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CONTENTS
~ Current Affairs 5-32

INDIAN HISTORY 1-123

Ancient India
The Early Man (1), Indus Valley Civilisation (3), The Aryan and the Vedic
Age (7), Pre-Mauryan Age (12), Magadha Empire (14), Jainism (17),
Buddhism (19), The Mauryan Empire (22), Post-Mauryan Period (25), The Age
of the Guptas (28}, Gupta Administration (30), The Harsha Period {33), Sangam
Age (37)

Medieval India
The Rajputs (40), The Delhi Sultanate (43), Vijayanagara Kingdom (AD 1336-1580)
(51), Religious Movements (54), The Mughal Empire (57), The Maratha Age (67)

Modern India
Advent of the Europeans (70), Phases of Economic Policy (75), Revolt of 1857
(76), Governor-Generals of Bengal (78), Growth of Modern Education in India
(83), Social and Cultural Uprisings (84), The Indian National Movement (89),
Important National Leaders (102)

Art and Culture of India

Religion (110}, Literature (111}, Music (112), Dance (114)

World History
Important Wars of the 20th Century {121)

GEOGRAPHY 124-229
World Geography
Universe (125), Solar System (126), The Moon (130), The Earth (131),
Earthquakes (139), Volcanism (140), Rocks (142), Landforms (143),
Atmosphere (144), Climate and Weather (154), Hydrosphere (158),
Movements of Oceanic Water (161), Continents of the World (164)

Indian Geography
Drainage System of India {181), The Climate of lndia(186), Forest and
Natural Vegetation (189}, Agriculture in India (192), Green Revolution (193},
Mineral Resources (195), Energy (198), Transport (199}, Major Tribes of
India (204), States/UTs of India (208}

Ecology and Environment

Pollution (221), Biodiversity (222), Biosphere Reserves of India {225),
Glossary (227)

INDIAN POLITY 230-288

Constitution of India {230), The Preamble (238), Union and Its Territory (239),
Citizenship (240), Fundamental Rights (241), Directive Principles of
 State Policy {246), Fundamental Duties {248), Union Executive {249),
President {249), Prime Minister {255), Union Council of Ministers (256),
Members of Parliament (258), Supreme Court (263}, States Executive (266),
State Legislature {268), Panchayati Raj {275), Municipalities (Articles 243P-243ZG)
{275), Union Public Service Commission (UPSC} {278), Constitutional
Amendments (282), Glossary {286)

INDIAN ECONOMY 289-347

Introduction of Economics {289}, National Income of India (290},
Methods of Measuring National Income (291), Strategies of Planning (295),
Demography (300), Poverty (302), Unemployment (304), Rural Development
Programmes (306), Agriculture (314), Industry {319), Insurance Sector (332},
Indian Financial System (334), Union Budget (338}, Finance Commission (340),
Int ernational Economic Organisations (341), Glossary (344)

GENERAL SCIENCE 348-477

Physics
Units (348), Newton's Laws of Motion (351), Work, Energy and Power (354),
Gravitation (355), Satellite (356), General Properties of Matter (357),
Density and Relative Density (358), Wave Motion (361), Sound Wave (362},
Heat (363), Light (366), Electricity (370), Atomic and Nuclear Physics (374),
Radioactivity (3 75), Nanotechnology {3 76)

Chemistry
Matter and Its States {382), Atomic Structure {386), Radioactivity {389), Acids,
Bases and Salts (398), Electrochemistry {400}, Battery (401), Carbon and Its
Compounds (402), Energy Resources {404), Air, Water (408}, Important
Points {413)

Biology
The Cell (414), Biomolecules {417), Biological Evolution {420), Systems of
Human Body {424), Diseases {440), Genetics {449), Biotechnology (451),
Botany (454), Agriculture {458), Anima l Husbandry {462)

Computer
Types of Computer {466), Components of Computer {467), Networking {470),
Internet (471), Glossary (476), Abbreviations (477)

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE 478-559

Fi rst in World {Male) (478), Superlatives of the World {480), Countries with
Capitals and Currencies (482), Geographical Epithets (483), Major Newspapers
of the World (486), First in India {Male) (488), UNESCO World Heritage Sites in
India {494), Famous Tourist Spots of India {495), Important Dates and Days of
the Year (503), Abbreviations (505), Books and their Authors (509), United
Nations {515), Sports {520), Other Sports {526), Principle Languages of
India (531), National Insignia of India (532), Indian Defence (533), Defence
Research in India {535), India's Atomic Research (539), Space Programme
of India (540), Awards and Honours (545), National Awards (550),
Fi lm Awards (555)
 Current
Affaris
NATIONAL
UNION BUDGET 2023-24
Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman
presented Union Budget 2023-24 on
February 1, 2023.
7 Priorities of Budget
1. Inclusive Development
2. Reaching the Last Mile
3. lntrastructure & Investment
4. Unleashing the Potential
5. Financial Sector
6. Green Growth
7. Youth Power
Highlights
e The capital expenditu re is almost 3
times of the capital expenditure in FY
2019-20.
° Fiscal Deficit estimated to be 5.9% of
GDP in BE 2023-24.
0 Tax exemption up to~ 7 lakh/year is
under new tax regime.
e Agriculture Credit Target to be
increased to~ 20 lakh crore.
0 PM Vishwa Karma Kaushal Samman: For
the first time package of assistance for
traditional artisans and craftspeople
has been conceptualised .
0 New sub scheme of PM Matsya
Sampada Yojana, with targeted
investment of~ 6000 crore, to further
enable activities of fishermen, fi sh
vendors and micro and sma ll
entrepreneurs, improve value cha in
efficiencies and expand the market.
0
A capital outlay of~ 2.40 lakh crore
has been provided for the Railways.
0 This highest ever outlay is about 9
times the outlay made in 2013- 14.
• Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman
increased allocation to Defence Budget
to~ 593537.64 crore for 2023-24 from
last years allocation of~ 5.25 lakh crore.
° For 2022-23, the budgetary allocation
for capital outlay was~ 1.52 lakh crore
but the revised estimate showed the
expenditure at~ 1.50 lakh crore.
0 A separate amount of~ 138205 crore
has been allocated for defence
pensions.
0
A one-time new small savings
scheme, Mahila Samman Savings
Certificate, will be made available for a
two-year period up to March 2025.
0
This will offer deposit facility upto
~ 2 lakh in the name of women or girls
for a tenor of 2 years at fixed interest
rate of 7.5% with a partia l withdrawal
option.
0 157 new nursing colleges to be
established in colocation with existin g
157 medical colleges set-up since
2014.
0 National Digital Library for Children and
Adolescents to be set up for facilitating
availabilrty of quality books across
languages, geographies and genres.
° For business establishments required
to have Permanent Account Number,
the PAN will be used as a common
identifier for all Digital Systems of
specified government agencies.

o Aspirational Blocks programme
covering 500 blocks has been
launched for saturation of
government programmes; PM
Primitive Vulnerable Tribal Groups
Development Mission is being
launched to improve conditions of
vulnerable tribal groups.
0
Outlay for PM Awas Yojana is being
enhanced by 66% to over~ 79000
crore.
o 100 labs for developing applications
using 5G seNices to be set-up in
engineering institutions, to realise
new range of opportunities, business
models and employment potential.
0
National Green Hydrogen Mission
with outlay of~ 19700 crore will
facilitate transition to economy to
low carbon intensity, our target is to
reach annual production of 5 MMT
by 2030.
o Phase 3 of e-courts project to be
launched with outlay of~ 7000 crore,
for efficient administration of justice.
0
Government to provide higher limit
of~ 2 lakh per member for cash
deposit and loans by Primary
Agricultural Credit Societies.
Some Notable Achievements
0
11.7 crore household toilets under
Swachh Bharat Mission
0
9.6 crore LPG connect ions under
Ujjawala
a 220 crore Covid vaccination of
102 crore persons
a 47.8 crore PM Jan Ohan ba nk
accounts
0
Insurance cover for 44.6 crore
persons under PM Suraksha Bima
and PM Jeevan Jyoti Yojana
o Cash transfer of ~ 2.2 lakh crore to
over 11 .4 crore fa rmers under
PM Kisan Samman Nidhi
Current Affairs
ECONOMIC SURVEY 2022-23
The Economic SuNey 2022-23 was tabled
by Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman in
Parliament on January 31, 2023.
Key Features
o India's GDP growth is expected to remain
robust in FY23 at 7% (in real terms).
C!l The GDP forecast for FY24 to be in t he
range of 6-6.8%.
C!l The Gross Tax Revenue registered a
Year-on-Year (YoY) growth of 15.5%
from April to November 2022.
C!l Centra l & State Government's budgeted
expendit ure on health sector touched
2.2% of GDP in FY22 (R8.
C!l Social sector expendi t ure increases to
~ 21 .3 lakh crore in FY23 (BE) from ~ 9.1
lakh crore in FYl 6.
C!l India declared the Net Zero Pledge to
achieve net zero emissions goal by
2070.
C!l India achieved its ta rget of 40%
installed electric capacity from
non-fossil fuels ahead of 2030.
o National Green Hydrogen Mission to
enable India to be energy independent
by 2047.
o Private investment in ag ri culture
increases to 9.3% in 2020-21.
C!l Institutional Credit to the Agricultural
Sector continued to grow to 18.6 la kh
crore in 2021-22.
0
Overall Gross Value Added (GVA) by the
Industrial Sector (for the first half of
FY 22-23) rose 3.7%.
o The seNices sector is expected to grow
at 9. 1% in FY23, as against 8.4% (YoY) in
FY22.
Cil India's share in world commercia l
seNices exports increasing from 3% in
2015 to 4% in 2021.
C!l India is the largest recipient of
remittances in the world receiving
$ 100 bn in 2022.
Current Affairs
74th Republic Day 2023 Celebrated
India celebrated its 74th Republic Day
on 26 January, 2023. This year's parade
was special with many events taking
place for the first time.
It was the first time that the President of
the Arab Republic of Egypt, Abdel
Fanah el-Sisi, had been invited as the
chief guest on the Republic Day.
For the first time, 12 women riders were
part of the Border Security Force's (BSF)
camel contingent and 16 march
contingents of the armed forces. The
formations like 'Bheem' and 'Vajrang'
showcased over the Kartavya Path for
the first time.
During the Beating Retreat Ceremony
2023, 3D anamorphic projection was
held for the first time on the facade of
North and South Block.
World's First Intranasal
COVID19 Vaccine Unveiled
Union Health Minister Dr. Mansukh
Mandaviya unveiled world's first
intranasal COVID-19 vaccine,
iNNCOVACC in New Delhi on
January 26, 2023.
It is developed by Bharat Biotech
International Limited (BBIL) in
collaboration with Biotechnology
Industry Research Assistance (BIRAC).
iNCOVACC has been priced at t 325 per
dose. Bharat Biotech's intranasal
COVID-19 vaccine is a recombinant
replicating adenovirus vectored vaccine.
Government Launched U-WIN
After the success of the Co-WIN
platform, the government has now
replicated it to set-up an electronic
registry for routine vaccinations U-WIN
on January 25, 2023.
Named U-WIN has been launched in a
pilot mode in two districts of each state
and Union Territory. It is the programme
to digitise India's Universal
Immunisation Programme (UIP).
Moidams' Nominated for
UNESCO World Heritage Site
PM Narendra Modi has selected the
'Pyramids of Assam' as the country's sole
nomination for the UNESCO World
Heritage Site out of 52 heritage sites on
January 24, 2023.
The Ahom-era 'Moidams' (cemetery of
the royal family) in Assam's Charaideo
district will be India's only nomination
for recognition as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
21 Andaman Islands Named after
Param Vir Chakra Awardees
Prime Minister Narendra Modi on
January 23, 2003 named the 21 largest
unnamed islands of the Andaman &
Nicobar Islands after 21 Param Vir
Chakra awardees.
The 21 Param Vir Chakra winners named
after these islands are: Major Somnath
Sharma, Subedar and Honorary Captain
(then Lance Naik) Karam Singh, MM,
Second Lieutenant Ram Raghoba Rane,
Naik Jadunath Singh, Company Havildar
Major Piru Singh, Capt GS Salaria etc.
Brand Guardianship Index 2023
Released
Billionaire Mukesh Ambani ranked No. l
among Indians and second globally on
the Brand Guardianship Index 2023,
published on January 20, 2023.
He has overtaken the likes of Satya
Nadella of Microsoft and Google's
Sundar Pichai to be ranked No. l among
Indians and 2nd globally in this Index.
Nvidia CEO Jensen Huang and Reliance
Industries Ltd's Mukesh Ambani are
ranked first and second respectively in
the Index (BGI).

Indian Scientists made First of its
Kind Discovery on Mars
The first instance of solo
electromagnetic waves has been
discovered by Indian researchers on
January 16, 2023.
The results were established using
information from the Mars Atmosphere
and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) mission
of the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration.
Using high-resolution electric fie ld data
from MAVEN's captured by Langmuir
Probe and Waves sensors, scientist s
have detected the lone waves in t he
Martian magnetosphere.
112-ft Tall Adiyogi Shiva
Statue Unveiled
The 112-ft face of Adiyog i, the source of
Yoga, was unveiled at the Sadhguru
Sannidhi in Chikkaballapura near
Bengaluru on January 15, 2023.
Statue unveiled by Karnataka Ch ief
Minister Basavaraj Bommai in t he
presence of Sadhguru, founder of lsha
Foundation. Adiyogi Divya Darshanam,
a unique 14-minute video imaging
show mapped on the 112-foot Adiyog i,
followed the unveiling.
'Aarogya Maitri' Project Announced
Prime Minister Narendra Modi has
announced a new 'Aarogya Maitri'
project on January 14, 2023.
Under this project India wil l provide
essent ial medical supplies to
developing countries affected by
natural disasters or humanitarian crises.
PM proposed to set-up a 'centre of
excellence' to facilitate development
solutions to these countries.
PM announced this at the Concluding
Session of the two-day virtual 'Voice of
Global South Summit'.
Current Affairs
World's Longest River Cruise -
MV Ganga Vilas Launched
Prime Minister Narendra Modi
flagged-off the world's longest river
cruise, MV Ganga Vilas, and inaugurated
the Tent City in Varanasi via video
conference on January 13, 2023.
MV Ganga Vilas has three decks with all
luxury amenities, 18 suites with a
capacity of 36 tourists. MV Ganga Vilas
travel about 3200 km in 51 days to
reach Dibrugarh in Assam via
Bangladesh, crossing 27 river systems in
India and Bangladesh .
National Youth Festival-2023 Held
Prime Minister Narendra Modi
inaugura ted the National You th
Festival-2023 on January 12, 2023 on t he
Birth Anniversary of Swami Vivekananda.
It was organised in the twin cities of
Hubballi - Dharwad in Karnataka from
January 12 to 16, 2023. Theme of this
year's Youth Festival was 'Vikasit Yuva,
Vikasit Bharat1.
Successful Test Launch of Prithvi II
DRDO successfully carried out a traini ng
launch of a Short-Range Ballistic Missile,
Prit hvi-II on January 11, 2023.
It is launched from Integrated Test
Range, Chandipur off the Odisha coast.
The user training launch successfully
validated all operational and technical
parameters of the Prithvi-1 I missile,
which has a range of around 350 km.
Joshimath Declared as
'Landslide-Subsidence Zone'
Joshimath (a city in Chamoli district in
Uttarakhand) has been declared a
landslide-subsidence zone by respective
authorities on January 9, 2023. Joshi math
is the gateway to Hemkund Sahib and
Badrinath. Big cracks are being seen
between people's houses and roads.
Current Affairs
17th Pravasi Bharatiya Divas
Convention Held
Prime Minister Narendra Modi
inaugurated the 17th Pravasi Bharatiya
Divas Convention in Indore, Madhya
Pradesh on January 8, 2023.
The 17th PBDC organised from
January 8-10, 2023 in collaboration wi t h
the Government of Madhya Pradesh.
The theme of the conference was
"Diaspora : Reliable Partners for India's
Progress in Amrit Kaai".
India Surpassed Japan to become
3rd Largest Auto Market Globally
India has surpassed Japan on January 8,
2023 in terms of auto sales in 2022 to
become the 3rd-largest auto market
globally for the first time. India's new
vehicle sales were at least 4.25 million
units, ahead of the 4.2 million sold in
Japan, based on prelim inary results.
DRDO Developed Unmanned
Vehicle
The Defence Research & Development
Organisation (DRDO) has developed an
unmanned aerial vehicle on January 7,
2023 with the aim of targeting logistics
operations on the Himalayan border.
This aircraft has been displayed by
DRDO at the 108th Indian Science
Congress held in Nagpur, Maharashtra.
This UAV can fly with a load of 5 to
25 kg. and is also capable of dropping
bombs in enemy territory.
National Green Hydrogen
Mission Approved
The Union Government has approved
the National Green Hydrogen Mission,
with an initial outlay of~ 19744 crore on
January 4, 2023. The Mission aims to
make India a Global Hub for the
production, utilisation, and export of
Green Hydrogen.
The targets by 2030 are likely to bring in
over~ 8 lakh crore investments and
create over six lakh jobs.
India took over Leadership of the
Asian Pacific Postal Union
India has taken over the leadership of
the Asia Pacific Postal Union (APPU) on
January 3, 2023.
Dr. Vinaya Prakash Singh will take over
the charge of Secretary General of the
Union for a tenure of 4 years. This is the
result of the elections during the
13th APPU Congress held in
August-September 2022.
India's Largest Single Unit of
Women Peacekeepers
It is mentioned on January 6, 2023 that
India will deploy a platoon of women
peacekeepers to UN Mission in Sudan.
This will be India's largest single unit of
women Peacekeepers in a UN Mission
since it deployed the first-ever
all-women contingent in Liberia
in 2007.
The deployment in Abyei (Sudan) will
also herald India's intent of increasing
significantly the number of Indian
women in Peacekeeping contingents.
3 More Sites Added to
UNESCO's Tentative List
Three more sites in India have made it
to the tentative list of UNESCO's world
heritage sites on December 21, 2022.
Sun Temple at Modhera, historic
Vadnagar town in Gujarat, and rock-cut
relief sculptures of Unakoti in Tripura,
have been added to the tentative list of
UNESCO world heritage sites.
The Sun Temple in Modhera, Gujarat, is
dedicated to Surya Dev and is situated
on the left bank of the Pushpavati River,
a tributary of the River Ru pan.

Social Progress Index Released
The SPI for States and Districts of India
as mandated by the EAC-PM was
released on December 20, 2022. It was
released by the Economic Advisory
Council to Prime Minister (EAC-PM)
along with Institute for
Competitiveness and Social Progress
Imperative. The top three performing
districts are Shimla in Himachal Pradesh,
Solan in Himachal Pradesh, and Aizawl
in Mizoram.
Millet Food Festival Held
Prime Minister Narendra Modi has
called upon the Members of the
Parliament to make the International
Year of Millets 2023, a mass movement.
Mr. Modi informed this while
addressing the BJP parliamentary party
meeting in Parliament House Complex
on December 20, 2022.
PM Modi along with other anended a
lunch in Parliament where millet dishes
were served as India prepares to mark
2023 as the International Year of Millets.
New National Food Processing
Policy
The Centre has completed the
consultation process on the new
National Food Processing Policy on
December 20, 2022. MoS for Food
Processing Industries Prahlad Singh
Patel said that the Ministry has
approved 41 Mega Food Park, MFP,
projects for assistance under Pradhan
Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana, PMKSY.
Gaya and Nalanda Selected for
Swadesh Darshan 2.0 Scheme
Central government informed on
December 19, 2022 that Gaya and
Nalanda in Bihar has been included by
the Government of India under the
Swadesh Darshan 2.0 scheme.
Current Affairs
Punaura Dham in Sitamarhi District of
Bihar has been selected for
development under the PRASHAD
Scheme of the Government of India.
INS Mormugao Commissioned by
Defence Minister in Mumbai
INS Mormugao commissioned by Union
Defence Minister Rajnath Singh on the
eve of the Goa Liberation Day 2022 on
December 19, 2022.
INS Mormugao is the second ship of the
Visakhapatnam-class stealth guided
missile destroyers of the Indian Navy.
Named after the port city in Goa, this
stealth destroyer is 163 metres long and
17 metres wide, with a displacement of
7.400 tonnes.
India Successfully Tested
Nuclear-Capable 'Agni-5' Missile
India successfully carried out the night
trials of the Agni-5 nuclear-capable
ballistic missile on December 15, 2022.
Agni-5 is developed by the DRDO.
Agni 5 missile capable of striking targets
at ranges up to 7000 kilometres with a
very high degree of accuracy.
Indian Navy Gets 5th Scorpene Class
Submarine INS Vagir
The fifth Scorpene submarine, Vagir of
Project- 75 Kalvari Class submarines has
been delivered to the Indian Navy by
Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited
(MDL) Mumbai.
INS Vagir can undertake anti-surface,
anti-submarine, intelligence gathering,
mine laying, area surveillance missions.
Central Bank Digital Currency
Launched
The RBI has launched the pilot for a
central-bank-backed digital rupee for
the wholesale segment.
Current Affairs
RBI announced this in a statement on
'Operationalisation of Central Bank
Digital Currency-Wholesale (e '<--W) Pilot'.
The 9 banks selected for the pilot are
State Bank of India, Bank of Baroda,
Union Bank of India, HDFC Bank, ICICI
Bank, Kotak Mahindra Bank, Yes Bank,
IDFC First Bank and HSBC.
Prime Minister Modi flagged off
6th Vande Bharat train
PM Narendra Modi, inaugurated 6th
Vande Bharat Express train on
December 11, 2022. This Vande Bharat
Express will run on Bilaspur
(Chhanisgarh)-Nagpur (Maharashtra)
route. Government proposes to run 75
Vande Bharat express trains in the
country by 15 August 2023, which will
give a big boost for the Countrys
Transportation Network.
India Assumed G20 Presidency
As India assumed G20 Presidency on
December 1, 2022, 100 centrally-
protected monuments, including
UNESCO world heritage sites spread
across the country were lit up bearing
the G20 logo.
The monuments t hat were lit up
included Red Fort (Delhi), Royal Palace
(Mandu MP), Sanchi Stupa (MP),
Kumbhalgarh Fort (Rajasthan),
Shankracharya Temple (Srinagar), and
Five Rathas (Mahabalipuram,
Tamil Nadu).
India Assumed Presidency of
the UNSC
India has assumed t he Presidency of t he
UNSC on December 1, 2022 for the
month of December 2022. India will be
the President of the UNSC for one
month as the 2 year term of India as a
non-permanent member of the UNSC
ends on December 31, 2022.
India's Fi rst Private Space
Vehicle Inaugurated
Agnikul Cosmos launched India's first
private launchpad and mission control
centre at the Satish Dhawan Space
Centre (SDSC) in Sriharikota on
November 28, 2022.
Agnikul Cosmos is Chenna i-based space
tech startup company. The facility was
inaugurated by ISRO Chairman
S. Somanath.
Yak Approved as 'Food Animal'
The Food Safety and Standard Aut hority
of India (FSSAI) has approved the
Himalayan Yak as a 'Food Animal' on
November 26, 2022. The move is
expected to help check decline in t he
population of the high-altitude bovine
animal by makin g it a part of the
conventional milk and meat indust ry.
lndo-Pacific Regional Dialogue
2022 Held
The lndo-Pacific Regional Dialogue 2022
(IPRD-2022) the annual apex-level
regiona l strategic dialogue of the
Indian Navy in New Delhi from 23
November, 2022 to 25 November, 2022.
India took over Chair of
Global Partnership on Al
India has taken over the chair of Global
Partnership on Artificial Intelligence
(GPAI) from France on November 21,
2022. The Minister of State for
Electronics and Information Technology
Rajeev Chandrasekhar will represent the
country at the GPAI meeting in Tokyo.
India Ranked 61 st on
Network Readiness
India has been ranked 61st in the
Network Readiness Index 2022 released
on November 19, 2022. The index was
prepared by a US-based Portulans

Institute, an independent non-profit
research and educational institute.
India's overall score improved from
49.74 in 2021 to 51 .1 9 in 2022.
Kash i Tamil Sangamam Held
The PM Narendra Modi inaugurated
'Kashi Tamil Sangamam' - a month-long
programme organised in Varanasi (UP)
on November 19, 2022.
The objective of the programme is to
celebrate, reaffirm and rediscover the
age-old links between Tamil Nadu and
Kashi- two of the country's most
important and ancient seats of learning.
Power System Operation
Corporation Limited Renamed
India's national grid operator 'Power
System Operation Corporation Ltd.
(POSOCO)' has announced that it has
changed its name to 'Grid Controller of
India Ltd.' on November 18, 2022.
The name has been changed to reflect
the critical role of grid operators in
ensuring integrity, reliability, economy,
resilience and sustainable operation of
the Indian electricity grid.
4th Phase of Digital Shakti
Campaign Launched
The National Commission for Women
launched the 4th phase Digital Shakti
4.0 on November 16, 2022. It is a
pan-India project on digitally
empowering and skilling women and
girls in cyberspace.
India's First Private Rocket
'Vikram-S' Launched
India's first privately developed rocket
Vikram-S launched on November 15,
2022 from t he ISRO at the Srihariko ta
launchpad. The launch of Vikram-S
Rocket by ISRO is a historic moment.
The launch of India's first privately
developed rocket was a technology
Current Affairs
demonstration fl ight to showcase the
capabili ties of the company. The rocket
will help validate the technologies that
will be used in the subsequent Vikram-1
orbital vehicle of Skyroot.
President Attended Janjatiya
Gaurav Diwas Programme
President Droupadi Murmu attended
the state-level program of Madhya
Pradesh on the occasion of Janjatiya
Gaurav Diwas on November 15, 2022 at
Shehdol. This day is celebra ted
nationwide to mark the birth
anniversary of Adivasi icon Birsa Munda.
SC Announced Forced Conversion
as a Very Serious Issue
The Supreme Court on November 15,
2022 described forced conversion as a
very serious issue that affects the
security of the nation. The observation
was made by a bench of Justices
MR Shah and Hima Kohli.
The SC has directed the cen ter to take a
stand on the matter and file a response
in a week about steps being taken to
prevent it.
2022 Declared as ASEAN-lndia
Friendship Year
The year 2022 has been declared as the
ASEAN-lndia Friendship year, as ASEAN
and Ind ia commemorate 30 years of
partnership on November 11 , 2022. A
series of events has been planned to
celebrate the occasion throughout the
year.
19th ASEAN-lndia Summit Held
in Cambodia
The Vice-President of India led t he
Indian delegation at the 19th
ASEAN-lndia Summit in Phnom Penh,
Cambodia on November 12, 2022. The
Vice-President hailed the deep cultu ral,
economic and civilisational ties that
Current Affairs
have existed between India and
South-East Asia from time immemorial.
India and ASEAN adopted a joint
statement announcing the evaluation of
the existing Strategic Partnership to
Comprehensive Strategic Partnership.
Logo, Theme and Website of
India's G20 Presidency Unveiled
Prime Minister Narendra Modi unveiled
logo, theme and website of India's G20
presidency on November 8, 2022.
The logo and theme of G20 reflects
India's message and overarching priori ties unsung tribal heroes and martyrs of
to the world. The G20 logo is created wi t h t he freedom struggle. As part of Azad i
four colours of India's national flag and
represents sitting
atop lotus.
SC Upholds 10% Quota for EWS
The Supreme Court (SC) upheld the 10%
reservation on November 7, 2022 for the
Economically Weaker Section (EWS)
among forward castes in government jobs
and colleges. A Bench comprising CJI
UU Lalrt and Justices Dinesh Maheshwari,
S. Ravindra Bhat, Bela M. Trivedi, and JB
Pardiwala delivered the judgment
UDISE+ Report Released
The number of children enteri ng
pre-primary classes in 2021-22 has
declined by 30% as per UDISE+ report
released on November 3, 2022.
A total of 94.95 lakh students entered
preprimary school in 2021-22, registering
a drop of 10%, as compared to 1.06 crore
in the previous years. Enrolment in
primary school, classes 1 to 5, saw a d rop
from 12.20 lakh in 2020-21 to 12.18 lakh in
202 1-22.
Centre to Grant Citizenship to
Minorities of Gujarat
The Union government has decided on
November 1, 2022 to grant Indian
citizenship to Minorities from
Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan.
Centre to grant cit izenship to Hindus,
Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis and
Christians and currently living in two
districts of Gujarat.
PM Attended 'Mangarh Dham
ki Gaurav Gatha'
The PM Narendra Modi anended a
public programme 'Mangarh Dham ki
Gaurav Gatha' on November 1, 2022.
He paid homage to the sacrifices of
ka Amrit Mahotsav, the government
has initiated several steps to celebrate
unsung tribal heroes of the freedom
struggle.
INTERNATIONAL
International Day of Education
2023 Dedicated to Afghan Girls
The UNESCO has decided to dedicate
t he International Day of Education to
be celebrated on January 24, 2023, to
Afghan girls and women.
Currently around 80% of Afghan girls
and young women of school-age are
out of school under Taliban rule, as
they are denied access to secondary
schools and universities.
World Economic Forum Meet 2023
The annual meeting of World
Economic Forum (WEF) 2023 held in
Davos, Swrtzerland, from January 16 to
20, 2023. The theme for this year's
meeting was 'Cooperation in a
Fragmented World'.
The goal of the WEF was to promote
in novative solutions and encourage
cooperation between governments
and the business sectors.

Chris Hipkins Sworn-in as
New Zealand Prime Minister
Labour leader Chris Hipkin s was
sworn-in as New Zealand's Prime
Minister in a formal ceremony on
January 20, 2023.
Hipkins was Minister for police,
education and public service, as well as
leader of the House. Chris replaced
Jacinda Ardern.
UNICEF Report on
Child Mortality Rate
'Levels and Trends in Child Mortality'
report was published by Unrted
Nations (UN) on January 14, 2023 .
Another global reports on stillbirths
(Never Forgotten) was also released by
UN Inter-agency Group for Child
Mortality Estimation (UN IGM8.
As per the report released, an
estimated 5 mill ion children died
before their 5t h b irthday and another
2.1 million children and youth aged
between 5-24 years lost their lives
in 202 1.
UN Report on Ozone Hole
According to a UN-backed report
created by an international body of
experts on January 9, 2023, the Earth's
ozone layer is on track to completely
recover within 4 decades.
Ozone is a special form of oxygen with
the chemical formula 0 3 . The oxygen
we breathe and that is so vital to life on
earth is 0 2 . Ozone layer depletion leads
to an uptick in the incidence of skin
cancer and cataracts in humans.
Pushpa Kamal Daha l 'Prachanda'
Appointed as the PM of Nepal
President Bidya Devi Bhandari of Nepal
has appointed Pushpa Kamal Dahal
'Prachanda' as the new prime minister
of Nepal on December 25, 2022.
Current Affairs
Prachand will become the prime
minister for the third time. In the recently
held parl iamentary election no party got
any clear majority.
Sitiveni Rabuka became the PM of Fiji
Sitiveni Rabuka became Fiji's Prime
Minister on December 24, 2022 after a
coalition of parties voted narrowly to
insta ll him as leader of the country.
It also signals the end of the former
Prime Minister Frank Ba inimarama's
16 years in power. In the 55 member
Parliament of Fiji, Sitiveni Rabuka secured
28 votes against Bainimarama's 27 votes.
Taliban Banned University Education
for Afghan Girls
The Taliban government has passed an
order to suspend university education
for all female students in Afghanistan on
December 20, 2022.
The education min istry under Taliban
Regime said that the decision was made
in a cabinet meeting and the order will
go into effect immediately.
Resolution on 'Education for
Democracy' Adopted
The United Nations Genera l Assembly
(UNGA) adopted a resolution titled
'Education for Democracy that reaffi rm s
the right of everyone to education on
January 18, 2023.
The resolution, which was co-sponsored
by India, recognises that 'education for
all' contributes to the strengthening of
democracy. The resolution encourages
member states to integrate education
for democracy into their education
standards.
Leo Varadka r Elected as the
PM of Ireland
Indian origin Leo Varadkar was elected as
the Prime Minister of the Republic of
Current Affairs
Ireland for the second time on
December 17, 2022. He took over from
Michael Martin under an arrangement
struck between their two parties under
a 2020 coalition pact. Leo Varadkar was
earlier Prime Minister of Ireland from
2017 to 2020.
US President Joe Biden Signed Gay
Marriage Legislation
United States (US) President Joe Biden
signed gay marriage law on
December 14, 2022. On the occasion,
the President said that "the law that
protects love strikes a chord against
hate in all its forms".
This law establishes statutory authority
for same-sex and interracial marriages.
The House of Representatives passed
the law on December 8 by a vote of
258-169-1.
US Prints First Banknotes with
Women's Signatures
The US the Treasury (United States of
America's Finance Ministry) has printed
the first US banknotes (currency notes)
with two women's signatures on
December 11, 2022.
The new currency notes of $1 and $5
value carry the signature of the
Secretary of Treasury (American
Finance Minister) Janet Yellen and
Lynn Malerba.
Indonesia's Parliament Passed Law
Criminalising Adultery
Indonesia's parliament passed a
long-awaited and controversial revision
of its penal code on December 6, 2022
that criminalises extramaritial affairs.
The new criminal code must be signed
by the President, according to Deputy
Minister of Law and Human Rights
Edward Hiariej. Indonesia's amended
criminal code includes articls that make
sex outside marriage punishible by a year
in jail and cohabitation by 6 months.
'Goblin Mode' is the Word of the
Year 2022 of Oxford Dictionary
Oxford dictionary chosen 'Goblin Mode'
as word of the year 2022 on December 6,
2022. It is a "slang termfT means "a type of
behaviour which is unapologetically
self-indulgent, lazy, slovenly, or greedy,
typically in a way that rejects social
norms or expectations".
Forbes the World's 100 Most
Powerful Women
The 2022 list of the World's 100 Most
Powerful Women was released on
December 6, 2022. European
Commission President Ursula von der
Leyen is ranked at the top, while Iran's
Mahsa Amini is ranked at 100.
Ranked at number 36, Nirmala
Sitharaman has made it to the list for the
fourth time in a row.
The orher Indians ro feawre on the list are
Ill HCL Tech Chairperson Roshni Nadar
Malhotra (rank: 53),
Ill SEBI Chairperson Madhabi Pu ri Buch
(rank: 54) and
Ill Steel Authority of India Chairperson
Soma Mondal (rank: 67).
'Gaslighting' is Merriam-Webster
Word of the Year 2022
Ill When British playwright Patrick
Hamilton wrote Gas Light in 1938, little
did he know how often the word
would be used in the 21st Century.
Merriam-Webster, America's oldest
dictionary publisher, has just chosen
'gaslighting' as its Word of the Year.
EIU's Worldwide Cost of Living 2022
London-based Economist Intelligence
Unit (EIU) released the Worldwide Cost
of Living 2022 report on Dec. 6, 2022.

The report compares the prices of more
than 200 goods and services in 172
countries. Moscow and St. Petersburg
witnessed a drastic increase in the rank
Moscow has been ranked 37th in 2022
as compared to 72nd in 202 1.
Voting Age of 18 Changed in
New Zealand
New Zealand's Supreme Court ruled
that the country's current voting age of
18 is discriminatory on November 30,
2022. New Zealand's m inimum voting
age of 18 was inconsistent with the
country's Bill of Rights, mentioned
the court.
Great Barrier Reef to be Listed as a
World Heritage Site
UN panel has recommended on
November 28, 2022 that Australia's
Great Barrier Reef should be listed as a
World Heritage site that is in danger.
The UN also informed that the world's
biggest coral reef ecosystem was
significantly impacted by climate
change and the warming of oceans.
Powerful Earthquake on Java
Killed at Least 162
A powerful earthquake struck
Indonesia's main island of Java on
November 21, 2022. 162 people lost
their lives and hundreds more were
injured when a building collapsed in
the capital Jakarta.
The earthquake of magn itude 5.6 struck
Cianjur town in West Java, at a shallow
depth of 1O km according to the US
Geological Survey data.
World's Most Popular Leaders
PM Narendra Modi remains the world's
most popular leader with an approval
rating of 77% on November 25, 2022.
This was revealed in a Global Leader
Approval Ratings released by a
Current Affairs
US-based consulting firm Morning
Consult. The Indian PM is followed by
Mexican President Andres Manuel
Lopez Obrador at 69% and Australian
PM Anthony Albanese at 56%, on the
second and third spots, respectively.
Russian Parliament Passed Law
Banning 'LGBT Propaganda'
The Russian Parliament approved a Bill
to prohibit 'LGBT Propaganda' on
November 24, 2022.
The Bill widens a prohibition of 'LGBT
Propaganda' and restricts the
'demonstration' of LGBT behaviour,
making any expression of an LGBT
lifestyle almost impossible.
Anwa r Ibrahim Sworn-in as the
Prime Minister of Malaysia
Malaysia's opposition leader Anwar
Ibrahim was sworn-in as the country\
tenth Prime Minister on November 24,
2022. The new leader was appointed by
Ki ng Al-Sultan Abdullah.
With t his, the political uncertainty that
continued for several days after the
general elections with a fractured
mandate in Malaysia has come to an
end.
New York Became First US State to
Restrict Cryptocurrency Mining
New York is the first nation to sign
legislation to resist the spread of
cryptocurrency min ing on November 23,
2022. This new development happened
in the light of the collapse of the FTX
exchange. The legislation which was
passed in June is concerned more with
the environmental aspect of crypto.
Australian Parliament Approved
Free Trade Agreement with India
The Australian Parliament approved a
free trade agreement with India on
Current Affairs
November 22, 2022. The India-Australia
Economic Cooperation and Trade
Agreement (AI-ECTA) had to be ratified
by the Australian Parliament. The
agreement was signed between the two
countries in April this year.
Cambridge Dictionary Revealed Word
of the Year 2022
The Cambridge Dictionary has revealed
Homer as the word of the year 2022 on
November 18, 2022. It was inspired by the
global word game sensation, Word le. The
word was searched for about 75000 times
in the first week of May 2022.
cop 27 Summit 2022 Held
The United Nations Climate Change
Conference 2022 or Conference of the
Parties of the UNFCCC, more commonly
referred to as COP27 was held from
November November 6-18, 2022 in
Sharm El Sheikh (Egypt). COP 27 took
place under the Presidency of Egyptian
Minister of Foreign Affairs Sameh Shoukry.
It was the first climate summit held in
Africa since 2016.
UNFCCC COP 27 Climate Summit 2022
was anended by 197 countries, 45000
people and 120 world leaders.
First Global Media Congress Held
The three day first World Media Congress
opened on November 15, 2022 at Abu
Dhabi (Unrted Arab Emirates). The
conference-cum- exhibition Congress is
organised by ADNEC Group in partnersh ip
with Emirates News Agency (WAM). The
theme of the World Media Congress was
Shaping the Future of the Media Industry.
Climate Change Performance
Index 2023 Released
The Climate change performance Index
2023 was published by the New Climate
Institute and the Climate Action Network
on November 15, 2022.
It was published in 2005 and aims to
promote transparency in international
climate politics. The CCPI considers 4
categories: GHG Emissions, Renewable
Energy, Energy Use and Climate Policy.
Bali G20 Summit 2022
The 2022 G20 summit was held on
November 15 and 16, 2022 in Bali
(Indonesia)_ It was the 17th meeting of
G20 Summit
The theme of G20 Summit 2022 was
Recover Together, Recover Stronger.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi along
with other G20 Leaders visited and
planted Mangroves at the 'Taman
Hutan Raya Ngurah Rai' Mangrove
forests on the sidelines of G20 Summit
in Bali.
World's Population Reached
8 Billion
According to World Population
Prospects 2022, released on World
Population Day, the global population
is projected to reach 8 billion on
November 15, 2022.
The UN's latest projections suggest
that by 2030, the global population
could grow by half a billion to reach
8.5 billion. According to UNFPA
projections, India will continue to
have one of the youngest populations
in the world till 2030.
Natasa Pirc Musar Elected
Slovenia's First Female President
Natasa Pirc Musar, won the second
round of Slovenia's Presidential
elections on November 14, 2022.
Natasa Pirc Musar becomes the first
female President of the country.
She won 58.86% of votes in the runoff,
while the opposition right-wing
politician and the former Foreign
Minister Andze Logar won 46.14% of
votes.

UNESCO World Heritage Glaciers
Set to Disappear by 2050
The UNESCO on November 10, 2020
sa id that World Heritage Glaciers
would disappear by 2050.
Yellowstone and Kilimanjaro
National Park will likely vanish
by 2050. The warn ing followed a
study of 18000 glaciers at 50 World
Heritage Sites.
'November 18' Designated as
World Day for Prevention of
Child Sexual Abuse
The United Nations Genera l
Assembly (UNGA) has adopted a
resolution for child sexual
exploitation, abuse and violence on
November 8, 2022.
The UNGA has declared
November 18 as the World Day for
the Prevention of and Healing from
Child Sexual Exploitation, Abuse, and
Violence.
UNEP Adaptation Gap Report
2022 Released
The report titled 'The Adaptat ion
Gap Report 2022: Too Little, Too
Slow - Climate Adaptation Failure
puts World at Risk" was released by tournament held at the Saarlandhalle in
the UNEP on November 2, 2022. The Saarbrucken (Germany) from November 1
Adaptation Gap Report (AGR) has
been published each year since 20 14
by the UNEP.
'Permacrisis' is Collins Dictionary's
Word of the Year 2022
Collins Dictionary has announced
Permacrisis as the Word of the Year
on November 2, 2022. Permacrisis is
a word describing the feeling of
living through a period of war,
inflation, and political instability. It
was first noted as a word in
academic contexts in the 1970s.
Current Affairs
SPORTS AND GAMES
ATHLETICS
Mumbai Marathon 2023
Over 55000 people participated in the
iconic Tata Mumbai Marathon 2023, held
on January 15, 2023.
India's international runner Thonakal Gopi
as he finished first in the Indian category of
t he Tata Mumbai Marathon.
Ethi opia's Hayle Lemi (Time - 2:07:32) and
Ancha lem Haymanot (2:24:15) won the
elite foreign men's and women's race in a
course record.
BADMINTON
India Open 2023
Shunler Kunlavut Vitidsarn from Thaila nd
won the India Open Badminton
Championship 2023 on January 22, 2023 .
Earlier, Korean sensation An Seyoung won
t he Women's Singles final.
The Championship, officially named
'Yonex-Sunrise India Open 2023' was held
at KO Jadhav Indoor Stadium in New Del hi,
India from January 17 to 22, 2023.
Hylo Open 2022
The Hylo Open 2022 was a badminton
to 6, 2022.
Winners List
Category Winner
Men's Singles Anthony Sinisuka Ginting
(Indonesia)
Women 's Singles Han Yue (China)
34th National U-13
Tournament 2022
Telangana's Nishanth Bhukya and Odisha's
Tanvi Patri won in the boys and girls
singles, respectively at the 34th Under-13
National Badminton titles on November 23,
Current Affairs
2022. Bhukya came from behind to beat
Andhra Pradesh's Akhil Reddy Boba in
44 minutes.
CRICKET
ICC Under-19 Women's
T20 World Cup 2023
South Africa hosted the ICC Under-19
Women's T20 World Cup 2023 from
January 14-29, 2023. This was the
inaugural edition of this competition.
India won the title after defeating
England in the final.
England's Grace Scrivens named as
'Player of the Series'. India's Shweta
Sehrawat scored most runs (297), while
Australian Maggie Clark took most
wickets (12) during the competition.
India-New Zealand ODI Series 2023
India climbed to the top of the ICC Men's
ODI rankings after winning the series 3-0
against New Zealand at the Holkar
Stadium in Indore on January 25, 2023.
Shardul Thakur was awarded the Player
of the Match in the third ODI. Shubman
Gill won the Player of the Series award.
India-Sri Lanka ODI Series 2023
India scripted history by defeating Sri
Lanka by the largest ever margin of 317
runs in the third and final ODI in
Thiruvananthpuram (Kerala) on
January 15, 2023. With this, India also
clean sweeped the series by 3-0. Player
of the series won by Vi rat Kohli (India).
India-Sri Lanka T20 Series 2023
India defeated Sri Lanka by 91 runs in
the third and fina l T20 International
cricket in Rajkot on January 8, 2023.
With this victory, India clinched the
three-match series 2- 1.
Suryakumar Yadav was declared Man of
the Match and Axar Patel Player of the
Series.
India -Bangladesh Series 2022
The Indian cricket team led by KL Rahul
won the cricket test series against the
Shakib Al Hassan led Bangladesh team
2-0 to win the 2 match test series in
Bangladesh on December 25,2022.
Man of the match of second match was
Ravichandran Ashwin. Man of the Series
award won by Cheteshwar Pujara.
India lost the ODI series against
Bangladesh by 2- 1.
lshan Kishan made a world record by
scoring fastest double century in ODI.
He made his double century against
Bangladesh in just 126 balls.
Blind T20 Cricket World Cup 2022
India defeated Bangladesh by 120 runs
in the final to win the 3rd T20 World
Cup for Blind on December 17, 2022.
Final played at the M. Chinnaswamy
Stadium in Bengaluru, Karnataka.
It was the third title for India having
won it in 2012and 2017. All the three
T20 World Cup for Blind has been
hosted by India. Baning first India made
277 runs for the loss of 2 wickets in 20
allotted overs.
Vijay Hazare Trophy 2022-23
Saurashtra beat Maharashtra by
5 wickets in the final to win the Vijay
Hazare Trophy at the Narendra Modi
Stadium in Ahmedabad on
December 2, 2022. Baning first,
Maharashtra scored 248 runs for the loss
of 9 wickets in 50 overs.
India-NZ ODI Series 2022
The final One Day international match
of the series was held on November 30
2022. It was held at the Hagley Oval in '
Christchurch. New Zealand won the
opening ODI at Eden Park, in Auckland
by seven wickets.
 Current Affairs
ICC Men's T20 World Cup 2022 Women's FIH Nations Cup 2022
The England men's cricket team won The Indian women Hockey team led by
its second ICC T20 men's cricket world Captain Savita Punia beat Spa in 1-0 in the
cup by defeating Pakistan in the finals, final to win the inaugural FIH Nations
at the Melbourne cricket stadium Cup played at Valencia (Spain) on
(Australia) on November 13, 2022. December 17, 2022.
It was the 8th edition of the The winning goal was scored by Gurjit
tournament and in the first round, Sri Kaur of India. The inaugural FIH Nations
Lanka played against Namibia. cup was held in Valencia (Spain) from
Originally, it was to be held in 2020 but 11-17 December 2022.
was postponed to 2022 due to covid . TENNIS
Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy 2022-23 Australian Open 2023
Mumbai won the Syed Mushtaq Ali The first tennis Grand Slam tournament
Trophy 2022-23 on November 5, 2022 of the year 'Australian Open 2023' was
after defeating Himachal Pradesh by 3 held in Melbourne (Australia) from
runs in the final played at Eden January 16-29, 2023. The winners and
Gardens (Kolkata). It was the 15th runner-ups in the major categories are as
edition of domestic T20 Cricket follows
tournament in India, which was played
from October 11 to November 5, 2022. Category Winner Runner-up
Men's Novak Djokovic Stefanos
HOCKEY Singles (Serbia) Tsitsipas (Greece)
FIH Hockey Men's World Cup 2023 Women's Aryna Elena RVoakina
Singles Sabalenka (Kazakhstan)
The FIH Hockey Men's World Cup 2023
(Belarus)
was held in Bhubaneswar and Rourkela
cities of Odisha from January 13-29, Tata Open Maharashtra 2023
2023. Germany won the title by Tata Open Maharashtra 2023 was a
defeating Belgium 5-4 in penalty shoot professional men's tennis tournament
out in the final. played in Pune from January 2 to 7, 2023 .
This is Germany's t hird men's hockey
Winners List
world cup title. Earlier, Germany won
this title in the year 2002 and 2006. Category Winner Runner-up
India finished ninth in this Men's Tallon Benjamin Benzi
competition. Major award winners are Singles Griekspoor (France)
as follows: (Netherlands)
0 Top Scorer Jeremy Hayward Men's Sander Gille / Sriram Balaji /
Doubles Joran Vliegen Jeevan
(Australia)
(Belgium) Nedunchezhiyan
0 Best Player Niklas Wellen (Germany) (India)
0 Best Young Player Mustapha Cassiem
Adelaide lnternational-1 2023
(South Africa)
Adelaide lntemational-1 2023 was held at
0 Best Goalkeeper Vincent Vanasch
the Memorial Drive Tennis Centre from
(Belgium)
January 1 to 8, 2023. Ace Tennis player
° Fair Play Award Belgium
Novak Djokovic defeated America's
Current Affairs
Sebastian Korda in the final to win the
Adelaide International men's singles title.
The 21-time Grand Slam winner also
equalled Rafael Nadal's tally of 92 ATP
singles titles in the Open Era.
Davis Cup 2022
Canada won their first Davis Cup title
after Felix Auger-Aliassime beat
Australia's Alex de Minaur by 6-3, 6-4 in
the second match of the finals on
November 28, 2022. Felix Auger-
Aliassime had to guard against three
break points in the first set but also
found his rhythm in the eighth game.
ATP Finals 2022
Novak Djokovic defeated Norway's
Casper Ruud to collect 6th ATP Finals
title in Turin (Italy) on November 20,
2022. This victory brings Djokovic at par
with Federer's record. This was Djokovic's
first title at the event since 2015 and the
one that matches Roger Federer's record.
Billie Jean King Cup 2022
Switzerland won their first Billie Jean
King Cup title on November 13, 2022
after Belinda Bencic saw off Australia's
Ajla Tomljanovic in the second match of
the finals with a lead of 2-0.
Seven-time winners Australia had beaten
hosts Britain in the semi-final and were
seeking their first title since 1974.
Next Gen ATP Finals 2022
American Brandon Nakashima won the
Next Gen ATP Finals tennis trophy in
Milan on November 13, 2022. He was
ranked 49 while his opponent Lehecka
was ranked 74th in the tournament
which featured 8 best players aged
21-years and under.
Paris Masters 2022
19-year-old Holger Rune won his maiden
Masters 1000 title when he beat Novak
Djokovic in the final on Nov. 7, 2022.
Rune defeated Novak Djokovic in 3 sets
in the Paris Masters final.
ITF Men's Tournament 2022
Digvijay Pratap Singh earns the maiden
title in the $ 15000 ITF men's tennis
tournament at the DLTA Complex on
November 6, 2022.
Digvijay Pratap Singh won his first ITF
Title at the RK Khanna Tennis Stadium,
New Delhi on November 6, 2022.
SHOOTING
Asian Airgun Championship 2022
The 15th Asian Airgun Championship
2022 concluded at Daegu International
Shooting Range, Daegu (Republic of
Korea) on November 19, 2022.
The Asian Airgun Championship was
held from November 9 to 19, 2022.
FOOTBALL
Spanish Super Cup
Barcelona beat Real Madrid 3-1 in
Riyadh to win their 14th Spanish Super
Cup title on January 15, 2023.
Gavi (33rd minute), Robert
Lewandowski (45th minute) and Padry
(69th minute) scored for Barcelona in
the fina l match played at the King Fahd
Stadium in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
FIFA World Cup 2022
Lionel Messi's Argentina won the
Golden Ball FIFA World Cup 2022 for
his outstanding performance on
December 18, 2022.
Argentina won the fina l, defeating
defending champions France 4-2 on
penalties following a 3-3 draw after
extra time. French player Kylian
Mbappe won the Golden Boot as he
scored the most goals (eight) during
the tournament.
 Current Affairs
He became the first player to score a Chakras and 15 Shaurya Chakras for
hat-trick in a World Cup final since Geoff Armed Forces personnel and others on
Hurst in the 1966 final. January 25, 2023.
Argentine captain Lionel Messi was These include 6 Kirti Chakras, including
voted the tournament's best player, 4 posthumous, and 15 Shaurya Chakras
winning the Golden Ball. Emiliano including 2 posthumous.
Martfnez, also from Argentina, won the
ICC Awards 2022
Golden Glove, awarded to the
tournament's best goalkeeper. FIFA The International Cricket Council (ICQ
World 2022 took place in Qatar from announced the winners of ICC Awards
November 20 to December 18, 2022. 2022 on January 25-26, 2023.
Major award winners are listed below
KABADDI
Award/Category Winner
9th Pro Kabaddi League
Sir Garfield Sobers Babar Azam
Jaipur Pink Panthers won the Pro Trophy (Pakistan)
Kabaddi League Season 9 Final against a
Rachael Heyhoe Flint Nat Seiver (England)
hard-fighting Puneri Paltan by a score of Trophy
33-29 to win their second PKL Men's Test Cricketer Ben Stokes
championship on December 17, 2022. of the Year (England)
After Patna, Jaipur Pink Panthers, the Men's ODI Cricketer of Babar Azam
league's first-ever winners, are currently the Year (Pakistan)
only the second team to win multiple Women's ODI Nat Seiver (England)
titles. The tournament was played Cricketer of the Year
across Bengaluru, Pune, and Hyderabad Men's T20 Suryakumar Yadav
International Cricketer (India)
while the playoffs were played in
of the Year
Mumbai.
Women's T20 Tahlia McGrath
International Cricketer (Australia)
of the Year
AWARDS & HONOURS Men's Emerging Marco Jansen
Cricketer of the Year (South Africa)
NATIONAL
Women's Emerging Renuka Singh (India)
Padma Awards 2023 Cricketer of the Year
The Centre has announced the Padma
Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya
Awards on the eve of Republic Day
January 25, 2023. Of the total 106 Bal Puraskar
Padma Awards announced, 6 are President Droupadi Murmu has
Padma Vibhushan, 9 are Padma conferred upon Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya
Bhushan and 91 are Padma Shri. Bal Puraskar at a ceremony in New Delh i.
The list of awardees includes 19 women This year, 11 children have been
and 2 persons from the category of selected for the Pradhan Mantri
Foreigners/NRI/PIO/OC and 7 Rashtriya Bal Puraskar from which,
0 4 are from Art and Culture Aeld
posthumous awardees.
0 1 for Bravery
Gallantry Awards 0
2 for Innovation
President Droupadi Murmu approved 0 1 for Social Service
412 Gallantry awards, including 6 Kirti 0
3 for Sports
Current Affairs
Subhash Chandra Bose Aapda
Prabandhan Puraskar-2023
Odisha State Disaster Management
Authority and Lunglei Fire Station,
Mizoram, selected in the Institutional
Category for Subhash Chandra Bose
Aapda Prabandhan Puraskar-2023.
The award is announced every year on
January 23, the birth anniversary of
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose.
Miss Universe 2022
The 71 st Miss Universe pageant was
held in the city of New Orleans in the US
state of Louisiana on January 15, 2023 .
America's R'Bonnie Gabriel won the
Miss Universe 2022 title at the 71 st Miss
Universe pageant.
Amanda Dudamel of Venezuela was
declared the first runner up while
Anderina Martinez of Dominican
Republic became the second runner-up.
UN Medal
Indian peacekeepers serving in t he
United Nations Mission in South Sudan
(UNMISS) were awarded the prestigious
UN Medal on January 12, 2023.
At a special award ceremony in Upper
Nile, 1171 peacekeepers from India
deployed with the UNMISS were
awarded the UN Medal for their
exemplary service.
Golden Globe Awards 2023
The Golden Globe Awards 2023
ceremony was held on January 10, 2023
to recognise excellence in Alm, both
American and international, and
American television. This was the 80th
edition of the annual event by the
Hollywood Foreign Press Association.
One of the films in contention at the
Golden Globe awards was Telugu title
RRR, directed by SS Rajamouli.
The Alm ultimately won the award for
Best Original Song for 'Naatu Naatu' out
of the two categories it was nominated
for. 'Naatu Naatu' became the first Asian
song to win the coveted award.
Sahitya Akademi Awards 2022
The central government has
announced the Sahitya Akademi Award
for literature on December 22, 2022.
Writer M. Rajendran from Tamil Nadu
has received this award for his novel
'Kala Pani'.
The awardee will be presented with a
cash prize of~ 1 one lakh and a copper
Shield. This 'Kala Pani' novel is a
historical novel based on the war of
Kalayarkovil or Kalayarkool.
A total of 17 books were selected for
the Sa hitya Akademi Prize for
Translation 2022.
National Award for Empowerment
of Persons with Disabilities 2021-22
President Droupadi Murmu was Chief
Guest at a ceremony to celebrate the
'International Day of Persons with
Disabilities' in Delhi on December 3,
2022. The event organised by the
Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment.
National Sports Awards 2022
President Droupadi Murmu given away
the National Sports Awards on
November 30, 2022.
List of Winners
Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award
2022 Achanta Sharath Kamal
(Table Tennis)
Dhyan Chand Award for Lifetime
Achievement in Sports and Games 2022
Ashwini Akkunji C. (Athletics), Dharamvir
Singh (Hockey), BC Suresh (Kabaddi), Nir
Bahadur Gurung (Para Athletics)
 Current Affairs

