MPPT Soft

MPPT BASED PV PANEL CHARGE CONTROLLER AND SUN TRACKING SOLAR PANEL
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1GENERAL
The development of renewable energy has been an increasingly critical topic in the 21st century
with the growing problem of global warming and other environmental issues. With greater
research, alternative renewable sources such as wind, water, geothermal and solar energy have
become increasingly important for electric power generation. Although photovoltaic cells are
certainly nothing new, their use has become more common, practical, and useful for people
worldwide.
The most important aspect of a solar cell is that it generates solar energy directly to
electrical energy through the solar photovoltaic module, made up of silicon cells. Although each
cell outputs a relatively low voltage (approx. 0.7V under open circuit condition), if many are
connected in series, a solar photovoltaic module is formed. In a typical module, there can be up
to 36 solar cells, producing an open circuit voltage of about 20V. Although the price for such
cells is decreasing, making use of a solar cell module still requires substantial financial
investment. Thus, to make a PV module useful, it is necessary to extract as much energy as
possible from such a system.
A PV module is used efficiently only when it operates at its optimum operating point.
Unfortunately, the performance of any given solar cell depends on several variables. At any
moment the operating point of a PV module depends on varying insolation levels, sun direction,
irradiance, temperature, as well as the load of the system. The amount of power that can be
extracted from a PV array also depends on the operating voltage of that array. As we will
observe, a PV’s maximum power point (MPP) will be specified by its voltage-current (V-I) and
voltage-power (V-P) characteristic curves. Solar cells have relatively low efficiency ratings;
thus,operating at the MPP is desired because it is at this point that the array will operate at the
highest efficiency. With constantly changing atmospheric conditions and load variables, it is very
difficult to utilize all of the solar energy available without a controlled system. For the best
Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 1

performance, it becomes necessary to force the system to operate at its optimum power point.
The solution for such a problem is a Maximum Peak Power Tracking system (MPPT).
A MPPT is normally operated with the use of a dc-dc converter (step up or step down).
The DC/DC converter is responsible for transferring maximum power from the solar PV module
to the load. The simplest way of implementing an MPPT is to operate a PV array under constant
voltage and power reference to modify the duty cycle of the dc-dc converter. This will keep
operation constant at or around the maximum peak power point.
There have been many different solutions presented for methods of peak power tracking.
Our goal is to develop such a system with the purpose of obtaining as much energy from a solar
cell as possible. Our secondary goal will be to create such a system that operates with optimum
efficiency as well. Implementing such a design will be useful in the future because solar cell use
is limited greatly by efficiency limitations and cost factors. If manufacturers took advantage of
MPPT systems, it is without a doubt that solar cells will become more commonly used.
Figure 1.1 Block Diagram

1.2OBJECTIVE
The focus is on a specific solution to the problem of peak power tracking and present it in full in
this report. It will be important to first learn as much as possible about the operation of solar
cells. From there, we will discuss the methodology of the design, the selection of what
components to implement, system design, and finally, the result and conclusion of project. The
challenge lies in designing a system with maximum efficiency that will quickly and constantly
monitor and change the operation of the system to obtain the optimum performance from a solar
cell. Various components of project are:
1- DC-DC Buck Converter

2- Microcontroller
3- PV Panel
4- Battery

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Maximum power point tracker battery charger is proposed for extracting maximum power from a
photovoltaic panel to charge the battery. The output power of the PV system continuously varies
with change in irradiance and temperature. It is very important to improve the efficiency of
charger. There are number of maximum power point tracking (MPPT) methods available to
operate the PV system at maximum power point. The proposed system have used Perturb &
Observe (P&O) MPPT algorithm for the design and implementation. When irradiance and
temperature are constant or slowly varying, the P&O method tracks MPP steadily and calculate
the operating point atwhich the battery is capable of producing maximum power. In this method,
the controller provides the PWM signal to adjust the voltage, adjustment is done by Buck
converter and measures power, if the power increases, further adjustments in that direction are
tried until power no longer increases.
There are many MPPT algorithm which can be used for implementation viz. Incremental
conductance method, constant voltage method, Fuzzy logic based method etc. Different MPPT
algorithms [2], [3], [6] are briefed about their features and limitations as follows:
 Incremental conductance (INC) method [2], [5] of tracking the MPP does not depend
upon PV array, tracking efficiency is good, and implementation is medium. Sensing
parameters are voltage and current, convergence speed is medium and of analog type.
 Fuzzy logic control based MPPT [2], [5] is PV array dependent, Tracking efficiency is
good, implementation is very complex, convergence speed is fast and of digital type.
 Neural network based MPPT [5] is also PV array dependent, tracking efficiency is good,
implementation is very complex, convergence speed is fast and of digital type.
 Linear current control based MPPT [3], [6] is PV array dependent, tracking efficiency is
not so good, implementation complexity is medium, convergence speed is fast, sensing
parameter is irradiance and of digital type.
 Temperature based MPPT [5] depends upon PV array, tracking efficiency is excellent,
implementation is simple and MPP is comparatively accurate and sensing parameters are
voltage and temperature.
 Array reconfiguration based MPPT [5] is PV array dependent, tracking efficiency is poor,
convergence speed is slow, implementation complexity is high, sensing parameters are
voltage and current and of digital type.
 Perturb and observe based MPPT [2], [3], [5] is not PV array dependent, tracking
efficiency is good but with unstable operating points, implementation is simple, sensing
parameters are voltage and current.
 Advanced Perturb and Observe based MPPT is not PV array dependent, tracking
efficiency is very good with stable MPPs, implementation is medium, sensing parameters
are voltage and current.Out of many MPPT algorithms, Perturb and observe (P&O)
algorithm [4] is mostly used for increasing the efficiency of PV system due to its simpler
implementation, high reliability and better efficiency.
Solar tracking enables moreenergy to be generated because the solar panel is always ableto
maintain a perpendicular profile to the sun’s rays.Development of solar panel tracking systems
has been ongoingfor several years now. As the sun moves across the sky duringthe day, it is
advantageous to have the solar panels track thelocation of the sun, such that the panels are
alwaysperpendicular to the solar energy radiated by the sun.

