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BTCOC701
Knowledge-Based Agent:
o An intelligent agent needs knowledge about the real world for taking decisions and reasoning to
act efficiently.
o Knowledge-based agents are those agents who have the capability of maintaining an internal
state of knowledge, reason over that knowledge, update their knowledge after observations
and take actions. These agents can represent the world with some formal representation
and act intelligently.
o Inference system.
The above diagram is representing a generalized architecture for a knowledge-based agent. The
knowledge-based agent (KBA) take input from the environment by perceiving the environment. The
input is taken by the inference engine of the agent and which also communicate with KB to decide
as per the knowledge store in KB. The learning element of KBA regularly updates the KB by
learning new knowledge.
A knowledge-based agent can be viewed at different levels which are given below:
1. Knowledge level
Knowledge level is the first level of knowledge-based agent, and in this level, we need to specify what
the agent knows, and what the agent goals are. With these specifications, we can fix its behavior. For
example, suppose an automated taxi agent needs to go from a station A to station B, and he knows the
way from A to B, so this comes at the knowledge level.
2. Logical level:
At this level, we understand that how the knowledge representation of knowledge is stored. At this
level, sentences are encoded into different logics. At the logical level, an encoding of knowledge into
logical sentences occurs. At the logical level we can expect to the automated taxi agent to reach to the
destination B.
3. Implementation level:
This is the physical representation of logic and knowledge. At the implementation level agent perform
actions as per logical and knowledge level. At this level, an automated taxi agent actually implement his
knowledge and logic so that he can reach to the destination.
Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human knows things, which
is knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various actions in the real world. But how
machines do all these things comes under knowledge representation and reasoning. Hence we can
describe Knowledge representation as following:
o Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial intelligence which
concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.
What to Represent:
o Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains strings, trumpets
are brass instruments.
o Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
o Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to do things.
o Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
o Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
o Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is the knowledge base.
It is represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the Sentences (Here, sentences are
used as a technical term and not identical with the English language).
Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by experiences of facts, data, and situations.
Following are the types of knowledge in artificial intelligence:
2. Procedural Knowledge
3. Meta-knowledge:
4. Heuristic knowledge:
There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:
1. Logical Representation
2. Semantic Network Representation
3. Frame Representation
4. Production Rules
1. Logical Representation
Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with propositions and has no
ambiguity in representation. Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on various
conditions. This representation lays down some important communication rules. It consists of precisely
Syntax:
o Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in the logic.
o It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.
o How to write those symbols.
Semantics:
o Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.
o Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.
a. Propositional Logics
b. Predicate logics
1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work with. 2. Logical
representation technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be so efficient.
Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In Semantic
networks, we can represent our knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This network consists of
nodes representing objects and arcs which describe the relationship between those objects. Semantic
networks can categorize the object in different forms and can also link those objects. Semantic networks
are easy to understand and can be easily extended.
a. Jerry is a cat.
b. Jerry is a mammal
c. Jerry is owned by Priya.
d. Jerry is brown colored.
e. All Mammals are animal.
In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the form of nodes and arcs.
Each object is connected with another object by some relation.
1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse the complete
network tree to answer some questions. It might be possible in the worst case scenario that after
traversing the entire tree, we find that the solution does not exist in this network.
2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and links) to store
the information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic network. 3. These
types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent quantifier, e.g., for all, for
some, none, etc.
4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.
3. Frame Representation
A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its values to describe an
entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into substructures by
representing stereotypes situations. It consists of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be
of any type and sizes. Slots have names and values which are called facets.
Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets are features of frames which enable us
to put constraints on the frames. Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called when data of any particular slot
is needed. A frame may consist of any number of slots, and a slot may include any number of facets and
facets may have any number of values. A frame is also known as slot-filter knowledge representation
in artificial intelligence.
Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-day classes and objects. A
single frame is not much useful. Frames system consist of a collection of frames which are connected. In
the frame, knowledge about an object or event can be stored together in the knowledge base. The frame
is a type of technology which is widely used in various applications including Natural language
processing and machine visions.
Example: 1
Year 1996
Page 1152
Slots Filter
Name Peter
Profession Doctor
Age 25
Weight 78
1. The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping the related data.
2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in AI. 3. It is very
easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.
