are two types of pulse amplitude modulation based on signal polarity
3. Single polarity pulse amplitude modulation

4. Double polarity pulse amplitude modulation

9
In single polarity pulse amplitude modulation, there is fixed level of DC bias added to the
message signal or modulating signal, so the output of modulating signal is always positive. In the
double polarity pulse amplitude modulation, the output of modulating signal will have both
positive and negative ends.

/*

10
 27. Advantages of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):

 It is the base for all digital modulation techniques and it is simple process for both
modulation and demodulation technique.
 No complex circuitry is required for both transmission and reception. Transmitter
and receiver circuitry is simple and easy to construct.
 PAM can generate other pulse modulation signals and can carry the message or
information at same time.

28. Disadvantages of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):

 Bandwidth should be large for transmitting the pulse amplitude modulation signal. Due to
Nyquist criteria also high bandwidth is required.
 The frequency varies according to the modulating signal or message signal. Due to these
variations in the signal frequency, interferences will be there. So noise will be great. For
PAM, noise immunity is less when compared to other modulation techniques. It is almost
equal to amplitude modulation.
 Pulse amplitude signal varies, so power required for transmission will be more, peak power
is also, even at receiving more power is required to receive the pulse amplitude signal.

29. Applications of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):

 It is mainly used in Ethernet which is type of computer network communication, we know

that we can use Ethernet for connecting two systems and transfer data between the systems.
Pulse amplitude modulation is used for Ethernet communications.
 It is also used for photo biology which is a study of photosynthesis.
 Used as electronic driver for LED lighting.
 Used in many micro controllers for generating the control signals etc.

11
 30. DIGITAL PULSE MODULATION

Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier signal in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the message signal.

1. PULSE CODE MODULATION(PCM)

The message signal is the signal which is being transmitted for communication and the carrier
signal is a high frequency signal which has no data, but is used for long distance transmission.
There are many modulation techniques, which are classified according to the type of modulation
employed. Of them all, the digital modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM).
A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into a binary sequence, i.e., 1s
and 0s. The output of a PCM will resemble a binary sequence. The following figure shows an
example of PCM output with respect to instantaneous values of a given sine wave.

Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits, and hence this process is
called as digital. Each one of these digits, though in binary code, represent the approximate
amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.
In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses. This
message signal is achieved by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and
amplitude.
12
 31. Basic Elements of PCM

The transmitter section of a Pulse Code Modulator circuit consists of Sampling,

Quantizing and Encoding, which are performed in the analog-to-digital converter section. The
low pass filter prior to sampling prevents aliasing of the message signal.
The basic operations in the receiver section are regeneration of impaired signals,
decoding, and reconstruction of the quantized pulse train. Following is the block diagram of
PCM which represents the basic elements of both the transmitter and the receiver sections.

 Low Pass Filter

This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input analog signal which
is greater than the highest frequency of the message signal, to avoid aliasing of the message
signal.

 Sampler
This is the technique which helps to collect the sample data at instantaneous values of message
signal, so as to reconstruct the original signal. The sampling rate must be greater than twice the
highest frequency component W of the message signal, in accordance with the sampling
theorem.

 Quantizer
Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and confining the data. The
13
sampled output when given to Quantizer reduces the redundant bits and compresses the
value.

14
  Encoder

Encoder assigns code words to quantized sampled values. This coding techniques uses bits 0 and
2. If number of quantized levels are 16 then each sample is assigned with 4 bit code word.

 Regenerative repeater:

The PCM has an ability to control the distortion and noise caused by the transmission of bits along
the channel. This ability is accomplished by several regenerative repeaters located at sufficient
placing along channel.

Regenerative repeaters have three functions.

4. Equalizing
5. Timing circuits
6. Decision making device

Equalizer shapes the received pulse so as to compensate amplitude and phase distortion caused by the
channel.

Timing circuits provides periodic pulse trains.

 Decision making device compares amplitude of equalized pulse plus noise to the pre-defined
threshold levels to make decisions whether the pulse is present or not.
 If the pulse is present (i.e. decision is yes), clean new pulse is generated and transmitted
through channel to next regenerative pulse. If the pulse is not present (i.e. the decision is no),
it generates clean base line to next regenerative repeater, provided the noise too large caused
bit error by taking the wrong decision

 Decoder

Decoder reboots all the received bits to make more words then it decodes as quantized PAM signals.