CHAPTER 3
SPECIFICATION OF COMPONENTS
The device uses many electronics and electrical components of different ratings. The following
tables lists the main components used and their specifications.
3.1 MICROCONTROLLER
a. Arduino Nano
Figure 3.1: Arduino Nano
Table 3.1: Specifications of Arduino Nano
Microcontroller Atmel ATmega328

Operating Voltage (logic level) 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12 V
Input Voltage (limits) 7-20 V
Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins 8
DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA
Clock Speed 16 MHz
Flash Memory 32 KB

b. MOSFET
This is a 3 pin, p-channel, voltage controlled power electronics switching device. This is used for
fast switching frequencies of order of several MHz.
Figure 3.2: IRF9540NMosfet
Table 3.2: Specifications of MOSFET
Parameter Symbol Rating

Gate-to-Source Voltage VGS ± 20 V
Gate Threshold Voltage VGS(Th) -2 to -4 V
Static Drain-to-Source On-Resistance RDS(On) 0.117Ω
Reverse Recovery Time trr 150 ns
Reverse RecoveryCharge Qrr 830 nC

c.Transistor (BC547, BC557)
Figure 3.3(a) BC557 PNP Transistor
Figure 3.3(b) BC547 NPN Transistor
Table 3.3:Specifications of Transistors
Rating Symbol BC547 BC557 Unit

(NPN) (PNP)
Collector–Emitter Voltage VCEO 45 45 Vdc
Collector–Base Voltage VCBO 50 50 Vdc
Emitter–Base Voltage VEBO 6.0 5.0 Vdc
Collector Current-Continuous IC 100 200 Adc

d. Hall Effect Current Sensor (ACS-712)
Figure 3.4 Hall Effect Current Sensor
Table 3.4:Specification of Hall Effect Current Sensor
Characteristic Symbol Rating Unit

Supply Voltage VCC 8 V
Reverse Supply voltage VRCC -0.1 V
Output voltage VIOUT 8 V
Output Current Sink IIOUT 10 mA
o
Ambient Temperature TA -40 to 85 C
Sensitivity S 185 mV/A

e. Voltage Regulator (LM-7805T)

It is a linear voltage regulator it is used to power up Microcontroller and the Hall Effect current
sensor. It is also used to provide the logic level VCC of 5V.It is a three terminal device and
mainly called input, output and ground.
Figure 3.5 Voltage Regulator
f. Schottky Diode (IN5819)

It has very low forward voltage drop and very fast switching characteristics, thus it is suitable as
freewheeling diode in the buck converter.
Figure 3.6 Schottky Diode IN5819

Table 3.5:Specifications of Schottky Diode
Rating Symbol Maximum Unit

Rating
Peak repetitive Reverse Voltage VRRM 40 Volts
Working Peak Reverse Voltage VRWM 40 Volts
DC Blocking Voltage VDC 40 Volts
RMC Reverse Voltage V 28 Volts

CHAPTER 4
FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION
The whole project is divided into six modules, which function in synchronism with each other to
perform the complete desired functions. The following are the main divisions of the system:
1. Solar Panel
2. Voltage Sensing
3. Current Sensing
4. Buck Converter
5. Microcontroller
6. Battery
In this discussion the various modules have been discussed on a superficial basis without going
into deep nuances. The schematic diagrams have also been shown and mainly the input output
variables of the modules and their functional behaviors have been discussed.
Figure 4.1:PV Panel charge controller

4.1 SOLAR PANEL
Most solar cells are made of semiconducting polycrystalline silicon cells, which currently have
efficiencies of 10 to 15%. Even at these ratings, according to the Encyclopedia of Energy, it
would take solar modules covering an area equivalent to just 0.25% of the global area under
crops and permanent pasture to meet all the world’s primary energy requirements, when most or
all of such area would otherwise be unused land. It is numbers like these that demonstrate the
importance and potential that solar cells have in becoming one of the most important sources of
energy used around the world. This also demonstrates the problem with the use and production
of solar cells, limited by low efficiency and high costs.
How Solar Cells Work

Solar cells produce energy by performing two basic tasks: absorption of lightenergyto create free
charge carriers within a material and the separation of the negative and positive charge carriers in
order to produce electric current that flows in one direction across terminals that have a voltage
difference. Solar cells perform these tasks with their semiconducting materials. The separation
function is typically achieved through a p-n junction. Solar cell regions are made up of materials
that have been “doped” with different impurities. This creates an excess of free electrons (n-type)
on one side of the junction, and a lack of free. electrons (p-type) on the other. This behavior
creates an electrostatic field with moving electrons and a solar cell is essentially, a large-area
diode. Figure 3 describes the overall process of solar energy conversion. First, photons enter the
cell throughout the surface of the array. The photon is absorbed and its energy is transferred to an
electron in the semiconductor. This frees the electron from its parent atom, and leaves behind a
positively charged vacancy, otherwise known as a “hole.” The movement of electrons and holes
with the cell responds to the electric field or by diffusion to areas where electrons are less
concentrated. Due to a strong electric field, electron-hole pairs generated near the junction are
split apart. Minority carriers (electrons in p-type material and holes in n-type), are swept across
the junction and become majority carriers.