Rashtriya Khel Protsahan Puruskar 2022 Gandhi Mandela Award

Tran sStadia Enterprises Private Limited, The 14th Dalai Lama was presented
Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, with the Gandh i Mandela Award 2022
Ladakh Ski & Snowboard Association on November 19, 2022. The award was
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (MAKA) conferred at Thekchen Choeling in
Trophy 2022 Guru Nanak Dev University, Dharamshala's McleodGanj by Himachal
Amritsar Pradesh governor Rajendra Vishwanath
Arlekar.
'Para Sportsperson of Year' Award
Paralympic medallist Avani Lekhara 31st & 32nd Bihari Puraskar
received the 'Para Sports Person of Writer Madhu Kankariya and Madhav
Year award at the Turf 2022 and India Hada were awarded the Bihari Puraskar
Sports Awards of FICCI on November 28, on November 10, 2022. Madhu
2022. Former Ranji cricketer Sarkar Kankariya and Dr. Madhav Hada were
Talwar was honoured with t he Lifetime awarded the 31st and 32nd Bihari
Achievement of the Year award. Puraskar, respectively.
53rd IFFI Award INTERNATIONAL
The 53rd IFFI, held in Panaji (Goa) from Mrs World 2022
November 20 to 28, 2022, was Sargam Kaushal has won t he title of
organised by National Film Mrs. World 2022 on December 18, 2022,
Development Corporation and becoming the winner among
Entertainment Society of Goa. contestants from 63 countries. Thi s title
Award Winners has returned to India after 21 years. Mrs.
Polynesia was named the first
Award Winner
run ner-up, followed by Mrs. Canada as
Satyajit Ray Lifetime Carlos Saura (Spain) the second runner-up.
Achievement Award
PETA's Person of the Year 2022
IFFI Indian Film Chiranjeevi
Personality of the Bollywood actress, Sonakshi Sinha has
Year been named PETA India's 2022 Person
Golden Peacook for Tengo suenos of the Year on December 15, 2022.
the Best Film electricos/ Sonakshi's actions helped save the lives
I Have Electrio Dreams
of many animals killed for fashion, but
Silver Peacock for Nader Saeivar her strong advocacy of dog and cat
Best Director
rights earned her the title. She is actively
Silver Peacock for Vahid Mobasseri involved in an ima l welfare activities and
Best Actor (Male)
regularly voices the need for stronger
Silver Peacock for Daniela Marf n Navarro anima l protection laws.
Best Actor (Female) (I Have Electric
Dreams) 'World Athlete of the Yea r'
Special Jury Award Lav Diaz (Philippines) Awards 2022
Best Debut Feature Asimina Proedrou The World Athelete of the Year Awa rds
Film of a Director (Greece) 2022 were presented to Mclaughlin-
Special Mention by Praveen Kandregula Levrone and on December 6, 2022.
Jury Award Sydney Mclaughl in-Levrone is a world
Current Affairs
champion American hurdler and
Mondo Duplantis is a Swedish pole
vaulter. Mclaughl in-Levrone broke the
world women's 400m hurdles record
twice while Duplantis set three new
world highs this year.
UNESCO Award for Cultural
Heritage Conservation 2022
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu
Sangrahalaya (CSMVS). Mumbai was
conferred with the 'Award of
Excellence' of UNESCO on
November 26, 2022.
This award given at the UNESCO Asia-
Pacific Awards for Cultural Heritage
Conservation 2022.
Indira Gandhi Prize 2021
Pratham, an NGO functioning in the
field of education was awarded Indira
Gandhi Prize 2021. The award was
presented for peace, disarmament and
development
The award is in recognition of Pralnam's
work in ensuring quality education for
children of country.
'Champions of the Earth'
Award 2022
Assam's wildlife biologist Purnima Devi
Barman has been awarded the United
Nation's highest environmental honour,
'Champions of the Earth' for 2022 on
November 23, 2022. Barman has been
given this honour for his transformative
action to prevent degradation of
ecosystems.
UN's Highest Environmental Award
India's Purnima Devi Barman was
honoured with UN's highest
environmental award on Nov. 22, 2022.
Purnima Devi is Assam's wildlife
biologist working to protect the stork,
and the founder of the Hargila Army.
JCB Prize for Literature 2022
Khalid Jawed's The Paradise of Food'
won the JCB Prize for Literature 2022 on
November 20, 2022. Khalid Jawed's The
Paradise of Food' was translated by
Baran Farooqi from Urdu.
UNESCO-Madanjeet Singh Prize 2022
Franca Ma-ih Sulem Yong won the 2022
edition of the UNESCO-Madanjeet Singh
Prize for the Fromotion of Tolerance and
Non-Violence on November 18, 2022.
The UNESCO-Madanjeet Singh Prize for
the Promotion of Tolerance and
Non-Violence is conferred every two
years by the UNESCO.
PERSONS IN NEWS
Aruna Miller
Aruna Miller has scripted history by
becoming the first Indian-American
politician to be sworn-in as the
Lieutenant Governor of Maryland (US)
on January 19, 2023. Aruna, 58, a former
delegate to the Maryland House, made
history when the Democrat became the
10th Lieutenant Governor of the state.
Nilamani Phukan
Renowned Assamese poet and recipient
of Jnapith Award, Nilamani Phookan has
passed away on January 19, 2023. He
was 89. Phookan was one of the most
celebrated poets of Assam and has been
awarded the country's highest literary
award, the 56th Jnanpith for the year
2021.
Jacinda Ardern
The Prime Minister of New Zealand
'Jacinda Ardern' has announced her
resignation from her post at the annual
meeting of her party on January 18,
2023. PM Jacinda Ardern will hold the
post of Prime Minister till February 7,
2023 and will resign after that

Lucile Randon
World's oldest person, Lucile Randon,
died on January 17, 2023 at the age of
118. In the year 2022, the world's oldest
person Ken Tanaka of Japan died. He
was 119 years old.
After Tanaka's death, 118-year-old Sister
Lucille Randon became the oldest
person in the world.
Nguyen Xuan Phuc
Vietnam's President Nguyen Xuan Phuc
has submitted his resignation on
January 17, 2023.
The ruling Communist Party found him
responsible for corruption, scandals and
wrongdoings. The resignation of the
President requires approval from the
National Assembly.
Janani Ramachandran
Janani Ramachandran has emerged as
the youngest and the first queer
woman of colour to take oath as the
Oakland City Council member in the
California (US) on January 17, 2023.
She took the ceremonial oath wearing a
saree as the Oakland City Council
member for District 4 in an inauguration
ceremony.
Sharad Yadav
The 75-year-old veteran politician,
Former Union Minister and RJD leader
Sharad Yadav passed away on
January 12, 2023. He was probably the
first politician in India to be elected as a
member of the Lok Sabha from three
states (Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
and Bihar).
Constantine II
Constantine 11, t he former and the last
king of Greece, has died at the age of 82
in Athens on January 11, 2023.
Constantine II acceded to the throne at
Current Affairs
the age of 23 in 1964. The dictatorship
abolished the monarchy, in 1973, while a
referendum after democracy was
restored, in 1974, dashed any hopes that
Constantine had of ever reigning again.
Manpreet Monica
Indian-origin Sikh woman, Manpreet
Monica Singh became the first ever
female Sikh judge on January 9, 2023 in
the US after she was sworn in as a Harris
county judge.
In her career expanding over two
decades, the newly appointed judge
has been involved in numerous civil
rights organisations at the local, state,
and national levels.
Keshari Nath Tripathi
Senior leader of the Bharatiya Jana ta
Party (BJP) and former West Bengal
governor, Keshari Nath Tripathi passed
away at 88 on January 7, 2023.
He was a member of the Uttar Pradesh
legislative assembly six times. He was
Cabinet Minister of in stit utiona l finance
and sales tax in UP during the Janata
Party regime from 1977 to 1979.
Kaikala Satyanarayana
Veteran Telugu actor, producer and
director Kaikala Satyanarayana died on
December 23, 2022 in Hyderabad due
to age related ailments.
He, also known as Navarasa Natana
Sarvabhouma, was 87 years old.
He acted in around 750 movies and was
kn own for 'Kurukshetramu' (1977),
'Daana Veera Soora Karna' (1977) and
'Sri Krishnarjuna Yudham' (1963).
Elon Musk
Elon Musk has announced on
December 21, 2022 that he will resign
as the CEO of Twitter, but that might
take some time.
Current Affairs
This comes after Musk ran a poll on
the platform, asking users whether
he should step down as the CEO of
Twitter.
Mohit Seth
Major General Mohit Seth took over
as the General Officer Commanding
(GOC) of the Counter Insurgency
Force Kilo on December 20, 2022.
The General Officer was
commissioned into 3 MADRAS
Regiment in Dec 1991. An alumnus
of National Defence Academy, the
General Officer has attended the
prestigious NOC at New Delh i.
Bhairon Singh Rathore
Bhairo Singh Rathore, the hero of t he
1971 war, has passed away in AIIMS
Jodhpur on December 19, 2022 .
He was admitted to the hospital after
battling health issues. Bhairon Singh
retired from BSF in 1987. He received
the Sena Medal in 1972 for his gallant
action.
Meghna Ahlawat
Meghna Ahlawat was elected the
first-ever woman president of the
Table Tennis Federation of India
(TTFI) on December 8, 2022. Former
veteran Kam lesh Mehta was also
elected as the general secretary.
Patel Nagendra Reddy was elected as
the treasurer.
KV Shaji
KV Shaji has been named Chairma n
of the National Bank for Agriculture
and Rural Development (NABARD)
on December 7, 2022.
He formerly served as NABARD's
Deputy Managing Director (DMD) till
May 21, 2020. Before joining
NABARD, he worked in Canara Bank
in various capacities for 26 years.
Ravish Kumar
Senior journalist and Ramon Magsaysay
awardee Ravish Kumar resigned from
NDTV on November 30, 2022.
This comes just a day after the chan nel's
founders and promoters Prannoy Roy and
Radhika Roy resigned from their positions
as directors on the board of RRPR Holding
Private Limi ted (RRPRH) .
Vikram Kirloskar
Toyota Kirloskar Motor Vice-Cha irperson
passed away at the age of 64 on
November 30, 2022. He is India's
automotive industry stalwart and Toyota
Kirloskar Motor Vice-Chairperson.
Asim Munir
Former Inter-Services Intelligence (ISi) Chief
Lt. Gen. Asim Munir has been appointed as
t he new Chief of the Pakistan Army on
November 29, 2022. He is appointed by
Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif.
Prasanth Kumar
Prasanth Kumar has been elected as the
President of the Advertising Agencies
Association of India (AAAI) for fiscal
2022-23 at its annual general body
meeting on November 29, 2022. Prasa nt
Kumar is presently CEO, South Asia of
GroupM Media (India) Pvt Ltd.
Ruturaj Gaikwad
Ruturaj Gaikwad, playing for Maharashtra,
became the fi rst batsman in List-A cricket
to hit 7 sixes in an over in t he quarter-finals
of the Vijay Haza re Trophy on
November 28, 2022. Gaikwad made t his
record against Uttar Pradesh in
Ahmedabad. He remained unbeaten after
scoring 220 runs off 159 balls.
Abdel Fattah el-Sisi
The Indian governmen t has invi ted
Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sis i on
November 27, 2022 as the Chief guest for

the Republic day parade 2023. He will
be the first Egyptian leader to be
hosted by India for the Republic Day
celebrations.
Vikram Gokhale
Veteran actor Vikram Gokha le, who
worked in Hindi and Marath i cinema
as well as numerous plays, passed
away on November 26, 2022. His
latest release was the Marathi film
'Godavari'.
Deepa Malik
Union Health Ministry appoints Deepa
Malik as Nikshay Mitra ambassador on
November 24, 2022 in New Delh i.
Nikshay Mitra is an initiative under
Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat
Abhiyaan .
Manju
Lance Naik Manju became t he first
woman skydiver of the Indian Army
on November 16, 2022. Maj u jumped
off from the Advanced Light
Helicopter (ALH) Dhruv chopper from
a height of 10000 ft
VivekJoshi
The Indian government has
nominated Department of Financial
Services Secretary Vivek Joshi on
November 15, 2022 as a director on
the Reserve Bank of India's centra l
board. Vivek Joshi will hold the
position of Director at the central
bank.
Greg Barclay
Greg Barclay has been re-elected
unopposed as the chairman of the
ICC on November 12, 2022. At an ICC
Board meeting in Melbourne, Barclay's
opponent Dr. Tavengwa Mukuhlani,
the chairman of Zimbabwe Cricket
withdrew from the contest
Current Affairs
Maura Healey
Maura Healey makes history as first openly
lesbian US Governor and first woman
elected Governor of Massachusetts on
November 9, 2022.
Healey was the first openly gay Attorney
General elected in the country in 2014
and was previously a civil rights lawyer.
She led the first state challenge to the
Defense of Marriage Act, which banned
same-sex marriage.
Wes Moore
Wes Moore has been elected as t he First
Black Governor of the US State of
Maryland on November 8, 2022.
Wes Moore is a celebrity author and
former non-profit executive. He defeated
the far-right Republican, Dan Cox backed
by former Donald J. Trump.
Mohamed lrfaan Ali
The Government of India decided on
November 5, 2022 that President of
Guyana Dr. Mohamed lrfaan Ali will be the
chief guest at the 17th Pravasi Bharatiya
Divas Convention. It will be held from
January 8 to 10, 2023 in Indore, Madhya
Pradesh.
Benjam in Netanyahu
Former Israeli PM Benj am in Netanyahu
has made a stunning come back to power
as his Likud party and its far-right and
religious allies emerged victorious in t he
November 3, 2022 elections.
According to final results released
yesterday, the coal ition has won 64 of 120
Parliament seats in the countrys fifth
election in less than four years.
Ela Bhatt
Ela Bhatt, Gandh ian, SEWA founder, and
women's empowerment activist, died at
the age of 89 on November 2, 2022. She
was globally recognised as a women
leader and was awarded Padma Bhusha n.
Current Affairs

WHO'S WHO Minister Portfolio

Gajendra Singh Jal Shakti
President Draupadi Murmu Shekhawat
Vice-President Jagdeep Dhankar Ashwini Vaishnaw Railways ;
Prime Minister Narendra Modi Communications;
Electronics and
Cabinet Ministers Information
Technology
Minister Portfolio
Raj Kumar Singh Power; New &
Raj Nath Singh Defence Renewable Energy
Amit Shah Home Affairs; Hardeep Singh Puri Petroleum and
Cooperation Natural Gas; Housing
Nitin Jairam Gadkari Road Tran sport and and Urban Affairs
Highways Mansukh Mandaviya Health and Family
Welfare; Chemicals
Nirmala Srtharaman Finance; Corporate
and Fertilizers
Affairs
Mahendra Nath Heavy Industries
Narendra Singh Agrioulture and
Pandey
Tamar Farmers Welfare
BhupenderYadav Environment, Forest
S. Jaishankar ExternaJ Affairs
and Climate Change;
Arjun Munda Tribal Affairs Labour and
Employment
Smriti Zubin Irani Women and Child
Development; Parshottam Rupala Fisheries, Animal
Minority Affairs Husbandry and
Dairying
Piyush GoyaJ Commerce and
Industry; Consumer G. Kishan Reddy Culture; Tourism;
Affairs, Food and Development of
Publio Distribution; North Eastern Region
Textiles Anurag Singh Thakur Information and
Dharmendra Pradhan Education; Skill Broadcasting; Youth
Development and Affairs and Sports
Entrepreneurship
Pralhad Joshi Parliamentary Affairs ; Ministers of State
CoaJ; Mines
(Independent Charge)
Narayan Tatu Rane Micro, SmaJI and
Medium Enterprises Minister Portfolio
Sarbananda Sonowal Ports, Shipping Rao lnderjit Singh Statistics and
and Waterways; Programme
AYUSH Implementation (1/C) ;
Virendra Kumar SociaJ Justice and Planning (1/C)); and
Empowerment Corporate Affairs

Giriraj Singh RuraJ Development; Jitendra Singh Science and

Panchayati Raj Technology (1/C); Earth
Sciences 0/C); Prime
Jyotiraditya M. Civil Aviation; Steel Minister's Office;
Scindia Personnel, Public
Pashu Pati Kumar Food Processing Grievances and
Paras Industries Pensions; Department
of Atomio Energy;
Kiren Rijiju Law and Justice Department of Space
 Current Affairs

Ministers of State Minister Portfolio

Minister Portfolio Darshana Vikram Textiles; Railways

Jardosh
Shripad Yesso Naik Ports, Shipping and
Waterways; Tourism Meenakashi Lekhi ExternaJ Affairs;
Culture
Faggansingh Kulaste Steel; Rural
Som Parkash Commeroe and
Development
Industry
Prahalad Singh Patel Jal Shakti; Food
Processing Industries Renuka Singh Saruta Tribal Affairs
Rameswar Teli Labour and
Ashwini Kumar Consumer Affajrs ,
Employment ;
Choubey Food and Publio
Petroleum and
Distribution;
Environment, Forest Natural Gas
and Climate Change Kailash Choudhary Agrioulture and
Arjun Ram MeghwaJ Farmers Welfare
Parliamentary Affairs;
Culture Annapurna Devi Education
VK Singh Road Trans port and A. Narayanaswamy Social Justice and
Highways; Civil Empowerment
Aviation
Kaushal Kishore Housing and Urban
Krishan PaJ Power; Heavy Affairs
Industries Ajay Bhatt Defence; Tourism
Danve Raosaheb Rajlways ; CoaJ ;
BL Verma Development of
Dadarao Mines
North Eastern
Ramdas AthawaJe Social Justice and Region; Cooperation
Empowerment
Ajay Kumar Home Affairs
Sadhvi Niranjan JyoU Consumer Affajrs,
Devusinh Chauhan Communications
Food and Publio
Distribution; Rural Bhagwanth Khuba New and Renewable
Development Energy; Chemicals
and Fertilizers
Sanjeev Kumar Flsheries, Animal
Balyan Husbandry and Kapil Moreshwar Patil Panchayati Raj
Dajrying
Sushri Pratima Social Justice and
Nityanand Raj Home Affairs Bhoumik Empowerment
Pankaj Chowdhary Finance Subhas Sarkar Education
Anupriya Singh Patel Commerce and Bhagwat Kishanrao Finance
Industry Karad
SP Singh Baghel Law and Justice Rajkumar Ranjan ExternaJ Affairs;
V. Muraleedharan ExternaJ Affairs ; Singh Education
Parliamentary Affairs Bharati Pravin Pawar Health and Family
Rajeev Skill Development Welfare
Chandrasekhar and Bishweswar Tudu Tribal Affairs; JaJ
Entrepreneurship; Shakti
Electronics and
Information Shantanu Thakur Ports, Shipping and
Technology Waterways
Shobha Karandlaje Agriculture and Munjapara Women and Child
Farmers Welfare Mahendrabhaj Development;
AYUSH
Bhanu Pratap Singh Mioro, Small and
Verma Medium Enterprises John Baria Minority Aff ajrs
Current Affairs

Minister Portfolio State Governor Chief Minister

L_ Murugan Fisheries, Animal Odisha Ganeshi Naveen
Husbandry and Lal Patnaik
Dairying; Information
and Broadcasting Nagaland Jagdish Mukhi Nephiu Rio
Nisith Pramanik Home Affairs; Youth Punjab Banwarilal Bhagwant
Affairs and Sports Purohit Singh Mann
Rajasthan Ka/raj Mishra Ashok Gehlot
Governors and Chief Ministers
Sikkim Ganga Prem Singh
State Governor Chief Minister Prasad Tamang
Andhra Biswa Bhusan YS Jagan Tamil Nadu RN Ravi MK Stalin
Pradesh Hariohandan Mohan Reddy
Tripura Satyadeo Manik Saha
Arunaohal BO Mishra Perna Khandu Narajn Arya
Pradesh
Telangana Tarnilisai K. Chandras-
Assam Jagdish Himanta Biswa Soundararajan hekhar Rao
Mukhi Sarma
Uttar Anandiben Yogi
Bihar Phagu Chauhan Nitish Kumar Pradesh Patel Adityanath
Chhattisgarh Anusuiya Uikey Bhupesh Uttarakhand Gurmit Singh Pushkar Singh
Baghel Dhami
Goa PS Sreedharan Pramod West Bengal CV Ananda Bose Mamata
Pillai Sawant Banerjee
Gujarat Acharya Dev Vrat Bhupendra
Patel Administration of Union Territories
Haryana Bandaru Manohar Lal
Union Lt. Governor/ Chief
Dattatraya Khattar
Territory Administrator Minister
Jharkhand Ramesh Bais Hemant Soren
Andaman DK Joshi
Karnataka Thaawarchand Basavaraj and Nicobar
Gehlot S. Bommai Islands

Himachal Rajendra Sukhvinder Chandigarh Banwarilal Purohit

Pradesh Vishwanath Singh Sukhu (Administrator)
Arlekar Dadra & Praful Patel
Kerala Arif Mohammad P. Vijayan Nagar Haveli (Administrator)
Khan and Daman &
Diu
Madhya Mangubhaj Shivraj Singh
Delhi Vinai Kumar ANind
Pradesh Chhaganbhaj Chauhan
Saxena Kejriwal
Patel
Jammu- Manoj Sinha
Maharashtra Bhagat Singh Eknath Shinde
Kashmir
Koshyari
Ladakh Radha Krishna
Manipur La. Ganesan N. Biren Mathur
Singh (Administrator)
Meghalaya BO Mishra Conrad Lakshadweep Praful Patel
(Add. Charge) Sangma
Puduoherry Tamilisai N. Ranga-
Mizoram Hari Babu Pu. Soundararajan swamy
KambhampaU Zoramthanga (Add . Charge)
 Current Affairs

Chiefs of Armed Forces/ Bank Chairman/MD & CEO

Intelligence Agencies Bank of India Atanu Kumar Das
Force/Agency Chief Canafa Bank Lingam Venkata
Chief of Defence Anil Chauhan Prabhakar
Staff (CDS) Bank of Maha£ashtra AS Rajeev
Air Faroe VR Chaudhari Central Bank of India Matam Venkata Rao
Army Manoj Pande Indian Bank Shanti Lal Jajn
Navy R. Hari Kumar Indian Overseas Ajay Kumar Srivastava
CBI Subodh Kumar Jaiswal Bank
Integrated Balabhadra Radha Krishna Punjab NaUonal Bank Atul Kumar Goel
Defence Staff Punjab & Sind Bank Swarup Kumar Saha
IB Tapan Kumar Deka Union Bank of India A. Manimekhalaj
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Designation Dignitary
Important Internationa l
Chief Justice of India DY Chandrachud
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Designation Dignitary
Chajrperson , University M. Jagadesh
Grants Commission KumBf Secretary General , UNO Antonio Guterres
Chairman, ISRO S. Somanath President, World Bank David Malpass
Chairman, Atomio Energy Kamlesh Vyas Managing Director, IMF l<Iistalina Georgieva
Commission
Director General , ILO Gilbert Houngbo
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Chajrperson ,CBFC Prasoon Joshi Director General, WTO Ngozj Okonjo lweala
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Chief Election
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 INDIAN
HISTORY
I ANCIENT INDIA I
THE EARLY MAN The Palaeolithic Age
0
The fossils of the early humans have (500000 BC-9000 BC)
been found in Africa about 2.6 million ° The Palaeolithic culture of India developed
years back, but there are no such in the pleistocene period or the ice age.
evidence in India. So, it appears that o Robert Bruce Foote was the £int to
lndia was inhabited later than Africa . discover a palaeolithic site in India . Homo
a The artefacts discovered from Bori in Sapiens first appeared towards the end of
Maharashtra suggest that the this phase.
appearance of early humans in India Palaeolithic men were hunters and food
0

was around 1.4 million years ago. gatherers. They had no knowledge of
0
The modem humans (Homo sapiens) agiiculture or pottery. They used tools of
first appeared in Africa around 2 lal<.b unpolished, rough stones and lived in cave
yea.rs ago and in India a.round 70,000 and rock shelters.
years ago. Their tools were mostly made of quartzite,
0

0 The early man in India used tools of thus, they are also called Quartzite men.
stone roughly dressed by crude This age is divided into three phases
0

clipping. This period is therefore,
known as the Stone Age, which has
been divided in to
0
The Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age
0 The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Ag-e
0
The Neolithic or New Stone Age
according to the nature of the stone tools
used by the people and change in the
climate.
■ Early or Lower Palaeolithic
■ Middle Palaeolithic
■ Upper Palaeolithic

Phases of the Palaeolithic Age

Age Tools Climate Sites
Early Hand axes, cleavers and Humidity decreased Soan valley (Punjab), Belan
choppers valley (Uttar Pradesh)
Middle Flakes-blades, pointers, Further decrease in Valleys of Soan, Narmada and
borers and scrapers humidity Tungabhadra rivers.

Upper Scrapers, burins and bone Warm dmate Caves and rockshelters of this
tools age have been discovered at
Bhimbetka near Bhopal.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
The Mesolithic Age
(9000 BC- 6000 BC)
0
It was a transitional phase between th e
Palaeolithic Age and the Neolithic Age.
" 1n this age, climate became vVaJ.Til and
dry, which brought about changes in
fauna and flora and made it possible for
h uman beings to move to new areas.
" The Mesolithic people lived on hunting,
fishing and food- gathering. At a later
stage, they also domesticated animals.
" The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic
Age ru·e microliths. Microliths were small
tools made of stone pointed cresconic
blades, scrapers, etc made up of stones
vvere other important tools.
" Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and
Bagor in Rajas-than provide the eru-liest
evidence for th e domestication of Chalcolithic Culture
animals.
" The people of Palaeolithic an d
Mesolithic ages practiced painting.
Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a
striking site of Pre-historic painting of ° Chalcolithic culture refers to the
Mesolithic age.
The Neolithic Age
(6000 BC-1800 BC)
0
The people of this age ru·e charactelised
by the use of polished stone tools. They
particularly used stone axes.
" Important Neolithic sites in lndia
include Bw-zahom , Mehrgarh , Daojali
Hading, Chirand, Maski, Brahmagili,
Hallur, Piklih al, Utnoor, Nagrujw1akonda a The
and Paiyampalli .
0 It is interesting that in Burzahom dogs
were buried wi th their masters in their
graves.
0
The Neolithic settlers were the eru·liest
farming commw1ities. They produced
rag:i and horse-gram (lrnlathi). Neolithic a important chalcolithic sites in India are
sites in Allahabad district are noted for
the cultivation of rice in the sixth
m illenium BC. They domesticated
cattle , sheeps and goats. They wove
cotton and wool to make clothes.
0 Hand made pottery and use of potter
wheel first appeared during the
Neolithic age.
a Neolithic men lived in caves and
decorated their walls with hunting and
dancing scenes. They knew the mt of
making boats. 1n the later phase, people
lived a more settled life and lived in
circulru- and rectang:ulru- houses made of
mud and reed. Pit houses have been
found in Burzahom.
° Koldihwa in UP revealed a three
fold cultural sequence: Neolithic ,
Chalcolithic and iron age. Mehargarh in
Baluchistan is the oldest Neolithic site
in India (7000 BC).
(1800 BC-1000 BC)
The end of the Neolithic peliod saw the
use of metals. Copper was the first metal
to be used.
stone-copper phase. People also used
hand-axes and other objects made up of
copper ware.
° Chalcolithic people were pdmariJy rural
communities. They domesticated
animals and practised agriculture. They
were not acquainted with burnt bricks
and lived in thatched houses. They
venerated the mother Goddess and
worshipped the bull.
people of Chalcolithic culture were
the first to use painted pottery. Black
and red pottery painted with white line
design was most popular.
The Malwa ware is considered the
0
richest among th e Chalcolithic
ceramics.
Ahar, J orwe, Kayatha, Malwa, Eran ,
Rang:pur, Navdatoli, Nevasa , Dain1abad
and Inamgaon.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
0
I INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION I
a lndus civilisation is one of the four Geographical Spread
earliest civilisations of the world along o The civilisation covered parts of Sind,
with the civilisations of Mesopotamia Baluchistan, Afghanistan , Punjab,
(figiis and Euph rates), Egypt (Nile) Gujara~ Uttar Pradesh, Haryana ,
and China (Hwang Ho). Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab
a The civilisation forms part of the and Maharashtra.
pro to-history of lnma and belongs to the 0
M uncligak and Shortughai are th e two
Bronze age. sites located in Afghanistan.
a In its mature form, the civilisation 0
Western most site Sutkagendor on
lasted between 2600-1900 BC. Makran coast. Eastern most site
It can be divided into following sub-parts Alamgi.rpur in Uttar Pradesh .
" Early Phase 3500-2600 BC 0
Northern most site Manda in Jan1mu
0 Middle (matme) Phase 2600-1900 BC (River Chenab). Southern most site
Daimabad in Maharashtra (River
0
Later Phase 1900-1400 BC
Pravara) are major sites.
0
Dayaram Sahni first discovered
Harappa in 1921.
Some New Discoveries
0 RD Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro
or Mound of the Dead in I 922. · Ganverivala in Pakistan by Rafeeq Mugal.
■ Bhirrana oldest Harappan site has said to be
Nomenclature of Indus the mounds at Bhirrana village on the banks of
Ghaggar river.
Valley Civilisation • Rakhigarhi in Haryana by Amarendra Nath.
0 Indus Valley Civilisation coined by
John Marshall as it flomished along the
lndus river. Town Planning
D Harappan Civilisation after th e first o A unique feature was the giid system i.e.
discovered site, Harappa. streets cutting across one another at right
0
Saraswati-Sindhu Civilisation as most angles, divimng the tm,vn into large
of the sites have been found along th e rectangular blocks.
lndus-Saraswati river.

Indus Cities At a Glance

City Provinoe River Bank YeaJof Arohaeologist(s)
Discovery
Harappa Pakistani Punjab Ravi 1921 Daya Ram Sahni
Mohenjodaro Sind Indus 1922 RD Banerjee
Sutkagendor Baluchistan Dasht 1931 Aurel Stein
Chanhudaro Sind Indus 1931 MG Majumdar
Ropar Indian Punjab Sutlej 1953 YD Sharma
Lothal Gujarat Bhogava 1953 SR Rao
Sabarmati
Kaflbangan Rajasthan Ghaggar 1951 A Ghosh
Alamgirpur Uttar Pradesh Hindon 1974 YD Sharma
Banawali Haryana Ghaggar 1973 RS Bisht
Dholavira Gujarat Luni 1967-68 JP Joshi
Rakhigarhi Haryana Ghaggar 1997 Amarendra Nath
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
• The tovvns were divided into tvvo
parts: upper part or citadel and lower
part.
• The forti£ed citadel on the Western
side housed public buildings and
members of ruling class.
• Below the citadel on the Eastern side,
lay the lower town inhabited by the
common people.
• Underground Drainage System
connected all houses to the street
drains made of mortar, lime and
gypsum. They were covered with
either brick or stone slabs and
equipped vvith 'Manhole'. This shows
developed sense of health and
sanitation.
a The Great Bath (Mohenjodaro) It
was used for religious bathing. Steps
at either end leads to the swface.
There were changing rooms
alongside.
• The Granaries (Harappa)
six g:ranaiies in a row were found in
the citadel at Hai·appa.
a Houses were made up of bw·nt
bricks. They were often two or more
storeyed, vvith a square courtyai--d.
They had tiled bathrooms.
a Lamp-posts were erected at regular
intervals. It indicates the existence of
street lighting.
Ab0 Ticulture
a It was the backbone of the
civilisation. The soil was fertile due to
inundation in the river Indus and
flooding.
a They used wooden ploughshare
(World's first ploughed field at
Ka.libangan) and stone sickles for
hai·vesting. Iron was not knovm to
them.
• Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by
dams for storing water were a feature
in paii:s of Baluchistan. Canal
irrigation was absent.
o Crops Produced wheat, bai·ley, dates, peas,
sesamum, mustai·d, millet, ragi, bajra and
jowar. At Lothal and Rangpur, rice husks
were found. Sugai·cane was not knovm to
Indus people.
0
They were First to Produce Cotton in the
world, which Greek called as Sindon. A
fragment of woven cotton cloth was fomzd at
Mohenjodaro.
Domestication ofAniinals
" They domesticated buffaloes, oxens, sheep,
asses, goats, pigs, elephants, dogs, cats etc.
" Remains of Horse were found at Surkotada
and of rhinoceros at Amri.
0
Lion was not known to Indus people. Cow
was known to them but was not much
in1portant.
Trade
" Agriculture, industry and forest produce
provided the basis for internal and external
trade.
0
Trade was based on barter system. Coins
were not evident. Bullock caii:s and boats
were used for transportation.
o Weights and measures were made of
limestone, steatite etc. generally in cubical
shape. They were in multiple of sixteen.
Decimal system was known to them.
" Several sticks insc1ibed with measure mai·ks
have been discovered. It indicates that
lineai· system of measurement was in use.
a Foreign trade flourished with Mesopotamia
or Sume1ia (lraq), Central Asia, Persia ,
Afghanistan and Bahrain.
" Sumerian te:Kt refers to trade with Meluha
(Indus). Dilmun (Ba.hi-a.in) and Makan
(Makran coast) were two intermediate
stations.
o Susa and Ur were mesopotamian sites
where hai·appan seals were found.
0
Lothal (arti£cial dockyai·d), Surkotada,
Sutkagendor Allahoino, Balakot, Dholavira,
1
Daimabad were coastal towns of the
civi.lisation.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
0
diinocerous, goat and elephant are
Towns Associated with found on most of the seals. They
Different Industries marked ovvnership of property.
• Daimabad Bronze industry. a Important Seals Pashupati seal found
· Lothal Factory for stone tools and metallic from Mohenjodaro and unicorn seal.
finished goods. a Images Bronze image of dancing girl
• Balakot Pearl finished goods, bangle and (identi£ed as devadasi) and stone
she II industry. steatite image of a bearded man (both
• Chanhudaro Beads and bangles factory. It are obtained from Mohenjodaro).
was the only city without a citadel. a Terracotta Figw·ines Terracotta is
the Fire baked clay. It was used to
a Major Exports were agiicultural products, make toys, objects of worship , animals,
cotton goods, terracotta figuTines, pottery, toy-carts etc.
steatite beads (from Chanhudaro ),
Conch-shell (from Lothal), ivory products, Religious Practices
copper etc.
o Chief Female Diety A terracotta
Major Imports figure where a plant is shown grmving
out of the embryo of a woman,
Imports From
represents Mother Goddess (Goddess
Gold Kolar (Kamataka), of Earth).
Afghanistan, Persia (Iran)
° Chlef Male Diety-Pashupati
Silver Afghanistan, Persia (Iran),
South India Mahadeva (Proto-Shiva), represented
in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on
Copper Khetri (Rajasthan),
Baluchistan a low throne having three heads and
two horns . He is surrounded by an
Tin Afghanistan, Central Asia
elephant, a tiger, a rhino and a buffalo
Lapis Lazuli Badak-Shan (Afghanistan) and tvvo deers appear at his feet.
and Sapphire
Lingam and yoni worship was
Jade Central Asia
prevalent. Trees (pipal) and animals
Steat:ite Shaher-i-Sokhta, Kirthar hills (bull, birds, dove, pigeon) were also
Turquoise Iran worshipped. No temples have been
Amethyst Maharashtra found, though idoltary was practiced.
0
Indus people believed in ghosts and
Art and Craft evil forces and used amulets for
protection against them.
0
Harappans used tools made of stone and
bronze. Bronze was made by mixing copper o Fire altars are found at Lothal and
(from Khetii) with tin. Kalibangan. Evidence of snal<e
worship is also found.
0
Beads and jewellery of gold, silver and
precious stone were made. Cotton fabrics
0
Swastika symbol was originated here.
were used in summers and woollen in
winters. Burial Practices
Pottery both plain (red) and painted (red o General practice was placing the dead
and black) pottery was made. Pots were body in the North-South direction.
decorated ,,vith human figures, plants, 0
Mohenjodaro Three forms of bwial
animals and geometlical patterns and were Complete, Fractional and Post
ochre was painted over it. Cremation.
a Seals were made of steatite. Pictui-es of o Kalibangan Two forms of bw-ial-
one horned bull , buffalo, tiger, Circular and Rectangular Grave.
0 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

0 Sarkotada Pot bw-ial , Dholavira Megalithk burial .

0
Lothal Double burial.
0 Harappa East-West axis; R-37 and H cemetery.

Script
" It was pictographic in nature. Fish symbol is most represented.
0
It was vv1.itten from right to left in the first line and then left to right in the second line.
This style is called Boustrophedon.

DECLINE OF THE CIVILISATION

The Harappan culture flowished till about 1900 BC, then it began to decline. There is no
unanimity among historians, regarding the exact reason for the decline of this mban
civilisation. There are many different theories that show the decline of the Indus culture.
Decline of Indus Civilisation (Different Views)
Views Thinkers
External Aggression Wheeler, Piggot and Gordon Childe
Inundation MR Sahani
Epidemic KVR Kennedy
Tectonio Disturbances (e.g. Dholavira) Marshall and Raikes
Climatio change Aurel Stein and AN Ghosh
Deforestation, Scarcity of Resources, EcologicaJ Fairservis
Imbalances
Flood (e.g. Mohenjodaro) Marshall, SR Rao. Maickey
The Destruction due to change in course of GF Hales
River G.haggar

Important Harappan Sites

City Arohaeologioal Finds
Harappa Two rows of six granaries with brick platform, work men 's quarter, stone
(Gateway city) symbol of lingam and yoni, virgin-Goddess, clay figures of Mother Goddess,
wheat and barley in wooden mortar, copper scale and mirror, vanitybox, dice.
Sculpture Dog chasing a deer (bronze), nude male and nude dancing female
(stone), red sand stone male torso.
Mohenjodaro The great bath, The great granary (largest building), multi-pillared assembly
(Mound of the hall, proto-Shiva seal, clay figures of Mother Goddess, Dice, Mesopotamian
Dead) seals .
Sculpture Bronze dancing girl, steatite image of bearded man.
Kalibangan Ploughed field, Decorated bricks, bangle factory, wheels of a toy cart, wells in
(Black Bangle) every house, bones of camel, 70 fire aJtars.
Chanhudaro lnkpot, lipstick, bronze, toy cart, imprint of dog's paw on a brick. Only city
(Lancashire of without citadel, Terracotta bullock cart.
India)
Daimabad Bronze images of charioteer with chariot, ox. elephant and rhinoceros .
Amri Actual remains of rhinoceros.
Alamgirpur Impression of cloth on a trough.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
0
City Arohaeologioal Finds
Lothal Rice husk, dockyard, fire altars, grinding machine, tusks of elephant,
(Manchester of terracotta figure of horse, dying vat , painted jar (bird and fox), teracotta ship,
Indus Valley impressions of cloth on some seals , modem day chess , instrument for
Civilisation) measuring angles.
Ropar Buildings made of stone and soil. Dog buried wrth humans, oval pit burials.
Banawali Oval shaped settlement, only city with radial streets , lack of systematic
drainage pattern. Toy plough, largest number of barley grains.
Surkotada Both citadel and lower town fortified with stone wall, remains of horse bones,
pot burials.
Dholavira Only site to be divided into three parts, Giant water reservoir, unique water
harnessing system, dams and embankments, a stadium, rock-cut
architecture.
Rakhigarhi Largest Indus valley srte.
Rangpur Rice was cultivated here.