15
  Reconstruction Filter:
All coded words are passed through low pass filter so that analog signal can be reconstructed from
quantized PAM signal.The cut off frequency of low pass filter is f m Hz which is equal to band width
of message signal.

 Destination
It receives the signal from the reconstructive filter output is analog signal.

Fig.PCM waveform

32. Bit rate and bandwidth requirements of PCM :

 The bit rate of a PCM signal can be calculated form the number of bits per sample × the
sampling rate. Bit rate =𝑛𝑏×𝑓𝑠 The bandwidth required to transmit this signal depends on
the type of line encoding used.
 A digitized signal will always need more bandwidth than the original analog signal. Price
we pay for robustness and other features of digital transmission.

33. Important Relations

 Quantization Noise (𝑁𝑞)=Δ2/2
 Signal to Noise ratio
(𝑆𝑄𝑁𝑅)=32.22𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑄𝑁𝑅 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵=1.76+6.02𝑛≅(1.8+6𝑛)𝑑𝐵
 𝐵𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒=𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒×𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒=𝑛𝑓𝑠
 Bandwidth for PCM signal
=n.fm Where,
n – No. of bits in PCM code

16
Fm – signal bandwidth
fs – sampling rate

17
 34. SAMPLING, QUANTIZATION AND CODING
2. Sampling
 Definition: Sampling is defined as ―The process of measuring the instantaneous
values of continuous-time signal in a discrete form.‖
 Sample is a piece of data taken from the whole data which is continuous in the time domain.

When a source generates an analog signal and if that has to be digitized, having 1s and 0s i.e., High
or Low, the signal has to be discretized in time. This discretization of analog signal is called as
Sampling.
The following figure indicates a continuous-time signal x (t) and a sampled signal xs (t). When x (t)
is multiplied by a periodic impulse train, the sampled signal xs (t) is obtained.

35. Sampling Rate

To discretize the signals, the gap between the samples should be fixed. That gap can be
termed as a sampling period Ts.
Sampling Frequency fs=1/Ts
Where,
Ts is the sampling time
fs is the sampling frequency or the sampling rate

Sampling frequency -is the reciprocal of the sampling period. This sampling frequency, can be
simply called as Sampling rate. The sampling rate denotes the number of samples taken per
18
second, or for a finite set of values.

19
 For an analog signal to be reconstructed from the digitized signal, the sampling rate should be
highly considered. The rate of sampling should be such that the data in the message signal should
neither be lost nor it should get over-lapped. Hence, a rate was fixed for this, called as Nyquist
rate

36. Nyquist Rate

Suppose that a signal is band-limited with no frequency components higher than W Hertz.
That means, W is the highest frequency. For such a signal, for effective reproduction of the
original signal, sampling rate should be twice the highest frequency.
This means,
fs=2W
Where,
fs is the sampling rate
W is the highest frequency
This rate of sampling is called as Nyquist rate.

A theorem called, Sampling Theorem, was stated on the theory of this Nyquist rate.

37. Sampling Theorem

The sampling theorem, which is also called as Nyquist theorem, delivers the theory of sufficient
sample rate in terms of bandwidth for the class of functions that are band limited.

The sampling theorem states that, ― a signal can be exactly reproduced if it is sampled at the rate
fs which is greater than twice the maximum frequency W.

To understand this sampling theorem, let us consider a band-limited signal, i.e., a signal
whose value is non-zero between some –W and W Hertz.
Such a signal is represented as x(f)=0for|f|>W

For the continuous-time signal x (t), the band-limited signal in frequency domain, can be

20
represented as shown in the following figure.

21
.

We need a sampling frequency, a frequency at which there should be no loss of information,

even after sampling. For this, we have the Nyquist rate that the sampling frequency should be
two times the maximum frequency. It is the critical rate of sampling.

If the signal x(t) is sampled above the Nyquist rate, the original signal can be recovered, and if it
is sampled below the Nyquist rate, the signal cannot be recovered.
The following figure explains a signal, if sampled at a higher rate than 2w in the frequency domain.