Figure 4.2: Solar cell operation
It is this crossing that occurs by the individual carriers that contributes to the cell’s output
current. Finally, metal contacts on the cell allow connection of the generated current to a load.
4.2 VOLTAGE SENSING
In order for the microprocessor to control the duty cycle of the converter, it needs to obtain
voltage samples from the solar panel input. This will be done through a very simple method of
voltage sensing. Normally, the microprocessor would be able to take voltage directly from a
source to sense the voltage. However, the voltage coming from the solar panel will be much too
large for the microprocessor to handle. The maximum amount of voltage that the microprocessor
will take will be 5V. Any voltage larger than this amount to the microprocessor would risk
destroying it, and the system would fail to monitor and maintain the peak power operating point
all together. Knowing this, it is with great care that we implement the voltage divider in such a
way that it will always output a voltage that is much less than the threshold voltage of what the
microprocessor can handle.

Figure 4.3:Voltage measurement using Voltage divider
To sense the voltage from the solar panel, we will take the voltage directly from the power
source. The challenge lies in stepping the voltage down from the solar panel, so that the
microprocessor can handle and monitor these values. The microprocessor can handle up to only
5V; anything more will destroy the microprocessor. To be safe, we will allow no more than 3V
to the microprocessor. This can be done simply by implementing a voltage divider. In order to
obtain values for either resistor in the divider, the equation used is:
V SOLAR
=¿ ¿ ¿
V ARDUINO
We simply chose R2 =20kΩ and R1=100kΩ. These values for the resistors will ensure that no
more than 3V will ever go to the microprocessor.
4.3 CURRENT SENSING
To calculate the power coming from the solar panel simulator, the microprocessor needs to be
able to take current samples from the solar panel simulator in addition to the voltage. In theory,

there are several different methods of current sensing. These different methods vary in their
placement within the circuit design and the method of obtaining a current reading. Because the
microprocessor will not be able to take the current from the solar panel simulator directly, an
indirect method of current sensing must be used.
Figure 4.4: Hall effect current sensor
Hall effect sensors sense current by taking advantage of the Hall Effect. According to the Hall
effect, a magnetic field passing through a semiconductor resistor will generate a differential
voltage proportional to the field. Concentric magnetic field lines are generated around a current
carrying conductor. Assuming that the primary current conductor is infinitely long, the magnetic
field strength may be defined as B=µOI/2pr, where µO is the permeability of free space, I is the
current and r is the distance from the center of the current conductor. To induce a larger signal
out of the Hall element the current conductor is wrapped around slotted ferrous toroid N number
of times. This yields the equation for the magnetic field, B=µ OI/2pr. The hall element output is
taken, amplified, and then outputted as a voltage that represents the measured current through
scaling factor.

Figure 4.5:WorkingHall effect sensor
4.4 BUCK CONVERTER
A buck converter is basically a DC to DC converter. The main principle at work in a buck

converter, is the tendency for an inductor to resist changes in current. A buck converter output
voltage will always be lower or the same as the input voltage.
When the MOSFET is ON, current flows through the inductor (L) in a clockwise direction into
the load (R) and also charging the output capacitor (C). At this point the voltage on the cathode
of the diode is positive, therefore the diode (D) is blocking any flow of current and is said to be
reverse biased. The Initial current flow into the load from V in is slow, as energy is stored in the
inductor as it’s magnetic field increases. So during the ON state of the mosfet, energy is stored in
the inductor.
Figure 4.6: Buck Converter Circuit Diagram

When the mosfet is switched OFF, the voltage across the inductor is reversed. The inductor’s
magnetic field begins to collapse, this collapse releases the stored energy allowing current to
flow from the inductor into the load. The diode now has a negative voltage on the cathode so
becomes forward biased. Therefore the inductors discharge current flows in a clockwise
direction through the load and back through the diode. Once the inductors energy has fallen
below a certain threshold, the load voltage falls and the capacitor becomes the main source of
current, ensuring the load is still supplied until the next switching cycle begins. To ensure
continuous conduction mode the inductor is must not be fully discharged before the mosfet is
switch on again, and the cycle repeats.
4.5 MICROCONTROLLER
The microcontroller is a key component of Photovoltaic MPPT charge controller and will need
to perform monitoring tasks, MPPT and other charging algorithms. It is responsible for
reading numerous sensors and controlling the circuitry used to track the maximum power.
The microcontroller must possess ample input and output pins and must be compatible
with all sensors chosen. The programminglanguageof themicrocontroller should be both
footprint, and fast clock speed.robust and easy to use. Other desirable specifications would be
Figure 4.7: Microcontroller interfacing with peripherals
low-cost, low-power, small. Arduino is a single-board microcontroller, consisting of an