I THE ARYAN AND THE VEDIC AGE I

Original Home and Rigvedic or Early Vedic Period

Identity (1500-1000 BC)
0 The word Aryan literally means of 0
Early Vedic people lived in the region of Sapta
high birth. Sindhu. They had lmowledge of about 40 rivers
including Yamuna, Saraswati and Ganga.
0
The location of the original
Ocean was mentioned as Samudrn, Himalaya
h omeland of the Aryans is still
as Himvant, Hindu Kush as Munjavants and
controversial, but the most
desert as Dhawa.
accepted theory is that they
migrated from Cena-al Asia in Rivers Mentioned in the Rig Veda
several groups between
2000-1500 BC and settled in Rigvedio Names Modem Names
Eastern Afghanistan , modem Sindhu Indus
Pakistan and Punjab. Vrtasta Jhelum
• This region is popuJa.rly lmown as Asikni Chenab
the land of seven rivers or 'Sapta Parushni Ravi
Sindhu' (the Indus, its five Vipas Beas
tributaiies i.e. Jhelum, Chenab, Shutudri Sutlej
Ravi, Beas and Sutlej and the Gomati Gomal
Sai·aswati). Krumu Kurram
Drishadvati Ghaggar
Note The Central Asian theory is also
proved by the Boghazkm Inscription Suvasthu Swat
(Turkey), which mentions four Vedic Kubha Kabul
Gods : Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nanditara Saraswati
Nasatya. Sadanira Gandak
0 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
• Aryans came into conflict vvitb the
indigenous inhabitants called Dasas
(earlier branch of Aryans) and Dasyus
(Original inhabitants). Dasyuhatya or
slaughter of Dasyus is repeatedly
mentioned in the Rig Veda.
The Dasarajna War
(Battle of Ten Kings)
• This battle was fought on the bank of the
Parushni river (Ravi). Sudas, the son of
Divodas and the Bharata king of Tritsu family
won over an allia~ce of ten tribes
(Five Aryans and Five non-Aryans).
• The battle broke out due to a dispute between
Vashistha (priest of Bharatas) and
Visvamitra (priest of alliance).
Economy
0
Rigvedic Aryans followed a mixed
economy consisting of both agriculture
and pastoralism.
Pastoralism was their p rimary
occupation while agriculture was
secondary.
They possessed better knowledge in
agriculture. Wooden ploughshare is
mentioned in Rig Veda. They were
acquainted ,~ri.th sowing, h arvesting,
threshing and knew about different
seasons.
° Cow was the most important form of
wealth. The term for war in the Rig Veda
is Gavishthi or search for cows. The
horse vvas almost as important as cavv.
° Cow was the standard unit of exchange.
Gold coins like Nishlrn, Krishna and
Satnzana were also in use. Godhuli was
used as a measure of time and Gavyuti as
measure of distance.
Polity
0 The king or Rajan was the head of the
tiibal polity. Although his post was
hereditary, we have also some traces of
election by the b.ibal assembly called
'Samiti'.
0 Several tiibal or clan based assemblies
existed such as the Sabha , Samiti,
Vidatha and Gana.
a The Samiti was the National Assembly
of the people, while the Sabha was
Council of Elders.
0
King was assisted by many functionaiies.
Most important functionat)' was the
PurohHa, the religious advisor of the
king, followed by the Senani, the head of
the army.
a There was no regulai- system of taxation.
People gave voluntat)' offerings to the
king, called BaU.
.. There was no regular or standing army.
Hovvever, there were groups of infanb.--y
and charioteers.
0
Weapons made of stone, wood, bone and
metal were used.
Society
0
Kinship was the basis of society's
srr-ucture. People gave their prirnai--y
loyalty to the t1ibe, which was called
Jana or Vis.
a Vis was divided into grnma. When
grama clashed with one another, it
caused the Sangrnma or war.
0
Society was mostly Pab.iai-chal.
Monogamy was prevalent. No evidence
of child marriage was found. Levirate
and Hridow remarriage was practised.
a Varna was the term used for colour of
people, which were classi£ed into four
Varnas.
o Brahmins (teachers and priests),
Kshatriyas (rulers and administrators),
Vaishyas (Peasants, merchants and
bankers), Sadras (ai-tisans and
labourers).
Rigvedic Gods
Rigvedic people believed in nature
worship and not in erecting temples or
idol worship. They performed Yajnas in
open areas.
0
Soma was considered to be the God of
plants and an intoxicating drink is
named after him.
a The ninth mandala of the Rig Veda i.e.
'Soma Mandala' is att:J.ibuted to Soma.
a Important female di,ri.nities were
Acliti and Usha.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
0
Rig Vedic Deities Important Rituals
God Assooiated Field 0 Rajasuya- The king's influence was
lndra/Purandar Breaker of Forts strengthened by rituals. The king performed
(Most this sacrifice, vvhicb was supposed to confer
Important) supreme power on him.
Agni Fire God 0
Asvamedha- A king performed the
Varuna Water God and upholder Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned
of natural order
conh·ol over the area, in which the royal
Surya God with Seven horse horse ran uninterrupted.
driven chariot
Savitri God of light to whom
0 Vajapeya- A king performed the Vajapeya
Gayatri Mantra is or the chariot race, in which the royal
add ressed chaliot was made to vvin the race against his
Mitra Solar God kinsmen .
Pushan God of marriage , also
guarded roads and LATER VEDIC AGE
cattle
Vishnu One, who covered Earth
(1000- 600 BC)
in Three steps-Upakfama (PAINTED GREY WARE
Audra God of Animals
Dyaus Oldest God and Father
PHASE)
of the World .. Aryans ex.--panded from Pw1jab to Western
Ashwin/Nastya God of health, youth and UP covered by Ganga-Yarnuna Doab
immortality (Aryavarta).
Slndhu River Goddess 0
Later Vedic texts refer to livers Narmada ,
Yama God of death Sadan.ira, Charnbal and Vindhya mountain.
Maruts Personified storm Later Vedas gave three fold territorial
Usha Goddess of dawn division of India into Aryavarta (Nothem
lndia), Madhyadesa (Central India) and
AdiU Goddess of eternity
Dakshinapatha (Southern India).
a The expansion towards East is indicated in

Types of Marriages a legend of Satapatha Brahmana i.e . how

Eight types of marriages were in
practice during the Vedic pe1iod :
Brahma Marriage of a duly dowered
girl to a man of the same
class.
Daiva A daughter is given to a
sacrificial priest, as a part of
his fee.
Arsa Giving the girl to a man in
exchange of bride-price.
Prajapatya The tather gives the girl
without dowry and without
demanding the bride-prioe.
GandhaNa Love marriage.
Asura Bride was bought from her
father.
Rakshasa Marriage by capture .
Paishacha Marriage by sed uction .
Videha Madhava migrated from the
Saraswati region, crossed Sadanira and
came to the land of Videha (modem
Tirhut).
Polity
a Tribal assemblies lost their importance and
royal power increased at their cost. Vidhata
totally disappeared. Women were no longer
permitted to attend assemblies.
a Formation of large kingdoms, Kingship
becanie completely hereditai)'.
0 The term Rashtra indicating tenit01)', first
appeared in this period.
.. Taittariya Brahmana refers to the them)' of
divine origin of kingship.
0
Satapatha Brahmana refers to
twelve Ratninas or civil functionaries of the
time.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Twelve Ratninas (Shatapatha 0

Position of women declined. Aitareya
Brahmana) Brahmana states that daughter is the
source of misery while a son is the protector
Purohrta The Priest of family. Maitrayani Samhita mentions
Mahishi Chief Queen three evils- liquor, woman and dice.
Yuvaraja Crown Prince Polygamy became frequent.
Suta/Sarathi The Royal herald/the 0
However, some of the women h ad
Charioteer got higher education as indicated by the
Bhagadudha Tax collector Yajnavallq1a-Gargi dialogue in
Akshavapa Accountant Vrihadarnyalw Upanishada.
Palagala Friend of king
Govikarta Head of forest Economy
department Agriculture became the chief economic
Senani The General activity. Manure was lmovm. Wheat, rice,
Gramani Head of the village barley, beans and Sesamum were cultivated.
Kshata Gateman/Chamberlain a Nevv occupational gi-oup emerged, such as
Sangrahitri Treasurer fisherman, washerman, dyers, door-
keepers and footmen.
D There was development of judiciary. 0
Tin, silver and iron was now lmown to the
Kings adminjstered the criminal people.
court. Se1ious crimes were the killing a Merchants were organised into Guilds, as
of an embryo, homicide, the murder indicated by the tetms-Ganas (corporations)
of a Brahmin, stealmg of gold and and Sresthins (alde1men).
d1:inking surn. Treason was a capital
° Characteristic pottery : Painted Grey
offence.
Ware.
Society Religion
0 The fourfold division of society
a Rituals became important in the cult of
became more clear. lnitia]y based on
sacrifice.
occupation , it later became
hereditary. a Prajapati became the supreme God. Vishnu
was conceived as the preserver and
Brah.min- The growing cult of
sacrifice enormously added to the protector of people.
power of Brahmins. 0
Pushan, responsible for well being of cattle,
D Kshatriyas They constituted the became the God of Shudras.
warrior class. 0
Towards the end of the Vedic age, a section
D Vaisyas- They were the of society began to resent the p1iestly
agiiculturalists, cattle rearers, domination.
traders, artisans and metal vvorkers .
Shudras- Lowest in the social
16 Sanskaras
bjerarchy and born to serve the upper 1. Garbhadhana 9. Kamachhedana
three varna. 2. Pumsavana 10. Vidyarmbha
D The Ashram system was formed to 3. Simantonnayan 11 . Upanayana
attain four purnsharthas (Dharma, 4. Jatakarm a 12. Vedarambha
Artha, Kama and Moksha). Jabala 5. Namakaran 13. Samavaratana
Upanishada gives the earliest 6. Nishkramana 14. Vi va ha
reference to four ashramas i.e. the
7. Annaprashana 15. Vanprastha
stages of life- Brahmacharya,
Grilzastha , Vanaprastlza and Sanyasa. 8. Chudakarma 16. Antyesti
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
The Vedic Literature
0 The word Veda comes from the word Vld,
means to lrnow or lrnowledge.
0
Vedic te>-.1:s are divided between Srnti
(based on hearing) and Smriti (based on
memory).
0
Veda are divided into Samhitas.
Rig Veda
a It is the oldest text in th e world. Also
called 'the first testament of mankind ' .
° Collection of hymns, composed around
1700 BC, contains 1028 hymns and
10580 verses divided into 10 mandalas.
0 Il to VTI are the earliest mandalas, each of
which is asc1ibed to a particular family of
Rishi i.e. Gritsamad, Visva.rni tra,
Va.madeva, Atli, Bhardwaja, Vashisth a.
VITI mandala is ascribed to Kanvas and
Angiras. IX mandala is the compilation of
Soma hymns.
0 The Xth mandala contains the famous
PurnshasZLhta hymn which explains that
the four varnas were born from the
mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the
creator Brahma.
0 The illrd mandala contains the Gayatri
Mantra. which was compiled in the praise
of Sun God Savitii.
0
Saraswati is the deity river in th e Rig
Veda.
Sa1na Veda
0
Sama Veda de1ives its roots from 'saman ',
which means melodies. It is a collection
of melodies . The hyms of the Sama Veda
were recited by Udgatri at the Soma
sacrifice.
It contains Dhrnpad Raga .
0
YajurVeda
0
Deals ·with the procedures for the
performance of sacrifices. The beliefs and
rituals of non-Aryans are written in it.
0 Two text of Yajur Veda
n Shukla (White) Yajur Veda
° Krishna (Black) Yajur Veda
Atharva Veda
0 It is a book of magical formulae. It
contains charms and spells to ward off evil
and disease.
Brahmanas
0
These are the prose commentaries o □
vaiious vedic hymns. They explain the
Vedas in a□ orthodox way. They explain
the hidden meaning behind the hymns.
They ai'e ritualistic by nature.
., The most important is the 'Shatapatha
Bmhmana' attached to the YajZLr Veda.
0
Every Veda has several Brahamanas
attached to it.
• Rigvcda Aitareya and Sankhyan.
• Yajurveda Shatapatha and Taittariya.
• Samveda Jaiminaya, Chhandogya and
Panchvisha, Shadvinsh.
• ALharva Veda Gopatha
The Aranyakas
The sages dwelling in the forests
explained the Vedic scriptures to their
pupils in the form of Aranyakas. These
have magical power and they form the
concluding pa.rt of Brahmanas. It
provides details of the rishis, living in
jungle.
The Upanishadas
0 Also called Vedanta, because they
denote the last phase of Vedic period
(800-500 BC).
0 They are spiritual and philosophical in
nature.
.. There ai·e 108 Upanishadas and the
pe1iod of 800 BC to 500 BC is lrnovm as
pe1iod of Upanishadas. 11 ai--e
predominant and they are called
mokhya Upanishadas. Vrihadaranyaka
is the oldest Upanishads.
Vedangas
0
They are the limbs of the Vedas.
These are treaties of Science and Arts.
0
Shihsha (deals with pronounciation)
(phonetics).
u Kalpa (deals with rituals)
u Vyalearana (Grammai-)
u Nirnkta (Etymology)
u Chhanda (Metdcs)
0]yotisha (Astronomy)
0
Pa.nini wrote Ashtadhyayi
(4th century BC) on Vyakarmza.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Upavedas
There are four Upavedas-
0 Dhanurveda (Upaveda of Yajur Veda) : Deals vvitb art of warfare.
a Gandharvaveda (Upaveda of Sama Veda) : Deals with art and music.

" Shilpaveda/Arthaveda (Upaveda of Atharva Veda) : Deals with craft and wealth .
0
Aynr Veda (Upaveda of Rig Veda) : Deals with medicine.

Shad-Darshanas
Six systems of Hindu philosophies, given by six philosophers of ancient India.
o Nyaya Gautama o Vaisesilrn Kannada
o Sankhya Kapila u Yoga Patanjali
o Purua Mimansa Jaimin:i ■ Uttar Mimansa Badarayan

Puranas
0
Puranas means 'the old'. There are 18 famous Pmanas. Matsya Pmana is the oldest.
Other main puranas are Bhagavata, Vishnu, Vayu and Brahmnada.
0 They deals vvitb 5 subjects : Sarga (creation), Pratisarga (recreation), Wamsa
(Genealogies of gods), Manvantara (rule of manus) and Wamshanucharita
(Genealogies of kings).

Sutras
Sutra literature is divided into three classes
n Srauta Sutra (dealing with large public sacrifices).

o Griha Sutra (dealing with 1ituals connected with birth , naming, maniage).

Dharma Sutra (explain social and local customs).

0

Epic
0 Mahabharata, written by Ved Vyas. OrigmalJ)½ the Mahabharata consisted of
880 verses then it was raised to 24000 verses. The final compilation brought the
number of verses to 100000.
0 Ramayana vvritten by Valmiki which is older than the Mahabharata, 01igmally
consisted of 6000 verses, which was raised to 12000 and finally 24000 verses.

Smritis
" Dharma Shastra is the other name for the Sm.rids, which are the law books w1itten in
slolea form.
0
The important Smritis are Manav Dharma Shastra~ Vishnu Dhanna Shastr~
Yajnavalhya SmTiti and Narada Smriti.
0
Manav Dharma Shastra or Manusnu-iti is the oldest and most famous. Manu is
supposed to be the first king and law maker.
0
Later on, some minor Smritis and commentaiies like the Mitakshara were compiled.

I PRE-MAURYAN AGE I
• The material advantages brought about by the use of the iron implements in Eastern
UP and Bihai· in 6th century BC helped in the formation of lai·ge territorial states.
0 Use ofiron tools in agriculture produced surplus, which could be taxed by the princes
to finance their military and administrative needs.
0
Thus, many Janapadas sprung up in the 6th century BC, the larger of which were
called Mahajanapadas.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

THE MAHAJANAPADAS
oThe Anguttara Nilwya of Suttapitaka, Mahavastu (Buddhist literature) and
Bhagavati Sutta (Jain literature) mentions the list of 16 Mahajanapadas.
They were of two types
Non-Monarchial/Republican States-Kamboj, Kum, Koliyas (Ramgrama), Malla,
Mariya (Pipplivana), Shalq1a (Kapilvastu), Vajji (Vaishali), Lichchhavis (Vaishali),
Bhaggas (Su.msumasa), KaJamas (Kesaputta), Videhas (Mithila), Jnatiikas
(KundaJgrama).
Monarchical States Anga, Avanti, Chedi, Kashi, KosaJa, Gandhara, Magadh, Matsya ,
Sursena, Vatsa.
People now owned sti·onger allegiance to the Janapada or tenitory than the Jana or
tiibe they belonged to.
Asmaka was the Southernmost Mahajanapada.
Vats a was earlier a KunL clan.
0
Vajji was confederacy of eight republican clans, among which Llchchhavis are prominent.

THE REPUBLICAN STATES

0
The republics, unlike the monarchies were ruled by tr:ibaJ oligarchies and the
Brahmanas had no place.
0 The ruling class belonged to the same class and vanza. Lichchhavis are said to be the
oldest republic in the world.

Administration
Raja (King), Uparaja (Vice-King), Senapati. (Commander) and B/zandagarika
(treasurer).
Mahajanapadas and their Capitals
Mahajanapadas (Looadon) CapitaJ(s)
1. Gandhara (Between Kabul and RawalpindQ. Taxila
2. Anga (BhagaJpur and Mungher in Bihar) . Champa
3. Magadha (Patna and Gaya district of Bihar). Girivraj, Rajagriha (Bimbisara);
Patliputra (Udayin) ; Vaishali
(Shishunaga); PatJiputra (Ashoka)
4. Kasi (Varanasi district, UP). Varanasi
5. Vajji (Vaishali district, Bihar) . Vaishali
6. Malla (South of Vaishali district, UP) . Kusinagara and Pava
7. Chedi (river Ken , Bundelkhand area). Sothivati-nagar or Shuktimati
8. Vatsa (river Yamuna, Allahabad and Mirzapur Kaushambi
district in UP).
9. Kosala (Eastern UP). Sravasti and Ayodhaya (Saket)
10. Kuru (Ganga Yamuna doab, Hastinapur and lndraprastha
Delhi-Meerut region).
11. Panchala (Ganga-Yamuna doab, Rohilkhand). Ahichhatra, Kampilya
12. Matsya (Jaipur-Bharatpur-Alwar district). Vlratnagar/Bairath
13. Surasenas (Mathura region). Mathura
14. Asmaka (river Godavari) (near Paithan in Patna or Patali
Maharashtra) .
15. Avanti (Malwa) . Ujjain (Northern caprtal) , Mahismati
(Southern capital)
16. Kamboja (Hazara district of Pakistan). Rajapur or Hataka
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

I MAGADHA EMPIRE I
• Th e peliod from 6 th century BC to 4th clan of Punjab. (Khema, daughter of
century BC saw the struggle for supremacy Mach-a king).
amongst the four Mahajanapadas- o He sent his personal physician , Jivaka
Magadha , KosaJa, Vatsa and Avanti. to his 1jval Av anti king
a Ultimately, Magadha emerged as the most Chandapradyota Mahasena of
powerful and prosperous kingdom in the Ujjain, to cure him of jaundice.
North India. 0
The Gandhara ruler of Tax:ila , Puld.'U
a The founder of Magadha was Jarasandha Sati, sent an ambassador to
and Brihadratha. But , the growth started Bimbisara .
under the Haryanlrns , e)cpansfon took place
under the Shishunagas and Nandas and Ajatasbatru
reached its zenith under the Mam-yas. ( 492 BC- 460 BC)
0
He was son of Chellana and
Causes of the Rise of Magadha Birnbisai·a. He occupied the throne by
• Advantageous geographical location of the killing his father.
capital cities. a He adopted an aggressive policy of
• Abundance of natu ral resources such as iron, e)(pansion and gained complete
helped in preparing effective weapons. conb.·ol over Kasi.
• The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plains and 0
He defeated his maternal uncle
sufficient rainfall were very conducive for Prasenjit, king of Kosala and marlied
agriculture produce . his daughter Vijjira.
• Unorthodox character of Magadhan society and a He desn·oyed Vaishali (capital of the
ambitious rulers. Llchchhavis) after a protracted wai· of
sixteen yeai·s, by sovving the seeds of
discord amongst the people of
HARYANKA DYNAS1Y Vaishali .
0
Sunidha and Vatsakar Aj.atashan-u 's
Bimbisara (544 BC- 492 BC) diplomatic ministers,
a He built the capital city Rajgir (Girivraja) , M ahashilakantaka a wai· engine,
which was surrounded by five hills. which catapulted big stones and
a He was contemporai-y to Gautama Buddha Rathamusala a kind of chariot with a
and Mahavira and the fu-st king to have mace; helped him to defeat th e
standing ai-my for which he is known as Llchchhavis.
Seniya. o He forti£ed Rajagriha to meet the
a He defeated Anga King Brahrnadatta and threat from Avanti. He also built the
strengthened his ovvn position by fort of Rajagiiha and Jaladurga
matrimonial alliances. (a water fort) at Pat.ah village on the
• His three wives belonged to royal family of bank of river Ganges.
Koshala (Mahakosaladevi, sister of 0
He pab.·onised the fast Buddhist
Prasenjit ruler of Kashi), Llchchhav:i Council and Buddha died during his
(Chellana, sister of Chetaka) and Madra reign.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
U dayin (460 BC-444 BC)
0
Son and successor of Ajatashatru.
a He built the fort upon the confluence of the
Ganga and the Son rivers at Patalipun-a
(Patna), thus, transferred the capital from
Rajgiiha to the new city Patalipotra.
0
U da yin was succeeded by weak rulers
Anuruddha, Munda and Naga Dasak.
SHISHUNAGA
DYNAS1Y( 412 BC-344 BC)
0
Shishunaga was the minister of Nag-Dasak
and was elected by the people.
0
He desb.·oyed the Pradyota dynasty of
Avanti. This ended the hundred year old
rivalry between the two states and Avanti
became a part of Maga db. He temporarily
shifted the capital to Vaishali.
Kalasboka (Kakavarin)
0
He succeeded Shishunaga.
a He n·ansferred the capital from Vaishali to
Patalipun-a and convened the second
Buddh1st Council in Vaishali (383 BC).
a Sabakan1i was the President ofthis council.
NANDA DYNAS1Y
(344 BC-323 BC)
It is considered to be the ~'"1: non-Kshatriya
dynasty of Maga.cl.ha.
Mabapachnananda
0
Mahapadmananda, the gi·eat conqueror and
founder of the Nanda dynasty, also lmovvn as
'£karat', 'Eka-chhatra' (sovereign ruler) or
Sarvakshatrantaka i.e. uprooter of the
Kshan-iyas (by Puranas), Ugi·asena i.e.
ovmer of huge army (Pali te>..i:s). He is also
described as "The first empire builder of
lndian History."
a He conquered Koshala and Kalinga (and
from here, he brought an image of the Jina
as victory n·ophy).
a Succeeded by his eight sons, last one being
Dhanananda.
Dbanananda
(The Last Nanda Ruler)
o Alexander invaded North-\1\/estern
lndia dming his reign (326 BC), but
the huge army of Dhanananda
deterred Alexander from advancing
towards Gangetic valley.
a He is probably referred to as
Agi-ammes or Xan-drames in the
Greek te>..i:s.
a Chandragupta Maurya, assisted by
Kautilya overthrew Dhanananda to
establish Mauryan dynasty in
321 BC.
FOREIGN
INVASIONS
Iranian Invasion
0
The achaemenian ruler of Iran, took
advantages of the political disunity on
the North-West frontier of India.
0 Cyrus of Persia (588 BC-530 BC) was
the first foreign conqueror, who
penen-ated well into India. He
destroyed the city of Capisa (North of
Kabul). He enrolled Indian soldiers in
the Persian Army.
0
Darius-I, grand son of Cyrus invaded
North-West India in 516 BC and
annexed Punjab, West of Indus and
Sind.
a Xerxes, the successor of Darius ,
employed Indians in the long war
against the Greeks.
Impacts of Iranian Invasion
0
hanian contact gave an in1petus to
Inda-Iranian n-ade.
a There was cultural exchange in the
form of Kharoshthi script from Iran to
India . Some of Ashoka's inscriptions
in North-\1\/est India ·were w1itten in
this sclipt.
0
hanian influence is perceptible on
Mauryan sculpture, e.g. the
bell-shaped capitals.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
Alexander's Invasion
0
Alexander, the king of Macedonia
destroyed th e Iranian empire . From
Iran, he marched towards In dia ,
atu-acted by its great wealth and
divided polity.
Alexander conquered Kab ul in
328 BC. He moved to India through
the unguarded Khyber pass and
reached Ornind near Attack in 326 BC.
0 Ambhi, the ruler of TaxiJa, readily
submitted to Alexander. He got the
first and sb.·ongest resistance from
Porus.
0 Alexander defeated Porns in th e
Battle of Hydaspas on the banks of
the river Vitasta Qhelum), but was
impressed by his bravery, so he
restored to Porns, his kingdom and
made him his ally.
0 After the Battle of Sakala, Alexander
proceeded upto Beas with a view to
conquer the East, but his fatigued
army refused to cross the river.
0 So, he was forced to reb.-eat. He
placed the North-Western India
under the Greek Governor Selucas
N ikatoi-.
0 He remained in In dia for 19 months
(326-325 BC) and died in Babylon
(323 BC) at the age of 33 years.
Impacts of Alexander's
Invasion
0
Opening up of new trade routes
between North-West India and
Western Asia.
0
Indians learnt from the Greeks in the
fields of coinage, asb.-onomy,
architecture and sculpture
(Gandhara school).
a Many Greek settlements were
established, like Alexandria in Kabul
and Sind, Boukephala in Jhelum.
0 Alexander's invasion paved the way
for the expansion of the Mauryan
empire in that ai-ea.
0
His hjstorians h ave left valuable
accounts related to Indian geography,
social and economic conditions,
which enable us to build the Indian
chronology of the times .
Pre-Ma1uyan Society
0
Division of society into four classes
necessitated the formation of Dhannasutras.
0
Shudras were ill-b.-eated, while all privileges
we1-e cornered by the Brahmanas and
Kshab.iyas.
Resn-ictions were imposed on women and
they were not entitled to education or the
Upanayana ceremony.
0
Dharnzasutras condemned Vais/zyas for
lending money.
Pre-Ma1u-yan Economy
0
Agiicultural production increased. Vari/zi
and Sali were new varieties of rice; Karisa ,
Nivartan and Kulyavapa were units of land
measurement; Sita was the state 's land.
0
Development of industry and crafts. Si-eni
was the guild or corporation.
c Spwt in trade. Sartha 1-eferrred to caravans
and Sresthi to bankers. Anathapindaka , was
a Sresthi of Sravasti~ who donated Jetuvana
Vahana to the Buddha. Mendalrn was
another rich Sresthi of Rajagiiha.
0
Pottery Northern black polished ware was
used.
RELIGIOUS
ENVIRONMENT
The 6th century BC was the peliod of great
religious upheaval or intellectual revolution.
Of the various sects that emerged in this
period, J ainism and Buddhism were the most
prominent.
This marked th e beginning of second
Urbanfaation in India, also known as the age of
the Buddha.
Immediate Causes for the
Rise of Heterodox Sects
• Division of the society into four vamas.
• Reaction of the Kshatriyas to the Brahmins
supremacy.
• The desire of the Vaishyas to improve their social
position, with an increase in their economic
position.
• To preserve cattle wea lth.
• Desire to go back to simple life. The use of
Sanskrit in Vedic texts was not understandable to
the masses.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
JAINISM
a It was founded by Rishabhnatb
(Emblem-Bull). He is described as an
incarnation of Narayana in Vishnu Purnna
and the Bhagavata Purnna.
a There were 24 Tirthanlrnras (guru) in
J ainism, the first one was Rishabhnatb
(Emblem-Bull) .
a Rig Veda mentions two Trrthanka.ras-
Rishabh and Arishtanemi.
a Sambhavnath was 3rd tirthankara and
Arishtanemi was 22nd tirthankara.
a The 23rd Tirthankara was Parsavanath
(symbol-serpent). He was the prince of
Banaras, who abandoned the throne and led
the life of a hermit. He died at Sammet
Sikhar/Parasanath hill in Gilidih dist1ict of
]hark.hand.
0
The 24th Tirthankara was Vardhaman
Mahavira (Emblem-lion) .
Life of Mahavira
a Vardhman Mahavira or Jina (conqueror) was
born to Siddhartha (head of Jnatrika clan)
and TrishJa (Llchchhavi princess and sister of
Cheta.k) in 540 BC at Kundalgram near
Vaishali in Bihar.
a He was married to Yashoda and had a
daughter Priyadarsana, whose husband
Jamali became his first disciple.
0 Renunciation At the age of 30, he becan1e
an ascetic and joined an order founded by
Parsavanath, but left it later. He vvandered
for six years with Gosala (founder of Ajivika
Sect).
a Attained KaivaJya (perfect knowledge) at
the age of 42, under a sal tree at
Jimbhikag:rama on the banks of the river
Rijupalika .
a Delivered his First Sermon At Pava to
eleven disciples known as Ganddharas. He
also founded a Jain Sangha at Pava.
0 Died at the age of 72 in 468 BC at Pavapuri
near Rajagriha.
a He was called the Jaina or ]itendriya (one
who conquered his senses); Kevalin (perfect
learned), Nirgranthas (free from all bonds),
Arihant (blessed one) and Mahavira (the
brave).
a His followers were called Nirgranthas or late r by Lord Mahavira.
Jainas.
Teachings of Mahavira
0
Rejected the authority of the Vedas
and did not believe in existence of
God.
o He believed that every object
possesses a soul, so he professed
strict non-violence.
0
Attainment of salvation by believing
in penance and dying of starvation.
a Universal brotherhood (equality) and
non-belief in caste system.
o He believed in karma and transrrri
g:ration of soul.
Jaina Philosophy
o Anekantvada It is the theory of
plurality or multisidedness. It states
that the reality has multiple aspects,
and advocates sin1ultaneous
acceptance of diverse, multiple and
even contradictory vi.e"Vvpoints.
0
Syadvada It is the theory of may be.
It states that all judgements a.re
relative, conditional and liniited.
According to it, seven modes of
prediction are possible. Also, both
absolute negation and absolute
affirmation are vvro n g.
a Three Ratnas (Way to Nirvana) :
u Right faith (Sam yak Vishwas)
u Right knowledge (Samyaldnan)
u Right conduct (Samyak Karnza)
0Pancho Mahavratas (Five
principles of Jainism)
Non-i11jury (Ahimsa).
0
u Non-lying (Satya).
o Non-stealing (Asteya).
o Non-possession (Aparigrn/za).
o Observing celibacy
(Brahmacharya).
a Mahavratas the great 5 vows
followed by Jain monks and Nuns.
0
Anuvratas lesser vows for Jain lay
people.
The first four Vratas were given by
Pars-avanath, while the fifth was added
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Five Instruments of Knowledge

0
Mati jnana-Perception through activity of sense organs including th e brain .
o Avadhi jnana-Clairvoyant perception.
0
Shruta jnana-Knowledge revealed by scriptures.
,. Manahparyayajnana-Telepathic knowledge.
° Kevaljnana-Omniscience or Temporal knowledge .

Sects of Jainism
o After the death of Mahavira , dur ing the reign of king Chandragupta Maurya, a severe
famine led to a great exodus of Jaina monks from Ganga valley to the deccan. This
migration led to a great schism in J ainisrn.
11
Bhadrabahu, who led the emigrants, insisted th at complete nudity is an essential
practice of Jainism as per Mahaviras teachings. His followers established the sect
called Digambaras.
0
Sthulabhadra, the leader of the group, who remain e d in the North allowed his
followers to wear white garments. This sect is called as the Svetambaras.

Spread of Jainisim
a In later times, Jainism was chiefly concentrated in two regions :
o Gujarat and Rajasthan-Svetambarn sect.

0
Mysore-Digambara sect.

Jaina Councils
Counoil Year Venue ChaJrman Royal Patron Developments
First Jaina 300 BC Pataliputra Sthulabhadra Chandragupta Compilation of 12
Council Maurya Angas to replace 14
Purvas.
Second Jaina AD 512 Vallabhi Devridhigani Final compilation of 12
Council Kshmasramana Angas and 12 Upangas.

Jain Literature
0
The sacred te)..i:S of Jainism were compiled in 6th century AD at Vallabbi . They are
written in Pralait language (Ardhumagadbi Pralait).
0 Jain texts are divided into 6 types: (1) 12 Angas (2) 12 Upangas (3) 10 Paiikamas (4)
6 Chhedasutras (5) 4 MuJasutras (6) 2 Sutragranthas.
0
Other important Jain text ai·e - Kalpasutra (in Sanslait by Bhadrabahu), Bhadrabahu
Charita , Pai-ishishtapai·van (by Hemchandra).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

I BUDDHISM
Founded by Gautama Buddha (also
called Sakyamzmi or Tathagata)
known miginally as Siddhartha.
Gautam Buddha
" He was born in 563 BC at Lumb inj
in Salq1a Kshat:riya clan of
Kapilvastu on Vaiskha Purnjma day.
a llis father Suddhodhana was the
Saka ruler, his mother Mahamaya
med after 7 days of his birth, so he
was brough t up by stepmother
Gautami.
a He Manied Yashodhara and had a
son named Rahul.
a llis teachers were Alara Kalama and
I
Teachings of Buddha
(a) Four Noble Truths (Arya Satyas)
1. The world is full of sorrows (Sabbam
Dulekam).
2. The cause of sorrow is desire (Dwadas/z
Nidan/Pratitya Samutpada).
3. If desires ai·e conquered, all sorrovvs can
be removed (Nirnana) .
4. This can be achieved by following the
8-fold path (Ashtangilrn Marga).
0
The second truth, is based on Buddha 's
doctrine of Paticheha Samutpada or Pratitya
Samutpada i.e. law of dependent origination
or causation.

Udraka Ramputra. (b) Eight-Fold Path (Ashtangika

a He left home, called Great Renun-
marga)
ciation or Mahabhinish- leramana at 0
lligh t understandin g ., llight though t
the age of 29 years after witnessing 0
lligh t speech ., llight action
fom scenes in a sequence (old man , 0
lligh t livelihood • llight effort
sick man, dead body and an ascetic). o lligh t mindfulness
" Attained Nirvana or enlightenment lligh t meditation
at 35 years of age at Uruvella (Bodh
Gaya) under a pi.pal tree on the (c) Three Jewels (Triratnas)
banks of Niranjan (Phalgu) river on 0
Buddha (the enlightened)
the 49th day of meditation .
o Dhamma (doctrine)
a Delivered First Sermon or 0 Sangha (order)
Dharmachak.ra Pravartana at
Sarnath, to five of his disciples. (d) Code of Conduct
a Died at the age of 80 years in 483 BC o Do not covet the property of others
under a Sal tree at Kusinagar in the 0
Do not commit violence
Malla republic (Mahaparinfrvana). o Do not use into)(icants
a Buddha's horse-Kanthaka; Buddha's
0
Do not speak a lie
chaiioteer-channa; Buddha's cousin-
o Do not indulge in corrupt practices
Devadatta.
Major Events of Buddha's Life (e) Belief in Nirvana
o Also knovvn as moh.sha or salvation. It refers
Events Symbols to a belief in the concept of ultimate bliss ,
Janma (Birth) Lotus and whereby the person gets freedom from the
Bull cycle of birth and death.
Mahabhinishkramana Horse
(A enunciation) (f) The Middle Path
Nirvana/Sambodhi Bodhi tree It means that the man sh oul d avoid e)rtremes of
(Enlightenment) both a life of luxury and a life of severe
Dharmachakra pravartana Wheel asceticism and acquire a mjddle path. Also
(First Sermon) called Madhya Marga or Madhayama
Mahaparinirvana (Death) Stupa Pratipada.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Buddhist Sangha Buddhist Literature

Mostly w1itten in Pili language.
It consisted of monks (Bhikshusor Shramanas) and 0

a Tripitakas - Vinaya Pitaka (monastic

nuns, who acted as a torch bearer of the dhamma.
The worshippers were called Upasakas. code), Sutta Pitaka (Buddha's
Sayings) and Abhldhamma Pitaka
Sects of Buddhism (Philosophy of Buddha's teachings).
Sutta pitaka includes Digha Ni.kaya ,
0

Hinayana (The Lesser Vehicle) Majbima Nikaya, Sanyukta Ni.kaya ,

0
Its followers in original teachings of Buddha. Angutta Nikaya and Khoddak Ni.kaya.
a Sought salvation through self-discipline " Milindapanho - a dialogue between
and meditation. Milinda (lndo-Greek ruler) and
0
Did not believe in idol worshjp and favoured Nagasena (Budd.hi.st Srunt),
Pili language. Dipa Vamsha and Mahavamsha.
a two subjects : Vajbhasi.ka and Sautantlika. a lmpo1iant Buddhist teA'ts w1itten in

Sanskiit-Buddhachaiita and
Mahayana (The Greater Vehicle) Saundarananda by Ashwagosha;
0 Its follmvers believed in heavenliness of Mahavibhasha shastJ.·a by vasumitJ.·a;
Buddha. Mad.byamika Kaiika and
0
Sought salvation help of Bodhj sattvas. Prajnapai·imita kaiika hy Nagaijuna.
0 Believed in idol worship and favoured Spread of Buddhism
Sanskiit language.
0
Mahayanism in CentJ.·al Asia, Chlna
0
Two subsects : Mad.byanuka (founder
and Japan. Hinayarusm in Ceylon,
Nagaijuna) and Vijnanavada founder
Thailand and other pa.it; of
MajtJ.·eyanath.
South-East Asia.
Vajrayana a King Ashoka sent Buddhist mi.ssions

0
Its follm,vers believed that salvation could be
attruned by acquiri.ng magical powers called
vajra.
° Chief divinity : the Taras.
under his son Mahendra and
daughter Sanghamitra to Sli Lanka.
° Kanish.ka was the patron of Mahayana
sect of Buddmsm .

Buddhist Councils
Buddhist Year Venue Chairman Royal Patron Development (s)
Counoil
First Council 483 BC Saptaparni Mahakassaapa Ajatashatru Compilation of Sutta
cave, (Haryanka Pitaka and Vinaya
Rajgriha Dynasty) Pitaka by Ananda and
Upali respectively.
Second 383 BC Vaishall Sabakami Kalasoka Monks were split into
Council (Shisunaga Sthavirvadins and
Dynasty) Maha sanghikas.
Third Council 250BC PaUiputra Mogaliputta Tissa Ashoka Compilation of
(Maurya Abhidhamma Pitaka_
Dynasty)
Fourth AD72 KundaJvan, Vasumitra Kanishka Division of Buddhists
Council Kashmir fhairman) and (Kushan into Hinayana and
shwaghosha Dynasty) Mahayana.
(V]ce-Chairman)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Some Famous Buddhist Scholars

Ashvaghosha, Nagaijuna, Asanga , Vasubandhu, Buddraghosha, Dinnaga and
D harm ak:irti.
Bodhisattvas
• Vajrapani (holds thunderbolt). • Avlokitesvara/Padmapani (lotus bearer).
• Manjushri (holds books describing 10 paramitas). • Kshitigrha (guardian of purgatories).
• Maitreya (the future Buddha). • Amitabha/Amitayusha (The Buddha of heaven).

Buddhist Architecture
Buddhism takes the credit for
° First human statues to be worshipped.
Stone-pillars depicting the life of Buddha at Gaya, Sanchi and Bharhut.
o

Gandhara aii. and the beautiful images of the Buddha.

o

° Cave ai·chitecture in the Bai·abai· hills at Caya and in Western India around Nashik.
Art pieces of Amaravati and Nagaijunakonda .
0

Traditional names of buddhist places.

0

0
Stupa relics of Buddha or some prominent monks.
a Chaitya Prayer hall .

• Vihara residence.

Buddhist Universities
Buddhist Universities Looation Founder
Nalanda Badagaon, Bihar Kumargupta-1
Vikramshila Bhagalpur, Bihar Dharmapala (Pala ruler)
Somapuri North BengaJ Dharmapala (Pala ruler)
Jagadal BengaJ Ramapala (Pala ruler)
Odantpuri Bihar Sharif, Bihar Gopala (Pala ruler)
Vallabhi Gujarat Bhattarka (Maitrak rule)

Other Heterodox Sects

Seat
■ Ajivikas
■ Amoralism
■ Lokayata or
ChaNaka School
■ Hindu Vaisesika
Sohool
Founder Theory
Gosala Maskariputra (Makhalj) Believed in fate called 'Niyati '
Purana Kassapa Sankhya Philosophy
Ajita Keshakambalin Uchchedavada (annihilationism)
Pakudha Katyayana Sorrow, happiness and life are
indestructible like Earth, water etc.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

I THE MAURYAN EMPIRE I

ORIGIN OF MAURYAS Buddhist Literature

o Asholw vadana and Divyavadana
a Mudrarakshasa-Mauryas were connected
with th e Nandas and were called them Information about Bindusara and
Ashoka 's ex.rpeditions to Tax:ila.
Vrishal(Kulbina (oflow clan).
0
Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (S1i
a Buddbjst Tradition Chandragupta was a
Lankan chronicles) Ashoka's role in
Kshatiiya (Sakya clan). The region was full
of peacocks (mors), so became famous as spreading of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
'Moriyas' . " Jatakas Socio-economic conditions
of Mauryan pe1iod.
a P1uanas Th ey belonged to th e Mariya clan
(low caste). 0
Sthaviravali Charita or Parisistha-
parvan of Hemachandra (A biography
0
Junagarh rock inscription of Rudrada-man
(AD 150) suggests that Mauryans might of Chanakya) Chandragupta's
conversion to Jainism.
have been of Vaishya origin.
0
Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta in
Sources Sanskiit, an account of prevailing
socio-economic conditions and about
Literary Sources hovv Chandragupta overthrew the
0 Arthashashtra of Kautliya (Chanak.ya or Nandas with the help of Chanakya.
Vishnugupta) Written in Sanskiit by Prime " lndica of Megasthenese Socio-
Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, it is a economic and administi·ative
treatise on state craft and public structure under MaU1-yas; Indians free
administi·ation under Mauryas. The book is from sla ve1-y; 7-castes system and
in 15 parts. usuary in India.
Various Edicts of Mauryan Age
Ediots Content Looation
A Rock Edicts
u 14 Major Rook Ediots Ashoka's principle of Kalsi (0ehradun, Gimar (Gujarat) ,
government and policy of Yerragudi (Andhra Pradesh),
Dhamma. Mansehra (Pakistan) , Sapara
(Bombay), Dhauli and Jaugada
(Orissa), Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan) .
u Two separate Kalinga Kalinga War and new system of Dhauli or Tosali and Jaugada
Edicts administration after war (All men (Orissa).
are my children - Dhault).
■ Minor Rock Edicts Personal history of Ashoka and South and central parts of the
summary of his Dhamma_ empire.
8. Pillar Edicts
■ 7 Pillar Edicts Appendix to the Rock Edicts. Delhi topra, Delhi-Meerut,
Rampurva, Lauriya-Araraj,
Lauriya-Nandangarh and
Allahabad-Kos am_
C_ Other Edicts
u Queen's Ediot Refers to Karuvaki mother of On Allahabad Pillar
Tivalamvara, the 2nd Queen.
■ Bhabru Edict Ashoka's faith in Buddhism Bairat (Rajasthan)
u Nigalisagar Pillar Ediot Stupa of Buddha at Kanakamuni Nigalisagar (Nepal)
was enlarged.
u Rummindei Pillar Ashoka visited Lumbini and RummindeVLumbini (Nepal) .
reduced land tribute .
u 3 Barbara cave Ediots Donation to Ajivikas. Barbar hills (Gaya, Bihar).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

a Pcu-anas Chronology and lists of Mauryan ., ChandJ-agupta was the first Indian
kings. ruler to unite the whole North India.
a Others Account of Diodorous, Pli11y, Both trade and agriculture flomished
Plutarch (Chandragupta as Androcottus), dw-ing his reign. Weights and
Arrian and Justin (Chandrngupta as measui-es were standa1ised, money
Sandrocottus). came into use and sanitation and
famine relief measures were
Epigraphical Evidences undertaken by the states.
o Ashoka's Edicts and Inscriptions Ashoka 's
edicts were first deciphered by James Bindusara (298 BC-273 BC)
Princep in 1837. It was v,'litten in Praia.it 0
Greeks called him Amitro Chates
language and 3 scripts viz Kharnshthi in (delived from Sanslait word
North-West, Greek and Aramaic in West and Amitraghata i.e. slayer of foes);
Brahmi in Eastern India. Vindupala (Chinese te)..1:s;),
Sinhasena- Jain text; Bhadrasara
Quick Digest (Vayu Purana).
0 He e)..1:ended the kingdom further to
• Inscriptions of Skandgupta and Rudradaman are
the Peninsular region of India as far
also found at Gimar. The pillar Edict VII is the last
South as Mysore.
edict to be issued by Ashoka.
• Mahasthan and Soh~ura copper plate
0
Antioch us I, the Selucid king of Syiia ,
inscriptions issued by Chandragupta Maurya, sent his Ambassador, Deimachus to
deals with relief measures adopted during his court.
famine. .. Pliny mentions th at Ptolemy
• Latest discovery-3 Ashokan minor rock edicts Philladelph us of Egypt sent
from Sannati village (Kamataka). Dionysius as his Ambassador to the
court of Bindusara.
Taranath-tbe Buddhist monk,
Chandragupta Maurya 0

credits him for conquering the land

(321 BC-298 BC) between the two seas .
0 Also called as Sandrocottus/ Androcottus 0
Antiochus I sent some svveet wine
by Greek scholars. and dried figs to Mauryan court on
a He entered into an alliance with Parvartaka Bindus-ara's request, but denied to
and with the help of Cha11alq1a, h e send a sophist eA'Plaining that Greek
dethroned the last Nanda ruler law forbid a sophist to be sold.
Dhanananda and founded the Mauryan 0
He pab.·onised Ajivika sect.
dynasty with the capital at Patabputra.
a ChandJ-agupta defeated Selucus Nikator, Ashoka (273 BC-232 BC)
the general of Alexander in North-West 0 He was the greatest Mauryan ruler;
India in 305 BC. Selucus sw-rendered a vast Governor of TaxiJa and Ujjain
tenitory in return for 500 elephants. previously. His rule e)..1:ended to the
Hindukush became the boundary between whole of sub-continent except to the
the two states. There was a matrimonial e>..'1:reme South. It also included
alliance between them. Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Kashmir
0
Selucus also sent the Greek Ambassador, and valleys of Nepal.
Megasthenese, to the court of 0
A Buddhist text Dipavasma says that
ChandJ-agupta Maurya. he usurped the throne after killing his
a ChandJ-agupta embraced Jainism and went 99 brothers, except the youngest one ,
to ChandragiJi hill, at Sravanbelagola with Tissa in the war of succession that
Bhadrabahu, where he died of slow lasted for four years.
starvation (Salekhna).
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• He fought Kalinga War (261 BC) in ■ Yuvaraj the crovm Prtnce

the 9th year of his rule. The miseries of
u Gopa the Purohit Chief Priest
war caused deep remorse to Ashoka,
u Senapati Cornmander-in-Ch_ief of
and therefore he abandoned the policy
of physical conquest (Bhe·Jighosa) in Army and other m_in_isters.
favour of cultural conquest Administrative Units and
(Dhamma ghosha). Their Heads
• However, Ashoka retained Kalinga after
conquest. This proves that he ·was not Unit Head
an e>..'11--eme pacifist and changes in his ■ Chakra (province) Rashtrapala/Kumara
policies were mainly for administrative ■ Ahar (district) Pradeshika
purposes. (administrative) and
Rajuka (revenue)
• He embraced Buddhism under
■ Sangrahana (group Gopa
Upagupta.
of 10 villages)
• He sent his son Mahendra and ■ Gram (village) Gramika
daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon as
Buddh_ist missionaries ,vith a sapling of Provincial Administration
original pipal t1--ee.
• He inaugurated the Dhammayatras Provinoes Capital
from the 11th year of h_is reign by ■ Uttarapatha (North) faxjla
visiting Bodh Gaya; also appointed ■ Avantipatha (West) Ujjain
Dhanzma Mahamatras (officers of
■ Praohyapatha (East) Kalinga
righteousness) to spread the message
■ Dakshinapatha (South) Suvamagiri
of Dhamma.
■ Central Province Pataliputra
Asboka's Dhan1ma
• It was a code of conduct and a set of Some Important Rock Edicts
principles to be adopted and practiced Major Rook Content
by the people to build up an attitude of Edicts
social responsibility and preserve the
■ MRE I Prohibition of animal sacrifice
social order. It ordained to pay respect
II MRE II Refers to Cholas, Pandyas, Satya
to elders, mercy to slaves and putras and Kerala putra (kingdom
emphasised truth, non-violence and of South) and care for man and
tolerance. animals
■ MRE Ill Liberality to Brahmins
LATERMAURYAS ■ MRE IV Non-violence; courtesy to relations
■ MRE V Appointment of Dhamma
• Following the death of Ashoka, the
Mahamatras
Mauryan dynasty lasted for 137 years,
■ MRE VII Tolerance among all sects
the empire was ruvided into Western
and Eastern parts. ■ MRE VIII Dhammayatras
■ MRE IX Charity, kinship, Dhamma
• Brihadratha, the last Mauryan ruler,
was assassinated in 184 BC by his ■ MRE XII Religious tolerance
Brahrnin Commander in-chief, ■ MRE XIII Kalinga war; Bheri Ghosa to
Pushyamitra Shunga, who established Dhamma Ghosa
the Shunga dynasty.
Art and Architecture
Mauryan Administration 0
Mauryan art is classified into two groups
• The Mauryan state was a welfare state , by Ananda Coomaraswamy
with highly centralised government.
1. Popular/Folk Art Sculptures of Yaks ha
• CentraJ Administration King was the and Yakshini e.g. Yaksha of Park.ham
Nucleus, assisted by Mantri Parishad, (Mathura); Yakshini from Vid_isha
which included : (MP) and Didarganj (Patna).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
2. Royal/Court Art Royal Palace of
Chandragupta Maurya at Kumharar,
Patna (Fa Hien referred it as the
creation of God), city of Pathputra
Ashokan pillars; stupas and caves.
a Mauryans introduced stone masonry
on a large scale.
" PilJars represent the masterpiece of
Mauryan sculpture e.g.
o Single lion capital Rampurva and
Lauriya Nandangarh.
a Four lion capital at Sa.math and
Sanchi.
° Carved elephant at Dhauli and
engraved elephant at Kalsi.
I POST-MAURYAN PERIOD
Mam1'ans were succeeded by many ruling
dynasties from Central Asia in North-West
lndia and by native rulers (Shungas,
Kanvas, Satvahanas) in the Eastern,
cenn·al and Deccan region of India.
FOREIGN STATES
The Inda-Greeks
A series of invasions began in about
200 BC. The weak Mauryan king failed
to resb.ict them. The first to invade
lndia were the lndo Greeks, who ruled
Bacb.ia lying South of the Oxus river in
the area covered by North Afghanistan.
They occupied a large portion of
North-Western India and moved upto
Ayodhya and Patahpub.·a.
0
The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was
Menander (165-145 BC) or Milinda.
He had his capital at Sakala (modem
Sialkot in Punjab). He invaded the
Ganga Yamuna doab. He was converted
to Buddhism by Nagasena. Menander
and Nagasena's conversation were
recorded in the book Milindapanho or
<t!ze questions of Milinda .'
0 They were the first rulers in lndia
to issue coins atb.ibuted to the kings.
They were also first to issue gold coins.
The Greek rule introduced features of
o Stupas were butlt throughout the empire,
to enshrine the relics of Buddha e .g.
Sanchi and Bharbut.
Significance of Mau1yan Rule
o The emblem of lndian Republic has been
adopted from the lion capital of Ashokan
pillar at Sarnath.
o Many Gm·ukuJs and Buddhjst
monasteries (Taxila and Banaras)
developed with royal patronage.
o Literary developments e.g. Arthashashb.-a
(Kautilya); Kalpasub.·a (Bhadrabahu),
Katha Vastu (Buddhist text), Bhagwati
Sutra, Acharanga Sun·a and Dasavalik
Qaina text).
I
Hellinfatic art in the North-West frontier
oflndia.
e.g. GandJ1ara art and Military
Governorship.
a The Sansla.it term for asb.·ology
Horshasb.·a is derived from the Greek
term horoscope.
The Shakas or Scytbians
(AD 1st to 4th Century)
0
The Greeks were followed by the Shaka.
o There were five branches of Shakas ruling
from Afghanistan, Punjab, Mathura ,
(where it ruled for about tvvo centuries.),
Ujjain (rules over) Western India and
Deccan.
o A king of Ujjain, who called himself
VikramadHya defeated Shakas. An era
called the Vikram Samvat is recorded
from the event of his victory over the
Shal<as i.e. 57 BC .
0
The most famous Shaka ruler in India
was Rudradaman (AD 130-150).
o He repaired the Sudarshan lake in the
semi arid zone of Kathiawar and issued
the first ever longest inscription in Chaste
Sansk:iit at Junagarh.
0
Other important Saka ruler in India were
Nahapana, Ushavadeva, Chastana ,
Ghamatika etc.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
Sudarshana Lake
• It was constructed by Pushyagupta the
Governor of Sau rashtra under
Chandragupta Maurya.
• Tushasp constructed dam on the lake
during the reign of Ashoka Maurya. First
reconstruction by Governor Survishakh
under Saka Satrap Rudradaman and
second by Chakrapalit under
Skandgupta.
The Pa1thians
(AD lstto 3rd Centtu-y)
o Originally, the Parthians lived in Iran , Impacts of Central
from where they moved to India and Asian Contact
replaced Shakas.
c The
0 They occupied only a small portion of
North-Western India as compared to
the Greeks and Shakas.
0
The most fa_mous Parthian king was
Gondophernes, in whose reign
St Thomas came to India for the
.. They introduced better cavalry and tunic,
propagation of Ch1istianity.
The Kushanas
(AD lstto 3rd Centtu-y)
o The Kushanas (Yuechis or Tochanians)
replaced the Greeks and Parthians.
They were nomadic people from
steppes of North Central Asia. Their
empire included a good part of Central
Asia, portion of Iran, a portion of
Afghanistan, almost the whole of
Pakistan and North India.
D The first Kushana dynasty was founded
by Kujala Kad-phises. Wima Kadphises
(the 2nd ruler) issued gold coins in
lndfa . Kanishka founded the 2nd
Kushana dynasty.
° Kushanas were the first rulers in India
to issue gold coins on lai--ge scale.
Kanisbka (AD 78-101)
He was also knmvn as Second Asholw
and was the most famous Kushana
ruler. He had two capitals-Purnshpur
and Mathura.
o Kanishka started an era in AD 78,
which is now knmvn as Saka era and
is used by Government of India.
He patronised
11
the fourth Buddhist
Council in Kashmir, where the doctrine of
Mahayana form of the Buddhism was
finalised.
.. Kanishka patronised the following
persons:
Ashwaghosha (Buddhacharita)
Nagaijuna (Madhyamik sutra)
Vasurnitra (Chairman of the fourth
Buddhist Council)
Chai·aka (Charakasamhita).
a The last Kushana ruler was Vasudeva I.
This shovvs that successors of Kanishka
bore typical Indian names as Vasudeva.
Shaka-Kushana phase registered a
distinct advance in building activities. The
use of burnt brick for flooring and that of
tiles for both flooring and roofing,
construction of b1ick well and red ware
pottery became prevalent.
trousers and long heavy coat and also.
They also brought cap, helmets, and boots,
which were used by wai-riors. The
Kushanas were the first rulers in India to
issue gold coins. Kanishka controlled the
famous silk route in Cena-al Asia .
The Kushana empire gave rise to
Gandhai·a and Mathura Schools of Art.
The famous headless erect statue of
Karushka shows artistic creations of
Mathura School. Vatsyayana wrote
Kamasutra in this period.
Gandhara School of Alt
° It exhibits the influence of Greek and
Roman art; patronised by Shakas and
Kushanas. The school specialised in
Buddha and Bodhi-sattva images, stupas
and monaste1ies. They used blue schist
stone.
a Buddhas of this school of art ai'e gentle,
graceful and compassionate.
Mathura School of Alt
0
The Buddha of the Gandhara School of Art
were copied here, but in a refined way.
0
The majority of creations consisted of
nude, seminude figmes of female,
Yakshinis or Apsara in an erotic pose.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

• The image exhibited not onJy masculinity Kanva Dynasty

and energetic body, but also grace and
religious feeling. (73 BC-28 BC)
o Kanva was a minor dynasty founded
Amaravati School of A.it by Vasodeva, who killed the last
a Lord Buddha depicted in the form of a Shunga king Devabhoti. Its capital
Swastika mark. Also depicted Buddha in ·was at Patlipun·a.
the human form for the first time. a Bhomj_mitra and Nar·ayana
a The ornate bull or 'Nandiswara' , situated in succeeded Vasudeva. All the rulers
the Amaresvvara temple , is also an were Brahmins.
Amaravati piece of art. a The last ruler; Susar-man, was killed
by Andhra king Simuka.
NATIVE STATES
The Cheti Dynasty
The successors of Ashoka were weak kings, so
Mauryan empire gradually declined. The last
ofKalinga
ruler of Mauryan dynasty was killed by his ovvn o The Hathigumpha inscription of
oommader-in-Chief Pushyamitra Shunga Khara vela-the third ruler of the
who founded the Shonga dynasty. dynasty, gives information about the
Chetis. Kharavela pushed his
Sh unga Dynasty kingdom upto Godavari in the South,
and recovered the Jaina image from
(185 BC-73 BC) Magadha.
o Pushyamitra Shunga ruled from Vidisha 0
He was a follower of J ainism. He
(MP). He defeated Bacb.fan king, constructed residential caves for Jain
Dematrius and conducted two Ashvamedha monks on the Udayg:iri hill n ear
Yajnas (Chief priest- Patanjali). He is Bhubaneshwar·, Orissa.
considered to be the prosecutor of
Buddhism. The Satavahana Dynasty
However; the Budd.hist Stupa at Bh arhut
a

was renovated dwing his reign .