The above figure shows the Fourier transform of a signal xs(t). Here, the information is
reproduced without any loss. There is no mixing up and hence recovery is possible.

The Fourier Transform of the signal

xs(t) is Xs (w)=1Ts∑n=−∞∞X(w−nw0)
Where Ts = Sampling Period and w0=2πTs

Let us see what happens if the sampling rate is equal to twice the highest
frequency (2W) That means,
22
Fs =2W

23
 Where,
Fs is the sampling frequency
W is the highest frequency

The result will be as shown in the above figure. The information is replaced without any loss.
Hence, this is also a good sampling rate.
Now, let us look at the condition,
Fs <2W
The resultant pattern will look like the following figure

We can observe from the above pattern that the over-lapping of information is done, which
leads to mixing up and loss of information. This unwanted phenomenon of over-lapping is
called as Aliasing

24
 38. Aliasing

Aliasing can be referred to as ―the phenomenon of a high-frequency component in the

spectrum of a signal, taking on the identity of a low-frequency component in the spectrum of
its sampled version.‖
The corrective measures taken to reduce the effect of Aliasing are −
 In the transmitter section of PCM, a low pass anti-aliasing filter is employed, before the
sampler, to eliminate the high frequency components, which are unwanted.
 The signal which is sampled after filtering, is sampled at a rate slightly higher than the
Nyquist rate.
This choice of having the sampling rate higher than Nyquist rate, also helps in the easier
design of the reconstruction filter at the receiver.

39. Scope of Fourier Transform

It is generally observed that, we seek the help of Fourier series and Fourier transforms in
analyzing the signals and also in proving theorems. It is because −

 The Fourier Transform is the extension of Fourier series for non-periodic signals.
 Fourier transform is a powerful mathematical tool which helps to view the signals in
different domains and helps to analyze the signals easily.
 Any signal can be decomposed in terms of sum of sines and cosines using this Fourier
transform. The digitization of analog signals involves the rounding off of the values which are
approximately equal to the analog values. The method of sampling chooses a few points on
the analog signal and then these points are joined to round off the value to a near stabilized
value. Such a process is called as Quantization.

25
 40. Quantizing an Analog Signal

The analog-to-digital converters perform this type of function to create a series of digital values out
of the given analog signal. The following figure represents an analog signal. This signal to get converted
into digital has to undergo sampling and quantizing

The quantizing of an analog signal is done by discretizing the signal with a number of
quantization levels.

Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a finite set of levels, which
means converting a continuous-amplitude sample into a discrete-time signal.
The following figure shows how an analog signal gets quantized. The blue line represents analog
signal while the brown one represents the quantized signal.

Both sampling and quantization result in the loss of information. The quality of a Quantizer
output depends upon the number of quantization levels used. The discrete amplitudes of the
quantized output are called as representation levels or reconstruction levels. The spacing
between the two adjacent representation levels is called a quantum or step-size.
26
The following figure shows the resultant quantized signal which is the digital form for the given
analog signal.

This is also called as Stair-case waveform, in accordance with its shape.

41. Types of Quantization

There are two types of Quantization - Uniform Quantization and Non-uniform Quantization.

3. The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are uniformly spaced is termed as a

42. Uniform Quantization.

4. The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are unequal and mostly the relation
between them is logarithmic, is termed as a Non-uniform Quantization.

There are two types of uniform quantization.

3. Mid-Rise type
4. Mid-Tread type.

27
 The following figures represent the two types of uniform quantization

Figure 1 shows the mid-rise type and figure 2 shows the mid-tread type of uniform quantization.

1. The Mid-Rise type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a raising part
of the stair- case like graph. The quantization levels in this type are even in number.
2. The Mid-tread type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a tread of
the stair-case like graph. The quantization levels in this type are odd in number.

Both the mid-rise and mid-tread type of uniform quantizer are symmetric about the origin.
Δ= (𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑚𝑖𝑛)𝐿
𝑛𝑏=𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝐿

43. Quantization Error

For any system, during its functioning, there is always a difference in the values of its input and output.
The processing of the system results in an error, which is the difference of those values.The difference
between an input value and its quantized value is called a Quantization Error.

A Quantizer is a logarithmic function that performs Quantization (rounding off the value). An
analog-to- digital converter (ADC) works as a quantizer.