Atmel ATmega328P along with various other components that allow for easy
programming and access to various digital and analog pins. The Atmega328P
microcontroller is pre-loaded with the Arduino boot-loader, allowing this chip to be

programmed in the Arduino programming language and eliminating the need for an
external programmer.
4.6 BATTERY
The batteries will be used to store energy so that devices can bepowered in the event that the sun
is not shining and when more power is needed than can be provided by the solar arrays at a given
time. The battery should provide a required energy capacity, run at 6V and provide a required
output current to handle high power loads.
Figure 4.8: Sealed Lead-Acid Battery
The weight of the batteries is an issue, but cost should take precedence as long as the whole
system is not too heavy. The battery bank should have a long lifetime and be as low cost as
possible. There are four possible states that the battery can be in that will determine what
chargingmechanismis to be used. The quantitative value of each of the thresholds will be
determined by the battery and solar array that is ultimately implemented, but the software
should be able to check and react to the following conditions:
• Off State: When there is little or no power coming from the solar panel, the device should
go into an off state to protect the battery from leaking back into the solar panel.
• On State: When there is minimal power coming from the solar panel, enough to
power the system but not enough to move to the next state, the system turns on and
attempts to deliver all of the power.

• Bulk State: This is the main charging state where the MPPT algorithms will be most
relevant. Here the maximum power point is determined and the battery is charged
accordingly.
• Float State: Once the battery reaches a high enough voltage and is close to fully
charged, the controller should move into the float state. In this state, the goal is
to maintain the voltage level and compensate for self discharge.
Figure 4.9: Block Diagram of MPPT Charge controller

CHAPTER 5
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF KEY PARTS

The whole project is composed of many parts and components but there are some key
components or key parts of the device which make up important working limbs of the project.
These key parts have been described in detail here in this chapter.
5.1 WORKING OF BUCK CONVERTER
A buck converter or voltage regulator is also called a step down regulator since the output
voltage is lower than the input voltage. In a simple example of a buck converter, a diode is
connected in parallel with the input voltage source, a capacitor, and the load, which
represents output voltage. A switch is connected between the input voltage source and the
diode and an inductor is connected between the diode and the capacitor. A pulse width
modulation controller controls the switch. In this project the microcontroller will serve as a
pulse width modulation source.
Design
The first step was to design the buck converter circuit, this is determined by the output
parameters of the system and it’s load. It designed for a 50W solar panel, it was decided to aim
for a 6V output ( battery voltage). When calculating a buck circuit the frequency of operation,
inductor size and output capacitor size are important, as they determine the current and voltage
ripple size. It is desirable to have as smaller current and voltage ripple as possible. A general rule
is the higher the frequency the smaller the size of the inductor and output capacitor, and a smaller
inductor and capacitor size generally lowers the system cost. However higher PWM frequencies
decrease the system efficiency due to switching losses in the mosfets, so a trade off has to be

reached which meets the design constraints of the end system. For this design a PWM frequency
of 50kHz was chosen.
The buck converter consists of:
i. Inductor
ii. Capacitor
iii. MOSFET
Working
There are two states in a buck converter topology. The first state is demonstratedinFigure 4.1.
When the switch is closed the inductor absorbs power as its current increases. Due to
this power absorption the output voltage is higher than the input voltage. The capacitor
current can point in either direction depending on the difference between the inductor current
and load current.
Figure 5.1: Buck converter circuit in ON state
In the next state, Figure 4.2, the switch is open and the diode is turned on. In this state the
inductor is the power supplier to the output side of the circuit. As the energy stored in the
inductor decreases so does its current. The capacitor current can point in either direction
depending on how the inductor current compares to the load current. As the energy stored in

the inductor is used up, the inductor current becomes zero and the inductor current tends to
reverse. The reversal is stopped by the diode. During this time the inductor and the diode part of
the circuit are at rest. The capacitor is now the power supply for the load as it discharges its
energy.
Figure 5.2: Buck converter circuit in OFF state
When the circuit switch receives a PWM signal, the response of the circuit becomes
periodic. In this case it is assumed that the source voltage remains constant with no ripple,
and the frequency of operation is kept fixed with a fixed duty cycle. If the RC time constant due
to the load resistor and the filter capacitor is very large compared to the cycle period of the
switching frequency, the output voltage is more or less constant, with no noticeable ripple. When
both the input voltage and the output voltage are constant, the current through the inductor
rises linearly when the switch is closed and it falls linearly when the switch is open.
Under this condition, the current through the capacitor also varies linearly when it is being
charged or discharged.
5.2 SELECTION OF L and C FOR BUCK CONVERTER
a) Inductor Calculation
In all switching regulator applications, and in our own, the inductor is used as an energy
storage device. When the semiconductor switch is on, the current across the inductor ramps up
and energy is stored within it. When the switch turns off, the energy stored is released into the

load. The inductor’s storage and release of energy in conjunction with the output capacitor is
what accounts for the average output current and voltages resulting in a steady dc output. The
amount of energy stored in an inductor is given by
1 2
LI
2
where L is the inductance in Henrys, and I is the peak value of the inductor current. When
selecting an inductor for a buck converter, as with all switching regulators, the most important
parameters to calculate will be
 Maximum input voltage

 Output voltage
 Switching Frequency
 Maximum ripple current
 Duty Cycle.
Due to the typically high switching frequencies of the controller, inductors with a ferrite
core or equivalent have been recommended, while powdered iron cores are not recommended
due to their high losses at frequencies larger than 100 kHz. Once we obtain the peak inductor
current, ILPEAK, we must take care to make sure that the inductor’s saturation rating meets or
exceeds the calculated value for I LPEAK even though most coil types can operate up to 20% over
their saturation rating without experiencing difficulty. In addition, the inductor should have as
low a series resistance as possible. While in continuous operation mode, the power loss in the
inductor resistance, PLR, is approximated by:
P LR ≅ ¿
where RL is the inductor series resistance.
Now, L= ( Vin-Vout )*D*(1/fsw)*(1/ dI)
Where dI is Ripple current
For a good design typical value of ripple current is in between 30 to 40 % of load current.