4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.
5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.
4. Production Rules
Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If condition then action". It
has mainly three parts:
The working memory contains the description of the current state of problems-solving and rule can write
knowledge to the working memory. This knowledge match and may fire other rules.
If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production rules will be fired together, this is
called conflict set. In this situation, the agent needs to select a rule from these sets, and it is called a
conflict resolution.
Example:
o IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)
o IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit down).
o IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).
o IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the bus).
1. Production rule system does not exhibit any learning capabilities, as it does not store the result of
the problem for the future uses.
2. During the execution of the program, many rules may be active hence rule-based production
systems are inefficient.
d) 5 is a prime number.
⮚ In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can use any
symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
⮚ The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic. ⮚
⮚A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a valid
sentence.
⮚A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called
⮚ Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions such as "Where is
Rohini", "How are you", "What is your name", are not propositions.
a. Atomic Propositions
b. Compound propositions
o Atomic Proposition:
Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a single proposition symbol.
These are the sentences which must be either true or false.
Example:
o Compound proposition:
Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler or atomic propositions, using
parenthesis and logical connectives.
Example:
Logical Connectives:
Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or representing a sentence logically.
We can create compound propositions with the help of logical connectives. There are mainly five
connectives, which are given as follows:
1. Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be either Positive literal
or negative literal.
Truth Table:
In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all possible scenarios. We
can combine all the possible combination with logical connectives, and the representation of these
combinations in a tabular format is called Truth table. Following are the truth table for all logical
connectives:
ASST
PROF:- S.B.MEHTA NCER, BATU UNIVERSITY, LONERE
Logical equivalence:
Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two propositions are said to be
logically equivalent if and only if the columns in the truth table are identical to each other.
Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical equivalence, we can write it as A⇔B. In below truth
table we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are identical hence A is Equivalent to B
Properties of Operators:
o Commutativity:
o P∧ Q= Q ∧ P, or
o P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P.
o Associativity:
o (P ∧ Q) ∧ R= P ∧ (Q ∧ R),
o (P ∨ Q) ∨ R= P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
o Identity element:
o P ∧ True = P,
o P ∨ True= True.
o Distributive:
o P∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).
o P ∨ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R).
o DE Morgan's Law:
o ¬ (P ∧ Q) = (¬P) ∨ (¬Q)
o ¬ (P ∨ Q) = (¬ P) ∧ (¬Q).
o Double-negation elimination:
o ¬ (¬P) = P.
o We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic. Example:
To represent the above statements, PL logic is not sufficient, so we required some more powerful logic,
such as first-order logic.
First-Order logic:
o First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. It is an
extension to propositional logic.
o FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a concise way. o
First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic. First-order logic
is a powerful language that develops information about the objects in a more easy way and can also
express the relationship between those objects.
o First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world contains facts like
propositional logic but also assumes the following things in the world:
o Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits, wumpus, ...... o
Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or n-any relation such
as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes between
o Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......
o As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:
a. Syntax
o Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic. These sentences are formed
from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with a sequence of terms.
o We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......, term n).
Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay). Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).
Complex Sentences:
Universal Quantifier:
Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which specifies that the statement within
its range is true for everything or every instance of a particular thing.
The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles an inverted A.
Note: In universal quantifier we use implication "→".
If x is a variable, then ∀x is read as:
o For all x
o For each x
o For every x.
Example:
All man drink coffee.
Let a variable x which refers to a cat so all x can be represented in UOD as below:
Existential Quantifier:
Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that the statement within its scope is
true for at least one instance of something.
It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E. When it is used with a
predicate variable then it is called as an existential quantifier.
Note: In Existential quantifier we always use AND or Conjunction symbol (∧).
If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as:
o There exists a 'x.'
o For some 'x.'
o For at least one 'x.'
Example:
Some boys are intelligent.
ASST PROF:- S.B.MEHTA NCER, BATU UNIVERSITY, LONERE
Points to remember:
∙ The main connective for universal quantifier ∀ is implication →. ∙
The main connective for existential quantifier ∃ is and ∧.
Properties of Quantifiers:
∙ In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.
∙ In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.
∙ ∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.
In this topic, we will understand the Knowledge engineering process in an electronic circuit domain,
which is already familiar. This approach is mainly suitable for creating special-purpose knowledge
base.