28
 The following figure illustrates an example for a quantization error, indicating
the difference between the original signal and the quantized signal.

44. Quantization Noise

It is a type of quantization error, which usually occurs in analog audio signal,

while quantizing it to digital. For example, in music, the signals keep changing
continuously, where a regularity is not found in errors. Such errors create a
wideband noise called as Quantization Noise.

tI

s Optical Fiber?

29
We know that optical fibre has revolutionised the communication sector and made efficient data
transmission possible. It consumes less power and is non-flammable. In this article, let us learn
about optical fibre, types of optical fibre, working of optical fibre and its advantages in detail.

Table of Contents:

 What Is an Optical Fibre?

 Types of Optical Fibres
 How Does an Optical Fibre Work?
 Advantages of Optical Fibre Communication
 Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

What Is an Optical Fibre?

Optical fibre is the technology associated with data transmission using light pulses travelling
along with a long fibre which is usually made of plastic or glass. Metal wires are preferred for
transmission in optical fibre communication as signals travel with fewer damages. Optical fibres
are also unaffected by electromagnetic interference. The fibre optical cable uses the application
of total internal reflection of light. The fibres are designed such that they facilitate the
propagation of light along with the optical fibre depending on the requirement of power and
distance of transmission. Single-mode fibre is used for long-distance transmission, while
multimode fibre is used for shorter distances. The outer cladding of these fibres needs better
protection than metal wires.

30
Types of Optical Fibres
The types of optical fibres depend on the refractive index, materials used, and mode of
propagation of light.

The classification based on the refractive index is as follows:

 Step Index Fibres: It consists of a core surrounded by the cladding, which has a single
uniform index of refraction.
 Graded Index Fibres: The refractive index of the optical fibre decreases as the radial
distance from the fibre axis increases.
The classification based on the materials used is as follows:

 Plastic Optical Fibres: The polymethylmethacrylate is used as a core material for the
transmission of light.
 Glass Fibres: It consists of extremely fine glass fibres.
The classification based on the mode of propagation of light is as follows:

 Single-Mode Fibres: These fibres are used for long-distance transmission of signals.
 Multimode Fibres: These fibres are used for short-distance transmission of signals.
The mode of propagation and refractive index of the core is used to form four combination types
of optic fibres as follows:

 Step index-single mode fibres

 Graded index-Single mode fibres
 Step index-Multimode fibres
 Graded index-Multimode fibres

How Does an Optical Fibre Work?

The optical fibre works on the principle of total internal reflection. Light rays can be used to
transmit a huge amount of data, but there is a problem here – the light rays travel in straight
lines. So unless we have a long straight wire without any bends at all, harnessing this advantage
will be very tedious. Instead, the optical cables are designed such that they bend all the light rays
inwards (using TIR). Light rays travel continuously, bouncing off the optical fibre walls and
transmitting end to end data. Although light signals degrade over progressing distances,
depending on the purity of the material used, the loss is much less than using metal cables. A
Fibre Optic Relay System consists of the following components:

31
  The Transmitter – It produces the light signals and encodes them to fit to transmit.
 The Optical Fibre – The medium for transmitting the light pulse (signal).
 The Optical Receiver – It receives the transmitted light pulse (signal) and decodes them
to be fit to use.
 The Optical Regenerator – Necessary for long-distance data transmission.

Advantages of Optical Fibre Communication

 Economical and cost-effective
 Thin and non-flammable
 Less power consumption
 Less signal degradation
 Flexible and lightweight

45. What is Multiplexing?

Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a
single medium. The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing
and hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.

Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n

input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n
input lines and one output line.

Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at

the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and
n outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many
approach.

Why Multiplexing?
o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The
medium can only have one signal at a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be
divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available

32
 bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100
units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.
o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of
collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
o Transmission services are very expensive.

History of Multiplexing
o Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which several
telephone calls are carried through a single wire.
o Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now widely used in
communication.
o George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.

Concept of Multiplexing

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer
combines the signals to form a composite signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer
separates a signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective
destinations.

Advantages of Multiplexing:
o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

33
Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

o It is an analog technique.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available
bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.

o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several

frequency channels, and each frequency channel is given to different devices.
Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.
o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different
frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.