Let dI =30% of rated current
dI=30% of 1=0.3 x 1= 0.3A
so L = (15-6)*0.4*(1/50k)*(1/0.3) = 200 µH (approx.)
Inductor peak current =Iout+dI/2 = 1+(0.3/2) = 1.15A = 1.2A (approx.)
b) Capacitor Calculation
The output capacitor ( Cout)= dI / (8*fsw*dV)
Where dV is ripple voltage
Let voltage ripple(dV ) = 20mV
Cout= 0.3/ (8*50000*0.02) = 37.5 µF
By taking some margin, we select 100µF electrolytic capacitor.
5.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC PANEL
Polycrystalline solar panels are the most common type of solar panel in home installations today,
due to their low cost and average power efficiency. In this fabrication process molten silicon is
usually casted and then cooled in a rectangular shape for a more profitable outcome. The block
is then sliced similarly to the mono-crystalline ingot to create the thin solar cells. As the
name implies the ingot is made of multiple crystals resembling pieces of shattered glass
due to the manufacturing process. This process is a faster and a lot easier to implement. As a
result, these types of silicon cells are cheaper and therefore cost less to produce in
comparison to mono-crystalline cells.The lower grade semiconductor used in fabrication and
the imperfections drop the solar cell performance. Efficiency is the main disadvantage of
polycrystalline solar panels. They convert only 10%-14% of the solar energy that hits their
surface. Efficiency for these solar panels drops in comparison to their mono-crystalline
counterpart because of the energy loss at the separation or fusion points between two
adjacent crystals. Polycrystalline panels like mono-crystalline panels perform poorly in

shade or low light conditions.Thesepanels account for most of the market shares in the
solar panel manufacturing industry in the past decade.
Performance
The solar panels inherently are not efficient in converting solar energy into electrical energy.
There are so many factors e.g. effect of irradiation , effect of insolation and effect of temperature,
which affect the performance of solar panel which are described below:
i. Effect of Irradiance: Solar panels are only as effective as the amount of energy they can
produce. Because solar panels rely on conditions that are never constant, the amount of
power extracted from a PV module can be very inconsistent. Irradiance is an important
changing factor for a solar array performance. It is a characteristic that describes the
density of radiation incident on a given surface.
Figure 5.3:Effect of different irradiance levels on a solar panel

In terms of PV modules, irradiance describes the amount of solar energy that is absorbed
by the array over its area. Irradiance is expressed typically in watts per square
metre(W/m2).Given ideal conditions, a solar panel should obtain an irradiance of
100mW/cm2, or 1000W/ m2 ). Unfortunately, this value that is obtained from a solar panel
will vary greatly depending on geographic location, angle of the sun, or the amount of
sun that is blocked from the panel because of any present clouds or haze. Although
artificial lighting can be used to power a solar panel, PV modules derive most of their
energy solely from the energy emitted from the sun. Therefore, changes of irradiance will
greatly affect a PV module’s performance. Figure 4.3 shows the effect of irradiance on
the output of solar panels.Clearly, a smaller level of irradiance will result in a reduced
output. The change in output current is due to the reduced flux of the photons that move
within a cell, as we have discussed when observing the operation of a solar cell. We can
see that the voltage and open circuit voltage is not substantially affected due to changing
levels of irradiance. In fact, the changes made to voltage due to irradiance are often seen
as trivial and independent of the changing flux of photons.
ii. Effect of insolation level:Insolation is closely related to irradiance and refers to the flux of
radiant energy from the sun, taken as power per unit area, whose intensity and spectral
content varies at the earth’s surface due to time of day (position of the sun), season cloud
cover, and moisture content of the air among other factors much like irradiance,
insolation measures how much sunlight energy is delivered to a specific surface area over
a single day. Insolation is typically measured as kilowatt-hours per square meter per day
(kWh/(m2*day)) or in the case of photovoltaic, as kilowatt hours per year per kilowatt
peak rating (kWh/kWp *y). In order to obtain the maximum amount of energy from a PV
module, it should be set up perpendicular with the sun straight overhead, with no clouds
or shade.
Figure 4.4 shows the typical insolation levels across India during peak sun hours. Some
solar panel manufacturers use this scale rather than the average annual peak sun hour
rating because it ensures that their product will deliver reliable and continuous power in
worst-case conditions. Observing this map, we see values varying from 1250 to 2150

kWh/m2. This encompasses the average values that can be considered low and high for
insolation levels, respectively.
Figure 5.4:Annual Insolation Levels in India
iii. Effect of temperature: A PV module’s temperature has a great effect on its performance.
Although the temperature is not as an important factor as the duration and intensity of
sunlight it is very important to observe that at high temperatures, a PV module’s power
output is reduced. The temperature of a PV module also affects its efficiency. In general,