(60BC-225AD)
o The Satavahar1as ar·e considered to be
D The Greek Ambassador Heliodorus visited
identical with the Andhra, who are
the court of fifth Shunga king
mentioned in the Puranas.
Bhagabhadra and set-up a pillar in h onour
of Lord Vasudeva near Vidish a (Madhya o The ear·liest inscriptions of the
Pradesh). Satavahanas belong to the first
century BC, when they defeated the
a Shunga king Agnimitra was h ero of
Kanvas and established their power in
Kalidasa's Malvikagnimitram.
pari:s of Central India.
a The Shungas marked as the revival of
o They were successors of Maw--yas in
Hindu culture, Sanslait language and
the Deccan and Cenn·al India.
Bhagavatism.
The great Sanskrit Grammari an , Patanjali a The founder of this empire was
Simuka, after the assassination of last
was patronised by them.
Kanava King Susarman.
a The famous book on Hindu Law Manusmrtti
a Gautamiputra Satakarni
was compiled during this period.
(AD 106-130) was the greatest ruler of
D Later Kings Vasumit:ra , Vajramin·a , this dynastJ
Bhagabhadra, Devabhuti. All of them were
o Assumed th e title of raja-raja and
Brahmanas.
maharaja.
0
Shunga Art Bh arhut Stupa , gateway r_ailing
a His capital was at Paithan or
surrounding the Sanchi Stupa built ~y
Ashoka. Vihar·a , Chaitya and Stupa of BhaJa Pratisthan on the banks of the river
(Poona), Nasika Chaitya, Amaravati Godavari in Aurangabad disb.ict.
Stupa etc.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

• Vasishthiputi-a Sri Satkarni, the 24th rule r, manied the daughter of Saka Satrap
Rudradaman, but was twice defeated by him.
• Yajna Sri Satkarni (AD 166-194), the later king of Satavahanas, 'recovered North
Konkan and Malwa from Sh aka rulers. His coins figured 'ship vvith double mast'.
• Pulamayi ill was the last Satavahana ruler, succeeded by Ikshaval.'l..ls in the
3rd century BC.

Important Aspects of the Satavahanas

0
They issued mostly lead coins (apart from copper and bronze). Satavahanas were the
first rulers to make land grants to Brahmins. There is an instance of grants being made
to Buddhfat monk, which shows they also promoted Buddhism.
• Satavahana rulers caJled themselves Brahmins. Gautamjputra Satkarnj boasted that
he was a true Brahm.in.
0
They performed Veilic rituals and worshipped Gods like .Ktishna, Vasudeva and others.
• Stupas at Nagaijuna konda and Amai·avati in Andhra Pradesh became important seats
of Buddhist culture under the Satavahanas.
0 In the Satavahana phase, many chaityas e.g. Kai1e caves in Western deccan, Nashik and
Kanhe1i and Viharas were cut out of solid rocks in the North-Western Deccan. The official
language of Satavahanas was Prak:tit and the script was Brahmi.
0
Provinces were caJled Ahara, and the officials were known as Amatyas and
Mahamatyas.

I THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS I

• The fall of Kushana empire towai·ds tJ1e middle of AD 3rd century led to the
establishment of the empire of the Guptas.
• Although the Gupta empire was not as lai·ge as the Mam-yas, it kept No1-th lnilia
politically united for more than a century.
D Their period is generally regarded as the Golden Age of llinduism.
" Guptas belonged to the Vaishya caste.
0
Sri Gupta was the founder of Gupta dynasty. Sri Gupta was followed by his son
Ghatotleacha and was followed by ms son Chandragupta. Both assumed the title of
Maharaj a.

Chandragupta I (AD 319-335)

0
He greatly rajsed the power and prestige of his dynasty by hjs matrimorn aJ a]Jjances
and conquests.
0
He mai-iied the Lichchhavi p1incess Kumara Devi and issued Chandragupta I
Kumaradevi type gold coins (Dinaras).
D Chandragupta-I is also sajd to have staii:ed a new era Gupta Era , whkh starts from
26th Februai-y AD 320, the coronation date of Chandragupta I.
D He established his authority over Magadha, Sak.eta and Prayaga.
0
He was the first Gupta king to adopt the title of MaharajadhiJ"aja_ He issued gold
coins.
Sa1nudragupta (AD 335-380)
" Son and successor of Chandragupta I. He was a great conqueror.
0
The long inscription in the pi]ar of Allahabad (Prayag Prasasti) enumerated by his
court poet Hai·isena informs about the people and the counhies that were conquered
by Samudragupta. Because of his bravery and generalship, he came to be caJled the
Napoleon of India by VA Smith.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

• Virasen was his Commander- in-Chief during Southern campaign. Vasubandbu , a

famous Buddhist scholar, was his mi.njster. Samudragupta's arms reached as far as
Kanchi, Tamtl Nadu, where the Pallavas were compelled to recognise his suzerainty.
0
Samudragupta annexed the tenitories after defeating the monarchs in North India ,
but did not annex tenit01ies in South India. His authoi-ity over Java , Sumatra and
Malaya island proves that he maintained a sb.·ong navy.
0
Samudragupta is said to have composed numerous poems of hjgb merit. Some of his
coins represent him playing the Veena. He also performed Ashvamedha sacrilices.
• The Allahabad pillar inscriptions mention the title Dharma Prachar Band.bu i.e. he
was the upholder of Brahmanical rehgion.
a According to Chinese sources, Meghavarman , the ruler of S1i Lanka, sent a

mjssionary to Samudragupta for a permission to buiJd a Buddhist temple at Gaya.

a He ·was a Vaishnavite.

Chandragupta II (AD 380-415)

., According to Devi Chandraguptam ofVishakhadutta, San1udragupta was succeeded by
Ramagupta.
• Ramagupta was a coward. He sw-rendered his queen Dhmvadevi to the Saka invade r.
He was also the only Gupta ruler to issue copper coins.
• Chandragupta II, the younger brother of Ramagupta., invaded the enemy's camp ,
killed the Saka ruler and Ramagupta; occupied the throne and married Dhruvadevi.
• He proved to be a great ruler and e)(tended his empire by conquests and matrimonial
alliances. He married Kubernaga of Naga dynasty and manied his daughter
Prabha-Vatigupta, vvith the Vakataka pdnce Rudrasena II .
• M ehrauJj Iron Pillar Inscription (Dellu) claims his autho1ity over North-Western
lndfa and a good portion of Bengal . It says that the king defeated the confederacy of
Vangas and Vahilkas (Bulkh). Virasena's Udaygi1·i cave inscription refers to his
conquest of the whole vvorld.
• Chandragupta Il conquered Western M alwa and Gujarat, from the Shaka Kshau·apas
Rudra Simha ill. The conquest gave Chandragupta the Western sea coast, famous for
trade and commerce. This contributed to the prospedty of Malwa and its Chjef city
Ujjain. Ujjain was made the second capital by Chandragupta TI.
• He issued silver coins (first Gupta ruler to issue silver coins) and adopted th e title
Vikramaditya and Salwri in memory of his victory.
• The court of Chandgragupta II at Ujjain was adorned by nine scholars knm,vn as
Navaratna, including Kahdasa and Amarsi.mha .
• Harisena was the court poet and the minister.
• Fa IDen- The Chinese piligii.m visited India at his tim e .

Kumaragupta (AD 415-455)

0 He founded the Nalanda Uruversity.
• Worshipper of Lord Kartikeya .
• 1n the last year of his reign, the empire was invaded by the Turko-Mongol tribe, the
H unas . Dming the war vvith the Hunas, Kumaragupta died.

Skandag11pta (AD 455-467)

0 He repulsed the ferocious Hunas attacks t\.-vice. The heroic feat entitled him the title
Vikramaditya (also mentioned in the Bhitari Pillar Inscription).
• During his period Sudarshana lake was repaired and its embankments were rebuilt.
• The continuous attack of the Hunas weal<ened the economy and the decbne of empire
began soon after the death of Skandagupta.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Gupta Kings, their Titles and Coins

Gupta KJngs Titles Gold Coins (Dinaras)
Chandragupta I Maharajadhiraja or king of the kings Kumaradevi type

Samudragupta Kaviraj (Prayag Prasat.i) , Dhanurdhari-Archer, Garud, Axe,

Ashvamedha, Vikram , Param
Bhagvat, Sarva-rajoch Chetta
(uprooter of all kings).
Chandragupta II Vikramaditya, Sakari
Devagutpa/Oevashri/Devaraja,
Narendra Chandra Sinh Vikram ,
Param Bhagvata etc.
Ashvamedha, Vyagnra hanam
(Tiger killing), Veena Vadan, Playing
flute type .
Ashvarohi , Chhatradhari,
Chakra-Vikram type etc.

Kumaragupta Mahendraitya, Ashvamedha Gajarohi, Khadgadhari , Gajarohi

Mahendra and Mahendra Sinh
Skandagupta Vikramadrtya, Kramaditya, Param
Bhagvat, (on coins) ; Shakropama
(Ka ha um Pillar inscription) ; Devaraja
(Arya Manjushri Mula Kalpa).
Sinh-nihanta, Khang-nihanata, (i.e.
rhinooerous slayer) Kartikeya and
Apratighmudra type .
Archer king and queen, Chhatra
and horseman type .

Gupta Administration ., City Administration Paura was the

0
Gupta administration was highly council responsible for city administration.
decenn-alised and quasi-feudal in It included the President of the city
character. corporation, Chief representative of the
guild of merchants, a representative of the
o Gupta Kings adopted pompous titles
artisans and the Chief Accountant. It
such as Parameshvara ,
comp1ised of local representatives.
Maharajadhiraj, Parambhattarka,
which signify that th ey ruled over the Army Military Chaliots receded into the
0

lesser kings in their empire. The
practice of appointing Kumara (crovvn
prince) came in vogue.
0
Kings were assisted by Mantriparishad/
Mantrimandal (Council of Ministers) as
referred in the Prayag Prasasti.
Administrative Units and their
Heads
Unit Headed by
background and cavalry came to the
forefront. The Gupta empire maintained
a large standing army, but essentially the
military organisation was feudal in
character.
Senabhakta It was a form of tax i.e. the
0
army was to be fed by the people
whenever, it passed through the
countryside. Forced labour or Vishti was
also practised in royal army.
Revenue Land revenue was the chief
0

■ Bhukti (province) Uparika source of state's income. It vaiied from

■ Vishayas (distriot) Vishyapati I I
~ to ..:..th of the produce. The number of
■ Nagar (sub-district) Purapala/Nagar 4 6
Pati taxes increased .
■ Gram (village) Gramika
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

11
Owing the Gupta 's rule, land grants common. Women were not give □ the
(Agarhara and Devagrahara grants) also right to property except for
included transfer of royal rights over salt stridhana, in the form of garments
and mines, which were earlier states and jewellery.
monopoly during Mam-yas. Jud_iciary For
the £int time, civil and criminal law were Religion
clearly defined and demarcated. 0 Bhagavatism centred around the
11 Coinage Guptas issued the largest number worship of Vishnu or Bhagavad.
of gold coins, which were called dinaras in 0
Bhagvad Gita was vvritten in this
their inscriptions. Silver coins were called pe1iod. It preached the doctrine of
the Rupayakas. incarnation or Avatar.
Important Officials ., Idol worship in the temple became a
common feature. The Gods were
Offioial Field of Work unified with their respective
u Maha Pratihari Chief usher of Royal consorts. Thus, Parvati got
Palace associated with Shiva and La>..,ni
■ Oandapashika Chief officer of the Polioe with Vishnu.
department 0 Gupta kings followed a policy of
u Mahaprajapati Chief officer of elephant tolerance towards the different
corps
religious sects.
■ Vinayasthitisthapak Chief officer of religious
affairs ., There was an evolution of
■ Mahashvapati Chief of Cavalry
Vajrayarusm as well and Buddhist
tantric cult.
u Mahadandanayaka Minister of Justice
., Buddhism no longe r received royal
patrnnage in the Gupta period.
Society
" The Supremacy of the Brahmins Econo1ny
continued They accumulated wealth oo Land was classified into five groups :
accounts of numerous land grant and
" Khila - Waste land
claimed many privilege.
u Kshetra Bhoomi - Cultivable land
11
The position of the Sbudras improved, and
u Vastu Bhoomi - Habitable land
they were permitted to listen epic,
purnnas and to worship a new God, Lord ° Charagah Bhoomi - Pasture land
Kiishna. Aprahata Bhoomi - Forest land
0

" Varna system got strengthened due to the According to Pahadpur copper plate
large scale proliferation of castes, chjefly inscription of Buddhagupta, state was
because of assimilation of foreigners in to the the exclusive owner of land.
lnman society, absorption of ttibal people
o Poona plates of Prabhavati Gupta
into Brahminkal society through land
refers to the land survey conducted
grants and transformation of guilds into
dw-ing the peliod.
class due to the decline of trade and urban
centres.
0
Pushtapala was the officer incharge
for maintaining records of all land
11The Position of women declined; The first
transactions.
example of immolation of widow after death
of her husband (Sati) appeared in Gupta
0 Trade There was a decline in trade
times. (Referred in the Eran inscription, ,vith the Roman empire after AD 3rd
Polygamy and pre-puberty marriages were centm-y, while the South-East Asian
trade increased.
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

11
Ports OD West coast to trade \vith Gupta Architecture
Mediterranean and West Asia-Bharoach,
Chaul , KaJyan and Cambay.
0
11 Ports OD East coast to trade ·with South-East
Asia-Tamralipti, GhantashaJa and Kandura.
Taxes
Bhaga King's share in the produce, to be paid by
cult1vators . " Squai'e sanctum sanctorum and a
Bali {Earlier a voluntary ottering) an additional and
oppressive tax during Gupta period.
Bhoga Periodic supplies of fruits, firewoods etc., Religious Literature
which the villagers had to furnish to the king.
Uparika An extra tax levied on all subjects.
Gupta.Art
Gupta pe1iod is also called The Golden Age of
Ancient India.
" Samudrag-upta is represented on his coins .. New
playing the Veena and Chandragupta 11 is
credited vvith maintaining in his cowi:, nin e
luminaiies or great scholai·s viz, Kalidasa , .. Jain Texts Nyayavartam w1itten
Amai·sirnha, Dhanavantli, Vai-ahmihira,
Vararuchi (Vartika-a comment on Ashtadhyayi),
Ghatakai-na, Kshapranak, Velabhatt and " Buddhlst
Shanl"ll.
" Over two metl--e high bronze images of the
0
Buddha of Gupta period has been recovered
from Bhagalpur.
11 For the fu~ time, we get in the Gupta period
images of Vishnu, Shjva and some other Hjndu
Gods.
a Buddha sitting in Dharmachakra mudra
(Sa.math) ai1d Buddha images of Bamjya11
belong to tms period.
" Brahmirncal Image The G1--eat Boar (Va.rah)
carved in relief at the eno·ance of a cave at
Udayagili.
11Paintings Ajan ta paintings and paintings at
Bagh (Madhya Pradesh) ai--e of thjs time. They
belong to the Buddhist Art.
11
1n this period the Gandhara School of
Sculptme was replaced by regional ceno-es at
Banai·as, Patalipuo·a and Mathura .
0 Stnpas-Mi.rpm Khas (Sindh) , Ratnagili
(Orissa) and Dhammekh (Sa.math) .
The Gupta age marks the
beginning of main style of tern pie
architecture in India namely the
Nagara and Dravida style (shikhar
style) with Garbhag1·iha (shrine
room in wruch the image of God is
kept).
pillared porch.
Hindu Texts Ma11y old religious
books were re-vvritten e .g. Vayu
Pw-ana, Vishnu Purana, Manu
Smriti (o-anslated into English
under th e title of "Institutes of
Hi ndu law" William Jones),
Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Text Na.rad Smri ti,
Parashai- Smrit:i, Katyana Smriti
and Brihat Sm1iti.
by Sidhsena.
Texts Abhi dharma
Kosha vv1itten by Dignaga, Vishu-
dhirnagga w1itten by Buddhghosa.
MI·ichchakatikam (i.e. the clay
cart) is the love story of a poor
Brahmin Charudatta and virtuous
courtsean Vasantasena. The work
is notable for its realistic depiction
of city life.
Quick Digest
• Brahmasidhanta, was translated into
Arabic under the title "Sind Hind".
• Ritusamhara, Meghdootam and
Ra~huvamsham are epics and not
plays.
• Bhasa wrote 13 plays in this period.
• There was a development of Sanskrit
grammar based on Panini and
Patanjali. Amarkosha was compiled
by Amarasimha.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Other Literary Works Astronomy (Science)

Author Book 0
Aryabhatta, the great mathematician vvrote
Aryabhatiyam and Surya Siddhanta. He
Sudraka Mrichchakatikam
placed the value of first line number and the
Bharavi Kiratarjuniya use of zero ('0') .
Dandin Dasa Kumar Charita 0 Varahamihira wrote Panchsiddhantilrn and
and Kavyadarshan Brihadsamhita. He said the Moon moves
Bhasa Svapnavasavadattam, round the Earth and Earth together with
Charudatta the Moon , move round the Sun.
Vlshakhadatta Mudrarakshasa Devi 0
Brahmagupta was a great math ematician.
Chandraguptam He hinted the law of gravitation in Brahma
Vishnu Sharma Panchta ntra and Siddhanta. Vagabhatta was a distinguished
Hitopodesha physician .
Amarismha Amarkosh 0 Dhanvantri was famous for th e knowledge
of Ayurveda.
lswara Krishna Sankhya Kanika
0 Romaka Siddhanta , a book on asb.·onomy
Valsyayana Kamasutra was compiled.
Bhattin Ravan Vadha 0
Palakapya vvrote Hastyagarveda , a treatise
Varahamihira Panchasiddhantika, on the disease of elephants.
Brihad Sam hrta 0 Bhaskara wrote Malzabhaslrnrya and Lag/zu
Bhaskarya .

I THE HARSHA PERIOD I

PUSHYABHUTI/ VARD HANA DYNAS1Y

a Harsha belonged to Pushyabhuti dynasty, which ruled from Thaneswar. Pushyabhu ti s
were the feudatories of Guptas, but had assumed independence after H unas ' invasion .
a Prabhakar Vardhana (AD 580-605) was its first important ruler succeeded by
Rajyavardhan (AD 605-606).
a Grahavarman (Maukhari ruler of Kannauj) , husband of Rajyashri (sister of
Rajyavardhana) was murdered by Devagupta (ruler of Malwa) in albance with
Shashanka (ruler of Bengal).
a Rajyavardhana killed Devagupta but was h imself kille d by Shashan ka in AD 606.

Harsbavardhan (AD 606-647)

a Harsha, also lmovvn as Siladttya, ascended th e throne in AD 606 and from this year,
Harsha Era began.
a Harsha made Kannauj his capital.
a Harsha is called the last great Hindu emperor of India , but he was neithe r a staunch
Hin du nor the ruler of the whole counb.-y.
11
1n Eastern India , he faced opposition from Sh aivite king Shashan ka of Gauda , who cut
off the Bodhi a·ee of Bodhgaya.
0 Harsha defeated Dhruvasena TI, the Maib.·aka ruler of Vallabhi .
a Harsha was defeated in Deccan by Pulakesin-II, the Chal ulryan king of Vatapi.
Hars ha 's admjnisu·ation became more feudal and decenu·alised .
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

■ The Chinese pilgrim lliuen Tsang visited lndia dur ing Harsha peliod. He informs us
that the revenue of Harsha was divided into four parts, one for the king, second for
the scholar, third for the officer and fourth for religious purposes.
■ Harsha held two important assemblies - Kannauj assembly (to popularise Mahayana
Buddhism) and Prayaga assembly.
• He used to celebrate a solemn festiv al at Prayag after every five years.
• Harsha was a Shaivite. He also granted revenue of 200 villages for the maintenance of
Nalanda University. The empire of Harsha included parts of Punjab , Kannauj, Bengal,
Bihar and Orrisa.
■ Harsha was defeated by the chalukya ruler Pulakeshin Il in the battle on the banks of
Narmada in 618 AD. After the death of Harsha in 647 AD, the empire once again broke
up into petty states.

Tripa1tite Struggle
The struggle for supremacy between the Palas, the Gmjara - Pratihara and the
Rashtral'1.ltas for the possession of Kannauj at the end of AD 8th century is knovm as the
Tripartite struggle in history.

Alt and AlThitecture

Vesara/Deccan Style
a It was started by the Chalukyas .
• Examples include Vesara style temples at Aihole (tovm of temples), Jinendra temple
(Meg:uti temples), Vishnu temple, Lad Khan temple (God Surya), Durga temple ,
Nagara style temple at Pattadakal, Papanatha temple, Dravida style temple at
Pattadakal, Virupaksha temple and Sangamesvara temple.

Pallava Ait/Dravida Style

• The Shilehara had influence of Java , Cambodia and Annam.
Examples of Pallava Arts :
u Bhairnwleona temple

u Ananteshwar temple at Undavalli

Mandapa temple
0

Ratha temple of Marnallapuram

0

u Kailashna th and Vail'l.111 th

u Perumal Temple at Kanchi

u Shore Temple at Mamallapw-arn

u PaUava Sculptme Based on Buddhist n-adition e .g. descent of the Ganges and A1juna 's

penance at Mamallapw-am.

Rashtrakuta Style
The rock-cut temple of Kailash (Shiva) at Ellora, was built by Krishna I.

Hoyasalas Style
Temple of Hoyasaleshvvar at Dwarsamudra .
 G')
Other Dynasties and Rulers m
z
Dynasty Cap/la/ Founder Famous Ru /ers Other Features m
Palas Palaliputra, Gopala Dharma Pala Revived Nalanda Universily and They traded wilh Soulh-Easl Asia ~
i"'
(Eas1ern India) Gaur founded Vikramshila Universsity deleated Bhoja and w0r0 replaced by Senas in
(Pratihara) amogvarsha (Rashlrakuta) and won
kannauj.
Bengal.
"z
0
Devapala won Orissa and Assam.
Mahipala defea1ed by Rajendra Chola.
:e
i"'
m
Gurjara Pratiharas 1. Jodhpur H arich and ra Mihir Bhoja He worshipped Lord Vishnu and They originaled in Geyanla region of C
(SW Rajasthan) 2. Mah11a adopled the title Adi Varaha. Rajas than. G')
(AD 733-1019)
m
l
Vakatakas (Deccan Valsagumla, Vindhyashakti Pravarsena I performed four Ashvamedha Yagyas. Chandragupta II married his :::J
and Cenlral India) Paunar daugh1erPrabhavati to the Vakataka Q.
king Rudrasena . OJ
:::J
Eastern Gangas of Kalingnagar, Anantavarman Narshima Deva I built the Sun temple at l<on ark. Anantavarman built the Jagannath I
Orissa Cut1ack Chodagong Deva temple al Puri. (/)
.....+-
Western Ganges Kolar, Talakal Konganivarman Dunvirta Construcled Jain monumenls at 0
(AD 350-999) Madhava Sravanbelagola. '<
Senas of Bengal Vikrampura, Vijaysena Ballasena They were overthrown by Deva
Vijaypura Lakshmansena dynas1y.

Hoysalas Dwarasamudra Vishnu Vardhan Vira Ballal defeated the Chalukyan ruler Hoysala ar1 and arohilecture was of
Somesvara IV. a high standard. The minule carving
ol Hoysala 1emple is their mos1
atiractive feature.
Rashtrakutas Manyaket or Dantidurga (earlier Amogvarsha He is compared to Vikramaditya in Rashtrakutas are credited with the
(AD 7 50-11 42) Malkhed seNed the giving patronage to men of letiers. building of cave shrine of Elephanta.
Chalukyas of He wrote the Isl Kannad Poelry, Kavi Rajamarg and It was dedicated to Mahesh and
Badam~ also wrote Prashnot1ar Mallika. (Trlmur11) counts among the mos1
magnifioient ar1 creations of India.

0
Dynasty Cap/la! Founder Famous Rulers
Krishna II constructed l<ailash temple at Ellora in
Dravidian sytl0.
Other Features
9
Krishan Ill set-up Pillar of victory and a temple at
Rameshwaram.
Pallavas Kanchi Simhavishnu Narasimhavarman-1 (AD 630-668) occupied They were orihodox Brahmanical
(AD 560-903) of Chalukayan capital at Vatapi and assumed the tille Hindus.
Tondainadu Valapikonda. Both the Chalukyas and Pallavas tried
(land of creepers) to establish their supremacy over land
belween Krishna and Tungabhadra.
Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami) Pulakesin I Pulakesin-11 He was conlemporary of Harsha and Many of the painting and sculplures of
Badami was able to check Harsha in conquering Deccan, the Ajanta and Ellora caves were
but was delealed and killed by Pallava ruler completed during Ohalukyan Ari
N arasimhavarrnan-1. developed the Deccan or Vesara style.
The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visiled his They perfected the an of stone building, G)
kingdom. that is stones finally joined wilhou1 m
moriar, z
Chalukyas of Katyani Tailap II (delealed Somevara I (AD 1043-1068) He shit1ed the capilal Bilhana, the \Wiler of Vlkramdevacharfla
m
;a
Kalyani the Parmar king tram Manyakhel to l<alyani. and lvlitakshara in Yagyavalkya Smri1i, )>
Munj) Vikramaditya IV (AD 1070-1126) He staried the adorned the couri of Vikramaditya IV. r
Chalukya- Vikram era.
Yadavas Devagiri Bhillana Ramchandra Ramachandra was delealed by Malik
Kafur.
"z
0
:E
r
m
C
G)
m
l
::::J
0.
55·
::::J
I
u5·
......
0
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 G)
Sangam Age m
(AD First-Third Century) z
m
0 1J1e lan d Sou th of Kri shn a river was dMd ed into thrne kingdoms ~
r
Kingdom Location
Chola North- Eas1 of
Capita/
U raiyur (famous
Emblem Famous Pon Famous Rulers
Tig er Puhar Elara was the earliest known Chola
Other Features
The Cholas maintained an efiicient
"z
0
(Cholama Pandyas between for cot1on trade king. He conquered Sri Lanka and Navy. ~
r
ndalam) ~enner and Vellar and Puhar) ruled over it for 50 years. Their economy was based on trade of m
nvers. cot1on cloth . The Chola kingdom was C
Karikala founded the capital city G)
Puhar/Kaveripatnam and constructed destroyed by the atiack ol Pallavas
embankment along Cauveri f ram the North . m
river. (kalla na Q
:::,
Chera Par1 of l<erala and Vanji or Karur Bow Muzris Todi, Udiyangera is one of the earliest It has well-es1ablished trade wilh Q.
Tamil Nadu Bandar known Chera rulers. This title of Romans and also set-up two regiments 0)
:::,
Udiyangera, was given to him at Muzris lo pro1ec1 their interests. They
because it is said 1hat he served both built the temple of Augustus at Muzris. I
the armies of Kurukshetra War. .....
CJ)

Pandya Southernmost par1
of India
0
Senguttuvan/Red Ghera, was the
greatest Chera king. He invaded the
'<
North and crossed Ganga He is
remembered for building a temple ol
'Kannagi'-the Goddess of chastity
and founded the famous Pattini cult.
Madu ra i Carp (list) Korkai, Mudukudumi was the earlies! known This kingdom was first mentioned by
Saliyur Pandyan ruler. Megasthenes, who says that their
kingdom was famous for pearl and was
Nedunjelian was the most impor1ant
ruled by a woman. Also finds mention
king ot Pandya. He accused l<ovalan
in the Ramayana and Mahabharata .
ol theft As a result, the city of Madurai
was laid under a curse by Kannagi
(Kovalan 's wile).

• 1J1e Pan dyan kings profi ted from tra de ,viLb Rom an empise an d sen t em bassies to Roman empero r-Augustu s an d Trojan .

8
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Sangam Regions Epics

Panohdnai (five Inhabitants OooupaUon 0
Silappaclikaram m eaning, the jewelled
Tamilregions) anklet by Ilango Adigal is an epic, dealing
,vith love story of Kovalan and Madhavi ,
Kurinji (hi/% Kurvar, Hunti ng,
backwoo s or Velar Gathering
also called llliyad of Tamil Poeb:y
montane) .. Manimekalai is one of the two greatest
Palai Cattle titting , epics and a sequel to Silappadikaram ,
~inar,
(Pastoral tract) aravar Highway written by Seetalai Sattannar.
Robbery ., Sevaga Chintamani (Sivaga Sindamani) ,
Mullai Ayar, Shitting a third epic by a Jaina Tiruttakadeva . It
(Pastoral tract) ldaiyar Agriculture, has elements of Jainism.
Animal
husbandry
0
Bharatman was vv1itten by Perndevanar.
Marutam Ulavar, Plough Sanga1n Eco1101ny
(WeUand) Vellalar Agriculture
The land was very fertile ,vith proper
Neital Paratavar, Fishing, Salt inigation facilities. The chieflocal God was
(1/ttoral/coastaf) Valayar extraction
Murugan, also called as Subramaniya.
Revenue Term inologies
Sangam Literature • Karai Land tax
" The word Sangam is associated with a • lrai Tribute paid by feudatories
college or assembly of Tamil scholars and booty collected in war
and poets, flomished under the royal • lravu Extra demand or forced gift
patronage of the Pandyan kings. Custom duties
• Ulgu
a The whole Sangam age is called Golden or • Variyar Tax collector
Augustan age. According to Tamil sources) • Variyam A well-known unit of
the father of Tamil bterature is 'Agastya.' territory yielding tax
Tamil Sangams
THECHOLAS
San- Venue Chairman Surviving .. Th e ancient capital of Cholas was
gams Text Palayarai.
1st Ten-Madurai Agastaya .. Vijayalaya revived the Chola empire in
the AD 9th century. He took the title of
2nd Kapatapuram Agastaya Tolakap-
Alvai (founder) piyam (TamilNarkesari and established the capital at
Tolakap- Grammar) Tanjore.
piyan Aditya Chola defeated the Pallava king
(later
chairman)
Apa.rajH, captured Tondamandalam and
took the title of 'Maduraikonda .' He built
3rd North Nakkirar Ettutogai a Siva temple at Tanjore.
Madurai Patinenki
lakanakku, "' Parantaka I established his authority
Pattu-Pattu over the North- Eastern part of Sri Lanka.
His copper-plate inscription informs us
about the adminjstration of the Cholas.
Important Sangam Works ., Rajaraja I (AD 985-1014) attacked Sri
" TollrnpyJiyam by Toll<appiyar (Tanul Lanka. He permitted the Shailendra king
Grammar). to build the Churamani Buddhist Vihara
a Tirukh.ural or Kural by Tiruvalluvar is at Naga.pattanam. He himself built the
sometimes called the Fifth Veda or Bible Rajarajeshwa.ra temple (Saiva temple) at
of the Tamil land. It e>-.rplains the docbine Tanjore. He is lrnmvn as Rajaraja- The
of Dharma, Art/za, Kama and Moks/za. Great in history.
0
Aggatiyam comprises grammar of Rajendra I (AD 101 4 -1044) conquered
letters and life, in three parts, written by the complete S1i Lanka and made
saint Aggatiyar. Anuradhapur as his capital.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

a He defeated the PaJa king MahipaJa Chola Temples

and took the ti tle of
Gangailwndacholam and h e also Temple Locadon Builder
buj]t the CholamandaJam lake and Kailashnath Kanchipuram King Rajasimha
the city of Gangaikonda Cholapw-am. temple
He won the Java , Sumab.·a and Vrihadeshwar Tanjore Rajaraja I
MaJaya areas from the Shailendra temple
king. Koranganatha Srini wasanllur Parantak I
temple
0 Rajendra ill was the last king of the Airawteshwar Oarasuram Rajaraya II
dynasty. temple
Kampahre- Tribhuvan Kullotung Ill
Other Aspects of the shwar temple
Cholas Gangaikonda Gangaikonda Rajendra I
Cholapuram Cholapuram
Administration The Chola empire
was divided into mandalams and
then into valadus. The most RELIGIOUS
important feats of Cho la
adminisn·ation was local-self
DEVELOPMENTS
Government. Each village was VAISHNAVISM
divided into 30 wards. SeveraJ
committees were constituted under
0 Lord Vasudeva was first worshipped in
the Gram Sabha for various Western India. Besnagar inscription
purposes. (2nd century BC) states that the cults
received royal patronage . Soon, Vasudeva
a Cholas maintained a sb.·ong navy.
was identified vvith Narayana and Krishna.
Kasu or Kalanju was their gold coin.
° Chandogya Upanishada gives first reference
a Literatw·e Bentak Madhav wrote
to Lord Krishna as the son of Devaki and
commentary on Rig Veda in this
student of Rishi Ghor Angiras. Matsya
period.
Pumna refers to the ten incarnations of
a Jayanodar wrote Phalingtuparni and
Vishnu.
Shekilar wrote Periyapuranam in the 0 This cult emphasised on Bhakti and
court of Kullotunga I.
Ahimsa.
° Kamban, Kuttana and PugaJendi
were considered as three gems of SAIVISM
Tamil Poetry. Kamban wrote
Ramavataram and Kamba O Shiva is identified with the Rig Vedic God
Ramayana. Rudra. He was worshipped in form of linga
a Architecture T he dancing figure of (phallus).
Shiva called Nataraja was made O Matsya Puranas and Anusashan festivaJ of
during Chola period. Mahabharata refers to lingam worship.
a The Chola style of architecture is Gundimallam linga is the oldest idol of
called Dravida Style in the temples, Shiva, excavated from Renugunta in
the vimana or the tall pyramid tower Andhra Pradesh.
dominated the whole sn·ucture of the o Mahabhashya of Patanjali mentions Saiva
shrine. Gopurams and Garbhag1iha cult as Shiva Bhagvat. Vamana Purana
are the two other important refers to four schools of Saivism- Pasupati ,
sn·uctures. Saiva, Kapalika and Kalmukha.
0
The best specimens of the temple are O Pasupatal is the oldest, cult found ed by
Vijayala-Choleshwar and the Lakulisa.
Nageshwar Koranganatha temple .
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

o Kapalika is the tantric cult who worship Mah akal, Kapala bhrit and Bhairav.

" Kalmukha another tantlic cult, flou1ished in Karnataka .

0
Agho1is worshipped Goddesses Sitala and Kah.
o Kanphata or Gorn khnati cult was propounded by Gorakhnath in Eastern Bengal.
0
Suddhasaiva cult was expounded by Srikanat Sevacharya .
" Virasiva or Lingayat cult was founded by Basava.
0 Rashtralrntas built the Kailasa temple of Ellora and th e Kushana kings inscribed
Shiva and Nandi on their coins.

SHAKTI DHARMA
o It refers to the worship of the female deity. It is first mentioned in the Mahabharata.
0
The Tantric Devi hymn in the 10th mandala of the Rig Veda is devoted to the worship
of Goddesses.
Some Important Temples of Ancient India
Temple Builder Dynasty
Jagannath temple, Puri Anantavarman Ganga
Sun temple of Konark Narsinghdev Ganga
Kandariya and Mahadev temple . Khajurao Krishna-I Chandela
Kailash temple of Ellora Krishna-I Rashtrakuta
Elephanta Narsingh Varman-1 Rashtrakuta
Mamallapuram temple Narsingh Varman-11 Pallava
Kailashnath temple of Kanchi Narsingh Varman-11 Pallava
Baikuntha PerumaJ Tempie of Kanchi Narsingh Varman-11 Pallava
Jain temple of Dilwara Vlmala Minister of Solanki ruler

I MEDIEVAL INDIA I

THERAJPUTS
o They emerged as a powerfuJ force in Northern India in AD 9th and I 0th centmies.
0
Origin: Four of the Rajput clans claim to have descendant from a mythical figure that
arose out of a sacrificial fae pit near Mount Abu , i.e. of AgniJ...,1.Ila origin. They are
- Chauhans of East Rajas than.
- Pratihara Padharas of South Rajas than .
- ChaJukyas/Solankis of Kathiawar.
- Parma.rs/Pa wars of MaJwa
0 However, the most accepted theory is that Rajputs were of a foreign origin , who came
as conquerors and settled in West India.
" The two main clans of Rajputs are
0
Surya Vansha (Sun family)
° Chandra Vansha (Moon family)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
CD
Some Important Rajput Kingdoms
Rafput J<jngdoms Capital(s) Founder
Chauhan/Chahaman of Delhi Vasudeva
Delhi-Ajmer
Pawar of Malwa Ujjain, Dhar Sri Harsha
Pratihara of Kannauj Avanti, Kannauj Nagabhatta I
Rashtrakuta of Malkhand Manyakheta Dantidurga (Dantivarman II)
Chalukya/Solanki of Kathiawar Aniha/vada Mularaja I
Kalchuri/Haihaya of Chedi Tripuri Kokkala I
Chandela of Jejakabhukti Khajuraho, Mahoba. Kalinjar Nannuk Chandela
Gadhawal/R~horofKanna~ Kannauj Chandradeva
Tomars of Delhi and Haryana Dhillika
Guhilota/Sisodiya of Mewar Chittor Bappa Rawal, Hammir I

SOME IMPORTANT RAJPUT RULERS

0
Jai Chand Gadhawal/Rathor (l 169-94 AD) assisted Muhammad Ghori against
Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second battle ofTarrain (1192), but was himself killed by Ghori
in the battle of Chanda war (1194).
0
Prithviraj Chauhan (1178-92) He was the Chahamana ruler of Delhi and Agra who
fought two battles vvith Muslim invader Muhammad Ghori.
First Battle of Tarrain (1191) Prithviraj defeated Muhammad Gholi.
Second Battle of Terrain (1192) Prithviraj was defeated and killed by Muhammad
Ghori.
0
Bhoja Parmar (1010-55) of Malwa He was a great conqueror and a patron ofliterature
and was also lmown as Kaviraj.

Architectural Works
" Kandariya Mahadeva temple at Khajmaho, built by Chandellas of Bundelkhand
(AD 1000).
a Dilwara temple at Mount Abu (West Indian style of architecture) built by Siddharaja

Solanki of Gujarat.
0
Angkorvat Temple at Cambodia built by Suryavarman □. It is dedicated to Lord
Vishnu and built on Dravidian model.
0 Sun Temple at Konark (Orissa).
a Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar (Orlssa).

Literary Works
" Kathasmitasagar by Somadeva.
a Vikramdeva Chmita by Bilhana (biography of Chalukya King Vikramdeva Vl).

" Rajtarangini of Kal.hana (history of Kashmir).

" Gita Govinda of Jayadeva (in Sanskiit).
a Clzachanama The history of Sind.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
I ARAB CONQUEST OF SIND
Md Bin Qasim Invasion (AD 712) Md
Qasim of hag was the first Muslim to
invade In dia. He defeated the ruler of
Sind, Dahir and the province was given to
Omayyad Khilafat.
TURKISH INVASIONS
Mab1nud ofGhazni
a Towards the close of the AD ninth
century. the vast empire of Arab broke
up ~d the Turks who got th e
upperhand over the Khalifas of
Baghdad, established many
independant principalities. One of such
Turk state was founded by AJapigin
with Ghazni as his capital in about
AD 933 .
a 1n those days, Punjab an d th e
North-West of lndfa were ruled by
Jaipal of the Shahiya dynasty
(Hindustani). Sabuktigin, the ruler of
Ghazni of that period, fought vvi.th
J aipal and defeated him.
a Mahmud Ghaznavi. was the eldest son
of Subuktigin, born in AD 971 and
ascended the throne in AD 998.
° For India, the only memory of Mahmud
is that of a plunderer and destroyer of
temples. Mahmud is said to have made
17 raids into India. The initial raids
were directed against the Hindustani
rulers. In AD 100 l, the Hindustani
ruler Jaipal again was defeated by
Mahmud.
iiHis son Anandapala succeeded th e
throne. A decisive battle between
Mahmud and Anandapala was fought in
AD 1008-09 at Waihind during his
sixth e>qJedition.
a 1n other e>..1Jeditions Mahmud
plundered Nagarkot, Thaneshwar,
Kannauj, Mathura and Somnath.
0
He plundered Somnath temple in AD
1025 (bis sixteenth raid).
ii1n AD 1026, Mahmud defeated the]ats.
He died in AD I 030. The objective of
Mahmud 's expeditions was to plunder
and loot. He was not interested in
e>..1Janding his empire to India.
I
Quick Digest
• Mahmud is considered as a hero of Islam by
medieval Muslim historians because of his
stout defence against the Central Asian Turkish
tribal invaders.
• Secondly, because he was closely associated
with the renaissa8ce of the Iranian spirit.
• A high water mark in the Iranian renaissance
was reached with Firdausi's Shah Namah.
• He patronised three persons. contemporary to
him: Firdausi (court poet). Alberuni (scholar)
and Utbi (court historian).
• Alberuni wrote' Kitab-ul-Hind.
MUHAMMAD GHORI
" The Ghaznavi. state was no longer a
powerful state after Mahmud Ghazni. His
successors were weak which resulted into
the emergence of a Seljuk empire. But
towards the middle of the 12th century,
another group of Turkish tiibe man
shattered the power of the Seljuk Turks.
" The power of the Ghurids increased
under Sultan Alauddin, who earned the
title the World bm·ner, because he
ravaged Ghazni and burnt it into the
ground.
" 1n 1173, Muizzudin Muhammad
(Muhammad Ghori) ascended the throne
at Ghazni, while his elder brother was
ruling at Ghm-. Muizzudin Muhammad
conquered Multan and Kutch.
" 1n 1178, he attempted to penetrate into
Gujarat by marching across the
Rajputana desert, but was completely
rooted out by the Gujarat ruler.
" He realised the necessity of creating a
suitable base in Punjab before venturing
upon the conquest of India. He
conquered Peshawar, Lahore and
Sialkot.
" At that pe1iod, the Chaul1an power b ad
been steadily growing. Chauhans had
captured Delhi from the Tomars around
the middle of the century.
" At the age of 11, Prithviraj ascended the
throne at Ajmer and began a career of
conquest. He invaded the Chandellas of
Bundelkhand in a battle near Mahoba.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
Both Prithviraj and Muhammad Ghori's
attention towards the Punjab and Ganga
valley brought the two ambitious rulers
into conflict. In the First Battle of
Terrain (ll91) the Ghori forces were
completely rooted out by Prithviraj.
0
It is said that Jaichand, the ruler of
Kannauj (Gahadavala kingdom) did not
help P1ithviraj dming the Second battle
of Terrain because Prithviraj had
abducted, Jaichand's daughter
Sanyogita, who was in love with him.
0 Prithviraj Raso, vv1itten by court poet
of Prithviraj, Chand Bardai, the depicts
the life story of Prithviraj and his love
story.
The defeat laid the foundation of
0
Muslim rule in India.
0
Later on in 1194, Jaichand of Kannauj
was also defeated at the Battle of
Chanda war.
0 Bakhtiyar Khilji one of Ghori's
commanders, annexed Bihar and
Bengal and desb.·oyed Nalanda and
Vik:ramshila Universities.
I THE DELHI SULTANATE
THE ILBARI OR SLAVE
DYNAS1Y (1206-1290) a Lahore and later, Delhi was his capital.
DAfter Muhammad Gholi's death, all the ° For his generosity, he was given the title
Muslim rulers who ruled over India from
AD 1206-1290 were either slaves or were o He
descendants of the slave ruler. So, the
Dynasty is generally knovm as the Slave
Dynasty.
0
The dynasty is also called Ilbari Dynasty,
as all the rulers of this dynasty except
Aibak belonged to the Ilbari t1ibe of
Turks.
Qutubuddin Aibak
(1206-1210)
0
Oliginally a slave, Qutubuddin, because
of his me1it and loyal service was rose to
the post of Viceroy by Muhammad Gholi.
CD
MuJ1ammad Ghori died in AD 1206,
leaving the charge with Qutub-ud-din
Aibak.
o The Sultanate of Delhi had five ruling
dynasties with 34 kings.
Battle of Terrain
• The Second Battle of Terrain (1192) is regarded
as one of the turning point in Indian history.
The better organised and well prepared
Turkish force defeated the Indian forces.
• Prithviraj was defeated by Muhammad Ghori.
Prithviraj was allowed to rule over Ajmer for
sometime. But was executed on a charge of
conspiracy after some time.
Causes of the Turkish Success
0
Political disunity among Rajput and
internal rivalries.
o No Cenn·al Government.
0
Unguarded frontiers, even after repeated
attacks.
o Organised military and ambitious Turkish
invaders.
I
After Ghori's death, Aibak ruled over
Delhl and founded his dynasty.
of Lakh Baksh.
consb.·ucted two mosques
Quwwat-ul-lslam at Deihl and Adhai
Din ka ]hopra at Ajmer.
He also began the consb.·uction of Qutub
0
Minar in the honour of famous Sufi
Saint Khwaja Qutub-ud-Din Bakhtiyar
Kala.
Aibak was great pan·on of learning, and
0
pab.·onised writers like Hasan-ul-
Nizami, author of Taj-ul-Massir and
Fakhruddin, author of Tarikh-i-
Mubarak-Shahi. He fell from the horse
while playing chaugan (Polo) and died.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
Ara1n Shah (AD 1210)
After Qutubuddin's death, his son Aram
Shah succeeded him. Aram Shah proved
quite incompetent. Some of the nobles
rose to the occassion and invited Aibak's
son-in-law and Governor of Badaw1,
Iltutmish to ascend the throne. He
deposed A.ram Shah and secured the
throne for himself
Iltut1nish (AD 1211-1226)
0
He is considered to be the greatest slave
king and the real consolidator of the
Tw-kish conquest in India.
11
He made Delhi the capital in place of
Laliore and was the son-in-law of Aibak. °
0 Il tutmish, dw-ing the early years of his
reign, first consolidated his position by
suppressing the revolts of the ambitious Raziya Sultan (AD 1236-1240)
nobels.
0
1n AD 1215, he defeated Yaldoz, who
established himself as the independent
ruler of Ghazni. He sent expeditions
against the Rajputs in Ranthambor,
J alor, Gwalior, Ajmer and Malwa.
0
Owing his period, the Mongols under
their leader Cbangez Khan made their
appearance for the first tinle in India.
He saved Delhi Sultanate from the
wrath of Changez Khan by refusing
shelter to Khwarizm Shall Jalaluddin
Mangobarni, to whom Changez Khan
was chasing.
0 He got his authority (Sultanate of
Delhi) recognised by the Caliph of
Baghdad (khalifa), as a member of o She herself led an expedition against the
world fraternity of Islamic states.
0
He completed the construction of
Qutub-Minar.
0 He constituted a corp of 40 loyal
slave Amins, lmovvn as Ttukan-i-
Chahalgani or Chalisa.
0 He started lqta system in Delhi
Sultanate. This is an assignment ofland
in lieu of salary, which he distiibuted to
his officers. Every lqtadar had to
maintain law and order, and collect
revenue. After deducting his salary and
the e>rpenses of the government, h e
sent the sw·plus amount to the Centi·al
Government.
0
He inh·oduced the Silver Tanka and
Copper Jital.
• He patronised Minhaj-us-Siraj , author of
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri.
0 He is called the father of Tomb Building
(built Sultan Garhi in Delhi).
Rukunuddin Firoz (AD 1236)
0
Iltutmish appointed his daughter Raziya
as his successor.
0 But most of the nobles could not reconcile
themselves to the idea of a woman ruling
over them and so they placed one of his
son Rukunuddin Firoz on the throne. He
was a worthless person who left the work
of the government in the hand of his
mother, Shah Tm-kan.
Finally throne ·was given to Raziya when
h e was out of the capital to cw-b a
rebellion in Awadh against him.
0
She was the first and the last Muslim
woman ruler of Medieval India.
0
Raziya successfully crushed the rebellions
that occw-red in Multan Lahore and
J hansi. The wazir Nizan1-uJ-Mulk
Junaicli, who had opposed her elevation
to the throne, was defeated by Raziya.
0 She also sent an e)cpedition against
Ranthambhor to control the Rajput.
0
She discarded the female apparel and
started holding the court wi th her face
unveiled.
0
Her attempt to create a party of nobles
loyal to her and the appointment of a
non-Turk, Yakut to the high office led to
opposition.
rebellious Governor of Lahore and forced
him to aclrnowledge her suzerainty.
"' There was again a se1ious rebellion in
Bhat:inda. Altunia., Governor of Bhat:inda
refused to accept the suzerainty of Razia.
Razia, accompanied by Yak'l.lt, marched
against Altunia.
0
However, Altunia mmdered Yalrnt and
imprisoned Razia. Subsequently, Razia
manied Altunia and both of them
marched towards Delhi. In AD 1240,
Razia, became the victim of a the
conspiracy and was assassinated near
Kaithal (Haryana) by thejats.
0
After Raziya, the battle of succession
continued in which the some rulers ruled
insignificantly.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
Ghiyasuddin Balban
(1265-1286)
Balban ascended th e throne in 1266,
after killing al] members of Iltutrnish's
family. He himself was a member of the
chalisa or chahalgani , but he broke the
power of chahalgani and restored the
prestige of the crown.
0 He created a strong centralised army and
established the military department
Diwan-i-Arz. He ordered the separation
of military affairs from finance
department (diwan-i-wazarat). He also
appointed spies.
0
He declared the SuJtan as, th e
'representative of God on the Earth '. The
Persian court model influenced Balban's
conception of kingship. He took up the
title of ZiJ-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God) and
impressed upon the people that king was
the deputy of God (Niyabat-i-Khudai).
0 He refused to laugh andjoke in the court ,
and even gave up drinking wine. To
emphasise that the nobles were not his
equals. He introduced Persian etiquettes
W<e Sijda and Paibos. (prostration
before and kissing the monarch 's feet).
0
Balban started the festival of Nauroz. He
adopted the policy of Blood and Iron
a He was a patron of Persian literature, and
showed special favour to Amir Khusrn .
Kaiqubad (AD 1287-90)
Grandson of Balban, he was put on the
throne by Fak:ruddin , the kotwal of Delhi.
But , Kaiqubad was killed by the Khalj.i
rulers. This led to the end of Oba.ii dynasty
and establishment of the Khalji dynasty.
THE KHALJI DYNAS1Y
(AD 1290-1320)
A group of Khalj.i nobles led by Jalaluddin
Khalji, overthrew the incompetent
successors of Balban in AD 1290. The
Khalji rebellion was welcomed by the
non-Tw-kish nobility. The Khaljis did not
exclude the Turks from high offices, but
ended the Turlcish monopoly.
G
Jalaluddin Khalji
(AD1290-1296)
He was the first ruler of the Delhi
Sultanate to cleai-ly put forwai·d the view
that the state should be based on the
willing support of the governed and that
since the lai·ge majo1ity of the people in
I.ndia were Hindus, the state in India
could not be a truly Islamic state.
o He adopted the policy of tolerance and
avoiding harsh punishment.
0
The most imp01-tant aspect of his reign
was the invasion of Devagiri in 1294, by
his nephew and son-in-law Alauddin
Khalj.i .
o He mai.1.ied his daughter to mugh Khan ,
a descendant of Changez Khan to ,vin
his goodwill.
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1216)
o He came to the throne by treacherously
murdering his uncle and father-in-law
Jalaluddin Khalji.
0
He proclaimed himself as SuJtan
winning over the nobles and soldiers to
his side by the lavish use of gold.
o He massacred the rebellious nobles,
relatives, family members and the
Mongols who had settled in Delhi.
Alauddin gave harsh punishment even
to the wives and chilch-en of all nobles.
0
Alauddin framed a series of regulations
to prevent the nobles from conspiring
against him. They were forbidden to
h old banquets of festivals or to form
maniage alliances ,v:ithout the
permission of the SuJtan.
0
To discourage the festival parties, he
banned the use ofvvines and intoxicants.
He also instituted a spy service to keep
himself informed of all that the nobles
said and did.
o He firstly conquered Gujai·at and
manied Raja 's vvife Kamla Devi. He
acquired Malik Ka.fur from there.
o Then h e captured Ranthambhor,
Chittor and Malwa.
0
Malik Ka.fur was sent towards South to
e)qrnnd the territory.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
• He defeated Yadava king of Devagiri ,
Ramchandra Deva , Kakatiya king
Pratap Ruclra Deva I, HoyasaJa king of
Dwar Samudra Vira BallaJa Ill and
Pandyas of Madurai (King Mahavarman
Ku lshekhara).
11
He is said to have reached as far as
Rameshwaram, where he built a
mosque.
" Alauddin strengthened the North-West
frontier, under his trusted commander
Ghazi MaJilc
Administrative Refonns of
Alauddin Khalji
" First Sultan to have a pem1anent amiy.
He paid soldiers in cash.
" 1n order to avoid the problems created
by the nobles, Alauddin issued four
inlportant ordinances.
" Confiscation of religious endowments
and free grants of lands.
a Reorganised the spy system.
0
Prohibited the use of wine and
intoxicants.
11Laid dovm that the nobles should not
have sociaJ gatherings and they should
not inter-marry vvithout his permission.
" He introduced the system of Dagh or
branding the horses and Ghehra or
detailed description of each soldier.
Revenue Refonns of
Alauddin Khalji
0 Measured the cultivable land and fixed
the land revenue. Bishwa was declared
to be the standard of measurement.
0
The state demanded h alf of th e
produce.
" The post of speciaJ officiaJ called
Mustakharaj was created for the
purpose of collection of revenue.
0
Alauddin is credited to have built many
forts, and the most important of them is
Alai Fort.
" He also constructed the Alai Darwaja"'
the enb.·ance gate of the Qutub Minar.
" He also buj]t the paJace of thousand
pillars called 'Hazar Sitzm,' Hauz Khas
and Jamait Khana Mosque and built his
capitaJ at Sui. He adopted the title
Sikandar-i-Sahni.
a He was the firnt Turkish sultan who
separated religion from politics. He
proclaimed kingship lrnows no kinship.
c He pan·onised many great poets in his
court like Amir Khusro and Mir Hasan
Dehlvi.
Market/Economic Reforms
• Alauddin controlled the market by many
regulations
• Fixed the cost of al l commodities.
• He set-up three markets at Delhi.
• All goods for sale were brought to the open
market called 'Sarai-Ad!.
• He established the market control department
under a minister called diwan-i-riyasat.
Successors of
Alauddin Khalji
0
After the death of Alauddin in 1316, Malik
Ka.fur Hazar Dinari seized the throne, but
he could not rule for long and nominated
Shihabuddin (Alauddit1's sixteenth son)
as king.
0
Shihabuddin was deposed by Qutbuddin
Mubarak Shah (1316-20).
.. Nasiruddin Shah (AD 1320) killed
Mubarak Shah and himself was killed by
Ghazi Malik the Governor of DipaJpw-.
" This ended the 30 years rule of KhaJji
dynasty and established the Tughlaq
dynasty on throne.
THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY
(AD1320-1414)
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
(AD 1320-1325)
o Ghazi Malik or Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was
the founder of Tughlaq dynasty or the
d:rnasty of the Qaraunah Tw-ks. He was
the first Sultan of Delhi who took up the
title of Ghazi or slayer of the infidels.
0
He liberalised Alauddin's adminisb.·ative
policies and took a keen interest in
construction of canals and formulated the
famine policy. The judiciaJ and police
arrangements were made efficient.
0
He gave up the land measurement system
and started the Batai System or sha1ing of
crops. Efficient Postal service was
restored.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
11
He sent his son, Jau n a Kh an to
re-establish the auth01ity in Warangal
(Kakatiya) and Madurai (Pandyas).
a He built the city of Tughlagabad near
Delhi and made it his capital.
11
Sufi saint, Shaikh Nizam-ud-din Auba
said Delhi is far away, in regard to him.
a He died in 1325, after a fall from a high
raised pavillion. lbn Battuta, the
Moroccan traveller, who ·was in Delhi at
that time, opined that his death was due
to sabotage arranged by his son, Jauna
Khan (Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq).
MUHAMMAD-BIN-
TUGHLAQ(AD 1325-1351)
11
Jauna Khan ascended the throne under
the name Muhammad-bin- Tughl aq. He
was one of the most eJ\i:ra-ordinary king
who ever sat on the throne of Delhi. He
was an expert in Arabic , Persian
Astronomy, Philosophy, Maths and
Medicine.
11
He applied his rational and innovative
mind in every aspect of administration
but achieved little success as he was
very hasty in nature.
Five Ambitious Projects of
Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq
His five ambitious projects were
Taxation in the Doab (1326)
The Sultan made an ill-advised financial
experiment in the Doab between the
Gangas and the Yamuna. He not only
increased the rate of taxation, but also
revived and created, some additional
Abwabs or Cessess.
Transfer of the Capital (1327)
The most controversial step vvas the
n·ansfer of capital from Delhi to Deogiri.
He renamed Deogiri as Daulatabad.
Inh~oduction of Token Currency
(1329)
Muhammad TugbJaq decided to inb.·oduce
Bronze coin , instead of the silver coin
which would have the same value.
CD
The Khurasan Expedition
(1329)
Under the vision of Universal Conquest, he
decided to conquest Khurasan and haq and
mobilised a huge army for this purpose.
Qarachil Expedition (1330)
This e)rpedition was law1ched, in Kumaon
bills in the Himalayas, allegedly to counter
Chinese incmsions. The attack was
successfuL but when the rainy season set in ,
the invaders suffered terribly. He died in
Thatta (Sind), while campaigning against a
Turkish slave Tag hi.
Diwan-i-Kohi
A new department of agriculture Diwan-i-Kohi
was set-up. He built the fortress of Adilabad and
the city of u Jahanpanah".
lbn-Battuta
The famous Moroccan traveller lbn-Battuta
came to Delhi in 1334 ar,id acted as the Dazi of
the capital for 8 years. He recorded the
contemporary Indian scene in his Safranamah
(Reh/a).
FirozShah Tughlaq (1351-1388)
11
Firoz Tughlaq faced the problem of
preventing the imminent break up of
Delhi Sultanate. So he b.ied to appease
the nobility, the army and the Battuta
theologians .
.. He made the lqta system hereditary.
.. He extended the principle of heredity to
the army. The soldiers were not paid by
cash but by assignments on land revenue
of villages (Vajeha). This technique led to
many abuses.
" In order to encourage agiiculture, the
Sultan paid a lot of attention to irrigation.
He repaired a number of canals. The first
canal was from Sutlej to Ghagga.r. The
second canal carried water from Yamuna
to Hissar. He imposed Haq-i-Sharb or
Hasil-i- Sharb i.e. water tax.
a He encouraged the practice of slavery
and selected young boys from the
conquered territory for the purpose.
Diwan-i-Bandagon was created as the
department for slaves.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• Built new tovms of Fatehabad, Hissar, " He robbed people. He is said to have
Jaunapur (in memory of Muhammad irrllicted on Indfa more mjsery, than had
Tughlaq) and Firozabad. During his ever before been done by a conquerer in a
Bengal campaign, he renamed Ikdala single invasion.
as Azadpur and Pandua as Ffrozabad. " Timur nominated Khizr Khan to rule over
• He brought two pillars of Ashoka from Punjab and himself retw-ned to Central
Topara and Meerut, to Delhi and Asia. He med on hjs way to conquer China
repaired Qutub-Minar when it was in AD 1404.
struck by Ughtnjng.
• He established a hospital at Delhj , Taxation System
known as Darnl-Shifa. Firoz Shah Tughlaq introduced new system of
• A new department of Diwan-i- Khairat taxation according to the Duran.
was set-up to make provision for the • Kharaj A land tax of 1/10th of the
marriage of poor girls. procedure of land.
• Introduced two new coins-Adha (50% • Zakat 2.5% tax on property (by Muslim
]ital) and Bikh (25% ]ital). only).
• Mat:hura was destroyed dwing his pedod. • Jaziya A tax by non-Muslims (even by
• He made Jaziya a separate tax and he Brahmins).
imposed this tax upon the Brahmans • Khams 1/6th of the booty captured during
for the first time in the mstory of war.
Sultanate.
• Barani, the histodan, was in his
cou1i. He wrote Tarileh-i-Firnzs/za/zi
THE SAYYID DYNAS1Y
and Fatwa-i-Jahangiri. (AD 1414-51)
• He med in AD 1388.
" Khlzr Khan (1414-21) founded the Sayyid
dynasty and claimed to have descended
THE LATER from the prophet of Islam.
TUGHLAQS (1388-1414) " He helped Timur in his invasion, so was
given the governship of Lahore .
• After Firozshah Tughlaq, Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq Shah-I succeeded. He was " Khizr Khan took the title of Rayat-i-AJa
repalced by Abu Bakr Shah in AD 1389. and not of a king. The coins were struck
and Khutba was read in the name of Timur
• The states of Malwa, Sharqi Qaunpur)
and his successor Shahrukh.
and Gujarat broke away from the
Sultanate.
0
Khizr Khan's three successors were
incapable rulers.
• Abu Bakr was replaced by Nasi_ruddin
Muhammad in AD 1390. Nasi_ruddin a Mubarak Shah (1421-34) led successful
Muhammad was replaced by eArpeditions against Mewatis, Katehars and
Ala-ud-clin Sikandar Shah for a biief the Gangeti Doab area. He was killed and
period in 1394, but regained the deposed by the nobles.
throne after Sikandar's death. a Muhammad Shah (1434-43) ruled on a