34
 o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency
bands and then combined to form a composite signal.
o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers.
They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages Of FDM:

o FDM is used for analog signals.

o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
o It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages Of FDM:

o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.

o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
o A Large number of modulators are required.
o It requires a high bandwidth channel.

Applications Of FDM:

35
 o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.
o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different
frequencies, and they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The
multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals
are transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
o It is an analog multiplexing technique.
o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light
with the help of multiplexer.
o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to
their respective destinations.
o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals
to form a composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a
fibre optical cable.
o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.

36
Time Division Multiplexing
o It is a digital technique.
o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same
time with different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing
technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with different time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel
is distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with
different time interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by
the sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously
rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of
time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to
multiplex digital signals.

There are two types of TDM:

o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM

37
 o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every
device.
o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact
that the device contains the data or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are
organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular
time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and
SONET multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Concept Of Synchronous TDM

38
In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each device is
allocated with some time slot. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of whether the
sender has data to send or not.

Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:

o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also
transmitted which is having no data. In the above figure, the first frame is
completely filled, but in the last two frames, some slots are empty. Therefore, we
can say that the capacity of the channel is not utilized efficiently.
o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of
the input lines. An alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous
Time Division Multiplexing.

Asynchronous TDM

o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.

o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the
case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which
have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division
multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations.
o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the
devices.
o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the
capacity of the channel.

39
 o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and
creates a frame that contains only data with no empty slots.
o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the
source of the data.

o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many
slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully
utilized. This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the
capacity of the channel.
o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In
Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots
where m is less than n (m<n).
o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number
of input lines.

Concept Of Asynchronous TDM

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending the data,
i.e., A and C. Therefore, the data of A and C are only transmitted through the
transmission line.

Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

40
The above figure shows that the data part contains the address to determine the source
of the data.

46. Satellite Communication - Introduction

In general terms, a satellite is a smaller object that revolves around
a larger object in space. For example, moon is a natural satellite of
earth.

We know that Communication refers to the exchange (sharing) of

information between two or more entities, through any medium or
channel. In other words, it is nothing but sending, receiving and
processing of information.

If the communication takes place between any two earth stations

through a satellite, then it is called as satellite communication. In this
communication, electromagnetic waves are used as carrier signals.
These signals carry the information such as voice, audio, video or
any other data between ground and space and vice-versa.

Soviet Union had launched the world's first artificial satellite named,
Sputnik 1 in 1957. Nearly after 18 years, India also launched the
artificial satellite named, Aryabhata in 1975.

Need of Satellite Communication

The following two kinds of propagation are used earlier for
communication up to some distance.

41
  Ground wave propagation − Ground wave propagation is suitable
for frequencies up to 30MHz. This method of communication
makes use of the troposphere conditions of the earth.
 Sky wave propagation − The suitable bandwidth for this type of
communication is broadly between 30–40 MHz and it makes
use of the ionosphere properties of the earth.

The maximum hop or the station distance is limited to 1500KM only

in both ground wave propagation and sky wave propagation.
Satellite communication overcomes this limitation. In this method,
satellites provide communication for long distances, which is well beyond
the line of sight.

Since the satellites locate at certain height above earth, the

communication takes place between any two earth stations easily
via satellite. So, it overcomes the limitation of communication
between two earth stations due to earth’s curvature.

How a Satellite Works

A satellite is a body that moves around another body in a particular
path. A communication satellite is nothing but a microwave repeater
station in space. It is helpful in telecommunications, radio and
television along with internet applications.

A repeater is a circuit, which increases the strength of the received

signal and then transmits it. But, this repeater works as
a transponder. That means, it changes the frequency band of the
transmitted signal from the received one.

The frequency with which, the signal is sent into the space is called
as Uplink frequency. Similarly, the frequency with which, the signal is
sent by the transponder is called as Downlink frequency. The following
figure illustrates this concept clearly.

42
The transmission of signal from first earth station to satellite
through a channel is called as uplink. Similarly, the transmission of
signal from satellite to second earth station through a channel is
called as downlink.