a crystalline silicon PV module’s efficiency will be reduced about 0.5 percent for every
degree C increase in temperature. PV modules are usually rated at module temperatures
of 25°C (77°F) and seem to run about 20°Cover the air temperature. This means that on a
hot day of 100°F, the module will operate at 120°F, or 50°C, and so will have its power
reduced by approximately 12.5%. Figure 4.5 demonstrates the effect of varying
temperature on the output of a solar panel. One can easily see a voltage drop with
increasing heat. The effect of varying temperature does not have a very large effect on the
current developed.
Figur
e 5.5:Effect of Temperature on solar panel power and I-V curves
5.4 BATTERY
Batteries are divided into two main categories: primary (disposable) and secondary
(rechargeable). Today, rechargeable batteries make up over 75% of the global battery market.
Within each of these categories are a plethora of chemistries to choose from, each with

certain advantages and disadvantages. The most prevalent materials used in batteries today are
lithium, lead, and nickel. In addition to battery chemistry, a battery is rated with the
following attributes:voltage, capacity in ampere-hours (Ah), cold cranking amps (CCA),
specific energy, specific power, and C-rate.
Primary batteries have higher energy densities than secondary and are typically used when
recharging is unfeasible. Lithium-metal and alkaline are among the most common primary
battery types and are found in numerous applications from remote controls, watches, and toys,
to name a few. However, off-the-grid photovoltaic systems require recharging so the focus
will be on secondary battery types.
Some of the chemistries used in secondary batteries are: lead-acid, nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd),
nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion. Ni-Cd batteries are an old and mature technology
but are being replaced due to the environmental concerns associated with cadmium. Since
cadmium is a toxic metal, it cannot be disposed of in a normal landfill and should instead be
recycled. NiMH batteries offer some of the advantages of Ni-Cd but without the adverse
environmental effects. Even still, the NiMH battery today has only a small share of the global
battery market because it is not as cheap as lead-acid nor as energy dense as lithium-ion. Thus
for Photovoltaic Charge Controller, the research focus will be on the two most prevalent
battery technologies: lead-acid and lithium-ion. The battery used here is Sealed Lead-Acid
Battery.
Lead-Acid Battery
Though numerous rechargeable batteries exist, the most commonly used battery in PV systems is
the deep-cycle lead-acid battery. This is mainly because of the price to power ratio is superior to
all other types and due to the fact that this is a proven technology.Thereare three types of lead-
acid batteries: starting, deep-cycle, and marine. The starting lead-acid is your typical automotive
battery used to start a car. This type of battery has many thin plates of lead (high surface area)
which allows for a high current output. These batteries are great for applications where a
large current is needed for a very short time, but for deep-cycle applications this type of battery
has a very short lifespan. The deep-cycle lead-acid battery has thicker lead plates which allow
this type of battery to be discharged and recharged many times without degradation. One

drawback is the fact that there is lower surface area between the lead plates and the acid
electrolyte meaning smaller current. Though the deep-cycle lead-acid is designed to be
discharged to 20% capacity, the battery will last longer if the charge never falls below 50%. A
marine lead-acid battery falls somewhere in between the automotive and deep-cycle. The
lead plates are thinner than deep-cycle yet thicker than a starting battery which gives it better
current output and shorter lifetime when used in deep-cycle applications.
In the domain of deep-cycle lead-acid batteries there are three types of battery construction:
flooded, gel, and absorbed glass mat (AGM). Flooded lead cidsare the cheapest and most
common construction type. The electrolyte in this type of battery (30% sulfuric acid, 70% water)
is in a liquid form. This allows for spilling and evaporation of the electrolyte, which shortens
lifetime and is dangerous. The gel type batteries use a thickening agent to hold the
electrolyte in place. This prevents leakage in the event that the case is damaged. This type of
battery is sealed, which means that in the event that a significant amount of electrolyte is
evaporated, it cannot be re-filled.
Absorbed glass mat lead-acid batteries are by far the most advantageous of the three types of
construction. AGMs have Boron-Silicate fibers embedded in the electrolyte which prevents
leakage even if the case is breached. In addition, the fact that this type of battery is sealed
and pressurized forces Hydrogen and Oxygen to recombine into water while charging, thus
greatly reducing water lost due to evaporation. They have a very slow self-discharge rate and are
resistant to shock and vibration damage. The main disadvantage to AGMs is that they
usually cost two to three times that of a flooded lead-acid of the same capacity.
Battery charging Algorithms
Though the specific charging algorithms for each battery chemistry are different, they all have
the same general charge stages in common.
In thefirst stage, called bulk charging, a constant current is applied to the battery. The charging
voltage can range from about 5.5V to 7V, the only requirement being that the charging
voltage must be set higher than the current battery voltage. Bulk charging is the stage used
for a completely discharged battery to around 80 – 90% capacity. In PMCC, the battery
bank will use 6Vnominal battery voltage. A typical battery can be considered “fully