He ruled till AD 1412. During his
period, Timur invaded lnma.
Timur's Invasion
• Timur, the bead of the Chaghtai Turks
and the ruler of Mongols in (Central
Asia) invaded Inma in 1398, during the
reign of Nasi_ruddin Muhammad
Tughlaq.
very small area, rest being governed by
nobles. Alauddin Shah Alam (1443-1451)
was the last Sayyid king who retired as a
coward, descenmng in favour of Bahlol
Lodhi. Th us, the Sa yyid Dynasty was
replaced by the Lodhj Dynasty.
0
Yahya-bin-Ahmed-bin-AbduJJah Sir:hindi
wrote Tarileh-i-Mubarak Shahi (History of
Muhammad Shah of Sayyid Dynasty).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
THE LODHI DYNAS1Y
(AD 1451-1526)
Considered as the first Afghan dynasty of
India . They were ruling over Sirhind ,
while Sayyids rul ed over India.
Bahlol Lodhi (AD 1451-1489)
" Founder of Lodhi dynasty in India.
" Revived Sultanate to quite an e:>(tent.
" Annexed entire Sharqi kingdom and
issued Bahlol coins.
0
Never sat on the thrnne , used to sit on
carpets alongvvith Am ins .
Sikandar Lodhi
(AD 1489-1517)
" Noblest of the three Lodhi rulers, real
name was Nizam Khan (Son of BahJol
Lodhi). Conquered Bihar and Bengal in
AD 1504, he built a new city Agra and
made it his capital. He was the son of
Bahlol Lodhi.
0 He was a Muslim fanatic and broke the
sacred images of Jwalamukhi temple at
Nagarkot and ordered the temple of
Mathura to be destroyed .
" He set-up an efficient espionage and
judiciary system and introduced the
system of auditing of accounts.
" He encouraged agiicultme. For
measurement of land, he introduced
Gaj-i-Sikandmi .
0 He was a poet an d wrote verses in
Persian under the pen-name of
Gulrukb.i.
" He repaired the Qutub Minar.
Ibrabi111 Lodhi (1517-1526)
" Ibrahim Lodhi arrested the absolute
power of the Sultan. As a result, some of
the nobles turned against him. At last,
Daulat Khan Lodhi the Governor of
Punjab, invited Babur to overthrow
Ibrahim.
0 He captured Gwilior and was defeated
by Rana Sanga of Mewar.
" He was defeated and killed at the hands
of Babm in the First Battle of Panipat
i.n AD 1526. This marked the end of the
Delhi Sultanate.
Causes of the Decline of
the Delhi Sultanate
• Despotic, autocratic and military forms of
government.
• Wars of succession.
• Finar,icial instability.
• Vastness of the empire and improper
admir;iistrative control.
• Unsuccessful experiments of Muhammad
-bin-Tughlaq. Timur's invasion.
• Incompetent nobility and increase in number of
slaves during Firoz Tughlaq.
THE SULTANATE
ADMINISTRATION
0
The Tw-kisb Sultans in India declared
themselves Lieutenants of Painful, which
meant that they included the name of
Caliphate of Baghdad in Khutba, but he
had only moral position.
0
Political, legal and mili tary authority was
vested in the Sultan. He was responsible
for administration .
0 He was the Commander-in-Chief of the
military forces.
0 The country was divided into Jqtas, which
were distiibuted among the nobles,
officers and soldiers for the purpose of
administi·ation and revenue collection.
lqtadars could be transferred.
0 The key figure in the administration was
Wazir. In the earlier period, the Wazir was
primaiily a mihtai-y leader, but now he
began to be considered more as an expert
in the revenue affairs and supervised the
collection of income and e:>qJenditure.
"' The head of militai-y deparbnent was
called. Ariz-i-MamaWz. The responsibility
of Anz was recruibnent, payment and
inspection of ai~my.
0 Diwan-i-Risalat dealt with religious
matters. It was presided over by a Chief
Sadr or Chief Qazi. The Qazi dispensed
civil law based on Muslim law (Sharia).
0
Diwan-i-lnsha, headed by Dahir-i-Mumal
ik, managed the royal correspondence.
0 The rulers posted intelligence agents
called Barids in different parts of the
empire to keep themselves informed.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• Wakil-i-Dar was responsible Literary Sources

for the maintenance of proper
decorum at the court. The Book Author
province were divided into Khazyan-ul-Fu tuh Amir Khusro
Shiqs and headed by Shiqdars. Tughlaq Namah Amir Khusro
The ne)rt unit was Parganas, Tarik-i-AJaj Amir Khusro
groups of h undred villages, Tabaqat-i-Nasiri Minhaj-us-Siraj
beaded by the Chaudhary. Tarikh-i-Fi:rozshahi Ziauddin Sarni
Pargana was also headed by Gita Govind Jayadeva
Amil. KhILts were the Mrtakshara Vigyaneshwara
landmvners. Dayabhaga Jimuta Vahana
Ashiqa and Khizr khan Amir Khusro
CULTURAL Amuktamalyada Krishnadeva Raya
DEVELOPMENTS Futuhat-i-Firozshahi Firoz Shah
Parasana Kaghava Jayadeva
Art and Architecture Khamsah Amir Khusro
0
Archs and domes are a special Miftahul Futuh Amir Khusro
feature of Muslim
architectme. This required Music
stronger cement, thus, finer o New musical modes and instruments like Rabab
quality of mortar became and Sarangi, ·were intr-oduced.
widespread in North India.
.. Amir Khusro introduced many Persian Arabic
° For decoration, the Turks used , ragas . He also invented the Sitar.
geometrical and floral designs
with verses from the QILran. Paintings
Hindu motifs like bell, lotus
Arabs introduced paper in the 15th oentury whkh
and swastik etc were also used
encouraged painting.
e.g. Adhai Din Im Jhompra at
Ajmer, tomb of Ghiyasuddin Literature
Balban in Mehrauli (Delhi).
a Many Sanslait works like Rajatarangani and
Mahabharata were tr·anslated into Persian.
Other Developments Udayraja wrote Raja Vinoda on Mahmud Begarha.
o Quwwat-uJ-lslam mosque,
Delhi Built by Qutubuddin Zai Nakshabi translated Sansla.it sto1ies into
Aibak. Persian under the title Tuti Namah.
o Merutanga wrote Prabandha Chintama11i.
0
Adhai din ka Jhopra Ajme r :
Qutubuddin Aibak. Amir Khusro
0
Alai Darwaja, Qu tub Minar : • He was a Persian poet (AD 1253-1325) associated wi th
Ala uddin Khalji royal courts of more than seven rulers of the Delhi
0 Jamat Khan Masjid at dargah Sultanate.
of Nizamuddin Auliya • He was also a musician and invented the Sitar He
Ala uddin Kh alji innovated Khaya/ (a style of singing).
0
SiJ·i (city), Hauz.khas tank, • In his book Tarikh-i-Alai, he gave an account of the
Hazar Situn : Alauddin Khalji. conquests of Alauddin Khalji.
° City of TughJaqabad founded • His book Ashiqa, contains the love story of Deval Rani
by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. City of and Khizr Khan.
Jahanpanah and Adilabad fort: • In his book Nuh-Siphiror nine skies, he gave the story of
Muhammad-bin-Tugblaq. Sultan Mubarak Shah. He also lived in the court of
° City of Jaunpur Hissar, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and wrote Tughlaqnamah.
Firozabad : Firoz-shah Tu gh]aq. • Khusro is also known as Tuti-i-Hind or' Parrot of India'.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

PROVINCIAL Mewar
KINGDOMS 0
The capital city Chittor was captured by
Alaudclin Khalji in AD 1303, but Rajput rule
Gujarat was soon restored by Rana Haniir
(AD 1326-64).
0 Disintegrated from Delhi in 0
Rana Kumbha Karan (AD 1433-68) was the
AD 1397, under Zaffar Khan who 1
greatest ruler of Mewar. He built the famous
assumed the ti tle of S zLltan
victory tower Vijay Stambh at Chittor, to
Muzaffar Shah.
commemorate his victory over Mahmud Khilji
0
Ahmed Shah I (his grandson), built of Malwa. His court was adorned by Mandan ,
a new city Ahmedabad and also buil t who wrote many books on architecture
J ama Masjid and Tin Darwaza at namely, Parsad Mandan and Rupa Mandan.
Ahmedabad.
" Rana Sangram Singh or Rana Sanga
0
Mahmud Beg:hra was another (1509-28) defeated Mahmud IT of Malwa and
prominent ruler, in whose reign, the Ibrahim Lodhi. But, he was defeated by Ba.bur
Portuguese set-up a factory at Diu. in the Battle of Khanwa (AD 1527).
0 Sanslait scholar, Udayraja, was his
court poet. Akbar annexed Gujarat Bengal
in AD 1573.
Disintegrated from Delhi during the reign of
0

Mul1ammad-bin- Tugb]aq.
Malwa In AD 1342, lliyas Khan founded the new
0

0The state was annexed by Alauddin lliyas Sha.hi Dynasty.

Khalji in AD 1305 and remained a
" Ghiyasuddin Azam established friendly
part of the Sultanate until its
relations vvith China and established trade
Governor, Dilawar Khan Ghmi
declared his independence ~
and commerce.
AD 1435. " The famous poet, Maladhar Basu, compiler of
Sri-Krishna Vijay , was pab.·onised by the
0Hasan Shah was a powerful ruler of Sultans and was given the title of Gzmaraja
Malwa. He built Jama Maajid , Khan.
Hindol Mal1al and J ahaz Mahal at
" Chaitanya and Shankaradeva belonged to this
Mandu. Next ruler, Mahmud Khalji ,
period. Sher Shah Suri occupied Bengal in
was defeated by Rana Kumbha.
AD 1538.
0Malwa became a part of Gujarat in
AD 1531 and was annexed to th e VIJAYANAGARA
M ug:hal state in AD 1562.
KINGDOM (AD 1336-1580)
Kashmir
" Shamsuddin Shah became th e The Sanga1nas (AD 1336-1485)
first Muslim ruler of Kashmir in " The kingdom was founded in AD 1336 in
AD 1339. response to the Tughlaq authm·ity in South
0 Zainulabdin (AD 1420-70) was th e India.
greatest ruler of Kashmir. also " Vijayanagara Kingdom and the city was
known as 'Badshah' and the ,Akbar founded by Harihara I and Bukka. (Two of the
of Kashmir. five sons of Sangarna).
0
He accepted the policy of tolerance , " Harihara and Bukka were oliginally the
introduced the art of shawl making feudatories of the of Kakatiyas. They were
in Kashmir, built Zaina Lanka and brought to the centre by
an artmcial island in the Wular lake. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, converted to
Islam and were sent to South to control the
0 Later ruled by Chak Dynasty, whose
rebellion, but motivated by a Bhak'ti Saint
ruler submitted to Akbar in AD 1586.
Vidyaranya they reconverted to Hinduism .
0
It is believed that women played an They established the Vijayanagara kingdom
important role in the history of the in AD 1336.
Kashmir.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Harihara I (AD 1336-56) TbeTuluvas

Confuct with the Bahmanj kingdom for
supremacy over three areas : Rajchw· doab
(between Krishna and Tungabhadra),
Ktishna-Godavari Delta and Marathwada.
Bukka I (AD 1356-79)
a Renamed th e city of Vidyanagar as
Vijayanagara.
a The royal Ambassadors from Malabar and
Ceylon , adorned his court.
0
Restored peace between the warring
Vajshnavas and the ]a.ins .
Devraya-1 (AD 1406-22)
a He consb.·ucted a dam across th e
Tungabhadra to bring the canal into the city.
Italian n·aveller Nicolo Conti visited the
kingdom dming his reign.
0
Srinatha was his court poe t, who wrote
Haravilasam.
a There was a Pearl H all in his palace, where
h e honoured the men of eminence.
Devraya-11 (AD 1423-46)
a He was the greatest Sangama ruler. The
Commanders believed that h e was an
incarnation of Indra. He vvrote Mahanatalrn
Suddhanidhi. He took the tittle 'Gaj
Betelwra' i.e the elephant hunter. Persian
Ambassador Abdul Razzaq, the envoy of
Shahrukh. visited his court.
a The Sang~a dynasty was replaced by Saluva
dynasty, which lasted for two decades.
The king was a scholar in Kannada and
Sanskiit.
The Saluvas (AD 1486-1505)
Saluva Narsimha was the (AD 1486-91),
founder of the dynasty, native of the Kalyam
region.
Tirnmal (1491) and hnmadi
Narasimha (1491-1505)
a Ruled under the regency of Narsa Na yak.
a Vasco Da Gama came to India (Calicut)
during the reign of lmmadi in AD 1498.
a Ultimately, a new dynasty called the Tuluva
dynasty was founded by Vir Narasimha.
(AD 1505-1570)
o Vira Narsimha (AD 1505-09)
Killed Immadi of Saluva dynasty
and established the Tuluva dynasty.
He was the son of Na.rsa Nayaka.
° Krishnadevaraya (AD 1509-29)
was the greatest ruler of the dynasty.
Portuguese traveller, Domingo
Paes, wrote high about him.
Berbosa also came as a traveller.
Also Friar Loujs, the Ambassador of
the Portuguese Governor,
Albuquerque, resided in his court.
., Hjs period was lmovvn as "Golden
age of Telugu literature. "
0
He was a warrior, an administrator
and a pab.·on of art and literature.
He defeated the Gajapati ruler of
Orissa and took the title Yavanaraja
Sthapnachaya (restorer of the
Yadava of Bidar).
., Hjs political ideas are contained in
the Telugu book Anrnktamalayada.
He also wrote Sanskiit drama
Jambavati Kalyanam.
o As a great pan·on of literatw-e, he
was lmovm as Abhinava Bhoja,
Andhra Pitamaha and Andhra
Bhoja. Sri Vyasatirtha was his guru .
o Eight great poets of Telugu, lmovvn
as Ash ta Diggaja adorned his court.
0
He was a contemporary to Babur.
o A.chyuta Raya (AD 1529-42)
Succeeded Krishnadevaraya. A
Portuguese n·aveller Femao Nuruz
came dw-ing his reign.
o Sadasiva (1543- 76) was the last
ruler of the dynasty.
Battle of Talikota (AD 1566)
Between th e alliance of
Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda
and Bidar at one side and Sadasiva
on the other side. Sadasiva was
defeated.
Caesar Frede1ick, the Portuguese
traveller, visited his court
(AD 1567-68).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
The Aravidus (AD 1570-1650)
0 The dynasty was founded by Thirumala,
brother of Rama Raya. He shifted the
capital to Penugonda and divided the
empire into three linguistic sections.
Vijayanagara Architecture
a important temples are Vithalswami and
Hazara temples at Hampi, Varadraja and
Ekambarnatha temples at Kanchipmam,
and Parvati temples at Chidambaram.
0
The sto1ies of Ramayana and
Mahabharata were inscribed on the walls
of the temples; e.g. Vithalswami and
Hazara Ram temple.
0
Vibrant combination of Chalukryan,
Hoysalan, Pandyan and Chalan styles.
Vijayanagara Society
0 Only empire in Medieval India, which
employed women in the services. Women
even vvent to battles.
Vijayanagara Trade
0 Accounts of Nuniz and Paes indicate a
dependence on foreign trade for
maintenance of the two most important
bases of the Vijayanagara empire the
cavalry and its fire arms.
Vijayanagara Coins
0
They issued gold coins called Varahas or
Pagodas. (Varahas, because the most
common symbol was Varaha the boar an ° Firoz Shah (1397-1422) was the most
incarnation of Vishnu). These help us
know that they were the worshippers of
Vishnu.
The Nayankara System
• Under this system, military chiefs were
assigned certain pieces of land called Amaram.
These chiefs, known as nayaks, had revenue
and administrative rights on their lands.
• They were required to maintain elephants,
horses and soldiers in certain numbers, which
were included in the royal army during wars.
• They also had to pay a sum of money to the
central exchequer. In course of time, the nayaks
began to assert their military, administrative
and economic powers, which later became a
major cause of the decline of the Vijayanagara
empire.
The Ayagar System
• It involved the Constitution of a
Twelve-member official group by the centre
to maintain administration at the village
level. These officials. called the Ayagars.
were village functionaries and constituted
of groups of families.
• They were given, for their service, a portion
of or a plot in the village, which were
tax-free. The Ayagars were hereditary
officials and there was to be no sale or
purchase of land without their permission.
BAHMANI KINGDOM
0
The Bahmani kingdom of Deccan was
founded by Hasan Ganga, whose
original name was Ismail Mukh. The
capital was GuJbarga. Hasan Gangu
took the title of Alauddin Hasan
Rahaman Shah (AD 134 7-58) became
the first king of Bahmani in AD 1347.
.. At the time of his death, his
dominion had four provinces-
GuJbarga, DauJatabad, Berar and
Bidar.
0 Mahmud Shah I (1358-75) son of
Bahaman Shah, established a council
consisting of eight ministers and
decentralised his provincial
administration. He fought with
Vijayanagara. He was succeeded by his
son AJa-ud-din Mujahid Shah.
remarkable figw-e in the Bahmani
kingdom. He was determined to make
Deccan the cultural centre of India.
He inducted Hindus in his
administration to large eA'tent. He built
an observatory at Daulatabad. He
founded the city of Firozabad on the
bank of the river Bhima. Firoz defeated
Devaraya I.
"' Firoz Shah was succeeded by his
brother Ahmed Shah I (AD 1422-36).
He shifted his capital from Gu]barga to
Bidar.
0 Ahmed Shah is known as Wali or saint,
due to his association vv:ith Gisudiraz.
0
Inlaying of zinc with silver and gold,
and Bidri ware was introduced in his
period.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• Ahmed Shah was succeeded by his son AJauddin-lI (AD 1436-58) and Humayun.
Humayun (AD 1458-61) was so cruel, that he got the title of Zalim.
a Humayun was succeeded by his son Nizam Shah (1461-63) and then by Muhammad

Shah-ill (AD 1463-82). Mahmud Gawan was the Prime Minister of Muhammad.
Nikitin, a Russian merchant, visited Bidar dw-ing his reign.
a After Gawan's execution by the discontented noble, the Bahmanj kingdom started

declining.
0
The last ruler of Bahmani kingdom was Kalim Ullah Shah (AD 1524-27).
0 After the break-up of Bahmaru kingdom, five Muslim separate states were fanned as
follow:
1. Nizam Shahis of Ahmednagar founder-Ahmed Nizam Shah, later annexed by
Shahjahan.
2. Aclilshabis of Bijapur (1490-1686) founded by Yusuf Adil Shah . It was annexed
by Aw-angazeb.
Greatest ruler of the kingdom was Ibrahim Adil Shah. He introduced Dakhini in
place of Persian language. Another ruler Muhammad Adil Shah buiJt the Gol
Gumbaz.
3. Imad Shahis of Berar (1490-1574) founded by Fateullah Khan lmrnad-ul-Mulk
with Daulatabad as capital Later, it was conquered and annexed by one of the
Nizarn Sham rulers of Ahmednagar.
4. Qutub Shabis of Golconda (1518-1687) founded by Quh Qutub Shah. He bwlt
the famous Golconda fort and made it his capital
• Muhammad Quli Qutab Shah was the greatest of all. He fow1ded the city of
Hyderabad.
0 He bwlt the famous Charminar. Most in1portant port of Qutub Shahi kingdom was
Masuhpatnam. The kingdom was annexed by Aurangzeb (1687).
5. Barid Shahls of Bidar (1528-1619) founded by Ab Barid. Annexed by Adil
Shah is of Bijapur.

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
The Sufi Move1nent
Mystics who are called Sufis, rose in Islam at a very early stage.
0
These saints had nothing to do vvith the state. They lajd great emphasis on love as a
bond between God and the individual soul.
0
Sufi came out of the word sooph meanmg wool. They advocated life of pmity and
renunciation. Sufism sprang from the doctrine of Wahadat-ul-Wujud or unHy of being.
Trus docn-ine was propounded by lbn-u]-Arabi.
0
One and the earhest Su£s was Rabia, a woman.
a Sufis organjsed 12 orders or silsilas. A silsi.la was generally led by a prominent mystic,
who lived in a lehanqah or hospice alongv1rith his disciple. The link between the teacher
or pir and hls disciples or mmids was a vital part of Sufism. Every pir nominated a
successor or wali to carry out ms work.
0
Sufi orders are broadly divided into Ba-shara that is those wlnch followed the Islamic
law (shariat) and Be-shara, that is those which were not bound by it.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Sufi Order Founder PopulaJ Sajnts Other Features

Chisti Khwaja Abdul Khwaja Muin uddin Chisti They adopted musical
(Delhi and Chisti 0n Heart) (India) recitation, called sama, to
Doab region) Bakhtiyar Kaki, create mood of nearness to
God .
Nizamuddin Auliya ,
Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Delhi
Nizamuddin Aulli a also
known as Tahbul-i-lllahi
(beloved of God) .
Suhrawardi Shaikh Shaikh Bahuddin Zakariya Saints had big Jagirs and a
(Pu~ab and Shihabuddin close contact with the state.
Sin ) Suhrawardi
Firdausi Shaikh Badruddin Shaikh Shamsuddin Yahiya believed in
of Samark Yahiiya (Bihar) pantheistic monotheism and
was the disciple of Khwaja
Nizamuddin Firdausi .
Qadiri Shaikh Abdul Shah Ni amatullah Dara Shikoh, the eldest son
Oadiri Syid Muhammad Jilani of Shahjahan was the
followe r of this order.
Naqshbandi Khwaja Pir Khwaja Bagi Billah
Muhammad Shailkh Ahmed Sirhindi

Sufi Terminology 0
The real development of Bhakti took place in
South India between the 7th and the
Sufi Words Meanings 12th centuries. The Bhakti saints came
Shaikh/Murid/Pir Spiritual teacher usually from the lower caste . They
disregarded caste, encouraged women to join
Tasavvwuf Sufism
and taught in the local vernacuJa.r language.
Murid Disciple a They considered that God has either a form
Khanqah The hospice (Sagzrna) or was forml ess (Nirguna).
Sama Musical recital
Rainanuja (AD 1017-1137)
Raksa Dance
l n the 11th century, Ramanuja tried to
Fana Self annihilation assimilate Bhakti to the tradition of the Vedas.
Khalifah Successor According to him, Moksha (salvation) can be
obtained through Karma, Gyan and Bhakti . He
gave the concept of Vishishtadvaita.
The Bhakti Movement
0
The Bhakti Movement, which J nandeva (AD 1275-96)
stressed mystical union of the Progenitor of Bhakti Movement in
individual with God, was initiated in Maharashtra.
South India by popular saint poets
called Alvars, who represented the N a1ndeva (1270-1350)
emotional side of Vaishnavism ,
through collective songs called He was a Nirgwza Upasalea. Some of his
abhangas are included in the Guru Gra11th
Prabandhas.
Sahib.
a It declined in the AD I 0th centmy,

but was again revived as a

philosophical and ideological
Ekanatb (AD 1533-99)
movement by Acharyas like " Born in Patan in Aurangabad published the
first receivable edjtion of Janesvari (Marathi
Ramanuja, whose disciple Gita).
Ramananda took it to North In dia.
He condemend caste system and accepted
0

" South Inrua : Shiva and Vishnu

disciple from the lower caste.
North lnrua : Rama and Krishna
- GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History

Tukaram (AD 1598-1650) Ramananda (15th century)

He was a contemporary of Shivaji, the
greatest Marathi Bhal'ti poet and his
views are similar to that of Kabir. Great
devotee of Vithal, a form of God
Vishnu.
Ramadas (1608-1681)
He was the spiritual guru of Shivaji.
Established ashrams all over India. He
vvrote Dasabodha, a didactic work,
which gave advice on all aspects of life.
Guru Nanak (1469-1538)
° Founder of Sikh faith in India.
a He has born in Talwandj, now
Nankana Sahib to a Khat1i famDy.
He composed hymns and sang them
with the help of a rabab.
a He laid emphasis on one God. By
repeating bis name with love and
devotion, one could get salvation
without distinctions of caste, creed
and sect. He was against idolatory,
undertaking pilgrimage and other
ritualistic conducts.
In course of time, his teachings gave
a
" The founder of Bhakti Movement in North
India.
" He discarded caste rules and included among
his disciples, men of all castes.
a He was greatly influenced by the teachings of
Ramanuja.
.. Among his disciples were Raidas, the cobbler,
Kabir the weaver, Dhanna the farmer, Sena
the barber and Pipa the Rajput.
Kabir (1440-1510)
" He was a weaver.
a Represented Nirguna Bhahi tradition. His
followers organised themselves as Kabir
PantWs.
.. His teachings contained Dohas, which are
sung till today.
.. He was not merely a Bhakti poet, but also a
social reformer. He spoke in language of
common man. He emphasised on simplicity
of the religious practice be it Brahminism or
Islam.
" He advocated the Bhakti marga and
dedication to a formless supreme being.

rise to Sikhism.
Chaitanya (1486-1533)
o Born in Nadia district of West Bengal.
a Nanak began the practice of
community kitchen or Regarded as the founder of modern Vaislrnav
Gw·u-ka-Langar. Sect of Bengal.
a He named the formless God as Akal " He preached dw-ing the reign of Sultan
Prn·ush. Alauddin Shah of Bengal and Gajpati ruler of
Orissa. He died in Pwi. His biography is the
0
His teachings am compiled in the
Chaitanya Charitmala.
Am Granth. a Philosophy of Chaitanya was called
A chi tyab hedaveda.
Vallabhacharya a His disciples considered him as the
(1479-1531) incarnation of Krishna.
a He emphasised on the worship of
Kiisbna as an incarnation of the Surdas (1483-1563)
almighty God. Disciple of Vallabhacharya and devotee of lo1:1
Ki·ishna and Radha. He wrote Sur Suravalz ,
0
Lived in the court of Krishnadeva of
Vijayanagara. Sahitya Rahza and Sursagar (belonged to
Sagwza school).
0
He taught that there was no
difference in Ahna and Paramatma. DaduDayal
By means of Bhakti, one can get
Nirguna Bhak'ti tradition, founded Brahma
salvation and merge in him . He
Sampradaya and Parabrahma Sampradaya;
founded the Pushti sect.
preached service to humanity.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
Nimbarakacharya
Worshipper of Krishna and Radha and
contemporary of Ramanuja.
Madhavacharya
(1238-1317)
According to hi.m1 the release from
transmigration could be secured only by
means of lmowledge and devotion.
Jayatirtha was his successor.
Mirabai (1498-1546)
Married to Bhojraj, she was the Rath ore
princesss of Mevata and daughter in-law
of Rana Sanga ofMewar. She belonged to
the Kiishna cult of Vaishnavism.
Tulsidas (1532-1623)
Born in Brah.min famjly in Varanasi and
belonged to Ram Bhakti cult of Thyagaraja (1767-1847)
Vaishnavism. He wrote Telugu saint and greatest composer of
Ramcharitmanas, Gitawali, Kavitawali, Carnatic music.
Vi11ay Patrilw etc.
I THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
Babur (AD 1526-1530)
0 He was the descendant of Timur on ms
father's side and Changez Khan on his
mother's side. HE family belonged to
the Chagtai section of the Tw-kish race
and were commonly lmovvn as
M ughals.
a Originally ruled over Ferghana
(Afghanistan).
He was invited to attack lnilia by
Daulat Khan Lodhi, Subedar of
Punjab, Alam Khan Lodhi, uncle of
Ibrahim Lodhi and Rana Sanga.
He was successful in his
fifth e>...1Jeilition. In the First Battle of
Panipat in AD 1526, he finally
defeated Ibrahim Lodhj _
0
Defeated Rana Sanga of Mewai· in
Battle of Khanwa in 1527. Babur took
the title of 'Ghazi' after this.
0 Defeated another Rajput ruler Meiliru
Rai in the Battle of Chanderi in
AD 1528.
0
In AD 1529, he defeated MuJ1ammad
Lodhi (uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi) in the
Battle of Ghaghra.
Vidyapati
0
Maithilili saint poet.
0 Wrote Padavali i.e. thousands of love
ballads on Radha and Ki·jshna. He also
wrote Kirtilata Kirtipatalw.
N arsingh Mehta
Saint from Gujarat, who vvrote songs in
Gujarati, depicting the love of Radha and
Krishna. He authored Mahatma Gandhi 's
favourite bhajan 'Vaishnava jan ko'.
Purandar Das (1480-1564)
Vaishnava saint, composer of Karnataka, who
laid the foundation of Carnatic music.
Shankara Deva (1449-1568)
Vaishnava saint from Assam.
I
.. The battle of Ghaghra was the 1st battle
which was fought on land and water
sinrnltaneously in meilieval lnilia.
0
Babur was the first ruler to entitle himself
'Badshah'.
0
He wrote Tuzu.k.-i-Babari or Babarnama
in Turkish. It was translated into Persian by
Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and in
English by Madam Beb1idge.
0
llis victory led to rapid populaiisation of
gunpowder and artillery in lnilia.
0
After the Kushanas, he was the first to have
brought Kabul and Kandhai· into the Inman
empire.
o He rued in AD 1530 and was bmied at
A.ram Bagh in Agra. Later his body was
tal<en to A.ram Bagh at Kabul.
Htunayun
(AD 1530 - 40 and 1555 -56)
0 He was the son of Babm and Maham Anaga
begum.
0 Babur had ilivided his empire among the
three brothers of Humayun (Karman ,
llindaJ and Asakari). So, Humayun had to
face real problems asceniling to the throne.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

11
His first campaign was against KalinjaL
.. In AD 1533, the first siege of Chunar and the March of Gaur was stopped by Jalal Khan
Sher Khan (Sher Shah) offered nominal submission by sending his son Qutb Khan to
Humayun's court.
11
The second siege of Chunar was stopped by Jalal Khan, Sher Shah 's son in 1538.
Humayun occupied Gaur from Sher Khan renamed it as Jannatabad (Paradise).
11
The Battle of Chausa (1539) was fought between Sher Shah and Humaynn's army.
Humayun was badly defeated and escaped . He vvas saved by Nizam.
11
The Battle of Kannauj (Bilgrnma) (1540) : Humayun was again defeated by Sher Shah
and had to flee.
11
He passed nearly 15 years in exile. He wandered in Sindh drning the reign of Shah
Hussain Arghuna, and then reached the Iranian Court.
11
He got a chance to retmn in AD 1555. By that time, Sher Shah and his son Islam
Shah, who ruled upto 1553, had died. Muhammad Adil Shah was fond of pleasure and
the entire affairs of his state were governed by Hearn, his minister.
11
Bairam Khan, his most faithful officer helped him. The Mughals occupied Lahore
without any march towards Delhi. After the Battle of Macbhiwa.ra against the Afghans,
and Battle of Sirhind against Sikandar Shah, Humayw1's second coronation was
organised. In AD 1556, he fell from the stairs of the library (Sher Mandal, Delhi) and
died. Dinpanah was his second capita.I.

Akbar (AD 1556 -1605)

0 Akbar was born to Hamida Banu begum at Ama.rkot in Rana Veersal's palace in AD
1542.
0
Akbar was 14 years old when he was crowned at Kalanarn· in 1556. Akbar already had
shovvn his calibre at the battle field, when he captured Sirhind from Sikandar Shah ,
AD 1555.
11
Bairam Khan represented him in the Second Battle of Pa.nipat in AD 1556 against
Muhammad Adil Shah Sur's Wazir, Hemu. Akbar defeated Hemu and reoccupied
Delhi and Agra.
11 Between 1556-1560, Akbar ruled under Bairam Khan's regency. The fort of Gwalior,
J aunpur, Ajmer and Ranthambore were successfully occupied. Later, Akbar asked
Bairam Khan to proceed to Mecca. On the way near Patna, Bairam Khan was
murdered.
11
He also ended the interlerence from th e Petticoat Government, (1560-62)
represented by Maham Anaga and Adham Khan's Junta.
0
Akbar conquered Malwa in AD 1561, defeating Baz Bahadur. He was later made the
Mansabdar, to honour his skill as a musician.
11 Akbar's earliest campaigns was against Rani Durgawati of Garh-Katanga (Gond and
Rajput principalities).
11 The two powerful forts of Rajastha.n-Ranth ambor and Chittor (Rana Udai Singh
guarded by Jainia.l) were captured by the Mugha.ls.
11 Akbar's deccan campaign began with the siege of Ahmednagar (defended by Chand
Bibi).
11 Akbar's East campaign was against Asirgarh, resulting into the annexation of
Khandesh (1601).
11
Akbar followed the policy of reconcilation wi th th e Rajpu ts. In AD 1562, he manied
the eldest daughter of Raja Bharmal of Jaipur, Harakha Bai.
11 In 1570, he manied princesses of Bikaner and Jaisalrner, 1584. Prince Salim was
manied to the daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das.
11 He won Gujarat in 1572. In order to commemorate his victory of Gujarat, Akbar build
Buland Darwaja at Fatehpur Sikri.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

a Raja Maan Singh conquered Bihar, Bengal and Odssa for him.
a 1n 1586, Akbar conquered Kash mir and in 1593, he conquered Sindh.
" At the time of Akbar's death in AD 1605, his empire included Kashmir, Sindh ,
Kandahar and extended as far as the Godavari in the Deccan.
" He was buried at Sikandara near Agra.

Navratnas in Akbar's Court

AbulFazaJ He was the Wazir of Akbar. He wrote the Akbarnamah and also led the
Mughal imperiaJ army in its war in Deccan .
Faizi Abul Fazal's brother and historian in Akbar's court. His famous work U/avati is
on Mathematics . Akbar appointed him as a teacher for his son.
Tansen Believed to be one of the greatest musicians of all time. He was born to
a Hindu family.
He served as the court musician to king Ramchandra of Mewar and
was sent to Akbar's court.
He accepted Islam at the hands of great Sufi saint Shaikh Muhammad
Ghaus of Gwalior.
It was believed that Tansen made miracles, such as bringing rain and
fire through his singing of the ragas, such as Megh Malhar and Deepak.
BirbaJ Courtier in the administration of Akbar. His actual name was
Mahesh Das.
He was conferred the title of Raja by Akbar. He frequently had witty and
humorous exchanges with Akbar.
Raja Todarmal He was Akbar's Finance Minister.
He introduced standard weights for measurement and undertook
revenue districts. His revenue collection arrangement came to be called
the Todarmal's Bandobast.
His systematic approach to revenue collection became a model for the
future Mughals as well as the British.
Raja Man Singh He was the Raja of Amber, a Mansabdar and a trusted General of Akbar.
He was the grand son of Akbar's father-in-law BharmaJ and the adopted
son of Raja Bhagwan Das _
He assisted Akbar in many battles including the well known
Battle of HaldighatL
Abdul Rahim He was a poet and the son of Bairam Khan, known for his Hindi
Khan-e-Khana couplets .
Faqir Azio Din He was the chief advisor of Akbar, sufi mystic.
Mullah Do Piaza He was among the MughaJ emperor's chief advisor.