Uplink frequency is the frequency at which, the first earth station is

communicating with satellite. The satellite transponder converts this
signal into another frequency and sends it down to the second earth
station. This frequency is called as Downlink frequency. In similar way,
second earth station can also communicate with the first one.

The process of satellite communication begins at an earth station.

Here, an installation is designed to transmit and receive signals
from a satellite in an orbit around the earth. Earth stations send the

43
information to satellites in the form of high powered, high frequency
(GHz range) signals.

The satellites receive and retransmit the signals back to earth where
they are received by other earth stations in the coverage area of the
satellite. Satellite's footprint is the area which receives a signal of
useful strength from the satellite.

Pros and Cons of Satellite Communication

In this section, let us have a look at the advantages and
disadvantages of satellite communication.

Following are the advantages of using satellite communication:

 Area of coverage is more than that of terrestrial systems

 Each and every corner of the earth can be covered
 Transmission cost is independent of coverage area
 More bandwidth and broadcasting possibilites

Following are the disadvantages of using satellite communication −

 Launching of satellites into orbits is a costly process.

 Propagation delay of satellite systems is more than that of
conventional terrestrial systems.
 Difficult to provide repairing activities if any problem occurs in
a satellite system.
 Free space loss is more
 There can be congestion of frequencies.

Applications of Satellite Communication

Satellite communication plays a vital role in our daily life. Following
are the applications of satellite communication −

 Radio broadcasting and voice communications

 TV broadcasting such as Direct To Home (DTH)
 Internet applications such as providing Internet connection for
data transfer, GPS applications, Internet surfing, etc.
 Military applications and navigations

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  Remote sensing applications
 Weather condition monitoring & Forecasting

What is a Geosynchronous Satellite?

A satellite that stays in geosynchronous orbit, or one whose orbital period is the
same as that of Earth, is referred to as a geosynchronous satellite. To put it
another way, a geosynchronous satellite orbits the globe at the same rate as it
rotates on its axis. This explains why, when viewed from a specific location on
Earth, this type of satellite appears to be in the same area of the sky (at a
specific time of day). A geosynchronous satellite seems to remain stationary over
a single longitude because its orbital period is a sidereal day, or 23 hours, 56
minutes, and 4 seconds.

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 Geosynchronous Satellite

What is a Geostationary Satellite?

Geostationary satellites circle the earth in the same direction as the planet and
are located at an altitude of roughly 35,800 kilometers 22,300 miles over the
equator (west to east). One orbit takes place at this altitude in 24 hours, which is
how long it takes the earth to complete one rotation of its axis. A single
geostationary satellite can see around 40 % of the planet's surface in a straight
line. With the exception of tiny circular zones centered at the north and south
geographic poles, three of these satellites, each 120 degrees apart, may cover
the whole planet.

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 Geostationary Satellite

Uses and Examples

A. Geosynchronous Satellites
1. Uses
 Voice and data communication
 Internet
 Broadcasting cable TV and radio signals.

B. Geostationary Satellites
1. Uses
 Weather reports about a particular region.

 Weather forecasting.
 Terrestrial reports of a geographical area.
 Spy networks.

Geosynchronous and Geostationary Orbits

Geosynchronous orbit refers to the orbit in which a geosynchronous satellite is
located (GSO). It has an orbital period of the sidereal day, or 23 hours, 56
minutes, and 4 seconds, and a height of 35,800 kilometers. Geostationary orbit
refers to the orbit in which a geostationary satellite is located (GEO). It is located
35,800 kilometers above the equator of the planet, and its orbital period is one
sidereal day.

Difference Between Geostationary and Geosynchronous Orbit

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 Geostationary Orbit Geosynchronous Orbit
More movement is provided by
Although geostationary orbits
geosynchronous orbits than by geostationary
provide a more reliable
orbits, but this movement is slower and more
position, they do not
susceptible to interruption from weather and
completely circumnavigate
other external factors, such as solar winds or
the world since they do not
sunspot activity, which prevents satellite
orbit the equator.
signals from reaching their target.
The period of orbit is the
same as that of Earth's One sidereal day is equal to the orbit period.
rotation.
This orbit is round. These orbits might be circular or non-circular.
In relation to the Earth's
The geosynchronous satellite is inclined with
equator, it is not inclined at
regard to the equator of the planet.
all.

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