discharged” when the voltage reaches 5.5V. At this time, little power can be extracted from the
battery and discharging below this level can permanently ruin a battery. The MPPT charge
controller will contribute to improved efficiency of PMCC primarily in the bulk charging stage.
The second stage, called absorption charging, begins immediately after the bulk charging stage
(when the battery voltage reaches a pre-determined limit). In this stage, the charging voltage is
held at a constant value and current decreases as the internal resistance of the battery
increases. As the battery reaches full capacity, the current tapers off due to the increased
internal resistance. When the current drops below a certain level, typically 0.5% of the batteryʼs
rated capacity (.05A for a 10Ah battery), it is considered fully charged.
The final stage in a typical three-stage charging process is called the float charging stage.
In this stage the charging voltage is set to a constant value but at a lower level than the
absorption stage. The float stage compensates for selfdischarge, or gradual loss of voltage
(power) over time, which plagues all battery chemistries. This stage maintains full charge by
“topping off” the battery, keeping it at 100% capacity.
Lead-Acid charging
Charging a lead-acid battery is best done using a three-stage process, shown graphically in
Figure 4.7. The first stage is a constant current stage. For the 6V nominal battery bank, which
will be utilized in PMCC, a voltage between 6.2V and 6.9V will be optimal. The exact voltage
will be found by using the MPPT algorithm to track the maximum power point. The
corresponding current and voltage will be set at this MPP so that the most power can be
delivered to the battery during this bulk charging phase. When the battery reaches 80% capacity,
each cell has a voltage of about 2.07 V while the entire battery has a voltage of approximately
6.21V. When this voltage level has been reached, the next stage of the charging process will take
over: the topping charge (absorption) stage.

Figure 5.6: Charging diagram for a typical lead-acid battery
The topping charge phase sets a constant voltage instead of using a constant current. In
this stage, the voltage per cell should be set to 2.385V which is around 7.1V for a 6V nominal
battery at a temperature of 25°C. This voltage value is held until the current drops to a value
of 0.5% of the battery capacity. At this point, the third and final stage of the charging
algorithm commences: the floating charge stage. In this stage, the voltage is again set to a
constant value, but is set to a value lower than used in the absorption phase. The voltage in this
stage is set to around 7V at a battery temperature of 25°C for a 6V lead-acid battery. The float
charge stage offsets the losses due to self-discharge, maintaining the battery at full charge.

CHAPTER 6
EXPLANATION OF MPPT METHOD
6.1 PERTURB & OBSERVE METHOD
The major objective of power point tracking is to extract the maximum amount of power from
the photovoltaic array as possible. Choosing an MPPT algorithm that will realize this goal is
essential to efficient operation and system health. Conceptually, the incremental
conductance method would be more efficient because it is able to identify the precise
maximum power point and does not oscillate around it as the perturb and observe
algorithm does. However, some studies show that in implementation, these two methods
operate at almost the same efficiency. The increased complexity of the incremental
conductance method, and its increased computation time, are not justified through sizable
gains in power.
An extremely simple alternative is the constant voltage method. Although it takes very little
computational power, it also contributes significant losses during the time it takes to
determine the open circuit voltage. The current is set to zero for a short period in order to
measure this voltage and is extremely inefficient. Furthermore, this process is repeated
based on the designated cycle time. In addition, by designating a static value for the
operating voltage the system cannot possibly function at the maximum power point
because this value is based on an approximation.
Ultimately the perturb and observe method will be implemented due to its balance
between the relative simplicity of design and overall efficiency.The microcontroller will
compute the power and continuously adjust the operating voltage based on the result. This
process will run continuously as long as the system is powered on.
P&O is one of the most discussed and used algorithms for MPPT. The algorithm involves
introducing a perturbation in the panel operating voltage. Modifying the panel voltage is done by
modifying the converter duty cycle. The way this is done becomes important for some converter
topologies.

Figure: 6.1: Block diagram of Perturb & Observe method
Looking at Figure 4.8 makes it easy to understand that decreasing voltage on the right side of the
MPP increases power. Also, increasing voltage on the left side of the MPP increases power. This
is the main idea behind P&O. After performing an increase in the panel operating voltage, the
algorithm compares the current power reading with the previous one. If the power has increased,
it keeps the same direction (increase voltage), otherwise it changes direction (decrease voltage).
This process is repeated at each MPP tracking step until the MPP is reached.
One of the disadvantages of the perturb and observe method is that based on thealgorithm, the
system will continue to oscillate around the maximum power point. This can lead to
inefficiencies, especially in situations when the irradiance is low and the power-voltage curve
begins to flatten out. When this occurs, the perturb and observe method can sometimes have
difficulty determining when it has actually reached the maximum power point. In addition
sometimes this algorithm will perform several iterations in the wrong direction if it is
affected by rapidly changing conditions. However, the perturb and observe method is
widely recognized as the most common method for maximum power point tracking
because of its simple design.To be able to implement P&O MPPT, the application needs to
measure the panel voltage and current. While implementations that use only one sensor exist,

they take advantage of certain hardware specifics, so a general purpose implementation will still
need twosensors.
Figure: 6.2: Circuit diagram of the Charge controller.

CHAPTER 7
COST ANALYSIS
Table 7.1: Cost Analysis of various components
S.No. Component Price

1 Microcontroller Rs 900
2 PV Panel 10W Rs 1000
3 MOSFET Rs 100
4 Driver IC Rs 80
5 Buck Converter Rs 80
6 Current Sensor Rs 325
7 Other Components Rs 150
It is observed the cost of solar watts per rupee is very high for low power PV Panel thus, making
the use MPPT charge controller uneconomical for low power PV Panel. However, for high
power PV panel MPPT charge controller is very economical.