Important Aspects of Akbar's Rule

" Akbar reorganised the central machinery of administration , on the basis of division of
power between various departments.
" He abolished the]aziya and pilgrimage tax, and the forcible conversion of prisoners of
war. The use of beef was also forbidden.
" He believed in Sulh-i-Kul, that is peace for all .
" He built an Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Silai to discuss religious matters. He invited
many distinguished persons, such as Purshottam Das (Hindu) Maharaji Rana (Parsi) ,
Haiivijaya Smi Qain), Monserate and Aquaviva (Christian).
" To curb the dominance of the Ulema, Akbai- i.na·oduced a new Khutba w1itten by Fai:zi
and proclaimed Mahzanzamah in 1579, which made him the final interpreter of
Islamic law (Mujtahid lman-i-Adif), in case of any controversies.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
• It made him Amir-ul-Momin (leader of the
faithful) and Amir-i-Adil (a just ruler).
D His liberation is reflected again in th e
pronouncement of Tauhid-i-Jlahi or
Din-i-Ilam, which propounded Sufi divine
monotheism. BirbaJ , AbuJ Faz] and Faizi
joined the order.
.. Akbar established the painting karldzmza ,
h eaded by Abdus Samad.
0
RaJph Fitch (1585) was th e first
Englishman to visit Akbar's court.
.. Abul FazaJ wrote 'Akbarnamah ', the
appendix of which was called Ain-i-Akbari.
0 His land revenue system was known as
TodarmaJ Bandobast or Zabti system.
0
Mansabdari System was another feature of
administration dw-ing Akbar's reign to
organise the nobility as well as the army. He
was the first M ughaJ ruler to separate
religion from politics.
.. Sufi saint Shaikh Salim Chisti blessed Akbar
with a son who was named Salim (Jahangir).
Akbar shifted his court to Fatehpur Silai
from Agra, in honom of the saint.
0
BirbaJ was killed in the battle with the
Yusufzai tiibe (1586).
.. Abul FazaJ was murdered by Bir Singh
Bundela (1601). In 1579, Akbar issued
'Decree of Infallibility ' .
.. Persian was made the officiaJ language of
MughaJ empire.
0
He culminated 'Din-i-illahi ', which
recognised no prophets.
Maharana Pratap
A Rajput ruler of Mewar, he belonged to the
Sisodia clan of Suryavanshi Rajputs. He was a son
of Udai Singh II. In 1568, during the reign of Udai
Singh II, Mewar was conquered by Akbar.
Battle of Haldighati was fought on 18th June,
1576, in which Maharana Pratap was defeated by
Akbar's army, led by Raja Man Singh. Maharana
had to flee the field on his trusted horse-Chetak.
Thereafter, Pratap had to retreat into the
Aravallis, from where he continued his struggle
through the tactics of guerilla warfare. Rana
Pratap died of injuries sustained in a hunting
accident.
Jahangir (AD 1605-1627)
0
Akbar's eldest son, prince Salim,
assumed the title of Nuruddin
Muhammad Jahangir and ascended
the throne.
0
He was born at Fatehpm Silai near
Agra in 1569. He was given a proper
education by his tutor Rahim
Khankhana.
In AD 1585, he manied M anbai, the
daughter of his matemaJ uncle-Raja
Bhagwan Das.
0
In AD 1587 he man.ied Jodhabai or
J agat Gosain, the daughter of Udai
Singh, who gave birth to prince
Khusro (Shahjahan). He mostly lived
in Lahore, which he adorned vvith
gardens and buildings.
0
The eldest son of Jahangir, Khusro
revolted against him, but was
suppressed. Khusro received
patronage of Gmu Ai.jun Dev (5th
Sikh Gw-u). Guru Ai.jun Dev was
executed for his blessings to the rebel
pi-ince.
0
Rana .Amar Singh (son of Maha.rana
Pratap) of Mewar, submitted before
J ahang:ir in AD 1615. Rana Amar
Singh was made a Mansabdar in the
M ugh aJ court.
0
His greatest failure was loss of
Kandahar to Persia in 1622.
o Jahangir's wife NwjaJ1an (daughter
of Itamad-daulah) exercised
tremendous influence over the state
affairs. She was made the officiaJ
Badshah Begum.
° Coins were stuck in h er name and all
royaJfarnzans beared her name.
o She got high positions for her father
(ltamaduddaulah) and h er brother
(Asaf Khan).
a He restored Muh ammad fai th and
prohibited the saJe of Tobacco.
0
Nwjahan married her daughter (by
Sher Afghani her first husband) to
Jahangir's youngest son, Shahryar
and she supported him for the heir
apparent.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
• J ahang:ir's mili tary general , Mahabat
Khan revolted and abducted him but
Nmjahan saved him due to her
diplomatic efforts.
• He was justice loving, a huge bell with a
cha.in of 30 yards was placed at the gate
of royal palace in Agra and anybody who
sought justice from the emperor had to
stiike the bell. This bell was called
Zanzir-i-Adil.
• J ahang:ir faced a formidable opponent in
Malik Amber of Ahmednagar.
• Captain Hawkins (1608-11) and
SirThomas Roe (1615-1616) visited
J ahang:ir's court.
• Pietxa Valle, the famous traveller, ca.me
during his reign.
• Production of Tobacco (brought by th e
Portuguese) started in his reign.
• He was buried at Lahore.
a He wrote his autobiography, Tazak-i-
Jahangiri in Persian.
Nurjahan
Nurjahan's actual name was Mehrunnisa. She
was the widow of Sher Afgani . Jahangir married
to her and conf ered the title 'Nurjahan to her.'
Sbabjahan (1628-1658)
Born to Jodhabai or Jagat Gosain in
Lahore in 1592. His real name was
Khurram. He was the youngest prince to
be appointed as the Governor of Deccan ,
at the age of 15.
• 1n AD 1612, he got married to Aija.mand
Ba.no Begum (knovm as Mumtaz Mahal) ,
daughter of Asa£ Khan.
• He marched against Khan Jahan Lodhi ,
the Governor of Deccan and J ujha.r
Singh Bundela, the independent ruler of
Bundelkha.nd.
• Shahja.han's policy of annexing Deccan
was successful. Ahmednagar was
annexed while Bijapm and Golconda
accepted his suzerainity.
• The Portuguese established their control
over Satgaon, through a Sha.hi firman.
They started misusing their authority.
Shahja.han ordered Qasim Khan in 1532
to drive the Portuguese out of Hughb .
CD
0
In 1639, Shahjahan seemed Kandah ar
and immediately fortmed it. But Persia
wrested Kandahar from Mughals in
1649. Shahja.han failed to recover
Kandahar.
0
Shahjahan was the second lndia.n ruler
to invade Centrnl Asia.
0
Two French ti·avellers : Bernier and
Tavernier and the Italian traveller
Nicolo Manacci visited dming his reign .
Peter Mondi described the famine that
occurred dming Shahjahan's reign. His
reign is considered as the Golden age of
the Mughal empire.
0
The last 8 years of Shahjab an were very
painful, because of the brutal war of
succession between his foui- sons.
0 He was imprisoned by his son Amang:zeb
in Agra fort and died in captivity in
AD 1658. He was bmied at Taj Mahal
(Agra) besides his loving wife.
War of Succession
0 Among Shahjahan's four sons, the eldest
son Dara Shikoh was the Governor of
Punjab, Shuja ·was Governor of Bengal,
Amangzeb was Governor of Bengal and
Murad was Governor of Gujarat.
0 Battle of Bahadurgarh February 1658,
was fought between Shuja and Dara ,
Shuja was defeated.
0
Battle of Dharmat April 1658, where
combined forces of Aurangzeb and
Murad, defeated Dara.
0
Battle of Samugarh May 1658, Dara led
M ugh al forces on behalf of Sha.hjahan
against Aurangzeb. 1n this decisive
battle, Shahjahan was put into prison by
Aurangzeb in the Agra fort.
0
Battle of Khanjawa December 1658,
between Amangzeb and Shuja. Shuja
was defeated and fled to Arakan.
0
Battle of Deorai March 1659, Dara was
defeated and executed by Aurangzeb.
His dead body was paraded on the
stl'eets of Delhi.
Aurangzeb (AD 1658-1707)
0
He was the third son of Shahjahan born
in Ujjain.
0
Aurangzeb, made the victory of Deccan
in 1636. Aurangzeb's first tenure was
upto 1644.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
• Amangzeb's second term as Viceroy
in Deccan began in 1653 and
continued upt:il 1658.
a He took the title of 'Alamgir' upon
his coronation in 1659. He was
called a Zinda pir or the 'bving saint. '
• Under him, the Mughal empire
reached its greatest extent and the
largest single state ever knovvn in
lndfa.
0 He forbaded the inscliption of
Kalma on the coins, also forbaded
Sati and Jharokha-darshan. He
ended the celebration of Nauroz
(singing in the court) and in 1679,
reimposed Jaziya.
• Muhtasib (regulation of m oral
conduct) were appointed. He ended
the use of almanacs and weighing of
the emperor. Amangzeb compiled
the Fatwa-i- Alamgil"i.
• T he Hindu Mansabdar, however,
maintained their high proportions
during his rule.
• Thus, the Mughal empire so-etched
from Kashmir in the North to Jinji in
the South and from Hindu Kush in
the West to Chittagong in the East.
a Aurangzeb died in AD 1707 and was
bmied at Khuldabad (Daulatabad)
near Aurangabad.
0 He built 'Bibi ka Maqbara', similar
to Taj Mal1al in Aurangabad.
Revolts under Aurangzeb
a Aurangzeb's rule can be broadly
divided into two pe1iods, in the first
23 years, he concentrated in the
North, when Maratha power under
Shivaji emerged and the second
period ( 1682-1 707) is marked by his
pre-occupations with the affairs of
Deccan.
• Sikhs In 1675, he ordered the arrest
and execution of the nin th Sikh
Guru, Gun1 Tegh Bhadur. Against
tbis, Guru Gobind Singh organised
his followers into a military force
called Khalsa, but he was also
murdered in AD 1708 by an Afghan
at Nanded in Deccan. Later, Banda
Bairagi continued the war against
Mughals.
a Marathas under Shivaji Shivaji was a
powerful king. Aurangzeb conspired with Jai
Singh of Amber against Shivaji in 1665.
Shivaji visited Mughal court on the request
of J ai Singh, but was imprisoned.
He managed to escape in 1674 and declared
himself an independent monarch.
a After his death in 1680, his son and
successor, Sambhaji was executed by
Aurangzeb in 1689. Later, the Marathas,
Rajaram and Tarabai, continued the
movement against the Mughals.
0
The Jats revolted under Gokla, Rajaram
and Churaman.
0
The ffrst Afghan Rebellion was by Yusuf
Shalii t1ibes of Afghanistan of Roshni Sect.
.. The Second Afghan Rebellion was led by
J\jmal Khan.
a Marwar He annexed Marwar in AD 1678.
The campaigning was led by Akbar Il (Son of
Aurangzeb) against Durgadas, General of Ajit
Singh (Son of Raja Jaswant Singh). Akbar Il
died in the battle. This gave a serious blow to
Rajput Mughal alliance.
.. Bijapur and Golconda were annexed in
AD 1686 and AD 1687, respectively.
.. Ahoms In 1662, Mir Jumla Aurangzeb's
ablest general led the expedition against
Ahoms.
Religious Policy of Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb was a Sunni orthodox Muslim, who
wanted to convert India from Dar-uJ-Harb to
Dar-uJ-lslam. His religious policy was a
departure from the policy of tolerance and
universal peace followed by Akbar. He replaced
the solar calender by the lunar Hirn, dismissed
court musicians and royal painters, appointed
Muhtasibts (court sensors) from amongst the
Ulema, to enforce sharia't.
Causes of the Fall of
the Mughal Empire
• Weak and incompetent successors .
• Wars of succession.
• Aurangzeb's Deccan. religious and Rajput
policies.
• Jagirdari crisis.
• Growth of Marathas and other regional powers.
• Foreign invasions of Nadir Shah (1739) and
Abdali.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
LATER MUG HALS
Bahad1u-Shah-I (AD 1707-1712)
a Real name is Muazzam, ascended the
M ughal throne with the title Bahadur
Shah. He also assum ed the title Shah
Alam-I.
a Pursued pacifist policy and was therefore ,
known as Shah Bekhabar.
0
He made peace with Guru Gobind Singh
and Chab.-asal. He granted Sar Deshmukhi
to Maratha and released Shahu.
"' Ahmed Shah Abdali raided the
a He forced Ajit Singh of Marwar to submit
but later recognised him as the Rana of
Marwar. He defeated Banda Bahadur at
Lohgar:h.
a He was not able to eliminate Jaziya, but he
supported music.
Jahandar Shah (AD 1712-1713)
" Jahandar Shah won the war of succession
due to the support of Zulfiqar Khan, the
most powerful lranjan noble of the time.
0
He was the first puppet M ugh al emperor.
a Jai Singh of Amber was given the title of
Mirza Raja Sawai and Ajjt Singh was
awarded the title of Maharaja. He
abolished Jaziya.
Farrukhsiyar (AD 1713-1719)
" Ascended the throne ,vi.th the help of
Sayyid brothers (Abdullah Khan and
Husasain Khan ) who were the Wazir and
the Mir Bakshi respectively.
a Zulfiqar Khan was murdered.
a Banda Bahadur was executed at Gurudaspur.
Fanukhsiyar was murdered by the Sayyid
brothers with the help of Marathas, in
AD 1719.
0 Surman Commjssion visited ms court.
Muha1nmad Shah
(AD 1719-1748)
0 Ascended the throne 1,,vith the help of
Sayyid brothers (king makers.). Sayyid
brothers were killed under a conspiracy
hatched by the nobles in 1720.
a Nizam-ul-mulk was appointed as the
Wazir, but he relinquished the post in 1722
and marched tovvards Deccan and found
an autonomous state Hyderabad.
During bis reign, Bengal acquired
virtual independence during the
governersrup of Mw·shid Qu.Jj Khan.
0
Saadat Khan (Burhan-ul-Mulk), who
was appointed as the Governor of
Awadh, laid dovm the foundation of
the autonomous state.
0Nadir Shah invaded Inma in AD 1739
and defeated Muhammad in the battle
of Kamal (1739) and he took away
Takht-i-Taus (Peacock throne) and
the Kohinoor mamond.
kingdom for the first time during his
reign.
0He was a pleasure loving king and was
njcJrnamed Rangeela.
Kohinoor Diamond
Most sources agree that the Kohinoor was
mined at Rayalseema in Andhra Pradesh.
It was first owned by the Kakatiya dynasty.
From then onwards, the stone passed
through the hands of successive rulers of
the Delhi Sultanate, finally passing to Babur
in 1526. ShahJahan had the stone placed
into his ornate Peacock Throne . It was taken
away by Nadir Shah in 1739 along with the
Peacock Throne .
Ahmed Shah (AD 1748-54)
Ahmed Shah Abdah invaded Delru many
times and Purtjab and Multan were
ceded to him.
Alamgir II (AD 1754-1759)
Ahmed Shah Abdali occupied Delhi
dw-ing his reign. He defeated the
Marathas in the Third Battle of Parupat
in 1761. In this battle, Marathas were led
by Sadashiv Rao Bhau, while the Peshwa
at that time was Balaji Bajirao.
Shah Alam-II (1759-1806)
0 He cro1,,vned himself under
Sbujauddaula's protection in Bihar
and remained in exile for 12 years.
0 He fought the Battle of Buxar in
AD 1764 and was defeated by the
British. He lived for several years at
Allahabad as a pensioner of the East
Inma Company.
CD GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• By the Treaty of Allahabad, the emperor Wazir : The Prime Minister.

received the tenitories of Allahabad and
Kara and an annual t1ibute of 26 lakhs
from Bengal.
• By a Jarman, the emperor confirmed the
English gains and granted them the
Diwani of Bengal , Bihar and 01issa.
Akbar-II (AD 1806-37)
• The king gave Raja Rammohan Roy, th e
title of Raja.
• Lord Hastings ceased to accept the
sovereignty of Mughals and claimed the
status of pensioner of the East India
Company.
Bahadur Shah-II (1837-1857)
0
He was the Last Mu gh al Emperor. He was
confined by the British in the Red Fort.
• During the 185 7 sepoy revolt, h e was
proclaimed the emperor of India by the
rebels. He was deported to Rangoon and
died there.
• He used to vv1ite Shairis in the pen-name
of Zafar.
Socio Economic Conditions
o Society Society was st::ratified into several
classes. Both Sati and child marriage
were readily practiced. Purdah system was
in vogue, both among the Hindus and the
Muslims.
• Economy Both trade and commerce
flourished with the European nations .
Cotton, Indigo, Opium and tobacco was
produced. Mughal rulers encouraged
agriculture, indust1ies and crafts.
• Ports Smat, Cambay, Cochin and
Masulipattnam.
Central Ad1ninistration
o Akbai- organised the central machinery of
administration on the basis of the division
of power between vaiious departments
and through checks and balance. The
king was the head of all powers.
• The wakil (deputy of the king) was
stripped off of all his powers after Bairam
Khan's death.
Diwan : His responsibility were in three
fields : Executive, revenue and finance.
0
Mir Bakshi H e was the head of the
military department, similar to that of
Ariz-i-mamalik, under Delhi Sultanate.
0 Mir Saman or Khan Saman Incharge of
the royal households, W<e building,
roads, gardens etc.
o Sadr-us-Sudm· Incharge of religious
matters, religious endavvments and
chaiities.
O Chief Qazi H ead of th e J udiciai-y
department after the king.
0 Barids Intelligence officers.
o Mustauf:i Auditor-General.
Provincial Adininistration
0 Mughal empire was divided into
12 Subas (provinces). After expansion
of the empire, it became 15 duiing
Akbar, 22 dming Shahjal1an and
21 dui-ing Aurangzeb.
Subedar Head of th e province
(governor).
0 Provincial Diwan Dealt with
finance, directly responsible to centrnl
diwan.
District or Sarkar
o Fauzdar Administrative head of the
Sarkar.
0
Amil/ Amalguzar Collecting revenues
and patrolling the roads.
° Kotwal Duty was to maintain law and
order in sarkar besides, trial of criminal
cases and regulations of p1ices.
Pargana or Taluka
0
Siqdar Administrative head of the
Pargana.
0
Amin/Qanungo They were revenue
officials.
Village or Gram
o Lambardar Village Headmen
0
Patwari Village Accountant
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

0
Methods of revenue collection
Mansabdari System
- Rai Yield per unit area.
• Mansabdari system (1595-96) showed a noble's - Kankot Based on estimate.
civil and miltary capacity. In its broad aspect, the - Zabti Based on the yields of crops.
mansab or rank awarded to an individual fixed Jagirdari System In this system ,
both his status in the official hierarchy as well as every Jagirdar was assigned land in
his salary. proportion to hi.s salary.
• Twin ranks Zat and Sawar were alloted. The 0
Ijara System The Government
Zat ir;idicated the noble's personal status and the began contracting the land vvith the
Sawar rank, the actual number of horsemen he middle man, also lmovm as revenue
was expected to maintain. farmers, who were supposed to pay
fixed amount to the government,
Revenue Administration h owever, were left free to collect
whatever they could , from the
a The empire was divided into Khalisa (crovvn
farmers leading to their eA'J)loitation .
land), Jagirs (land granted to nobles) and
lnam or Madad-i-Maash or Suyurghal (land
granted to religious and learned men).
Mughal Paintings
o The Mughals introduced new
0 Dashala System of Raja Todarmal : Under
themes depicting the court, battle
this system the average produce of different
scenes and added new colours
crops at the average price prevailing over the (peacock blue and lndian red).
last IO years were calculated. l/3rd of the 0
Daswant and Basawan were two
average produce was the state's share. For
famous painters of Akbar's court.
the measurement of land, 'Bigha ' was
adopted as the standard unit. o Mugh al painting reached to its
zenith drning Jahangir's rule.
0
Zabti System was based on the Jahangir was a great patron of
measurement and assessment of land. painting.
Mughal Architecture
Ruler Arohiteoture Built
Babur Mosques at Kabuligarh (Panipat) and at Sambhal (Rohilkhand).
Humayun City of Dinpannah , Jamali mosque and mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi .
Haji Begum Humayun Tomb.
(wife of Humayun)
Akbar Agra fort; Jahangiri Mahal in Agra fort based on design of Manmandir;
Lahore Palace, Allahabad fort, temple of Govind-deva at Vrindavana and
several buildings at Fatehpur Sikri that included Panch MahaJ (planned on
Buddhist Vihara) , Diwan-i-khas, Jodhabais' Palace, Diwan-i-Aam, Buland
Darwaja (Iranian style). He began to build his own tomb at Sikandara which
was completed by Jahangir.
Jahangir (lndo- Moti Mosjid at Lahore, own Mausoleum at Shahdara .
Persian style)
Nurjahan ltamaduddaulas marble tomb at Agra in pietra dura technique .
Shahjahan At Agra Taj MahaJ, Moti ki Masjid, Khanas Mahal, Sheesh Mahal,
Musamman Burz (Jasmine Palace where he spent his last years) .
At Delhi Jama Masjid, Red Fort (Diwan-i-Khas and Rang MahaJ).
Others : Shalimar Bagh (Lahore), City of Shahjahandabad (Red Fort and
Taqht-i-Taus i.e. Peace throne), Nahor-i-Faiz.
Aurangzeb Moti Masjid at Delhi , Bibi-ka-Makbara (tomb of his wife Rabbia-ud-Douna) at
Aurangabad, Badshahi mosque at Lahore.
CD GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Mughal Era Painting

Ruler Famous Painters Other Features
Humayun ■ Mir Sayyid Ali
■ Abdus Samad
Akbar ■ Adbus Samad ■ Farrukh Beg Introduction of Persian style
a Khusro kuli ■ Jamshed Daswan illustrated 'Ranna Namah '
■ Basawan (Persian Mahabharat) and
a Daswan Akbamama .
Jahangir a Bishan Das ■ Abdu l Painting reached at rts zenith , use
Hassan of halo (divine light) started.
■ Ustad Mansur (animal
paintings)

Mughal Period Literature

Soholars Works
■ Babur Tuzuk-i-Baburi Qn Turki)
■ Gulbadan Begum Humayun Nama
■ Khan Abdur Rahman Translated Tuzuki-i-Baburi from Turki to Persian during Akbar's
rei n.
■ Abul Fazal Ain-i-Akbari, Akbamama.
■ Abdul Qadir Badauni Kitab-ul-Ahadish, Tarikh-i-Alffi, Muntakhab-ul-T awarikh.
■ Khwa ja Nizamuddin Tabaqat-i-Akbari
■ Jahangir Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri 0n Persian).
■ Hamid Padshah Namaah
■ Khafi Khan Muntakhab-i-Lubab
■ Dara Shikoh Translated Upanishadas and Bhagavada Gita, Safinat-ul-Auliya,
Hasrat-UI-Arifim.
■ Mirza Muhammad Quzim Alamgirnamah
■ lshwar Das Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri
■ Muhammad Salih Shahjahanama

0
Battle of Kannauj He also annexed
SHERSHAH SURI Kannauj after defeating Humayun.
AND AFGHAN 0
Battle of Samet (1544) Defeated
Rajput forces of Marwar.
EMPIRE (1540-55) 0 The campaign of Bundelkhand was the
a His real name was Farid. last campaign of his life. While
0
He was born to Hasan , a Jagirdar of besieging its fort at Kalinjar, Sher Shah
Sasha.ram and Hajipm. got burned due to fire in the bundle of
rockets in 1545.
0 He joined Babar Khan Loh anis service
and then appointed as th e Deputy
Governor of Bihar.
Adininistration
0 He usurped the throne as For administrative convenience,
'Hazarat-i-Ala '. Shershah divided his whole empire into
47 divisions called Sarkars and further
He gained Chuna.r by marrying Lad into smaller Parganas.
Malika, the widow of Governor ofChunar.
Pargana, composed of number of
0
Battle of Chausa In 1539, he captured
villages and was under the charge of
Chausa from Humayun. He assumed the Shiqdar, who looked after the law, the
title of Shershah as emperor.
order and general administration of the
0
He also issued coins and Khutba was read Pargana. The Amil or Munsif looked
in hjs name. The whole area from Bengal after the collection of land revenue in
to Bana.ras was under his empire. the Pargana.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Aministrativc UniL Bead Others

• /qta (Province) Amin and Haqim 0
Shershab introduced a regular postal
• Sarkar (District) Shiqdar-i-shiqdaran and service.
Munsif-i-Munsifan a He inn·oduced silver rupiya.
• Pargana (Taluka) Shiqdar and Munsif 0
He promoted trade and commerce by
• Gram (Village) Amil and Muqaddam reducing the number of customs duty at
collection points.
a Civil cases of the pargana was headed by Shershah improved the n·ansportation
Amin and criminal cases by a Qazi or by building roads. The roads built by
Mini-i-Adal. Sher Shah were termed as 'the arteries
0
He inb.·oduced the principle of local of the empire'. Sa.rais were built on the
responsibility for local crimes. road. He restored the old imperial road
Grand Trunk from Sonargaon in Bengal
Revenue System to Peshawar.
Land was measured using the o He built Pnrana Qila, alongwith
Sikanda.ri-gaz ; one-third of the average Grand-Trunk. He also built his tomb at
produce was fixed as tax. Sasaram in Bihar.
The peasant was given a Patta and 0
Malik-Muhammad Jayasi vvrote
Qaboliyat, which fixed the peasants Padmavat (Hindi) dming his reign.
tights and taxes. 0
Ta.rikh-i-Shershabi was vvritten by
0
Zamindars, were removed and taxes Abbas Khan Sarwani, his court historian.
were directly collected.

I THE MARATHAAGE I

Sbivaji (1674-80) a Later, Shaista Khan, a Governor of

" Shivaji belonged to the Bhonsle Clan of
Marathas. Shivaji's father Shahji
Bhonsle was a military commander
under Nizam Sha.hi ruler of
Ahmednagar.
a Shivaji was born to Jijabai in the hill
fortress of Shivner. Shivaji's early career
and life was influenced by Jijabai, his
mother, Dadaji Kondadev, the manager
of his father's Jagir and Guru Ramdas,
his spilitual teacher.
0
Dadaji Kondadev gave him training in
civil and military adminisb.·ation.
0
Before that, in 1646, he conquered the
fort of Toma and built forts at Raigarh
and Pratapgarh. 1n 1647, he assumed
full charge of his]agir.
11 1n 1659, Shivaji killed Afzal Khan,
Ambassador of Ali Adil Shah (Sultan of
Bijapur), in a meeting with his tiger
paws. The Sultan then acknowledged the
independent status of Shivaji.
Deccan, was deputed by Aurangzeb to
put down the rising power of Shivaji in
1660. Shivaji lost Poona and suffered
several defeats, till he made a bold attack
on Shaista's military camp at night and
plundered Surat and later Ahmednagar.
.. Raja Jai Singh of Amber was then
appointed by Amangzeb to put dovvn
Shivaji (1665) and Jai Singh succeeded
in besieging Shivaji in the fort of
Purandhar. Consequently, the Treaty of
Purandhar (1665) was signed according
to which, Shivaji ceded some forts to the
MughaJs and paid a visit to the Mughal
court at Agra. Shivaji also agreed to help
MughaJs in theiJ· attack on Bijapur.
c Shivaji visited Agra with his son
Shambhaji in 1666. He was put on house
arrest but escaped from there.
" He, very soon, conquered the forts
which he had surrendered to the
MughaJs. He defeated the Mughal forces
in the Battle of Sather in 1672.
CD GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

He was crovmed in 167 4 at Raigarb and

MARATHASAFTER
11

assumed the title of Haindava

Dharmodharak (protector of Hinduism)
and Chhatrapati. He became the sovereign
ruler of Maharashtra. He died in 1680.
Shivaji's Administration
SHIVAJI
" There was a dispute of succession
between Sambhaji and Rajaram.
Son of Shivaji, Sambhaji (1680-89)
0

" Shivaji divided the tenitories under his rule succeeded the throne. He was an
into three provinces (prants), each under a incapable ruler and poor diplomat.
Viceroy. Provinces vvere divided into Frants, " Prince Akbar, the rebellious son of
which were subdivided into Parganas or Aurangzeb took shelter with him.
Tarafs. The lowest unit was village, headed Sambhaji was executed by Aurangzeb
by a headman or patel. and his infant son, Shahu, was tal<en
11Shivaji was helped by Ashtapradhan (eight captive by Aurangzeb. Sambhaji was
ministers), which was w1like a Council of succeeded by Rajaram in 1689.
Ministers, for there was no collective o Rajaram (1689-1700) was killed in
responsibility. Each minister was directly 1700 by Aurangzeb. His widow
responsible to Shivaji. Tarabai put her infant son, Shivaji TI,
" His administrative reforms were guided by on the throne. Rajaram created the
Malik Amber of Ahmednagar. new Ministerial post of Pratinidhi.
Thus, total number of ministers
Sbivaji's Revenue became nine.
" After Aurangzeb 's death in 1707,
Administration Shahu, the grandson of Shivaji and
0
Assessment of land revenue was based on son of Sambh aji was released by
measurement. The Kathi of Amber was Bahadur Sh ah. He claimed the
adopted as the unit of measmement. throne and this led to a civil war
" Chauth was one-fourth of the land revenue between Shahu and Tarabai. Shahu
paid to the Marathas so as not to be emerged victorious in the Battle of
subjected to Maratha 's raid . Khed, with the h elp of Balaji
" Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10 Vishwanath. After this, Shahu ruled
per cent (I/10th) on those lands of from Satara and Ta.rabai from
Maharashtra, over which the Marathas Kolhaptu-. From now onwards, the
claimed hereditary right, but which formed rule of Peshwa started. They became
part of the Mughal empire. virtual rulers of the state.

Shivaji's Ashtapradhan
Ashtapradhan Department
Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan) Prime Minister, Finance
Sar-i-Naubat/Senapati Military Commander
Majumdar or Amatya Accountant General
(revenue and finance minister during the Pesh was)
Waqenavis/Mantri Intelligence, posts and household aHairs
Surunavis or Sachiv Minister for Correspondence
Dabir or Sumanta Foreign Minister and Minister of royal ceremonies
Nyayadhish Administration of Justice
Pandit Rao Charity and religious aHairs
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

THEPESHWAS Balaji Baji Rao

(AD 1713-1818) (Nana Sahib) (1740-1761)
" In an agreement with the Mughal emperor
Balaji Viswanatb (Ahmed Shah), the Peshwa agreed to protect
(1713-1720) the Mughal empire from internal and
external enemies in retw-□ for the chaut/z.
" He excelled in diplomacy and won
over many Maratha chiefs to the side
" In the Thfrd Battle of Panipat in 1761 ,
between Maratha and Ahmed Shah Abdali,
of Shahu. Shahu honoured him with
Visvvas Rao, the son of Nana Sahib rued .
title of 'Sena Karte' in 1708, and
made him his Peshwa in 1713. The
Peshwa concenti-ated all the powers
Pesbwa Madhav Rao I
in his office. He became the (1761-1762)
functional head of the Maratha o Balaj.i Baj.i Rao was sucoeded by his younger
empire. son Mad.hav Rao I. Raghunath Rao, the
0
He concluded an agreement with the eldest surviving member of Peshwa famil y,
Sayyid brothers, by which th e became regent to the young Peshwa and
Mughal emperor (Farrukhsiyar) de-facto ruler of the state.
recognised Shahu as the king of " After the death of Madhav Rao , Peshwaship
Swarajya. had lost its all power.
He also helped Sayyid brothers in
over thrO\ving Farrukhsiyar. LATERPESHWAS
Baji Rao (1720-1740) a Narayan Rao (1772-73)
" He was a bold and brilliant " Sawai Madhav Rao (1773-96)
commander and was considered the O
Baji Rao II (1796-1818)
greatest eA'}Jonent in guerilla tactics
after Shivaji. Maratha power reached Anglo Maratha Wars
its zenith under him. " 1st Anglo Ma.ratha war (1775-82)
0 Under his leadership, th e Marathas • Imp treaties - convention of Wadgaon
compelled the Mughals first to give (1779) and treaty of Salbai (1782).
them the right to collect chauth of " 2nd Anglo Maratha War (1803-06)
the vast areas and then to cede those u began when Maratha Peshwa signed
areas to the Ma.ratha kingdom. subsicUary Alliance Treaty of Bassein.
0
He conquered Salsettle and Bassin a Mara th a army defeated by British.

from Portuguese in 1733. He also
defeated the Nizam-ul-MuJk near
Bhopal and concluded the treaty of
Durai Sarai, via which he got Malwa
and Bundelkhand (1737).
" 3rd Anglo Ma.ratha war (1817-18)
• Lord Hastings declared war against
Pindaries the mercenai-y of world that
Marathas decisively defeated.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
I MODERN INDIA
ADVENT OF THE
EUROPEANS
Portuguese
0 The Cape Route from Europe to India was
discovered by Vasco da Gama. He reached
Port of Calicut via Cape of Good Hope
(Africa) on 17th May, 1498 and was received
by the Hindu rulerof Calicut, Zamorin. This
led to the establishment of trading stations
at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore.
° Cochin (1502) was the initial capital of th e
Portuguese in India , later on replaced by
Goa.
0 The £int Governor of Portuguese in India
was Francisco Almeida (1505-09). He
introduced 'The Policy of Blue Water'.
0 Alfonso d' Albuquerque arrived in India in
1503 and became Governor of the
Portuguese in India in 1509. He captured
Goa from the ruler of Bijapur in 1510
and inn-oduced the policy of Imperialism.
0 Nino-da-Cunha (1529-1538) transferred
the capital from Cochin to Goa in 1530. He
acquired Diu and Bassein from Bahadur
Shah of Gujarat (1534).
0 Portuguese acquired Daman in 1569. They
lost Hugly in 1631, during the reign of Shah
J ahan.
0
In 166 1, the Portuguese king gave Bombay
to Charles ll of England as dO\,vry, for
marrying hfa sister.
° First Portuguese factory was establish ed at
Calicut.
0 The famous J esuit Saint, Francisco Xavier
arrived in India with Martin Alfonso de
Souza (1542-45).
0
Gradually, almost all of th eir teni tmies were
lost to Marathas (Salsette and Bassein in
1739), Dutch and English. Only Goa , Diu
and Daman remained \vith them until 196 1.
Dutch
The Dutch East India Company establi she d
factories in India at Masulipatnam in 1605,
Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Bimlipatam
(1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsura ,
Kasimbazar, Patna , Bala.sore, Nagapatam
and Cochin .
I
., They replaced the Portuguese as the
most dominant power in European
trade vvith East.
., Pulicat was their main centre in India
till Nagapatam replaced it in 1690.
0
The Dutch conceded to B1itish after
th eir defeat in the Battle of Bedera
in 1759.
English
0 Before the establishm ent of the East
India Company, John MHdenhaU, an
English merchant came to India over
land route to trade with Indjan
merchants in 1599.
0
The English East India Company was
formed by a group of merchants in
1599 knavvn as Merchant
Adventures.
o Jahangir issued a Jarman to Captain
Hawkins (1609) permitting him to
establish a factory at Surat.
0 Sir Thomas Roe visited Jahangir's
court (1615) as an ambassador of
king James I to seek permission to
trade in India.
° First factory was bw]t at Surat
(1608). Surat was replaced by
Bombay acquired from Charles-IT on
lease as the headquarters on the
\i\fest coast in 168 7.
0
In 1639, obtained Madras from Raja
of Chandrag:i.ri vvith permission to
bwJd a fortified factory, which was
named Fort St George.
0 In 1690, Job Chamock, established a
factory at Sutanati and the
Zamindari of three villages Sutanati,
Kalikata and Govindpur were
acquired by the British (1698). These
thi-ee villages grew as city of Calcutta.
., The factory at Sutanati was fortified
and named Fort William in 1700.
0 In 1717, John Surman obtained royal
Jarman from Mughal emperor
Farrukhsiyar. This Jarman is also
called the Magna Carta of the British
rule in India as it gave large
concessions to the company.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
Danes
a The Danes arrived in India in 16 16.
They established settlement
Tranqoeber (Tamil Nadu) in 1620 and
Serampore (Bengal) in 1676.
Serampore was their headquarters.
0
They were forced to sell their
settlements to the British in 1854.
French
0 The French East India Company
was formed in 1664 by Colbert under
state patronage during the reign of Louis
XIV.
I INDEPENDENT STATES
HYDERABAD
a Founded by Nizam-uJ-Mulk Asaf Jahan
in AD 1724. His original name was Chin
Qilich Khan but emperor Farrukhsiyar
conferred on him the titles of
'Khan-i-Duran' and later
'Nizam-ul-Mul/e' .
0
Pu ran Chand was his di wan.
° Carnatic was one of the Su bah of Deccan
h ence, it was under Nizam of
Hyderabad.
11
Nizam of Hyderabad becan1e
independent of Delhi and deputy
Governor of Carnatic made himself
independent of Hyderabad, hence
assumed the title 'Nawab of Carnatic' .
0
Saadautullah Khan of Carnatic made his
nephew Dost Ali as his successor at
Carnatic without the approval of Nizam.
This caused rivah-y between Carnatic
and Hyderabad.
11Hyderabad remained independent un til
it became a part of Independent India.
The Nizam provided assistance to th e
British dming tl1e 1857 Revolt.
AWADH
11 Founded by Saadat Khan
Bw·han-nJ-Mnlk. Emperor Mul1ammad
Shah appointed him as Governor of
Awadh in AD 1722.
11 Committed suicide in 1 739 and was
succeeded by bis nephew Safdar Jung.
0
The first French factory was established
at Surat by Francois Caron in 1668 and
second at Masulipatnam in 1669.
at
0
They occupied Mahe, Yanam and
KaraikaJ.
0
The foundation of Pondicherry was laid
in 1673, which aftenvards became their
capital. They also developed a factory at
Chandernagar.
0 The Governors, Lenoir and Dumas
revived the French power in lndfa
between 1720-42 and the Anglo-French
conflict started with the arrival of
Governor Duplei.x in 1742.
I
0
The highest post of his government was
h eld by Maharaja Nawab Rai. This shows
his religious tolerance towards the
Hindus.
MYSORE
0 Haider Ali ( 1761-82) started his career
as a soldier in Mysore state, promoted to
Commander-in-Chief and later to
Faujadar at Dindigul.
0 In 176 1, he overthrew Nanjaraj a and
established his authority over Mysore.
He established a Modem Arsenal in
Dindigu].
0
In 1769, h e repeatedly defeated t he
British in First Anglo-Mysore War and
reached the walls of Madras. He died in
1782 during Second Anglo-Mysore
War.
0 Tipu Sultan (1782-99) succeeded Haider
Ali. He planted the Tree of Liberty at
Srirangapatnam and became a member
of the Jacobian Club.
0
He died in 1799, fighting at the gates of
Srirangapatnam during the 4th Anglo-
Mysore War.
0
He was tolerant and enlightened in his
approach towards other religions. He
gave money for the construction of
image of Goddess Sarcia on the
Shrinageri temple. The famous temple
of Sri Rangnath was situated barely a
h undred yards from his palace. He
assumed the title of Padshah in 1797.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
BENGAL
a Mtushld Quli Khan (1717-27) He was
made Governor of Bengal (1717) and
Orissa (1719). He transferred capital of
Bengal from Dacca to Murshidabad. He
died in 1727.
0
Shuja-ud-clin (1727-39) He was
granted Governorship of Bihar by
Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah
Rangeela.
a Sarfaraz Khan (1739-40) Alivardi Khan
deposed and killed Shuja-ud- din's son,
Sarfaraz Khan and made himself
Nawab.
a Alivarcli Khan (l 746) Bribed
Muhammad Shah Rangeela and
legalised his position by receiving a
Jarman from him. He prevented the
English and French forti£cations at
Calcutta and Chandranagar
respectively.
Shiraj-ud-Daula (1756-57)
0 Under the farnzan of 1717, the
Company had rights to import or export
their goods in Bengal without paying tax
and right to issue passes or dastaks.
Dastaks were misused for private trade
by Company's servants.
1n 1756, Siraj-ud-Daula seized the
English factory at Kasimbazar and
marched to Calcutta and occupied Fort
William. Black hole ti·agedy took place.
Robert Clive recovered Calcutta and
Treaty of Alinagar was signed on 2nd
January, 1757.
a Battle of Plassey On 23rd June, 1757,
English won the battle against
Siraj-ud-daula, and compelled the
Nawab to concede all the demands.
a Mir Jafar, (Mir Balehsh), Manik Chand
(Officer incharge of Calcutta),
Aminchand (rich Sikh merchant), Jagat
Seth (banker), Khadirn Khan
(Commander of Nawab's army) all were
on the English side.
a Mir Madan and Mohan Lal, Nawab's
soldiers, fought bravely.
a Nawab ·was killed by Mir J afar's son
Miran.
Mir Jafar (1757-60)
0 Mir ]afar was the first Nawab of Bengal,
Bi.bar and Orissa under the British ruJe
in India.
0 He granted free trade right to the
Company in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
0
1n 1760, Mir ]afar was replaced by his
son-in-law, Mir Qasim.
Mir Qasim (1760-64)
0 Mir Qasim ceded Burdwan, Midnapur
and Chittagong. He shifted his capital
from Murshidabad to Monghyr.
0
Mir Qasim soon revolt ed as he was angry
with the British for misusing dastaks
(free duty passes).
0 Battle of Buxar He formed an alliance
with Nawab of Awadb, Shuja-ud-daula
and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam-II and
fought with the British army at Buxar on
22nd October, 1764. Mir ]afar was again
put on the throne by the Britishers.
0
On Mir Jafar's death, bis son
Nizam-ud-daula was placed on the
throne and he signed a u-eaty on 20th
February, 1765, by which the Nawab had
to disband most of his army and to
administer Bengal through a deputy
subedar nominated by the company.
0
Robert Clive became the first Governor of
Bengal in 1765.
0 After the Battle of Buxar, the Company
gave Shah Alam-II a subsidary of ~ 26
lakh and secured Diwani of Arrah and
Allahabad.
0
The important outcome is the Treaty of
AJlahabad.
Treaty of Allahabad
(August, 1765)
0
English got the Diwani rights (right to
collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa) and gave 26 lakhs.
0 The Dual Government of Bengal was
established in 1765, wherein the
company got the right to collect revenue
but the Nizamat right (duty of
administration) was \'Vith the Nawab.
0
Warren Hastings ended the Dual
System of Government in 1772.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
ASCENDANCY OF
THE BRITISH
Carnatic Wars
First War (AD 1746-48)
" A war between France and England.
0
Navvab of Carnatic 's army was
defeated by French under Dupleix,
in the Battle at St Thome. Third War (1789-92)
Afterwards, the French besieged " Marathas and Nizam aided the British , Lord
Madras.
0
The war ended with Treaty of
Aix-la-Chapelle (17 48), which also
ended the Austrian war of
succession.
Second War (AD 1749-54)
0 Dupleix alligned with Muzaffar Jung " Tipu used the iron (-) cased rockets in the
(Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib
(Carnatic).
0 After initial victory of the French,
ultimately Robert Clive emerged
victorious.
0 War ended vvith Treaty of
Poncticherry/ Treaty of Godehu.
The Siege of Arcot ( 1751) made
Clive a national hero in England .
Third War (AD 1758-63)
° French Governor Count de Lally
captured Fort St David.
° French were defeated by British in
the decisive Battle at Wanctiwash in
AD 1760. Pondicherry was returned
to France by Treaty of Paris.
0 Local version of "seven years war" in
Europe.
Anglo-Mysore Wars
FirstWar(l766-69)
Haider Ali defeated the British , Treaty
of Madras signed.
Second War (1780-84)
Warren Hastings attacked French port Mabe ,
0
which was in Haider Ali's territory. Haider
Ali led a joint front with Nizam and Maratha
and captured Arcot. 1n 1781, Haider Ali was
defeated at Porto Novo by Eyre Coote.
0
Treaty of Mangalore (1784) was signed by
Tipu Sultan on the basis of all mutual
restitution of conquests.
Cornwallis captured Bangalore.
Treaty of Seringapatnam signed; Tipu
O
ceded half of his tenit01ies.
Fourth War (1799)
Lord Wellesley attacked, Tip u died while
0
fighting.
3rd and 4th Anglo- Mysore Wars.
., It placed England on the military supremacy
in India.
Anglo-Maratba Wars
First War (1775-82)
" English favoured Ragbunath Rao to become
the Peshwa but were defeated and signed the
Convention of Wadgaon.
0
British later signed Treaty of Salbai
renouncing the cause of Raghunath Rao .
Second War (1803-06)
The Peshvvas signed the Treaty of Bassein
(1802), which was a o.·eaty for subsidiary
alliances.
Third War (1817-19)
Lord Hastings moved against Marathas and
Marathas were decisively defeated.
Anglo-Sikh Wars
Began after the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History
The Sikhs (Punjab)
• Guru Nanak (1469-1539) Born in Talwandi, the
first Sikh guru and established Nanak Pa nth.
• Guru Angad (1539-52) Invented Gurumukhi
script for Punjabi language.
• Guru Amardas (1552-74) Divided his spiritua l
empire into 22 parts called Manjis, which was
put under the charge of a Sikh. Mughal Emperor
Akbar visited him .
• Guru Ramdas (1575-81) Founded the city of
Amritsar. He dug a tank (sarovar) and
constructed Harmandir Sahib in the midst of
the tank.
• Guru Arjun Dev (1581-1606) He compiled the
Adi Granth. Completed the construction of
Amritsar and founded the cities of Taran and
Kartarpur. He was executed by Jahangir.
• Guru Har Govind Rai (1606-45) Transformed
Sikhs into warrior class and defeated Mugha l
army at Sangrama. Fortified Amritsar and built
Akal Takhqt at Golden Temple. Took the title of
'Padshah' and founded the city of Kiratpur in
Kashmir.
• Guru Har Rai (AD 1645-61)He met Dara Shikoh,
son of Aurangzeb.
• Guru Har Kishan (1661-64) Ramraya
established separate seat of Guru at Dehradun.
• Guru Teg Bahadur (1664--75) Executed by
Aurangzeb at Delhi. Sis Ganj Gurudwara marks
the site of his martyrdom.
• Guru Gobind Singh (1675-1708) (born in
Patna) He was Tenth and the last Sikh Guru. He
organised a community of warriors cal led
Khalsa (Baisakhi Day, 1699). summoned the
assembly of Sikhs at Anantpur and 5 persons
were selected (Panj Piaras), who took the water
of immortalrty.
• The Sikhs were required to keep 5 k's viz Kesh,
Kripan, Kachcha, Kangha and Kara. He compiled
Dasween Padshah ka Granth. He was
stabbed to death by a Pathan in 1708.
• Maharaja Ranjeet Singh (1792-1839) Born in
1780 at Gujranwala, he founded the Sikh ru le in
Punjab. He occupied Lahore in 1799 and made it
his capital. He annexed Amritsar (1802),
Ludhiana, Kangra, Multan, attacked Kashmir and
Peshawar. He died in 1839.
• Successors of Ranjit Singh Kharak Singh
(1839-40), Naunihal Singh (1840). Sher Singh
(1841-43), Dalip Singh (1843-48).
First War (1845-46)
Sikh were defeated, 'Treaty of Lahore'
ended the war.
Second War (1948-49)
Dalhousie annexed Punjab. Sir John
Lawrence became the first
Commissioner of Punjab.
Anglo-Burmese Wars
Burma was united by king AJoung Paya
between 1752-60. His successor
Bodopaya repelled many Chinese
invasions and conquered the states of
Arakan and Manipur (1813).
First War (1824)
In 1824 , British Indian authority
declared war on Burma and occupied
Rangoon and reached the capital Ava ,
peace came in 1826 by Treaty of
Yandabo.
Second War (1852)
Annexation of Pegu, the capital province
only remained free.
Third War (1885)
British attacked over Burma and
Tbibaw surrendered. In 1935, Burma
was separated from India. Movement of
Burma reached a new height under
leadership of U Aung San and Burma
got independence.
Anglo-Afghan Wars
First War (1839-42) or
Auckland's Folly
0
In 1839, British replaced Dost
Muhammad by placing Shah Shuja.
British faced a popuJar revolt but were
able to re-occupy Kabul. However,
th ey had to restore the throne to Dost
Muhammad . British occupied KabuJ
in 1842.
Second War (1878-80)
0
British India attacked Afghanistan
during period of Sher Ali. Sher Ali was
defeated by Lord Lytton and his sons
signed the Treaty of Gandamak
(Yakub Khan).
0 British adopted th e principle of
non-interference.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
Third War
a Dui-and line \vas reaffirmed between
British India and Afghanistan .
a Treaty of Rawalpincli was signed.
a Afghan independence with full
sovereignity in Foreign Affairs.
ECONOMIC AND
COMMERCIAL
POLICY
The 'gradual development of Economk
and CommericaJ Policy has been a-aced
through three stages of British
colonialism by RP Dutta.
Phases of Economic Policy
Early Phase (1600-1757)
The East India Company was pmely a
n-ading company, dealing ,vith in1port of
goods and precious metals into lndfa and
export of spices and te)(tiles.
Mercantile Phase (1757-1813)
They imposed their 01,,vn prices and had
no relation vvith the cost of production.
The Company used its political power and
monopolised n-ade and dktated terms to
the weavers of Bengal . The Company
used revenue of Bengal to finance e>-.--ports
of Indian goods.
Industrial Phase (1813-1858)
The British mercantile industrial
capitalist class e>,._rploited India. Charter
Act of 1813, allowed 'one way free n-ade '
for B1itish citizens resulting in Indian
markets flooded with cheap and machine
made imported goods from Britain.
Indians not only lost their foreign markets
but their Indian markets also.
Finance hnperialis1n
(1858 Onwards)
This phase saw e>,._rport of capital from
India and also chains of British conn-oiled
banks, export in1port firms and managing
agency houses. Exploitation through
railways is the best example of finance
Impe1ialism.
Drain ofWealtb Theory
0
"Drain of Wealth" refers to a portion of
National Product of India, which was not
available for consumption of its ovvn
people.
0
Dadabhai Naoroji first cited the drain of
wealth theory in bis book titled Poverty
and Un-British RuJe in India.
0
RC Dutt blamed the British policy for
Indian economic ills in his book Economic
llistory of India_
a Drain of wealth began in 1757 after Battle
of Plassey. In 1765, the company acquired
the diwani of Bengal and began the
purchase of Indian goods out of the
revenue of Bengal and e>,._rported them.
These purchases were knovvn as
Company 's investments.
LAND REVENUE
SYSTEMS
Permanent Settlement
a Inb.·oduced in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa,
distiicts of Banaras and Northern
distiicts of Madras by Lord Cornwallis in
1793.
.. John Shore planned this settlement.
" Assured of their 01,,vnership, many
zamindars stayed in t01,,vns and exploited
their tenants.
a It declared zamindars as the O\vners of the
land. Hence, they could keep 1/11 th of the
revenue collected to themselves while the
British got a fixed share of 10/11 th of the
revenue collected. The zamindars were
free to fix the rate .
Ryotwari Settlement
.. l nb.·oduced in Bombay, Madras and
Assam. Munro and Charles Reed
recommended it.
1n this, the direct settlement was made
0
between the Government and the Ryots.
a The revenue was based on the basis of the
quality of the soil and the nature of the
crop. The revenue was fixed for a period
not exceeding 30 years . It was based on
the 'Scienti£c Rent Theory of Ricardo.'
0
The position of the cultivator became
more secure.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
Mahalwari System
0 Introduced in the area of Ganga
valley, North-West Frontier Provinces
parts of Central lnclia and Punjab.
0
Revenue Settlement was to be made
by village or estates vvith landlords.
I REVOLTOF1857
CAUSES OF THE
REVOLT
0
Political Nana Sahib was refused
pension as he was the adopted son of
Peshwa Baji Rao-TI to lead the revolt at
Kanpw-.
0
Awadh (Luclrnow) was annexed
in 1856, on charge of
maladministration and Jhansi was
annexed owing to the Doctrine of
Lapse.
Milita1y Discrimination
Indian soldiers were paid low salaiies,
they could not rise above the rank of
Subedar and were racially insulted.
Religious Discriinination
The social reforms by British was against
the people's vvill (vvidow remarriage,
abolition of s.ati, school for girls,
Christian missionaiies etc). Soldiers
were asked to use the Enfield Rifles with
greased (by pork or beef) cartridges.
Economic Grievances
Heavy taxations, disc1iminatory tariff
policy; destruction of traditional
handicrafts that hH peasants, artisans
and small zamindars.
Outbreak of the Revolt
0 Bengal Resentment in which 19
native infanhies of Behrampur,
refused to use the newly introduced
Enfield Rifle.
a Mangal Pandey 34th native infantry
fired at the sergeant major of his
regiment. Knovm as a part of Mutiny of
Barra c k.rp ur.
A settlement was made with the village,
which maintained a form of common
ovvnership known as Bhaichara or with
Mahals, which were group of villages.
Revenue was periodically revised.
I
., Mangal Pandey was hanged.
., On 10th May, 1857, the sepoys at Meerut
refused to use Enfiled Rifles and revolted.
The mutiny spread throughout Uttar
Pradesh and sepoys moved to Delhi crying
March to Deihl.
0At Delhi, Bahadw- Shah Il was
declared 'Shahenshah-i-Hindustan.'
0Where the rulers were loyal to the British ,
the soldiers revolted as in Gwalior and
Indore. In some places, people revolted
before the sepoys.
"' In the beginning, the rebels were
successful Eurnpeans were killed, police
stations and law courts were attacked and
revenue records were destroyed. But, the
revolt was soon suppressed.
Centres of Revolt and
their Leaders
• Delhi Bahadur Shah II, General Bakht Khan
• Kanpur Nana Sahib/Dhondhu Pant (adopted
son of Baji Rao-ll)Tantia Tope, Azimullah khan
• Jhansi Rani Lakshmi Bai
• Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal, her son Birjis
Qadir.
• Faizabad Maulavi Ahamdullah
• Bareilley Khan Bahadur Khan
• Bihar (Arrah) Kunwar Singh, Zamindar of
Jagdishpur.
Suppression of the Revolt
0 John Lawrence remarked, "Had a single
leader of ability ai·isen among them we
must have been lost beyond redemption."
Delhi was captured on 20th September,
1857 by John Nicholson and Bahadur
Shah II was deported to Rangoon, where
he died in 1862. His sons were shot dead at
Delhi.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

" J hansi was capturnd by Hugh Rose on 17th ., T he military equipments ofrebels were
J une , 1858. Rani Lakshmi Bai died in the inferior.
battle field. 0 T he most signi£ cant featme of the
a Luclmow was recaptured on revolt was the exhibition of
21st March, 1858 by Colin Campbell, llindu-Mushm Unity.
Havelock and Outram. ° Concentrated on the North e rn part of
0
Nana Sahjb and Haz:rat MahaJ both Inrna.
escaped to Nepal.
0 William Taylor and Edgre suppressed the Impacts of the Revolt
revolt at Arrah. Tantia Tope was betrayed o In August 1858, the British Parliament
by a friend. He was captured and executed passed an Act, which put an end to the
on 15th April, 1859. rule of the Company. The
responsibility of the adminish-ation of
Ran i Lakshmi Bai British Inrna passed into the hands of
the British Queen and the Parliament.
Rani Lakshmi Bai, nicknamed Manu, was married
to Raja Gangadhar Rao in 1842. The couple ., An office of the Secretary of State for
adopted a child in 1853 but Lord Dalhousie Inrna with a 15 members' council was
wished to annex Jhansi under the Doctrine of constituted for the admrnjstration of
Lapse. Rani did not surrender and died fighting at Inrna.
Kalpi near Jhansi during the Revolt of 1857. o The designation of the Governor-
General was changed to Viceroy, who
was to act as a representative.
Causes Behind the Failure of ., 'Docn-ine of Lapse' was withdrawn.
the Revolt Princely states were assured against
0 Lack of uruty and poor organisation of the annexation.
revolt. All the classes of the society were 0
T he British pmsued the divide and
not effected or participated in the revolt. rule policy.
0
Lack of common motive for participating 0
Increase in th e nun1ber of white
in the revolt. Some of the rulers like soldiers in the army.
Scindhias, Nizam and Holkars h elped 0
TotaJ expense of the suppression was
Britishers in reppressing the revolt. borne by the Inrnans.