At the first level or highest level, we will examine the functionality of the circuit:
At the second level, we will examine the circuit structure details such as:
For gate input, we will use the function In(1, X1) for denoting the first input terminal of the gate, and for
output terminal we will use Out (1, X1).
The function Arity(c, i, j) is used to denote that circuit c has i input, j output.
The connectivity between gates can be represented by predicate Connect(Out(1, X1), In(1,
X1)). We use a unary predicate On (t), which is true if the signal at a terminal is on.
o If two terminals are connected then they have the same input signal, it can be represented as:
∀ t1, t2 Terminal (t1) ∧ Terminal (t2) ∧ Connect (t1, t2) → Signal (t1) = Signal (2). o
Signal at every terminal will have either value 0 or 1, it will be represented as:
For the given circuit C1, we can encode the problem instance in atomic sentences as below:
1. Since in the circuit there are two XOR, two AND, and one OR gate so atomic sentences for the
For XOR gate: Type(x1)= XOR, Type(X2) = XOR
2. For AND gate: Type(A1) = AND, Type(A2)= AND
3. For OR gate: Type (O1) = OR.
What should be the combination of input which would generate the first output of circuit C1, as 0 and a
second output to be 1?
1. ∃ i1, i2, i3 Signal (In(1, C1))=i1 ∧ Signal (In(2, C1))=i2 ∧ Signal (In(3, C1))= i3 2.
∧ Signal (Out(1, C1)) =0 ∧ Signal (Out(2, C1))=1
Substitution:
Substitution is a fundamental operation performed on terms and formulas. It occurs in all inference
systems in first-order logic. The substitution is complex in the presence of quantifiers in FOL. If we
write F[a/x], so it refers to substitute a constant "a" in place of variable "x".
Note: First-order logic is capable of expressing facts about some or all objects in the
universe Equality:
First-Order logic does not only use predicate and terms for making atomic sentences but also uses
another way, which is equality in FOL. For this, we can use equality symbols which specify that the two
terms refer to the same object.
As in the above example, the object referred by the Brother (John) is similar to the object referred by
Smith. The equality symbol can also be used with negation to represent that two terms are not the same
objects.
Example: ¬(x=y) which is equivalent to x ≠y.
o Universal Instantiation
o Existential Instantiation
o Existential introduction
1. Universal Generalization:
o Universal generalization is a valid inference rule which states that if premise P(c) is true for any
arbitrary element c in the universe of discourse, then we can have a conclusion as ∀ x P(x). o It can
be represented as: .
o This rule can be used if we want to show that every element has a similar property.
o In this rule, x must not appear as a free variable.
Example: Let's represent, P(c): "A byte contains 8 bits", so for ∀ x P(x) "All bytes contain 8 bits.", it
will also be true.
2. Universal Instantiation:
o Universal instantiation is also called as universal elimination or UI is a valid inference rule. It can
be applied multiple times to add new sentences.
o The new KB is logically equivalent to the previous KB.
o As per UI, we can infer any sentence obtained by substituting a ground term for the variable.
o The UI rule state that we can infer any sentence P(c) by substituting a ground term c (a constant
within domain x) from ∀ x P(x) for any object in the universe of discourse.
Example:1.
IF "Every person like ice-cream"=> ∀x P(x) so we can infer that "John likes ice-cream" => P(c)
Example: 2.
So from this information, we can infer any of the following statements using Universal Instantiation:
3. Existential Instantiation:
o Existential instantiation is also called as Existential Elimination, which is a valid inference rule in
first-order logic.
o It can be applied only once to replace the existential sentence.
o The new KB is not logically equivalent to old KB, but it will be satisfiable if old KB was
satisfiable.
o This rule states that one can infer P(c) from the formula given in the form of ∃x P(x) for a new
constant symbol c.
o The restriction with this rule is that c used in the rule must be a new term for which P(c ) is true.
Example:
So we can infer: Crown(K) ∧ OnHead( K, John), as long as K does not appear in the knowledge base.
4. Existential introduction
represented as:
o Example: Let's say that,
"Priyanka got good marks in English."
"Therefore, someone got good marks in English."
(Subject In-charge)
Prof.S.B.Mehta)