CHAPTER 8
ADVANTAGES
1) MPPT Charge Controllers or Maximum Power Point Tracking Charge Controllers are a
type of charge controllers that track the power for the maximum power point.
2) Maximum power point could be understood as an ideal voltage at which the maximum
power is delivered to the loads, with minimum losses.
3) As current flows from a high potential to low potential, the steeper the gradient or voltage
difference, the greater is the flow of current.
4) By lowering the current by introducing some resistance in the path of the current, the
MPPT charge controller can boost up the voltage
5) This type of solar charge controllers come pre-programmed with adjustable set-
pointswhich can be edited and adjusted according to your needs.

CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE

The use of MPPT technique in charge controller has greatly increased the output power extracted
from the PV panel but, due to losses in buck converter circuit the desired output levels were not
achieved.Further improvement in the output can be achieved by following changes in controller:
 Use of synchronous buck converter:

The synchronous design simply replaces the diode with a second MOSFET, this
eliminates the losses incurred by the forward voltage drop across the diode, thus making
the circuit more efficient. This is slightly more complex to implement, as the second
MOSFET switching needs to be carefully timed with the switching of the first MOSFET.

Figure 8.1: Various losses in Buck converter
It is essential to ensure that both are never on at the same time, or the current will have a direct
path to ground, effectively causing a short circuit. The MOSFET switching is effectively 180
degrees out of phase, with a short delay period between each transition referred to as a Dead-
Band.
From the figure it is seen that replacing diode with a MOSFET reduces power loss considerably.
A typical buck converter can attain maximum efficiency of 79 % using Schottky diode as
freewheeling diode. Using a MOSFET improves efficiency of buck converter up to 90%.
Figure 8.2: synchronous buck converter
 Using P-Channel MOSFET:

The buck converter is using a P-Channel MOSFET for switching which has high on
resistance RDS resulting in higher losses. N-channel MOSFET has lower R DS which
reduces the power losses to a considerable level. But driving N-channel MOSFET is
slightly complex as compared to P-Channel MOSFET as a High Side switch. To achieve
proper switching a proper synchronous driver IC such as IRF2104P is required.

 Buck converter for Power Supply:

Replacing LM7805 linear regulator with a dc-dc adjustable buck converter reduces power
losses in the supply to the microcontroller and current sensors.
 Protection Circuit:
For overcurrent protection fuse of proper rating can be selected.
For overvoltage and reverse polarity protection MBR2045 diode can be used at the
battery terminals and PV panel terminal.
 Heat sinks:
MOSFET during operation produce large amount of heat which may damage the
components thus heat sinks are used to maintain the ambient temperature of the
MOSFET.


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MPPT BASED PV PANEL CHARGE CONTROLLER AND SUN TRACKING SOLAR PANEL

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 1

Figure 1.1 Block Diagram

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 2

1- DC-DC Buck Converter

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 3

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 5

Figure 3.1: Arduino Nano

Table 3.1: Specifications of Arduino Nano

Microcontroller Atmel ATmega328

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 6

Figure 3.2: IRF9540NMosfet

Table 3.2: Specifications of MOSFET

Parameter Symbol Rating

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c.Transistor (BC547, BC557)

Figure 3.3(a) BC557 PNP Transistor

Figure 3.3(b) BC547 NPN Transistor

Table 3.3:Specifications of Transistors

Rating Symbol BC547 BC557 Unit

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 8

d. Hall Effect Current Sensor (ACS-712)

Figure 3.4 Hall Effect Current Sensor

Table 3.4:Specification of Hall Effect Current Sensor

Characteristic Symbol Rating Unit

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 9

e. Voltage Regulator (LM-7805T)

Figure 3.5 Voltage Regulator

f. Schottky Diode (IN5819)

Figure 3.6 Schottky Diode IN5819

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 10

Table 3.5:Specifications of Schottky Diode

Rating Symbol Maximum Unit

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 11

Figure 4.1:PV Panel charge controller

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4.1 SOLAR PANEL

How Solar Cells Work

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Figure 4.2: Solar cell operation

4.2 VOLTAGE SENSING

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Figure 4.3:Voltage measurement using Voltage divider

4.3 CURRENT SENSING

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Figure 4.4: Hall effect current sensor

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 16

Figure 4.5:WorkingHall effect sensor

4.4 BUCK CONVERTER

A buck converter is basically a DC to DC converter. The main principle at work in a buck

Figure 4.6: Buck Converter Circuit Diagram

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 17

Figure 4.7: Microcontroller interfacing with peripherals

low-cost, low-power, small. Arduino is a single-board microcontroller, consisting of an

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 18

Figure 4.8: Sealed Lead-Acid Battery

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Figure 4.9: Block Diagram of MPPT Charge controller

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 20

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF KEY PARTS

5.1 WORKING OF BUCK CONVERTER

Department Of Electrical And Electronic Engineering,SRMGPC,LUCKNOW Page 21

The buck converter consists of:

Now, L= ( Vin-Vout )D(1/fsw)*(1/ dI)

so L = (15-6)0.4(1/50k)*(1/0.3) = 200 µH (approx.)

The output capacitor ( Cout)= dI / (8fswdV)

Cout= 0.3/ (8500000.02) = 37.5 µF