Opinions on the Nature of the 1857 Revolt

Opinion-Maker Nature of Revolt
Sir John Seeley Wholly unpatriotic and selfish sepoy mutiny with no native leadership
TR Holmes A conflict between civilsation and barbarism
Outram and Taylor A Hindu-Muslim conspiracy
VD Savarl<ar Indian War of Independence
Bipin Chandra The entire movement lacked a unified and forward looking programme
to be implemented after the capture of power
SN Sen What began as a fight for religion ended as a war of independence
Benjamin Disraeli Is it a military mutiny or is it a national revolt?

Dr RC Majumdar The so called First NationaJ War of Independence 1857, is neither First,
nor National, nor War of Independence

Malleson Sepoy Mutiny

 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
I GOVERNOR-GENERALS OF BENGAL
Warren Hastings (1772-85)
0 He became Governor of Bengal in 1 772
and first Governor-General of Bengal in
1774, through the Regulating Act of 1773.
0
He abolished the dual system of
adminj stration.
0 Divided Bengal into distiicts and
appointed collectors and other revenu e
officials.
0 Established India 's first Supreme Court
in Calcutta.
0
He founded Asiatic Society of Bengal
with William Jones in 1784 and wrnte
introduction to the first English
translation of the Gita by Charles
Wilkins.
a Started Diwani and Faujdari adalats
and the distiict level Sadar diwani and
Nizmat adalats (appellate courts).
0
He redefined Hindu and Muslim laws. A
translation of code in Sansk:iit appeared
under the title 'Code of Gentoo laws'.
° First Anglo-Maratha War occurred
during his pe1iod, which ended vvith
Treaty of Salbai (1776-82).
0
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84),
ended v,rith Treaty of Mangalore.
0 Rohilla War in 1774.
a Pitts India Act, 1784 and Edmun d
Burke Bill, 1783 was passed.
0 Deprived zamindar of their judicial
powers. Maintenance of records was
made compulsory.
0 impeachment proceedings started
against him in Britain on the charges of
taking bribes . After a bial of 7 years, he
was finally acquitted.
Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)
0 First person to codify laws (1793). The
code separated the revenu e
administration from the administi·ation
of justice.
0
He introduced Jzaredari System in
1773.
0
He started the Permanent Settlement
of Bengal.
0
He created the post of District Judge.
He is knovvn as Father of Civil Services
in India.
I
a Third Anglo-Mysore War and the Treaty
of Seringapatnam.
" He undertook police reforms.
0
Reform of the Judiciary (1793) setting up
courts at different levels and separation of
revenue administration from Judicial
administi·ation.
Sir John Shore (1793-1798)
" He played an important role in planning
the Permanent Settlement.
.. He introduced Fin;t Charter Act (1793).
.. He was famous for his policy of
non-intetference.
" Battle of Kharla between Nizam and
Marathas (1759).
Lord Wellesley (1798-1803)
" Introduced the system of Subsidiary
.Alliance. Madras presidency was formed
during his tenure.
" 1n Fow·th Anglo-Mysore War 1799, Tipu
Sultan died.
" First subsidiary treaty v,ri th Nizam of
Hyderabad.
" Second Anglo-Maratha War.
a ln 1800, he set-up Fort William College
in Calcutta . He was famous as Bengal
Tiger. He brought the Censorship of Press
Act, 1799.
Subsidiary Alliance
• The subsidiary alliance system was used by
Wellesley to bring Indian states within the
orbit of British political power.
• Under this system, the ru ler of the allying
Indian state was compelled to accept the
Permanent Stationing of a British force within
his territory and to pay a subsidy for its
maintenance . British promised that they will
not interfere in the internal affairs but this was
a promise they seldom kept.
• It disarmed the Indian states and threw British
protectorate over them.
• First to accept subsidiary alliance was Nizam
of Hyderabad 1798, the second was the
Nawab of Awadh, 1801.
• The Peshwa, the Bhonsle. the Scindhia and
Rajputs of Jodhpur, Jaipur accepted the
subsidiary alliance.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
Sir George Barlow (1805-07)
0
Vellore mutiny (1806, by soldiers).
o Second Anglo-Maratha War ended.
Lord Minto I (1807-1813)
" Treaty of Amritsar (l 809) with Ranjit
Singh.
0 The Charter Act of 1813 ended the
monopoly of East India Company in India .
Lord Hastings (1813-23)
" Adopted the policy of intervention and
war.
0
Anglo-Nepal War (1813-23).
• Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-18).
I GOVERNOR-GENERALS
Lord William Bentinck
(1828-1835)
0
Most liberal and enlightened amongst all
the Governor-Generals of India,
0 Regai·ded as the 'Father of Modern
Western Education in India'.
0
Abolition of Sati in 1829.
0
Suppression of Thugi (1830).
o Passed the Charter Act, of 1833.
0
Deposition of Raja of Mysore and
annexation of his territolies (1831).
o Abolition of Provincial court of Appeal and
appointment of commissioners instead.
He was the First Governor-General of
India.
° First Medical College was opened in
Calcutta in 1835.
0
Treaty of Frie nd shlp witb Ranjit Singh
(1831).
D Annexed Coorg (l 834 ) and Central
Cachai· (1831).
Sir Charles Metcalfe
(1835-36)
Passed the famous Press Law, which
liberated the press in India. He is knovm as
the liberator of press.
Lord Auckland (1836-42)
First Afghan War (1836-42).
0
Death of Ranjit Singh (l 839).
• Introduced the Ryotwaii settlement in
Madras by Thomas Munro, the
Governor.
0 Treaty of Sangli vvith Gorkhas (1816) .
., Treaty of Poona (1817) with the the
Peshwa.
0
Suppression of Pindai·is (1817-1818).
Lord Ainherst (1823-28)
° First Anglo Burmese Wai· (1824-26),
signed Treaty of Gandaboo in 1826
,vith lower Burma of Pegu, by which
British merchants were allovved to
settle on Southern coast of Burma.
., Acquisition of Malaya Peninsula and
Bharatpur (1826).
OF INDIA I
Lord Ellenborough (1842-44)
0 Brought an end to the Afghan War
(1842).
0
Abolished Slavery
° Sind was annexed by Charles Napier.
He was appointed as First Governor of
Sind.
Lord Hardinge (1844-48)
° First Anglo-Sikh Wai· and the 11.'eaty of
Lahore.
Lord Dalhousie (1848-56)
o Second Anglo-Sikh Wai· (1848-49) and
annexation of Punjab.
0
Abolished titles and pensions.
Widow Remai·1iage Act (1856).
0
Introduced Doctrine of Lapse.
., Woods Educational Despatch of 1864.
O
Introduction of the Railway, Telegraph
and the Postal System in 1853.
0 Establishment of a sepai·ate Public
Works Department in every province.
An Engineering College was
0
established at Roorkee.
Planned to open universities in
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras on the
model of Universities of London.
0
Second Anglo-Burmese War (1862).
0 San thal uprisings (l 856-56).
.. Charter Act of 1863.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
VICEROYS OF INDIA
Lord Canning (1856-1862)
0
Revolt of 1857.
a Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras vvere opened in 1857.
a He was last Governor-General
appointed by the East India Company
and the fii-st Viceroy.
a Passed the Government of India Act
of 1858, which ended the rule of the
East India Company.
0
The Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn.
The Indian Penal Code (1859) was
passed. Income tax was introduced for
the first time in 1858.
a The Indigo riots in Bengal.
a The Indian Councils Act of 1861 was
passed, which proved to be a landmark
in the constitutional hjstory of India.
a Indian High Court Act, (1861). Under
this act, High Courts were opened in
1866.
0
Bombay and Madras founded in 1867.
Lord Elgin-I (1862-63)
o Wahabi Movement suppressed.
Sir John Lawrence
(1864-69)
., Hiah Courts were established at
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in
1865. War with Bhutan in 1865.
0
The Punjab Tenancy Act, was passed.
Lord Mayo (1869-72)
a Introduction of financial
decenh-alisation in India and made
the first Provincial Settlement in
1870.
0
He established the Department of
Agricultrn·e and Commerce.
a He organised the Statistical Survey of
India. 1n 1872, the first Census was
done in India. He established the
Rajkot ColJege in Kathiawar and
Mayo College at Ajmer.
He was the ortly Viceroy to be mUJ·dered
a
in office by a convict in the Andaman in
1872.
a He inh-oduced state railways .
Lord Northbrook (1872-76)
" 1n 1872. Kuka Rebellion in Punjab led by
Ram S~gh. Famine in Bihar (1876).
" He resigned over Afghanistan question.
" Trial of Gaekwads of Baroda.
Lord Lytton (1876-80)
" Most unpopular Viceroy of India.
Arranged the Grand Darbar in Deihl (in
1877), when the counh--y was suffering
from severe famine.
a Passed the Royal Title Act, (1876) and
Queen Vict01ia was declared as
Kaiser-i-Hind.
.. He passed Arms Act, (1878) the infamous
Vernacular Press Act, (1878) and lowered
the maxinmm age of ICS from 21 to 19
years.
" Second Anglo-Afgan War 1878-80.
Famine Commission under Starchy was
appointed by him in 1878.
a 1n 1876, Deccan Agrarian Relief Act was
passed.
Lord Ripon (1880-1884)
" He was appointed by the Llberal Party
under Gladstone. Repealed the Vernacular
Press Act in 1882.
a The first Factory Act, came in 1881
(Improve the labour condition). 1n rmal
areas, Local Boards were set-up in 1889,
Madras Local Board Act, was passed. He
was famously known as "Father of Local
Self Government".
First Official Census in In dia (1881).
a
" Famine code was adopted (1883).
" Appointed Hunter Commjssion for
Educational reforms in 1882.
" Ilbeqrt Bill Controversy (1883-84), which
empowered Indian Judges to inquire into
European cases.
Foundation of Punjab Unjversity.
0
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Lord Dufferin (1884-88) Lord Minto-II (1910-1910)

a Third Anglo-Burmese War and annexation 0 Swadeshi Movement.
of Bw-ma (1885). 0 Surat split (split in Congress between
° Formation of Indian National Congress the moderates and the e)..1:remists,
(INC) in I 885. 1907).
0 Bengal Tenacy Act, in 1885. ., Indian Councils Act, 1909 and
0
Dufferin called the Indian National Morley-Minto Reforms.
Congress as 'microscopic minority' . ° Foundation of Muslim League, 1906 .
., Newspapers Act, 1908.
Lord Lansdowne (1888-94)
" Factory Act, of 1891. Lord Harclinge-II
a Indian Council Act, of 1892. (1910-1916)
° Civil Services were classified- lmpetial, ., Annulment of the Partition of Bengal
Provincial and Subordinate services. in 1911.
a 1n 1891, Age of Consent Act, under which 0
Bomb was thrown at Hardinge near
marriage of girl below 12 years was Chandni Chowk, but escaped unhurt.
prohibited.
., Transfer of capital from Calcutta to
0 Appointment of Drn·and Commjssion in Delhi in 191 I.
1893 to define the line between British
., Darbar in Delhi and Coronation of
In dfa and Afghanistan.
George Vin 19 11.
Lord Elgin II (1894-1899) ., In 1912, Bihar and Orissa separated
from Bengal and, became a new
0
The Santhal uprising of I 899.
state.
0 Munda uprising of 1899.
., Establishment of Hinda Mahasabha
0
Lyall Commission appointed after famine. by Madan Mohan Malviya (1915).
" Assassination of two British officials by the 0
Gandhiji came back to India from
Chapekar brothers in 1897.
South Anica (1915).
0
Plague spread in Bombay.
Lord Chelmsford
Lord Curzon (1899-1905) (1916-21)
Appointed a Police Commfasion in 1902
o Government of India Act, 1919 also
under Andrew Frazer.
lrnovm as Montague-Chelmsford
0
Universities Commission appointed in Reforms.
1902, under Thomas Railey.
"' Repressive Rowlatt Act, (1919).
a Indian Universities Act, passed in 1904.
., Jamanwala Bagh Massacre (13th
° Fan1ine Commission under Macdonell.
April, l 919).
0 A new Department of Commerce and 0
Home Rule Movement both by Ttlak
Industry established.
and Annie Beasant.
0
Partition of Bengal ( 16th October, 1905).
0 Saddler Commission on Education
0 The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897-98 in 1917.
led him to create the North-Western
Frontier Province.
0
Appointment of Hunter Commission
to look into JalUanwala Bagh Tragedy.
0
He passed the Ancient Monuments
o Chambers of Prince, 1921,
Protection Act, (1904) to restore lndfa's
cultural hetitage. Thus, the Archaeological established.
Sarvey of India was established. 0 Non Co-operation Movement Started,
0 Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Khilafat movement initiated.
Cunency Act, (1899) and put India on a 0
An Indian Sir SP Sinha was appointed
gold standard. as the Governor of Bengal.
0 PUSA AgricultOJ"al Institute in 1903. 11
Death of Tilak (1920).
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
Lord Reading (1921-1926)
0 RO\,vlatt Act was repealed along vvith Press
Act of 1910.
a Holding of simultaneous examination for
the ICS in England and India from 1923.
Prince of Wales visited India in November,
1921.
0 Moplah Rebellion (1921) took place in
Kera.la.
o Chauri-Chaura incident and withdrawal of
Non-Coperation Movement.
° Formation of Swaraj Party by CR Das and
Moti.Jal Nehru (1923).
a Communist Party of India founded by MN
Roy (1925).
° Kalrnri Train Conspiracy (1925).
0
Vishwabharati University (1922).
a Lee Commission (1924) for public
services. Young Hilton Committee for
currency notes ( 1926).
0 Royal Commission on agiiculture .
0
RSS founded in 1925.
a Murder of Swami Shraddhanand .
Lord Irwin (1926-1931)
a Simon Commission visited India in 1928.
Buttler Commjssion in 1927.
0
Deepawali declaration by Lorcl mvin (1929).
0
All India Youth Congress, 1928.
Nehrn Report, 1928.
0
Lahore Session of the Congress, (1929)
and Poorna Swaraj declaration.
a First Round Table Conference 1930,
Congress boycotted it.
° Civil Disobedience Movement, 1930
started with.
0 Dandj March (12th March, 1930).
" Gandhi-Irwin Pact, 5th March, 1931.
o Sharda Act, 1929, under which
marriageable age of girls (14 years) and
boys (18 years) was raised.
0
Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra
Bose founded Independence of India
League.
Lord Wellington (1931-1936)
" Second and Third Round Table
Conferences.
a Communal Award by Mcdonald (Blitish
PM). Government of India Act, 1935.
0 Poona Pact was signed.
0
During his period Orissa was separated
from Bihar (1936) and a new province
Sind was created (1936), Burma
separated from India as well in 1935.
All Indfa Kisan Sabha, 1936.
o Foundation of Congress Socialist Party,
1934.
Lord Linlithgow (1936-43)
o First General Election (1936-37)
Congress Ministries.
o SC Bose president of5lst INC (1938).
o Forward Bloc founded in 1939.
o Deliverance day by Muslim League
1939.
a Lahore Resolution of Muslim League
(1940) demand of Pakistan.
0
August Offer, 1940.
0
"Divide & Quit" at the Karachi Session
(1940). Passing of Quit Indfa
resolution (I 942).
0 In Haripura Session (1939) of Congress,
declared Complete Independence.
a Cripps Mission, 1942.
0
Quit India Movement, 1942.
0 1n 1943, Muslim League celebrated
'Pakistan day ' .
Lord Wavell (1943-47)
° CR Formula (Rajaji Formula), 1944.
0
Wavell Plan and Shim.la Conference,
1945.
o Cabinet Mission came to India in May,
1946. The Congress and the Muslim
league both rejected its proposals.
0
Muslim League celebrated 16 th
August, 1946 as 'Direct Action Day'.
a INA ttials and the Naval Mutiny, 1946.
Lord Mountbatten
(March to August, 1947)
o June third plan.
a Last British Viceroy of Blitish India.
0
First Governor-General of free India.
0
Boundary commissions under Radcliffe.
0
Introduction of Indian Independence
Bil.I in the House of Commons.
C Rajagopawchari
0
Last Governor-Genera.I of India.
0
The only Indian Governor-General to
remain in office from 21st June, 1948
to 25th January, 1960.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

GROWTH OF
MODERN EDUCATION IN INDIA
First Phase (1758-1812) "' The cona·oversy was settled by
0
lnjtially, the East India Company was not MacauJay's Education Policy 1835 ,
interested in the development of which was approved by Lord William
education. Some minor exceptions were Bentinck. The policy favoured English
efforts by individuals. education to a traditional one.
0
The Calcutta Madrasa establishe d by In 1844, Lord Hardinge decided to give
0

Warren Hastings in 1781 , for the study of government employment to Indians

Muslim law. educated in English schools. Trus
0 The Sanskrit College established by further boosted the Western education
in India.
J onathan Duncan at Banaras in 1791. for
the study of Hjndu law and philosoph)~ Bethune school was founded by JE D
0

° Fort William College established by

Bethune at Calcutta (1849),
Wellesley in AD 1800, for trainmg of Civil Ag'l·icultural Institute at Pusa
Servants of the Company in Indian (Bihar) and Engineering Institute at
languages and customs (closed in AD Roorkee.
1802).
Third Phase (1854-1900)
Second Phase (1813-1853) "' 1n 1854, Charles Wood prepared a
° For the first time, the Biitish Parliament despatch on an Educational System
included in 1813 Charter, a clause under for India, whkh came to be called the
which the Governor-General-in-Council Magna Carta of Education in the
was bound to keep a sum not less than one country. According to Wood's scheme
lakh rupees, for education. However, the (i) The government needed to spread
company used this fund for promoting Western education through English
lndfan language and literatme. medium for higher education. But
0 The charter allowed the Christian Vernacular primary schools should
mjssionaries to spread their religious ideas be set-up in rural areas.
in India. (ti) A grants-in-aid system to
encourage private enterprises
0
The greatest importance of the 18 13 Act
was that the Company, for the first time , involvement in education.
acknowledged state responsibility for (ill) A department of public insa·uction
promotion of education in India. to be set-up in each of the five
provinces.
0 Establishment of Calcutta College in 1817
with the efforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy (iv) Universities in Calcutta (1857),
for imparting Western education. Three Bombay (1857) and Madras (1857)
Sanskiit colleges were set-up at Calcutta. were established.
(v) Teacher's a·ainjng institutions.
0
1n 1823, a General Committee of Public
Instruction was appointed to look after the (vi) Promotion of Education for
development of education in lndfa. but Women.
failed due to OrientaJist-Anglicist 0
Most of Wood's proposals were
controversy over the nature of education implemented, wrnch led to
i.e. traditional or Western and the medium Westernisation of the Indian
of instruction. Educational System.
CD
Sergeant Plan, 1944
• The Sergeant Plan, worked out by the
Central Advisory Board of Education in
1944, ca lled for elementary and higher
secondary schools, universa l, free and
compulsory education for children in the
6-11 age group and a six-year school
course for the 11-17 age group.
• Though, the plan aimed to reconstruct
education in 40 years, it was later
restricted to 16 years.
• Sir John Sergeant was the Educational
Advisor to the Government of India.
I SOCIAL AND CULTURAL UPRISINGS
Brah1no Sa111aj
° Founded by Raja Rammohan Roy
(l 771-1833).
0
He is regarded as th e first great
leader and reformer of modern
India. He was one of the earliest
propagators of modem education.
0 He started Atmiya Sabha in 181 4.
Brahmo Sabha in 1828 and Brah mo
Samaj in 1830.
0 He was deeply influenced by
monotheism, an ti-idolatry of Islam,
Su£sm, ethical teachings of
Christianity, liberal and rationalist
doct1-ine of the West.
0
He laid emphasis on human dignity
and criticised social evils.
0 He launched a movement for th e
abolition of Sati through his journals
Sambad Kaumudj (1819) , Precepts
of Jesus in 1820.
0 He was a gifted linguis t. He knew
more than a dozen languages
including Sanshit, Persian, Arabic,
English , French, Latin , Greek and
Hebrew. He was opposed to Sanshit
system of education.
0 He gave enthusiastic assistance to
David Hare, who founded the
famous Hindu College in Calcutta
in 1817.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
0
1n 1882, Lord Ripon appointed t he Hunter
Commission under Sir WW Hw1ter. The
commjssion's vievvs were restricted to
primary and secondary education. It
emphasised over the state 's role in extending
education, female education and to involve
private enterprise in education.
0
As a result , Punjab (1882) and Allahabad
(1887) Universities were established .
Fourth Phase (1901-1920)
o Lord Cw-zon appointed University
Commission under Sir Thomas Rayleigh
Based on his report, the Inclian Unjversities
Act was passed in 1904.
I
0
Established a Vedanta College (l 825) , in
which courses both in Indian and Western ,
Social and Physical sciences were offered.
o He wrote A Gift to monotheists or
'Tuhafat-ul-Muwaihidin ' in Persian in 1809.
o Other important leaders of Brahmo Samaj
were Devendranath Tagore, who joined in
1848 and Keshab Chandra Sen in 1858.
Later, there was a split and in
1866-Devendranath Tagore founded Adj
Brah.mo Samaj and Tattva Bodhfoj Sabha
and Brahmo Samaj of India was founded
under th e leadership of Keshab Chandra
Sen.
0 Anand Mohan Bose started Sadharan
Brahmo Samaj.
o Justice MG Ranade founded the Prarthana
Samaj.
Brahma Ideas
The purpose of Brahma Samaj was to purify
Hinduism and to preach monotheism. It was
opposed to idol worship, priesthood and rit ualistic
worship; Emphasised on worship through prayer,
meditation and reading from the upanishada.
AryaSa111aj
0
The first Arya Samaj unit was founded by
Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 in
Bombay.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
0
Swami Dayanand Saraswati was born
in 1824 in Gujarat. His 01iginal name
was Mula Shankar.
0 He was knovvn as the earliest
Neo-nationalist. He looked on the
Vedas as 'Indfa's Rock and Ages'. His
motto was go back to the Vedas and
India for the Indians.
0
Arya Samaj stood for four-fold Varna
System determined by merit and not by
birth; for equal rights for men and
women.
a Opposed untouchability, caste
discrimination, child marriage and
supported widow remaniage and
intercaste marriages.
0
He wrote three books-Satyartba
Prakash, Veda-Bhashya Bhumika
and Veda Bhashya.
0
1n 1886, Lala Hansraj instituted
Dayanand Anglo Vedic (DAV) school in
Lahore. In 1902, GurukuJ Patbshala
was established at Haridwar.
0
After the death of Dayanand in 1883,
difference occured in Gurukul section
and DAV section. While Gurukul
section la.id emphasis on the traditional
pattern of education, the DAV stood for
the spread of English education.
0 The Arya Samaj started the Shuddhi
Movement to convert non-Hindus to
Hinduism. Other prominent Arya
Samajists were Lala Hansraj, Pt Guru
Dutt, Lala Lajpat Ra.i and Swami
Shraddhanand.
Ra1nakrisbna Mission
0
It was established by Swami
Vivekanand to carry o □ humanitarian
relief and social work after death of his
Gum Ram k:rishna Paramhansa in
_ adopted the method of Congregational
1897
0
His original □ a.me was Narendranatb
Dutt. He was born in Calcutta in 1863.
0 He sh·essed o □ social action and
proclaimed the essential oneness of all
religions and condemned any
narrO\,vness in religious matters.
0
He attended the Parliament ofreligions
held at Chicago in 1893 and published
two papers P1·abhudha Bharata in
English and Udbodhana in Bengali.
., He urged people to inculcate the spirit of
liberty, equality and free thinking.
0
He worked for emancipation of women.
0
He emerged as a preacher of Neo
filnduism. He advocated the Doctrine of
Service-the service of all human beings.
He was considered as the Spiritual Father
of the Modem Nationalist Movement.
0
liish woman Margaret Noble (Sister
Nivedita) popularised Ra.mala.ishna
Mission after Vivekananda's death.
Dharma Sabha
0
The orthodox Hindus organised the
Dhanna Sabha under leadership of Raja
Radhakant Dev in 1830 to counter
Brahma Sa.maj.
0
It was opposed to reforms and protected
orthodm,-y, but played an active role in
promoting Western Education even to
girls.
Paramhansa Mandali
0 Founded by Dadoba Pandmang and Bal
Shastri Ja.mbhekar in 1849. The Mandalis
believed in One God.
o Members took food cooked by low caste
people. Believed in permitting widow
remarriage and in education of women.
VedaSamaj
° Called Bra.bmo Sa.maj of the South.
Started by Sridharalu Naidu.
0 He translated books of Brahma Dhanna
into Telugu and Tamil.
The Pra1thana Sabha
° Founded in 1867 by MG Ranade.
0
Prominent leaders were Dr Atmaram
Pandurang and RG Bhandarkar and NG
Chandavarkar.
° It rejected idolatry, denied the vedas, and
Worship.
Young Bengal Movement
o During the late 1820 and early 1830, there
emerged a radical intellectual trend
among the youth in Bengal, vvhich ca.me to
be knovvn as the 'Young Bengal
Movement'.
0
It was founded by Heru-y Louis Vivian
Derozio. He was a teacher in Hindu
College in Calcutta.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
• They believed in truth , freedom and
religion. Supported women's education.
0 Derozio edited the papers-Calcutta
Gazzette and India Gazette.
Swami Narayan Sampradaya
Founded by Swami Sahajananda in Gujarat
to protest against luxurious practices of
Vaishnavism.
N amdhari/Kuka Movement
° Founded by Bh ai Balak Singh and Baba
Ram Singh, in North-West frontier
province, Ludhiana, in 1841.
0 Spread the true spilit of Sikhism , opposed
to all caste distinctions.
Indian Reform Association
a Founded by Keshab Chandra Sen in
Calcutta in 1870.
Objective was to create public op1moo
against chtld marriages and for legalising
the Brahma form of marriage. Promoted
intellectual and social status of vvomen.
Theosophical Society
° Founded by Madam HP Blavatsky and
Col HS Olcott in New York in 1875.
0 lo 1882, its headquarters were shifted to
Adyar (Tamj] Nadu).
0 The Theosophical Society of India was
founded by Annie Beasant. She founded
Central Hindu College in 1898, which
later became Banaras Hindu University in
1916.
0
They drew inspiration from Indian
thought and cultme. It advocated the
revival and strengthening of ancient
religion of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and
Buddhjsm_ It accepted the law of Karma
and was inspu-ed by Upanis/zada,
Smzh.hya, Yoga and Vedanta.
Deccan Education Society
o Founded by MG Ranade, VG
Chibdonkar, GG Agarkar in Pune 1884.
a Objective was to contribute to the cause of Stri Mandal (1910)
education and culture in Western India.
The society founded the Ferguson Founded
Chaud.harani in Calcutta. It was the First
College.
All India Women Organisation.
Seva Sadan
o Founded by Behramj i M Malabari in
Bombay in 1885.
Campaign against chj]d maniage,
enforced widovvhood and care for
socially eArploited women .
Indian National Social
Conference
° Founded by M G Ranade and
Raghunath Rao in Bombay in 1887.
0
Focus was to abolish polygamy and
Kulinism and promote intercaste
marriages. The conference is also
referred as Social Reform Cell of the
INC.
Madras Hindu Association
Founded by Vil·esalingam Pantalu in
Madras in 1892. Movement concerned
with plight of women and to combat
devadasi system.
Bharat Dharma Mabamandala
° Founded by Pandit Madan Mohan
Malaviya and Pandit Din Dayal
Sharma in Varanasi ( 1929).
a It was an organisation of orthodox
Hindus.
The Servants of India Society
a Founded by Gopal Kiishna Gokhale in
Bombay (1905).
0
Worked for famine relief, tribal welfare.
Poona Seva Sadan (1909)
Founded by GK Devad.har and Ramaba.i
Pande in Pune for economic upliftment
and employment of women.
Niskam Karma Math (1910)
Founded by Dhondo Keshav Karve of
Pune. Worked for social reform, selfless
service to mankind, educational progress
in women.
The Bharata
by Saralabala Devi
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Seva Samiti (1914) Lokahitawadi

Founded at Allahabad by Pandit Started by Gopal Hari Deshmukh. He
Hiidayanatb Kunzru to promote advocated Western education and free
education and reform criminal and fallen education for upliftrnent of women . As a
elements in the society. votai)' of national self-reliance, he attended
Delhi durbar in 1876, weaiing hand spun
The Indian Women's khacli cloth.
Association
Radha Swami Movement
Founded by Annie Beasant in Madras
(1917), for upliftment of women. 0
Staii:ed by TuJsi Ram (Shiv Dayal Saheb
or Swami Mahai·aj) in 1861.
Rahanumai Mazdayasan Sabha 0 He was a banJ<er of Agra.
Founded in Bombay by SS Bengali, 0
He preached belief in guru's supreme
Naoroji Furdonji and JB Nacha (1831). It position, one supreme being and on
was the Socio-religious organisation of the simple social life.
Pai-sis, founded for the restoration of
Zoroastlian religion to its p1istine glory DevaSan1aj
and social regeneration of the Parsi 0 S taii:ed by Shiv Narain Agnihotri
Community through modern education. in 1887.
Khudai Khidmatgar Movement 0
It preached high moral and social
conduct.
Started by Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan in 0 Deva Shastra tells us about the ideals of
NWFP (1929).
Deva Samaj.

Caste Movements and Organisations

Movements Looaaon Leaders Courses
Satya Shodhak Maharashtra Jyotiba Phule u To fight against Brahaminical
Samaj (1873) domination and to liberate low
caste people by educating them.
■ Started a school for untouchables.
■ His books Ghulamgiri and
SaNajanik Satyadharma Pustak
questioned the traditional customs
and beliefs of the socie!Y.
Shri Narayan Kerala Shri Narayan Guru ■ This movement was opposed to
Dharma Paripalan He also launched religious disabilities against lower
Yogam or SNDP the Aravipuram castes. Demanded free entry of
Movement movement people of lower castes to the
(1902-03) temples.
Temple Entry Kerala TK Madhavan ■ To allow lower castes to enter into
Movement Sri Narayana Guru the temples.
N Kumaran Asan
Bahujan Samaj Satara Mukundrao Patil a Opposed to explortation of the
(1910) Maharashtra lower castes by the upper caste
Brahmin landlords and merchants.
Self-respect Madras EV Ramswami ■ Anti-B rahmin; advocated wedding
Movement without priest, forcible temple entry.
Harijan Sevak Pune Mahatma Gandhi ■ For removal of untouohability and
Sangh (1932) social discrimination against
untouohables.
Dravid Monnetra Madras CN Annadurai
Kazhagam (1949)
-
w
Tribal Movements
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Revolts Year Area

Chaur Uprising 1966-70 Bengal and Bihar
Kol Uprising 1824-28, 1839, 1899 Gujarat
Bhil Uprising 1818-31 Western Ghat
Rampa Rebellion 1879 Coastal Andhra
Khasi Rising 1846-48, 1855, 1914 Orissa
Kuki Rising under Rani GaidiLieu 1917-19 Manipur
Ho Rising 1820,1822, 1832 Singhbhum and
Chhotanagpur
Singpo Rising 1830-39 Assam
Kol Rising under Buddha Bhagat 1831-32 Ranchi, Singhbhum , and
Hazaribagh
Khond Rising under Chakrabisai 1846-48, 1855, 1941 Khandmal area in Orissa
Naikad Revoli under Roop Singh and 1858-59, 1868 Gujarat
Joria Bhagat
Kachhag Revolt under Sambhudaan 1882 Chhachar area of Assam
Bhil Rising under Govind Guru 1913 Baswana and Ourgapur area
of South Rajasthan
Oraon Revolt under Jatra Bhagat 1914-15 Chhotanagpur area
Tharo Kuti Rising under Jadonand and 1917-19 Manipur
Rani Gaidilieu
Munda Revolt under Birsa Munda 1899-1900 Chhotanagpur area
Rampa Rebellion under Allari Sita Ram 1923-24 Andhra Pradesh
Raju

Muslim Socio-Religious Movements

Movement Looauon Leaders Courses
Fairazi Faridpur, Haji Emphasis on strict monotheism and to rid the
Movement Bengal Shariatullah, Muslim society of non-Islamic social customs .
(1804) Oudhi Miyan
Oeoband Oeoband Mohammad Against Western education and promoted classical
Movement Oasim studies in Islam .
(1867) Nanutavi,
Supported Indian National Congress and opposed
Rashid Ahmed
the Aligarh Movement.
Ganghoi
Aligarh South Sir Syed Ahmed Liberalisation of Indian Islam and modernisation of
(1876) Khan Indian Muslim through religious reinterpretation and
modern education.
Urdu Journal-Tahzib-a/-aklaq.
Founded Aligarh school in 1875, that grew into
Aligarh Muslim University.
Ahmadiyya Faridkot Mirza Ghulam Believed in universal religion for all humanity,
Movement Ahmed of opposed to Islamic orthodoxy and spread of Eastern
(1889-90) Oadiyan fl beral education among the youth.
Ahrar Riza Khan and Against Aligarh Movement.
Movement Ali Brothers
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
I THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENf
THE INDIAN
NATIONAL CONGRESS
0
The National Conference in 1883, Moderate Phase, (1885-1905)
decided to invite prominent public men
and associations to discuss questions on
general concern.
a Indian National Union-1884 was formed
by AO Hume. The National Conference and
the Indian National Union merged to form
the Indian National Congress in 1885.
a The first meeting of INC was organised by
.AO Hume at GokuJdas Tejpal Sanslait
College on 28th December, 1885 in
Bombay. AO Hume was a retired British
Civil Servant. Meeting was presided over
by Womesh Chandra Bonne1jee and Moderate Leaders
attended by 72 delegates .
a It was the fiTst organised expression of th e
Indian National Movement on an all India
scale. In 1886, the delegates to Congress
became 436.
a The venue of first meeting was Pune but it
was changed to Bombay due to out break of
Cholera in Pune.
a Kadambini Ganguly was the fu-st woman
graduate of Calcutta University to address
the Congress Session in 1889.
a Safety Valve Theory B1itish historians " They worked to create a strong public
argue that Hume 's main purpose was to
provide a safety valve to the grovving
discontent among the educated Indians.
0 Opposition to Congress By Syed Ahmed
Khan , Raja Shiva Prasad of Banaras and
Lorcl Du:fferin (then Viceroy) .
Quick Digest
• 1st President of INC WC Bonnerjee
• 1st Woman President Annie Besant
• 1st Muslim President Badruddin Tayabji
• 1st English President George Yule
• 1st Indian Women Sarojini Naidu
President
• Gandhi became President 1924, Belgaum
• Jawaharlal Nehru became 1929, Lahore
President
• Subhash Bose became 1938, Haripura
President
• JB Kriplani INC President at
Independence
I
Objectives and Methods
ofWork
o Development and consolidation of
feeling of national unity irrespective of
race, caste, religion or province.
Peaceful constitutional agitations ,
prayer and petitions were the
insb.·uments of work.
" They succeeded in passing th e Indian
Councils Act of 1892, which allowed
some members to be indirectly elected
by Indians, but keeping the official
majority intact.
0
AO Hume, DB Naoroji, Badruddin
Tayabji, MG Ranade, WC Banerjee, SN
Banerjee, Pherozeshab Mehta, C
Shankaran Naiyar, MM Malviya , VS
Shrinivas Shasbi, Tej Bahadur Sapru ,
GK Gokhale, Anand Mohan Bose, E
Dinesh Wacha, Ras Bihari Ghosh,
Mohanlal Ghosh, P Anand Charlu, CY
Chintamani, RC Dutt, S Subrahmanyam
Aiyer, KT Tailang, Madhusudan Das ,
Rabimtulla M Sayani.
opinion to arouse consciousness and
national spit-it. They persuaded the
British Government and British public
opinion to introduce reforms in India.
Extre1nist Phase (1905-17)
Cause for the Rise of Extremists
o Dissatisfaction with the methods and
achievements of moderates .
" Growing consciousness about the
exploitative character of the British
rule. Loss of Britain in the Boer wars
(1899-1902) demolished the myth of
whiteman supremacy.
a Reactionary policies of Cw-zon-
U niversity Act (1904), Indian Official
Secrets Act (l 904) to rest1ict freedom
of press and partition of Bengal.
" E:,.,,.1:remists gave the idea of India's
independence the central place in
India 's politics.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
Methods of the Extremists
a Promotion of Swadeshi and Boycott of
foreign goods. Non-Co-operation with
Britishers (Passive Resistance).
Extremist leaders- Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Sir
Aurobindo Ghosh, Chahavarti Bose,
T Prakasham and Chidambaram Pillai.
a They want to take the movement outside
Bengal.
Partition of Bengal
a Through a royal proclamation, Lord
Ctu-zon ordered Partition of Bengal
creating East Bengal and Ass.am out of rest
of Bengal on 16th October, 1905.
a The objective was to set up a communal
gulf between the Hindus and Muslims.
a The Indian National Movement entered its
second phase after the Partition of Bengal.
a The British said that the existing province
of Bengal was too big to be efficiently
administered by a single Provincial
Government.
a The Indian National Congress and the
nationalists of Bengal firmly opposed the
Partition. Within Bengal, different sections
of population- zamindars, merchants,
lawyers, students and even women rose up
in spontaneous opposition to the partition of
their province.
a Divide and Rule The nationalists could
see that it was a deliberate attempt to
divide the Bengal's tenitory on religious
grounds as for Eastern part Muslims will
be in majority and for the Western part,
the Hindus.
0
Rabindranath Tagore composed the
National Song Amar Sonar Bangla for the
occasion. This song was adopted as
National Anthem by Bangladesh in 1971 ,
after its liberation from Pakistan.
The Anti- Pa1tition Move1nent
a The Anti-Partition movement was initiated
on 7th August, 1905. On that day, a
massive demonstration against the
partition, was organised in the Town Hall
in Calcutta.
a The partition took effect on 16 th October,
1906.
• Banaras Session of INC, 1905- Presided
by GK Gokhale-first call for Swadeshi.
• Meeting of INC at Calcutta 7th August
1905-Resolution to boycott British goods
was adopted.
The Swadeshi and Boycott
(1905-1908)
0
It had its origin in the Anti- Partition
movement of Bengal. Mass meetings
were held all over Bengal, where
Swadeshi or the use of Indian goods
and the boycott of British goods were
proclaimed and pledged . Public
burning of foreign cloth were organised
and shops selling foreign cloths were
picketed.
An important aspect of the Swadeshi
Movement was the emphasis placed on
self reliance or Atmashakti.
o Acharya PC Roy organised his famous
Bengal Chemical Swadeshi stores.
0
The Swadeshi Movement had several
consequences like flowering of
nationalist poeb.--y, journalism,
self-reliant and opening many national
educational institutions.
o Nationalist Educational Institutions
were founded e.g., Bengal Technical
Institute, Bengal National College.
o BC Pal and Chidambram Pillai led
Vandemataram Movement in Madras.
o Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh led the
movement in Punjab. Syed Haider
Raza led the movement in Delhi.
Why Swadeshi Movement
Failed?
o Severe government repression.
0
Split in nationalists at Surat.
o Lack of effective organisation.
o The movement was rendered
leaderless.
Formation of Muslim League
o Set-up in 1906, under the leadership of
Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka
and Nawab Mohsin-ul-MuJk.
o League supported Partition of Bengal,
opposed the Swadeshi Movement,
demanded special safeguards for its
community and separate electorate for
Muslims.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
Calcuua Session of INC (1906) Dadabhai
Naoroji, the President of the session,
declared that Self Govern- ment or Swarai
like that of United Kingdom was the goal of
Indian people.
SURAT SPLIT (1907)
" The INC splited into two groups dwmg
the session at Surat in 1907. E>...tJ.-emists
were led by Lal, Bal, Pal, while
Moderates were led by GK Gokhale.
Moderates
0
They demanded mild constitutional
reforms, economic relief,
administrative reorganisation and
protection of civil rights.
Extre1nists
0
They were dissatisfied with the
achievement of the moderates. They
realised that the true nature of British
was e>-..-ploitative.
0 There were 3 groups of e>-..'b--emists The
Maharashtrian group (headed by Bal
Gangadhar Tilak), the Bengal gi.-oup
(represented by BC Pal and Aurobindo)
and the Pnnjab group (led by Lala
Lajpat Rai).
0
Aurobindo published New lamps for
old in the lndu Prakash in 1893-94. It
was the first systematic clitique of the
moderates.
Indian Cotu1cils Act of 1909
or the-Morley Minto
Refonns
0
Number of elected members in the
impelial and provincial legislative
councils increased. Separate
electorates introduced for Muslims.
0 Non-official members to be elected
indii--ectly. Thus, election introduced for
the first time.
0 Legislatm--es could pass resolutions, ask
questions and supplementaiies and vote
for separate items on the budget.
0
One Indian to be tal<en in Viceroy's
executive council. Satyendra Sinha was
first Indian member to the executive
council.
., Annulment of Partition In 1911, the
government announced annulment of the
Partition of Bengal. Western and Eastern
Bengal were to be reunited.
Ghadar Party (1913)
° Formed by Lala Hai·dayal, Taralmath Das
and Sohan Singh Bakhna.
The wai· period vvitnessed the growth of
1--evolutionai-y movement not only in India,
but outside India as well~ by the Indians.
., Indian revolutionai-y in the United States
of America and Canada had established
the Ghadai· (Rebellion) Party in 1913.
Most of the members of the party we1--e
Punjabi Sikh peasants and ex-soldiers,
who migrated.
0 The paii:y was built around the weekly
paper 'The Ghadar', which carried the
caption Angrezi raj Im DZLshman.
0 Headquarters we1--e at San Francisco.
0 The outbreak of the first World War
provided the Ghadaiites with an
opportunity to free India from a
government, which was indifferent to
their cause.
0
They began to return India in thousands
for a revolt, but unfortunately the
authorities came to ]mow about their
plans and took immediate action. The
rebellious regiments were disbanded and
their leader were either impdsoned or
hanged.
0 Some of the prominent Ghadai· leaders
were-Baba Gurumukh Singh, Kaii:ar
Singh Saraba, Sohan Singh Bakhna,
Rabmat Ali Shah, Bhai Pai·amanand and
Mohammad Bai·katullah.
., To can-y out other revolutionai-y activities,
"Swadesh Sevah Home" at Vancouver and
United India House at Seattle was set-up.
Komagata Maru Incident (1914)
° Komagata Mai-u was a Japanese steam
ship that canied Sikh and Muslim
immigrants from Pw1jab to Vancouver,
Canada. But the ship was forced to return
back to India by the Canadian authorities.
The ship docked at Budge Budge
in Calcutta. The Britishers considered the
passengers as dangerous political agitators
and hied to ai-rest Baba Gurdit Singh from
among them. Police opened fire on them
and 19 passengers died in the incident.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
Ho1ne Rule Movement
(1916)
" After Tilak's return, h aving served
sentence of six years in M andJay, he
tJ.ied securing the readmjssion of
himself and other eJ\'1:remists into the
lndian National Congress. With the
need being felt for popular pressure to
attain concessions, disillusionment with
Morley-Minto reforms and wartime
miseries, Tilak and Annie Besant
readied to assume leadership.
a The Home Rule League was pioneered
on lines of a similar movement in
Ireland. Muslim League supported the
movement. Its objective was to work for
social and political reforms.
Tilak's Ho1ne Rule
Movement
a It started in April , 1916 at Poona. Tilak' s
league was to work in Maharashtra ,
Ka.rnataka , Central Province and Berar
excluding Bombay. Tilak linked up the
question of Swaraj vvith the demand for
the formation of linguistic states and
education in Vernacular language.
a He gave the slogan "Swaraj is my birth
right and I shall have it." Ttlak's
newspapers Maratha and Kesa.ri were
organs for home rule.
Annie Besant's Ho1ne Rule
Movement
" Started with George Arundale as
Secretary at Adyar in September, 1916.
Annie Besant's league worked in rest of
lndfa.
" Annie Besant's newspapers New India
and Commonweal became important
for this movement. She coined the term
Commonvvealth.
a Many moderate nationalists, who were
dissatisfied with the Congress inactivity,
joined home rule agitation. In June
1917, Annie Beasant was arrested,
popular pressure forced the government
to release her in September, 1917.
Lucknow Session of the
Congress (1916)
0
Presided by a moderate Ambika Charan
Majumdar. The grovving nationalist
feeling in the country produced two
histmic developments at the Lucknow
Session of the Indian National Congress
in 1916. Firstly-the two wings of the
Congress were reunited, i.e., brought
about an union of moderates and
extJ.·emists.
0
Secondly at Lucknow, the Congress and
the All India Muslim League sank their
old differences and put up a common
political demand for representative
government and dominion status, before
the government. Congress accepted the
separate electorates. T his le d to
Congress-Leagl.le Pact.
Montague Declaration (1917)
o A British policy was announced after the
Luclrnow pact, which came to be knovvn
as the August Declaration. It aimed at
"increasing association of Indians in
every branch of the administJ.·ation for
progressive realisation of responsible
government in India. The declaration
formed the basis of
Montagl.le-Chelmsford Reforms, of
1919.
Rowlatt Act (1919)
0
In 1919, a Sedition CommHtee headed
by Justice Rowlatt led to the Rowlatt
Act. This act authorised the government
to imprison any person without u-ial and
conviction by the Court of Law for 2
years. The law also enabled the
government to suspend the right of
Habeas Corpus, which had been the
foundation of Civil Llberties in Britain. It
led to a counb.)'vvide agitation and
marked the foundation of
Non-Cooperation Movement.
o Dming March and April 1919, the
counb.-y witnessed a remarkable political
awal<ening. There were hartals, strikes ,
processions and demonstJ.·ations.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
Gandhi's Return to India
0
Gandhi returned to India in January,
1915. He did not join any political
organisation that did not accept the
creed of non-violent Satyagraha.
During 1917 and 1918, he was involved
in three struggles.
Champaran Satyagraha
(1917)
o 1st Civil Disobedience Movement.
0
To look into the problems of indigo
planters (tinkatlzia system)
Ahmedabad Mill Strike
(1918)
First hunger stiike. To settle disputes
between the mill ovmers of Ahmedabad
and the workers.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
First Non-Cooperation Movement. Due
to failure of crops, the farmers, with
Gandhi, withheld the revenue to get
remission based on revenue code.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
(13th April, 1919)
" The dissatisfaction against Rowlatt Act
led to mass agitations. A large but
unarmed crowd had gathered on 13th
.ApriJ, 1919 at Amritsar (Punjab) in
the Jallianwala Bagh, to protest
against the arrest of their popular
leaders Dr Saif-ud-din Kitchlew and
Dr Satyapal.
0
General Dyer, the Military
Commander of Amritsar, decided to
terrmise the people of Armitsar into
complete submission. Jallianwala
Bagh was a large open space, whic h
was enclosed on three sides and had
only one exit. General Dyer
surrounded the Bagh, closed the exit
with his □·oops and then ordered bis
men to shoot into the crowd.
Thousands were killed and wounded.
0
Rabindranath Tagore returned bis
knighthood in protest.
0
Hunter Commjssion was appointed to
inquire into it.
0
On 13th March, 1940, Sardar Udham
Singh killed Dyer, when the latter was
addressing a meeting in Caxton Hall,
London.
The Khilafat Movement
(1920-1922)
., During the first World War, Tw·key allied
with Germany and Austlia against British.
The Indian Muslim regarded the Sultan of
Turkey as their spiritual leader, Khalifa.
o After the war, the British removed the
Khalifa from bis power and fragmented
Turkey. Hence, the Muslim started the
KbjJafat Movement in India, for the
restoration of Khalifa's position.
0
The leaders were Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali
and Mohammed Ali), Maulana Azad,
Hakim f\jmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani.
Gandhi saw this as an opportunity to bring
about Hindu-Muslim unity against the
B1itish, although CR Das opposed it
initially.
" The Centi·al Khilafat Committee met at
Allahabad. The meeting was attended by
number of Congress and Khilafat leaders. In
this meeting, a programme of
non-cooperation towards the government
was declared. This included boycott of
titles conferred by the government, boycott
of civil services, army and police, i.e., of all
government services.
Non-Cooperation Movement
(1920-1922)
0
It was the first mass based political
movement under Gandhi.
" The decision to not cooperate in the most
peaceful manner 1;vith the government and
its laws, was endorsed at the annual session
of the Congress held at Nagpur, in 1920.
The Nagpur Session also made changes in
the Constitution of the Congress.
0
Anti-Rowlatt agitation, Jallianwala Bagh
tragedy, KhiJafat Movement, general
economic distress dw·ing and after the war
were the reasons for Non-Cooperation
Movement.
" The Tilak Swarajya Fund started
financing the Non-Cooperation Movement.
The movement envisaged boycott of
school, colleges, law courts, foreign cloth
and advocated the use of Charkha.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Revolutionary Organisations in India

Organisation Year Founder Place
Mrtra Mela 1899 Savarkar Brothers Poona
Anushilan Samiti (I) 1902 Gyanendranath Bose Midnapur
Abhinav Bharat 1906 VD Savarkar Poona
Swadesh Bandhav Samiti 1905 Ashvvini Kumar Dutt BarisaJ
Anushilan Samiti (II) 1907 Barindra Ghosh and Bhupendra Dhaka
Dutt
Bharat Mata Society 1907 Ajit Singh and Amba Prasad Punjab
Hindustan Republican 1924 Jogesh Chandra Chatterji Kanpur
Association Sachindranath Sanyal
Naujawan Sabha 1926 Bhagat Singh Lahore
Hindustan Socialist Republican 1928 Chandrashekhar Azad Delhi
Association

Revolutionary Organisations Formed Outside Ind ia

Organisation Year Founder Place
India House 1905 Shyamaji Krishna Verma London
Abhinav Bharat 1906 VD Savarkar London
Indian Independence League 1907 Tarak Nath Das USA
Ghadar Party 1913 Lala Hardayal, Tarak Nath-Das San Francisco
and Sohan Singh Bhakna
Indian Independence League 1914 Lala Hardayal and Birendra Berlin
Government Indian
Independence League 1942 Ras Bihari Bose Tokyo
Indian NationaJ Army 1942

a Boycott of the forthcoming visit of Prince Spread of Non-Cooperation

of Wales in Novembe1; 1921.
a Popularisation of Charkha and Khacli Movement
and Jail Bharo by CongTess volunteers. 0
United Province became a sn·ong base
a The movement demanded-Swam} or for the Non-Cooperation Movement.
self rule and Redressal of the Punjab 0
Agrarian-riots under the leadership of
wrongs and Khilafat issue. Baba Ramchandra, Eka Movement
a Lala Lajpat Rai organised educational under Madari Pasi.
Boycott in Pm1jab . 0 In Punjab- Akali Movement for reform
a CR Das, C Rajagopalachaii, Saif-ud-din and control of Gurudwaras.
Kitchlew, VB Patel, Aruna Asaf Ali and 0
In Andhra Pradesh, the Non-
MotiJal Nehru gave up their legal Cooperation Movement was a great
practice. success. Allm·i Sitaram Raju organised
a The Congress Session at Allahabad in the t1ibals in Andhra and combined their
December, 1921 decided to la w1c b a demands with those of the
Civil Disobeclience Movement. But
Non-Cooperation Movement.
before it could be launched, the angry The Swarajists
peasants (mob) attacked on a police
station at Chatu-i Chaura in Gorakhpur 0
Major developments in Indian politics
occurred during 1922- 28. Differences
district of U ttai· Pradesh on 5th Februat"}',
ai·ose among leaders after the
1922. Th.is changed the whole situation w·aw·al of th e N on- Coopera a·on
w1'th..J.
and Gandhiji was compelled to 1,vithdraw
Movement. One school of thought
the Non-Cooperation Movement. headed by CR Das and Motilal Nehru
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
advocated that nationalists should end th e
boycott of legislative council, enter them ,
obsn-uct their working according to official
plans, e)(pose their weaknesses, transform
them into arenas of political sn-uggle and
thus use them to arouse public
enthusiasm. They were 'pro-changers'.
a Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Dr Ansari, Babu
Rajench-a Prasad and others opposed
council entry. They were knovvn as 'no
changers'.
0 In December, 1922, CR Das and Motilal
Nehru formed CongTess- Khilafat Swarajya
Party, with CR Das as President and
Motilal Nehru as Secretary. It worked
within the Congress.
0 In the 1923 elections, the Swarajists won
42 seats out of the 101 elected seats in the
Cenh-al Legislative Assembly. With the
cooperation of other Indian group, they
repeatedly out-voted the government in
the Cena-al Assembly and in several of the
provincial councils.
0
Swarajists were split by Communalism.
The responsivists offered cooperatfon to
the government to safeguard the Hindu
interests. Madan Mohan Malaviya and
Lala Lajpat Rai founded the Independent
Congress Party, later in 1933. It was
recognised as Congress Nationalist Party.
Siinon Conunission (1927)
0 In 1927, the Biitisb Government
appointed the lnclian Statutory
Commission, knovm populady by its
chairman Simon to go into the question of
further Constitutional Reform.
0 The committee had to review the working
of the dyarchy system , inb.·oduced by
Montague Chelmsford Reform of 1919
and to report to what extent a
representative government can be
introduced in India.
a All the members of the commission were
white.
0
The Indians protested, against the Simon
Commission, because of the exclusion of
Indians from the Commission and in the
fear that the foreigners would discuss and
decide upon India 's fitness for self
government.
0
The National Congress decided to
boycott the commission in its Madras
Session in 1927, presided over by Dr
Ansari.
0
The Muslim League and Hindu
Mahasabha decided to support the
Congress.
0
The Commission's arrival in India led
to a powerful protest. On 3rd February,
1928, the Commission was greeted
with Hartals and black flag
demonstrations, under the slogan
Simon Go Back
0 The government used brutal
suppression and police attacks to break
the popular opposition.
" At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely
beaten in a Lathi charge and he
succumbed to his injmies on 17th
November, 1929.
Nebru Report (1928)
0
All important Indian leaders and parties
b.ied to meet the challenge of the Simon
Commission by getting together and
trying to evolve an alternative scheme of
Constitutional Reforms. Nehru report
was tabled in 1928 by Motilal Nehru.
0 It remains memorable as the first major
Indian effort to draft a constitutional
framework for whole India vvith lists of
central and provincial subjects and
Fundamental Rights.
0 However, the recommendations evoked
a debate concerning the goal of
India-Dominion status or Complete
independence.
0
Other members of committee-Tej
Bahadur Sapru, Ali Imam, MS Aney,
Mangal Singh, Sohaib Qureshi, GR
Pradhan and SC Bose.
Outcome of the Nehru Report
0 It demanded responsible government
both at the centre and in the provinces.
But, it advocated dominion status, not
complete independence.
0
It demanded Universal Suffrage . It
rejected separate communal electorate.
It proposed Muslim reservation in the
centre and provinces, where they were
in minority.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
• The report recommended equal rights
for women, freedom to form unions
and disassociation of the state from
religion in any form.
• It demanded for reorganisation of the
North-West provinces on lingustic
basis.
Jinnah's 14 points
(9th March, 1929)
0 Jinnah, the leader of Muslim League
did not accept the Nehru Report and
drew up a list of fourteen demands,
which became famous as 14 points of
Jinnah.
Lahore Session (1929)
This session was presided by
Jawaharlal Nehru. Gandhi came back
to active politics by that time.
• Draw in talks broke dovvn on the issue
of dominion status, which the British
were reluctant to give.
• This session passed a resolution of
Poorna Swaraj (Complete
independence) as its ultimate goal.
• On 31st December, 1929 the newly
adopted hicolour, was hoisted and
26th January, 1930 was fixed as the
First independence day.
• The Congress Session also annoWJced
a Civil Disobedience Movement under
the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.
• Congress decided to boycott the first
Round Table Conference.
Civil Disobedience
Move111ent (1930)
• Before starting the Civil Disobedience
Movement, Gandhijj placed an
Eleven point uJtimatum before lrvvin
for administrative reforms and stated
that if Lord Irwin accepted them , then
there vvill be no agitation.
• The Civil Disobedience Movement
was started by Gandhi on 12th March,
1930 with his famous Dandi March .
Together vvith 78 chosen followers,
Gandhi walked nearly 375 km from
Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi , a village
on the Gujarat sea-coast.
0
Salt production had geographical limitations.
So, in other parts of the cow1try, the
movement included- picketing of liquor
shops and auctions, no revenue campaign in
Bardoli, defiance of forest laws in
Maharashtra, Karnataka and the central
provinces, refusal of chauhidari tax in
Eastern India, prabhat pheris-singing of
National Songs.
a The notable feature of the movement was a
wide participation of women.
Spread of Civil Disobedience
Move1nent
0
Peshawar Under the leadersrnp of Khan
Abdul Gaffar Khan popularly known as the
frontier Gandhi, The Pathans orgarused the
society of Khudai Khldmatgars (servants
of God) knovm popularly as Red Shirts.
They were pledged to non-violence and
freedom struggle. Two platoons of GarhwaH
soldiers refused to open fire on non-violent
mass demonsn-ations.
0
North-East India Marnpm took a brave part
in it and Nagaland produced a brave
h eroine, Rani Gaiclilieu, who at the age of
13 responded to the call of Gandhi. The
young Rani was captured in 1932 and
sentenced to life imprisonment. She was
released only after the independence of
India. Chittagong Armoury raided by
Surya Sen in I 930.
0
Dharsana A raid on Dharsana salt works
was led by Sarojini Naidu , Imam Saheb and
Maniklal Gandhi.
0
In Madras, Rajagopalachar i led a march
from llichionopoly to Vedaranyarn along
the Coromandal coast. In Kerala ,
K Kelappan marched from CaHcut to
Payannur.
0
The government, adopted ruthless
repression, latru charges and fuing on
unarmed crowd of men and women. Over
90000 Satyagrahis including Gandhij:i and
other Congress leaders were imprisioned .
Congress was declared illegal.
Meanwhile, the British Government
summoned the First Round Table
Conference in London, in I 930, to discuss
the Simon Commission report. But, the
National Congress boycotted the
conference and its proceedings proved
abortive.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
First Round Table Conference
(12th November, 1930)
° Congress boycotted the conference .
a Muslim League was represented by
Mohammad Ali, Agba Khan , Fazlul Haq, MA
Jinnah and Hindu Mahasabha by Moonje and
J ayakar.
a Tej Bahadur Sapru, Cbintamani and Srinivas
Shasl:li (Liberals) appeared.
a Princes of Hyderabad, Mysore attended it. No
result came out of the conference .
a The government now made attempts to
negotiate an agreement ·w ith the Congress, so
that it couJd attend the Round Table
Conference.
a Moderate statesman J aikar, Sapru and
Srinivas Shasl:li initiated efforts to break
the ice between Gandhiji and the government.
The negotiation between Irwin and Gandhi in
5th March, 1931 came to be known
Gandhi-Irwin Pact or lrnovvn Delhj Pact.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact
• Under this pact, the government agreed to release
all those political prisoners, who had remained
non-violent. The Right to make salt for consumption
was agreed to.
• The Congress was to suspend Civil Disobedience
Movement and take part in Second Round Table
Conference.
Karachi Session (1931)
0
It endorsed the Gandhi- Irwin Pact. This
Session is also memorable for its resolution on
Fundamental Right and National Economic
Programme, vvith the efforts of Jawaharlal
Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose.
0
Six days before this session, Bhagat Singh ,
Sukhdev, Rajguru were executed.
Second Round Table Conference
(1931)
a Gandhiji went to E ngland in September, 1931,
along with Sarojini Naidu, Mahadev Desai, GD
Birla and Madan Mohan Malviya to attend the
Second Round Table Conference. But the
British Government refused to concede the
basic nationalist demand for freedom on the
basis of the immediate grant of dominion
status with complete cont:1·01 over defence,
external affairs and finance.
a On his return, Gandbiji resumed the Civil
Disobedience movement in 1932 and finally
withdrew it in 1934 .
Poona Pact (Communal
Award) (1932)
" McDonald announced th e proposal
on minority representation, knovvn
as the Communal Award in 1932.
Under this the depressed classes
(Mushrns, Sikhs, Indian Christians,
Anglo Indians, Women and
Backward Classes) were to be
considered as a minority, would be
entitled to the right of separate
electorate. Gandhi reacted st:1·ongly
to the proposal. He considered the
depressed class as the integral part
of Hindu society.
" He thought that there was no need
to protect the depressed classes
through representation , rather the
need was to eradicate
untouchability.
" Gandhi restored to fast unto death
in Yervada Jail (Poona) against this
separate electorate for depressed
class, which Ambedkar was
insisting on. This resulted into the
Poona-Pact between Gandhi and
AmbedJ<ar on 25th September,
1932 .
a 14 7 seats were to be alloted to the
depressed classes in the provincial
legislature as against 71 provided
by the Communal Award. The pact
also called for adequate
representation of depressed classes
in civiJ services.
<> Gandhiji coined the word Harijan
for depressed classes and their
upliftment became his prime
concern. All lndia Anti
Untouchability League was started
in September, 1932. On 8th May,
1933 Gandhiji decided to begin a
21 day fast for self purification for
the Harijan cause.
Impacts of Civil
Disobedience Movement
o The Congress swept polls in most
provinces in 1937. The left parties
emerged as an alternative in
politics.
o Some Congress activists formed
Socialist group .
" Nehru and Subhash Bose emerged
as leaders.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Third Round Table Conference August Offer (1940)

0 Held in London in 1932.
0
The Congress did not participate.
0
The discussion led to Government of
lndfa Act, 1935.
Government of India
Act, 1935
0
The discussions of the Third Round
Table Conference and Simon
Comrrussion report eventually led to the o Congress rejected this offer as there vvas
passing of the Goverment of India Act of
1935. The act provided for the
establishment of an AU India Federation
and a new system of government for the Individual Satyagraha
Provinces on the basis of provincial ° Congress rejected the August offer
autonomy.
0 It abolished the Council of In dia ,
established by the Government of India
Act, 1858.
0
The act provided for a Federal Court and
a Federal Bank.
0 The Congress rejected the 1935 Act and
demanded the convening of a
constitutional assembly elected on the
basis of adult franchise to frame a
Constitution for independent lndia.
Second World War
0 Lord Linlithgow declared lndia to be at
war without the prior assent of the
Central Legislature. The Congress
Ministry resigned in the wal<e of the war.
a Congress agreed to support Blitain only
in return of independence being granted.
The viceroy could promise this only after
the war. 1n October-November 1939, the the Cripps Mission
Congress Ministries resigned in protest.
The Muslim League observed this as the
Deliverence Day (22nd December,
1939). The Satyagraha was kept limited
so as not to embarass Blitain's war effort
by a mass upheaval in India.
The viceroy refused to accept
preconditions set by the Congress.
(Constituent Assembly for establishment (d) Blitish would however, control the
of Responsible Government at the
Centre). But, the B1itish Government
desperately wanted the active
cooperation of Indians in the war effort.
To secure this cooperation, it sent to
India in March , 1942, a rrussion headed o Any province(s) unwilling to accept the
by a Cabinet Minister Sir Stafford Clipps
and before that the August Offer.
The Viceroy Linlithgow put forward a
proposal that included-
0 Dominion status in th e unspecified
future .
., A post war body to enact Constitution .
., E)qJansion of Governor-General' s
council with representation of the
minorities.
o Establishment of a War Advisory Council.
no suggestion for a National Government.
Muslim League accepted it.
because Congress was convinced that
th e B1itish would not modify their policy
in India. Gandhi decided to start the
individual Satyagraha in September
1940.
., Vinoba Bhave was th e first to offer
individual Satyagral1a, followed by
Jawaharlal Nehru and Brahma Dutt.
0
Delhi Chalo Movement began.
Cripps Mission, 1942
., A mission under Sir Stafford Cripps was
sent to lndia in march 1942. He proposed
a Dominion status. The Blitish
Government's refusal of accepting
inlmediately the Congress demand of
forming a National Government was the
cause of failure of the mission.
Constitutional Proposal of
(a) Dominion status to be granted after
the war.
(b) Constitution mal<ing body to be
elected from provincial assemblies
and nominated by the rulers in case of
princely states.
(c) Individual princes could sign a
separate agreement with the British.
defence for war pe1iod.
The B1itish Government undertook to
accept and implement the Constitution
on two conditions:
Constitution could form a separate
union vvith separate Constitution.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
• T he new Constitution making body and
the B1itish Government would negotiate
a treaty to sort out matters arising out of
transfer of power to lndfan hands.
0 Gandhi termed this proposal as a post
dated cheque in a crashing bank.
0 Though, Cripps proposal failed but it
provided legitimacy to the demand for
Pakistan by accomodating it in th e
provision for provincial autonomy.
Quit India Move1nent, 1942
0
The All India Congress Committee met
at Bombay on 8th August, 1942. It
passed the famous Quit India resolution
and proposed to start off a non-violent
mass struggle under Gandhl's
leadership.
0
It is also called Ward.ha proposal and
leaderless revolt.
a Gandhi told the B1itish to quit and leave
India in God's hand. His message was Do
or Die.
0 Repressive policy of the government and
indiscriminate arrest of the leaders
provoked people to violence.
a Nehru was lodged in Almora jaiJ,
Maulana Azad in Banknra and Gan dhi
was kept in Agha Khan's palace, Poona.
In many areas, government lost control
and th e people established Swaraj.
Parallel governments were established.
;a In Satara, Pratisa.rkar was set up under
Nana Patil and in Baliya under Chittu
Pande. Others were in Talcher and
Bihar. In Bengal~ Taml uk Jatiya Sarkar
functioned in Midnapore.
0 Underground revolutionary activity also
started by Jaiprakash Narain and
Ramanandan Mishra escaped from
Hazaiibagb J ail and organised an
underground movement.
a In Bombay, the socialist leaders
continued their underground activities
under leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali.
Congress radio was established wi th
Usha Mehta as its announcer and
Rammanohar Lohia in Bihar.
0 School and college students and women
actively participated, workers went on
soikes. There were no communal
clashes dming the movement.
0
The merchant community and capilatist
did not pai--ticipate. Muslim League kept
aloof and the Hindu Mahasabha
condemned the movement. Communist
party did not support the movement.
Rajagopalachari also did not pai-ticipate.
De1nand for Pakistan
0
In 1930, Md Iqbal for the first time
suggested that the Frontier Province,
Sind, Baluchistan and Kashmir be made
the Muslim state 1rvithin the federation.
o Chaudhai-y Rehmat Ali coined the term
'Pakistan' (later Pakistan).
0
The fear of Muslims to be subjugated by
Hindus in free India was realised by
Jinnah and he demanded for the
creation of Pakistan.
Pakistan Resolution Muslim League
first passed the proposal of Separate
Pakistan in its Lahore Session in 1940
(called Jinnah 's Two-Nation theo1-y). It
was drafted by Sikandar Hayat Khan ,
moved by Fazlul Haq and seconded by
Khaliquzzaman. It rejected the federal
scheme envisaged in the Government of
India Act, 1935.ln December 1943, the
Kai·achi Session of the Muslim League
adopted the slogan-'Divide and Quit '.
Gandhiji's Fast
(10th February- 7th March, 1943)
Gandhiji undertook a 21 day fast for
condemning the violence of the people during
the Ouit India Movement.
Rajagopalachari
Fonnula (1944)
o Also knovvn as Rajaji formula (1944),
Rajagopalachai-:i proposed that a
commission could be appointed for
demarcating distl-ict in the North-\1\/est
and East, where Muslims were in
absolute majority. Plebiscite woul d be
held on the basis of adult suffrage, that
would ultimately decide the issue of
separation from Hindustan.
a If majority decides in favom of forming a
separate sovereign state then such could
be accepted.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
" Jinnah objected this as he wanted
Congress to accept two-nation theory and
wanted only Muslims of the North-West
and East to vote in the plebiscite.
0 Desai-Llaqat Pact reached no settlement
beti.,veen the league and Congress.
Shimla Conference or
W avell Plan (1945)
o Proposed by Lord Wavell.
0
Suggested to set up a new executive
council vvith only lndian members. The
viceroy and commander in chjef would be
the only non-Indian members of the
council.
a It would work under the existing
Constitutfon. But the door was open for
discussion of new Constitution.
0
Hindus and Muslims would have equal
representation. Jinnah demanded the
Muslim League to have absolute choice in
choosing the Muslim members, so he
rejected the plan.
The Indian National Anny
0
The idea of Indian National Army ([NA)
was fu-st conceived in Malaya by Mohan
Singh, an Indian officer of the British
Indian Army.
a Th e Japanese handed over th e Indian
prisoners of war to Mohan Singh, who tlied
to recrwt them into an Indian National
Army. By the end of 1942, 40000 men were
ready to join the INA. The outbreak of the
Qwt India Movement gave a fillip to the INA.
0
1n March, 1942, a conference of India was
h eld in Tokyo and Indian Independence
League was formed. At Bangkok
Conference, Ras Bihari Bose was elected
as President of the league.
a Subhash Bose escaped to Beilin in 1941
and set-up Indian League there.
0
1n 1943, h e an-ived at Singapore. Earlier, he
h ad left the Congress after having
differences with Gandhi and formed the
Forward Bloc in 1939.
11 1n Singapore, he was assisted by Ras Bihaii
Bose. In October, 1943, he set up a
provisional lndian Government with
headquarters at Rangoon and Singapore.
INA Trials
o The INA commanders PK Sehgal,
Shah Nawaz and Gurbahh DhjJJon
were put on tlial at the Red Fort.
a Defence of INA prisoners in the court
was orgarused by Bhulabhai Desai, Tej
Bahadur Sapru, Kailash Nath Katju ,
Nehru and Asaf Ah.
a Muslim League also joined the country
wide protest. 12th November, 1945 was
celebrated as INA Day.
The Cabinet Mission (1946)
0
The Attlee Government announced in
Februai-y 1946, the decision to send
a hlgb powered mission of three
Br:i tish Cabinet members (Patrick
Lawrence, secretai-y of state for India ,
Stafford Cripps, President of the
Board of Trade and AV Alexander, first
Lord of Adm.irality) to India to find out
ways and means for a negotiated and
peaceful ti·ansfer of power to India.
.. The British bid for a uruted and friendly
lndia and they rejected the demand for
a full-fledged Pakistan.
" The Congress demanded that power
should be ti·ansferred to one centre
and that minorities would demands be
worked out only after the British left
the country. Congress and league
differed on the issue of the nature of
grouping. Congress wanted the
grouping to be optional till the
formation of Constituent Assembly,
but Jinnah was in the favour of
compuls01-y grouping.
Jinnah's Direct.Action
Resolution
0
He was alarmed by the election results
of the Constituent Assembly (Congress
won 209 of the total 273 seats) and
was afraid of being totally eclipsed in
the Constituent Assembly.
o On 29th July, 1946, Jinnah withdrew
bis earlier acceptance to the plan and
fixed 16th August, 1946 as Direct
Action Day. Calcutta, Noakhali and
Garmuheshwar were the storm
centres. Jinnah celebrated Pakistan
Day on 27th March, 1947.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
Interiin Government (1946)
Interim Government headed by
JawaharlaJ Neh1·u was sworn on 2nd
September, 1946. Muslim League
refused to join initially. Wavell
persuaded the league to join in October,
1946. Llaqat Ali Khan of Muslim League
was made the Finance Minister. The
Constituent Assembly begins its
session in 9th December1 1946 and Dr
Rajendra Prasad was elected its
President, but, the league did not
attend.
Attlee's Statement
( 20th February, 1947)
0 A deadline of 30th June, 1948 was fixed
for transfer of power, even if the Indian
politicians had not agreed by that time
on the Constitution .
D British power and obligations vis-a-vis
the princely states would lapse vvith
transfer of power but these would not be
given to any successor government.
Mountbatten was to replace Wavell as
the Viceroy.
Partition of the counb.-y was implicit in
a
the provision that if the Constituent
Assembly was not fully representative,
than power would be transferred to
more than one Central Governments.
Mountbatten Plan
(3rd June, 1947)
0
As Viceroy, Mountbatten proved more
decisive and quick in taking decisions
than his predecessors.
D His task was to e>,._rplore the option of
unity or division till October, 194 7 and
then advise the British Government on
the form of transfer of power.
a 3rd June Plan 1n case of partition, two
dominions and two Constituent
Assemblies would be created. The plan
declared that power would be hande d
over by 15th August, 1947.
D The referendum in NWFP decided in
favour of Pakistan.
D Princely states were given the option to
join either of the two dominions or
remain independent.
D Boundai-y Commission was to be set u p
if partition was effected.
.. Mountbatten's formu la was to divide
India, but retain maximum unity.
0 Punjab and Bengal Assemblies would
meet in two groups, Hindus and
Muslims, to vote for partition.
0 The Legislative Assemblies of Punjab and
Bengal decided in favour of partition of
these two provinces. Thus, East Bengal
and West Punjab joined Pakistan . West
Bengal and East Pu11jab remained vvith
India. Referendum in Sylhet resulted in
the incorporation of that district in East
Bengal.
Indian Independence
Act, 1947
0 On 18th July, 1947, Bri tish Parliament
ratified the Mountbatten Plan as the
Independence of India Ac~ 1947.
0 The act provided for the creation of two
independent dominions of India and
Paldstan. Each dominion was to have a
Governor- General to be responsible for
effective operation of the act.
0 Sovereignity of British power vvas to be
abolished.
INDEPENDENCE OF
INDIA
0 On 15th August, 1947, India got
independence. India requested
Mountbatten to continue as the
Governor-General of India. Jinnah
became the first Governor-General of
Pakistan.
0 Assembly and Councils of the states were
to be automatically dissolved.
For the u·ansitional period that is till a
new Coostituion was adopted by each
dominion, the government of the two
dominion were to be cai1.ied on in
accordance vvith the Government of
India Act, 1935.
Integration of States
0 VaUabhbhai Patel, played the most
important role in the integration of
states. Except Kashmir, Hyderabad and
Junagarh, all states signed an instrument
of accession vvith Indian Government.
On October 194 7, the Pakistani troops
invaded Kashmir and in the crisis, the
Maharaj of Kashmir acceded to the
Indian Union.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
• Through a referendum in the state of
Junagarh in February 1948, Junagarb
was merged in the Indian Union. The
Nawab left for Pakistan.
a Due to the pressure of internal anarchy
and military action (operation Polo) in
the state, the Nizam of Hyderabad was
forced to join the Indian Union.
I IMPORTANT NATIONAL LEADERS
Dadabbai Naoroji (1825-1917)
0
He was the first Indian to demand
Swaraj in the Calcutta Session of INC,
1906.
a He was also known as the Indian
Gladstone, Grand Old Man of India.
a He was first Indian to be elected to the
House of Commons on Liberal Party
ticket.
a He highlighted the draining of wealth
from India by the British and its effect
in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule
in India (1901).
Annie Besant (1847-1933)
a She founded the Theosophical Society
in India and started the Home Rule
League.
a She established Central Hindu School
and College at Banaras (later BHU).
a She was elected the President of the
Calcutta Session of INC, 1917.
0 She did not attend the 1920 Session at
Nagpur due to growing differences vvith
Gandhiji, as she felt that Government
of India Act, 1919 were a means to free
India.
0
She edited famous Newspapers - New
India and Commonweal.
a She prepared - The Lotus Song, a
translation of Gita into English.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
(1857-1920)
" He was awarded with the title
Lok.many a.
a He established new English school at
Poona. He was the editor of Maratlza in
English and Kesari in Marathi.
O Integration of French Colonies
Pondicherry, Chandranagar, Mahe,
Karaikal and Yaman were integrated by
the end of 1964.
0
Integration of Portuguese Colonies
Dadra and Nagar Haveli (1964); Goa and
Daman and Diu (1961).
I
., He joined INC in 1891 and moved an
Arms Act Resolution.
0
He celebrated the Ganapati pooja and the
Shivaji festival.
0 He collaborated with Agarkar and set up
institutions to give economically feasible
education to people.
0
He was called Bal, Lala lajpat Rai was
called Lal and Bipin Chandra Pal was
called Pal.
0 They were called as the trio of Lal, Bal,
Pal, an e>-.·1:remist group.
0 He founded the Home Rule League in
1916 and helped in ushering the Luclmow
Pact and the Reforms Act at the Amritsar
Congress in 1919.
o He demanded swaraj and gave the slogan
Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have
it.
o Valentine Chirol desc1ibed him as the
Father of Indian unrest.
0 He wrote the books The Artie Home of
Vedas and Gita Rahasya.
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
(1833-1894)
0 He was a great scholar best known for the
com position of the hymn Ban de Mataram .
0 His first novel was Durgesnandini ,
published in 1864 and he started the
journal Bangadarsan.
Bipin Chandra Pal (1858-1932)
0
He was awarded with the title Mightiest
Prophet of Nationalism by Aurobindo
Ghosh.
0 He supported the 'Age of Consent Bill,
(1891), Swadeshi Movement and fought
for the cause of the Assam tea-gardeners.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
11
He started Newspapers- Paridaashak
(weekly); Public Opinion and Tribune
(editor); Swaraj (English weekly in
London); Hindu Review (English
monthly); Independent (daily) ; and
Democrate (weekly).
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)
0 He was a poet, philosopher, educationist,
internationalist and a patriot.
0 His elder brother, Satyendranatb Tagore
was the first Indian to become an ICS.
0 His first poem was published in the
'Amrita Bazar Patri/rn' and then he
wrote 'Banaphul' (story) and
'Bhanusinher Padavali' (series oflyrics).
" He founded Shantiniketan near Bolpore
on 22nd December, 190 1.
0 He wrote Gitanjali, which fetche d him
the Nobel Prize in 19 l 3.
11He inaugurated Raksha Bandhan festi val
to oppose the Partition of Bengal (1905).
11He founded the Vishva Bharati
University.
0 In 1915, British Crovm granted hi m a
lrnighthood, which he renounced after
the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.
11
His compositions were chosen as
National Anthem by two nations
1. India-Jana Gana Mana
2. Bangladesh-Amar Sonar Bang/a
Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928)
0
He was a courageous man so, he was
called The Lion of Punjab
(Sher-a-Pzmjab).
0 He was inspired by Mal1atma Hans Raj.
Being an Arya Samajist, he helped in
establishment of the DAV College at
Lahore.
0 He vvithdrew his name from the
presidency list of the INC at its Surat
session. He was the President of the
special session of the Congress at
Calcutta, 1920.
" He opposed the withdrawal of
Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922. He
founded Swaraj Party with Motilal Nehru
and CR Das.
0
He was injured during a demonstration
against Simon Commission in 1928.
0 He was the editor of the Bande Mat.ram,
The Punjab and The People.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale
(1866-1915)
0 Gandhiji regarded him as his political
guru.
0
He was the President of tbe Banaras
Session of INC, 1905, supported the
Swadeshi Movement.
0 He was the founder of the Servants of
lndian Society in 1905, to train people ,
who would work as national
missionaries.
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)
o Gandhi came to India in 1915. He
ah-eady had Satyagrahas in South
Anica. In 1907, Satyagraha was done
against compulsory registration and
passes for Indians. In 1910, against
immigration rest1ictions, and
de-recognition of Non-Christian Indian
marriages.
O
He followed the doctline of Ahimsa.
0
The Champaran Satyagraha in 1917,
against the Tinkathia System led by him
was his first success in Indfa.
0 The Ahmedabad Satyagraha, where
there was a dispute between the mill
ovmer and workers over the "plague
bonus' was also a success. Gandhi then
advised the worker to go on strike and h e
undertook a hanger strike, after which
the mill ovmers were pressurised to
accept the tribunal award of 35 per cent
increase in wages.
0 Kheda Satyagraha The peasants of
Kheda district were in e)(treme distress
due to the failure of crops and the
government ignored their appeals for the
remission of land revenue. Gandhiji
advised them to withhold the revenue
and fight until death.
Facts about Gandhi
0
Name Mohan Das Karam Chand
Gandhi .
Titles:
O
Mahatma (by Rabindranath Tagore,
1917).
0
Malang Baba/Nanga Fakir (by Kabailas of
North-West Frontier, 1930).
0 lndian/Iraitor Faqir (by Winston
Churchill , 1931).
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
11
Hali Naked Saint (by Franq Mores,
1931).
11 Rashtrapita (by Subhash Chandra Bose,
1944).
11
Birth 2nd October, 1869 at Porbandar in
Gujarat.
0
Mother Putali Bai.
0 Father Karam Chand Gandhj_
a Political Guru Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
0
Private Secretary Mahadev Desai.
0
Influenced by John Ruskin (Unto the
last); Leo Tolstoy; Thoreau; Emerson; the
Bible; the Gita.
" As an Erutor
0
Indian Opinion (1903-15) in E nglish,
Gujarati, Hindi and TamjJ_
Harijan (1919-31) in English, Gujarati
and Hindi.
" Young India (1933-42) in English and
Gujarati.
a Literary works
IBnd Swaraj (1909)
My Experiments with Truth (Auto
Biography, 1927).
Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949)
" Popularly lmovvn as the Nightingale of
India, she was a nationalist and poetess
from Uttar Pradesh.
0
She was mar1ied to Dr Govindarajulu
Naidu in 1893.
0
Under the gwdance of Gopal Krishna
Gokhale, she became the first woman to
participate in the India's struggle for
independence.
0 She participated in the Dandi March with
Gandruji and presided over the Kanpur
Session of Congress in 1925.
" She vvas the first woman to become the
Governor of Uttar Pradesh State.
0 Her famous books include -The Golden
Threshold (1905), The Feather of the
Dawn; The Bi1·d of Time (1912) and The
Broken Wing (1917).
Chakrava1thi Rajagopalachari
(1879-1972)
" He was a politician and lavvyer from Taniil
Nadu.
0 He gave up his practice during
Non-Cooperation Movement.
0
He held the post of the
General-Secretary of the INC in
1921-1922 and was a member of
Congress Working Committee from
1922 to 1924.
0
He started the Civil Disobedience
Movement in Tamil Nadu and was
arrested for leading a Salt March from
Trichinapoly to Vedaranniyam on the
Tanjore coast.
0
He was elected as the Cruef Minister of
Madras in 1937 elections.
o He resigned from Indian National
Congress in 1942 for not accepting the
Cripps' Proposal.
" He prepared the CR Formula for
Congress-League Cooperation.
" He served as the Governor of Bengal
(August-November, 1947) and was the
ffrst and last Indian Governor-General
of India ( 1948-50).
0 He became the MWster of Home
Affairs in the counb.-y's first cabinet.
" He founded the Swatantra Party in
1959. IBs rational ideas are reflected in
the collection Satyan1eva Jayate.
a He was awarded vvith the Bharat Ratna
in 1964.
Dr Rajenclra Prasad (1884-1963)
" He participated in Swadeshi Movement
(established Bihaii Students,
Conference), Champa.ran Satyagraha ,
Non-Cooperation Movement, Civil
Disobedience Movement and Qujt India
Movemen t.
" He founded the National College at
Patna .
0
He was elected as the Minister Inchai'ge
of Food and Agiicultme in the Interim
Government (1946).
" He was the President of the Constituent
Assembly.
" He became the ffrst President of the
Indian Republic. He was honoured with
Bharat Ratna in 1962.
a He edited the newspaper-Desk (Hjndi
weekly).
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)
" He became the General Secretary of the
Indian National Congi·ess in 1928 and
its President in 1929.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• T he In dependence resolution was passed Subhash Chandra Bose

under his Presidentship at the Lahore
Session.
(1897-1945)
a He was th e first Prim e Minister of He passed th e Indian Civil Services
0

Republic India (from 1947 to 1964), also Examination in 1920 in England , but
knovvn as Architect of Modern India. He left it on Gandhiji's caJ1 of
authored the Doctrine of Panchseel and Non-Cooperation Movement.
believed in the policy of non-alignment. He founded the independence for In dia
0

0
Books-The Discovery of India, League with Jawaharlal Nehru.
Glimpses of World History, A Bunch of He was elected as the President of INC
0

Old Letters, The Unity of India ,
Independence and After, India and the
World, etc.
0
His autobiography was entitled as
Auto-biography.
at its Haripura Session (1938) and
Tripwi Session (1939), but resigned
from Tripw-i due to differences vvith
Gandhiji.
He founded the Forward Bloc (1939)
0

and Kisan Sabha.

Dr BhimTao Ambedkar He escaped to Beilin in 1941 an d met
0

(1891-1956) Hitler. He took the charge of Indian

0
Dr Ambedkar was the great leader of the Army (Azad Hind Fauz) in 1943 in
depressed class and an eminentjurist. Singapore and set up Indian Provisional
Government there.
0 He set up a network of colleges in the
name of People 's Education Society. He addressed Mahatma Gandhi as the
0

Father of the Nation.

0
He founded tl1e Depressed Classes
He supposedly died in a plane crash in
0
Institute (l 924) and Samaj Samata
1945.
Sangh (1927).
0
He participated in all the T hree Round He gave the famous slogans - Dilli
0

Table Conferences of London and signed C/zalo and Jai Hind.

the Poona Pact with Gandhiji in 1932.
0 He was in the Governor-General's
Executive Council from 1942 to 1946
and organised the Indian Labour Party
and Scheduled Caste Federation.
0
He became the Chairman of the Drafting
Committee of Indian Constitution.
0 As the first Law Minister of the
Independent India , he introduced the
Hindu Code Bill.
0
He started The Republican Party in 1966.
0 He embraced Buddhism tO\vards the end
of his life.
The
0 India Struggle was his
autobiography.
Bhagat Singh (1907-1931)
0
He vvas a member of Hindustan Socialist
Republican Association.
0 He started the 'Militan t Naujawa.n
Bharat Sabha' in Punjab.
0
He killed British official Saw1ders in
1928 and was involved in Lahore
Conspiracy and bombed the Central
Legislative Assembly.
0
He was executed on 23rd March , 1931 .
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Books/Journals and Newspapers

Author/Editor Work Author/Editor Work
Aurobindo Ghosh ■ Karmayogi Deenbandhu Mitra ■ Neel Darpan
■ New lamp for old Derozio ■ East Indian
■ Bhawani Mandir Devendranath ■ Indian Mirror
Bankim Chandra ■ Anand Math Tagore
Chatterjee ■ Durgesh Nandini EV Ramaswamy ■ KudiAnasu
BR Ambedkar ■ Mook Nayak Naiker
■ Bahishkrit Bharat G Subramaniya ■ Swadesh Mrtram
Aiyar
Dadabhai Naoroji ■ Rast Goftar
G Subramaniya ■ The Hindu
■ Voice of India
Aiyar,
■ Poverty and Un-British Vi rar aghavachari
Rule in India and Subba Rao
Dayanand ■ Veda Bhasya Bhumika Pandit
Saraswati ■ Satyartha Prakash Ghulam Hussain ■ lnquilab
Gopal Krishna ■ Nation Harish Chandra ■ Hindu Patriot
Gokhale ■ Sudharak Mukherjee
Jawaharlal Nehru ■ Discovery of India Henry Vivian ■ India Gazette
■ National Herald Derozio
■ Wither India Hunters ■ Indian Musalmans
■ Soviet Asia lshwar Chandra ■ Som Prakash
MK Gandhi ■ Navjeevan Vidyasagar
■ Young India and James Augustus ■ Bengal Gazette
Harijan Hicky (1780)
■ Indian opinion Jyotiba Rao Phule ■ Ghulam Giri
Madan Mohan ■ Hindustan KK Mrtra ■ Sanjivani
Malviya ■ Leader KM Panikkar ■ The Hindustan Times
RN Tagore ■ Letters from Russia MA Azad ■ India wins freedom
■ Gora MG Ranade ■ Essays in India
Raja Ram Mohan ■ Sambad Kaumudi economics
Roy ■ Mirat-ul-AkhbBf MN Roy ■ India in Transition
■ Barga-Dutta Madam Bhikaji ■ Bande Mataram
Vivekanand ■ Prabhudha Bharat Cama
Udbodhana Maulana Abul ■ Al-Hila!
■ Prachya aur Kalam Azad
Pashcha'{a Maulana ■ Comrade
Annie Beasant ■ New India, Mohammad Ali
Commonwealth Mukundrao Pa til ■ Din Mrtra
BG Tilak ■ Kesari and Maratha Muzaftar Ah med ■ Navyug
BK Nanda ■ Biography of Gokhale PC Rai ■ History of Hindu
B Upadhyay ■ Sandhta Chemistry
BaJ Shastri ■ Darpan Pherozshah Mehta ■ Bombay Chronicle
Jambekar RC Dutt ■ Economic History of
Barindra Kumar ■ Yugantar British India
Ghosh and
RP Dutt ■ India Today
Bhupendra Dutta
Robert Knight ■ Indian Statesman
Bhartendu Harish ■ Kavivachan Sudha
Chandra Robert Knight and ■ Bombay Times
Thomas Bennett
Bipin ChandrapaJ ■ Paridarshak
SA Dange ■ The Socialist
Curzon ■ Philosophy of the East
Subhash Chandra ■ Indian struggle
Dayal Singh ■ Tribune
Bose
Majeetia
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

1
Important Dates/Years of lndia s Freedom Struggle
Date/Year lmportanoe
1905 Partition of Bengal announced; to come in force from 16th October 1906.
1906, December 30 Muslim League founded at Dacca
1908, April 30 Khudiram Bose executed .
1908, July 22 TTlak sentenced to six years on charges of sedition.
1909, May 21 Morley-Minto Reforms of Indian Councils Act, 1909.
1911 The coronation or Delhi durbar held at Delhi, in which the Partition of BengaJ
is cancelled .
1911 Delhi becomes the new capital of India.
1912, December 23 Bomb thrown on Lord Hardinge, on his entry into state Delhi.
1914, November 1 Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.
1914,June16 BG Tilak released from jail.
1914, August 4 Outbreak of the First World War.
1914, September Komagatamaru ship reaches Budge Budge (Calcutta port) .
29
1915, January 9 Gandhiji arrives in India.
1915, February 19 Death of GopaJ Krishna Gokhale.
1916, April 28 BG Tilak finds Indian Home Rule League with rts headquarters at Poona_
1916, September Another Home Rule League started by Annie Besant.
25
1917, April Mahatma Gandhi launches the Champaran campaign in Bihar to focus
attention on the grievances of indigo planters .
1917, August20 The Secretary of State for India, Montague, declares that the goal of the
British Government in India is the introduction of Responsible Government.
1918 Beginning of Trade Union Movement in India.
1918, April Rowlatt (Sedition) Committee submits its report . Rowlatt Bill introduced
on February 16, 1919.
1919, April 13 Jallianwala Bagh tragedy
1919, December 5 The House of Commons passes the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms or
the Government of India Act, 1919. The new reforms under this act came
into operation in 1921 .
1920 First meeting of the All India Trade Union Congress.
(under Narain Malhar Joshi) .
1920, December The Indian National Congress (INC) adopts the Non-Cooperation
Resolution.
1920-22 Non-Cooperation Movement, suspended on February 12, 1922 after the
violent incidents at Chauri Chaura on February 5, 1922.
1922, August Moplah rebellion on the Malabar coast.
1923, January 1 Swarajist Party formed by Motilal Nehru and others.
1924 The Communist Party of India starts its activities at Kanpur.
1925, August Kakori Train Conspiracy case.
1927, November 8 The Brrtish Prime Minister announces the appointment of the Simon
Commission to suggest Mure constitutionaJ reforms in India.
Simon Commission arrives in Bombay on February 3, 1928 and all-India
hartal. Lala Lajpat Rai assaulted by police at Lahore.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Date/Year lmportanoe
1928 Nehru Report recommends principles for the New Constitution of India.
All-parties conference considers the Nehru Report, August 28-31 , 1928.
1928, November 17 Death of Lala Lajpat Rai.
1929 Sharda Act passed prohibiting marriage of girls below 14 and boys beloVJ
18 years of age with etf ect from 1930.
1929, March 9 All-Parties Muslim Conference formulates the 'Fourteen Points ' under the
leadership of Jinnah.
1929, April 8 Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt throw a bomb in the Central
Legislative Assembly.
1929, October 31 Lord Irwin's announcement that the goal of British policy in India was the
grant of the Dominion status .
1929, December 31 The Lahore Session of the INC adopts the goaJ of complete
independence-Pooma Swarajya for India; Jawaharlal Nehru hoists the
tricolour of Indian Independence on the banks of the river Ravi at Lahore .
1930, January 26 First Independence Day observed .
1930, February 14 The Working Committee of the INC meets at Sabarmati and passes the Civil
Disobedience resolution.
1930, March 12 Mahatma Gandhi launches the Civil Disobedience Movement with his epic
Dandi March (March 12 to April 6). First phase of the Civil Disobedience
movement : March 12, 1930 to March 5, 1931 .
1930, November 30 First Round Table Conference begins in London to consider the report of
the Simon Commission.
1931, March 5 Gandhi-Irwin pact signed . Civil Disobedience Movement suspended .
1931, March 23 Bhagat Singh, Sukh Dev and Rajguru executed.
1931, September 7 Second Round Table Conference.
1931, December 28 Gandhiji returns from London after the deadlock in Second Round Table
Conference. Launches Civil Disobedience Movement. The Indian National
Congress declared illegal.
1932, January 4 Gandhiji arrested and imprisoned without trial.
1932,August16 British Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald announces the infamous
°Communal Award" .
0
1932, September Gandhiji in jail, begins his epic tast unto death" against the Communal
20 Award and ends the fast on 26th September, after the Poona Pact.
1932, November 17 The Third Round Table Conference begins in London (17th November to
24th December).
1933, May 9 Gandhiji released from prison as he begins his fast for self-purit1cation.
Indian National Congress suspends Civil Disobedience Movement but
authorises Satyagraha by individuals.
1934 Gandhiji withdraws from active politics and devotes himself to constructive
programmes.
1935,August4 The Government of India Act (1935) passed.
1937 Elections held in India under the Act of 1935 (February 1937). The Indian
National Congress contests elections, and forms ministries in several
provinces (July, 1937).
1938, February Haripura session of Indian National Congress . Subhash Chandra Bose
19-20 elected Congress President.
1939, March 10-12 Tripuri session of the Indian National Congress.
1939, April Subhash Chandra Bose resigns as the president of the Indian National
Congress.
1939, September 3 Second World War (1st September). Great Britain declares war on
Germany; the Viceroy declares that India too is at war.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Date/Year lmportanoe
1939, October 27- The Congress ministries in the provinces resign in protest against the war
November 5 policy of the British Government.
1939, December 22 The Muslim League observes the resignation of the Congress ministries as
Deliverance Day.
1940, March Lahore Session of the Muslim League, passes the Pakistan Resolution.
1940, August 10 Viceroy Linlithgow announces August Offer.
1940, August 18-22 Congress Working Committee rejects the August Offer.
1940, October 17 Congress launches Individual Satyagraha Movement.
1941, January 17 Subhash Chandra Bose escapes from India; arrives in Berlin (March 28).
1942, March 11 Churchill announces the Cripps Mission.
1942, August 7-8 The Indian National Congress meets in Bombay ; adopts 'Quit India'
resolution .
1942,August9 Gandhiji and other Congress leaders arrested .
1942, August 11 Quit India Movement begins; the Great August Uprising .
1942, September 1 Subhash Chandra Bose establish the Indian National Army 'Azad Hind
Fauj' .
1943, October 21 Subhash Chandra Bose proclaims the formation of the Provisional
Government of Free India.
1943, December Karachi Session of the Muslim League adopts the slogan 'Divide and Quit' .
1944, January 25 Wavell calls Shimla Conference in a bid to form the Executive Council of
Indian political leaders.
1946, February 18 Mutiny of the Indian naval ratings in Bombay.
1946, March 15 British Prime Minister Attlee announces Cabinet Mission to propose a new
solution to the Indian deadlock; Cabinet Mission arrives in New Delhi (14th
March); issues proposal (16th May).
1946, July 6 Jawaharlal Nehru takes over as Congress President.
1946, August 6 Wavell invites Nehru to form an Interim Government; Interim Government
takes ottice (2nd September) .
1946, December 9 First session of the Constituent Assembly of India starts. Muslim League
boycotts it
1947, February. 20 British Prime Minister Attlee declares that the British Government would
leave India not later than June, 1948.
1947, March 24 Lord Mountbatten, the last British Viceroy and Governor-General of India,
sworn in (March 24, 1947 to June 21 , 1948) .
1947, June 3 Mountbatten Plan for the partrtion of India and the announcement (4th
June) that transfer to power will take place on 15th August .
1947,August15 India wins freedom.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
I ART AND CULTURE OF INDIA
RELIGION
Religion is a collection of belief systems,
cultural systems and world views that relate
h umanity to spirituality and sometimes to
moral values. Religion is different from private
belief in its social character.
Hinduis111
a It consists of a collection of intellectual and
philosophical points of views, rather than a
rigid system of beliefs.
a There is no specific founder of the religion.
0
Its roots can be traced to the hist01ical Vedic
religion of the Iron age lndfa.
0 H.indujsm is the third largest religion in the
world after Christianity and Islam.
0
Prominent te>..'ts are Vedas , the Ramayana
and Mahabharata.
Christianity
a This religion was founded by Jesus Christ.
He was born to Mother Mary in Bethlehem
near Jerusalem. His birth day
(25th December) is celebrated as the h oly
festival, Christmas.
His first two disciple, Andrews and Peter,
were hanged in AD 33 by the Roman
Governor Portius.
Bible is the holy book of Christians and the
sign of 'Cross' is their holy symbol.
Islam
0
Hazrat Muhammad Saheb is believed to be
the founder of Islamic religion. He was born
to Amina (mother) and Abdullah (father) at
Mecca in AD 570.
0
He was manied to Khajida (a vv:idow) at the
age of 25 yrs. His <laugher, Fatima , was
manied to Ali Hussain.
0 Hazrat Muhammad attained supreme
knowledge or enJightment in AD 610 in the
Hira Cave near Mecca.
a 24th September (AD 622), the day Haz:rat
Muhammad started hisjoumey from Mecca
to Medina marks the beginning of the Hijri
Era.
0
He died on 8th J un e , AD 623 and was
bui-ied at Medina.
I
., After his death, Islam divided into the
Shia and the Sunni cults. His
successors were known as Khalifa.
0
The Turkish ruler, Mushtafa Kamal
Pasha, ended the designation of
Khalifa .
., The birthday of Muhammad Saheb is
celebrated as Eid-mild-un-Nabi.
Zoroastrianism (Parsi)
Parsi religion was founded by Prophet
Zoroaster (Zarathustra).
His teachings are compiled in t he
holybook-Zend Avesta. His followers
believed in one God-Ahur.
Sikhism
0 Guru Nanak is the founder of Sikhism.
0
Guru Granth Sahib is the Holy book
of Sikhism. Sikhism is the third
largest religion of India.
o Sikhism developed in India dwing
16th and 17th centuries.
Buddhism
o Mahatma Buddha is the founder of
Buddhism.Buddhism is the
indigenous religion of lndfa.
0 Holy book of Buddhism are the
Tripitakas.
., The three Jewels of Buddhism are
Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha .
0 Buddhists generally classify
themselves as either Theravada or
Mahayana.
Jainism
0 Mah avira Swan1i is the founder of
Jainism.
o Jainism is a religion indigenous to the
Indian subcontinent.
0
Holy book of Jainism is the Kalpa
Sutras.
0 The main doctrines of Jainism are
Anelrnntavada, Syadvada and
Nayavada. The two sects of Jainism
are Svetambara and Digambara.
Jaina holy te>..'ts consist of Purvas ,
Agamas, Angas and Upangas.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

LANGUAGES
Sanskrit
0
Sanslait is th e mother of many IndJan
languages.
0 The Vedas, Upanish ads , Puranas and
Dharmasutras are all vv1itten in Sanslait.
0
It is one of the twenty-two languages listed
in the lndJan Constitution.
0 The Dharmasutras, the Manusmriti 1
Arthashastra and Gita Govinda are the
famous books in Sanskiit.
Pan.ini, Kautilya, Kalhana and J ayadeva
are the famous vvriters of Sanslait.
Pali
Pali is an Indo-Aryan language, which was
used for the earliest Buddhist scriptures.
Pali literature is mainly concerned with
Theravada Buddhism.
Telugu
a The Vijyanagara period was the golden age
of Telugu literature.
0
Eight Telugu literary luminaries are
popularly known as Ashtadiggajas.
0
Ramakiishna was the author
of Panduranga Mahatmayam, which was
considered as one of the greatest poetical
works of Telugu literature.
Kannada
a Kannada language developed fully after
the AD 10th century. The earliest knovm
literary vvork in Kannada is Kavirajamarg,
w1itten by the Rashtrakuta King
Nlipatunga Amoghavargh a I.
0 Pampa, known as the father of Kannada, Raja Ram Mohan Roy wrote in Bengali
Ta1nil
., Tamil is the mother language of the
DravidJan language family.
., The Sangam literature is a collection of
long and short poems composed by
vaiious poets in praise of numerous
heroes and heroines.
0
There are about 30000 lines of poetry,
which are arranged in eight anthologies
called Ettuttokai.
Persian and Urdu
0
Urdu emerged as an independent
language towards the end of the AD 4th
century.
., Urdu as a language was born out of the
interaction between HindJ and Persian.
0
Urdu became more popular in the early
18th centw-y.
., The eai-liest Urdu poet is supposed to
be Khusrau.
., Urdu has given us a new form of poem ,
that is called a nazm.
Hindi
0
Hindi is a direct descendant of the
Sanslait language, through Pralait and
Apabhrnmsha.
0
It is spoken largely in North lndJa.
., Evolution of Hindi literature can be
better understood through four stages
of AdJ Kal, Bhal'i:i Kal, R.iti-kavya Kal
and Adhunik kal .
LITERATIJRE
Bengali Literature
0

wrote his great poetic works Adi Purana and

besides English , which gave an impetus
Vihamaijiva Vijaya in the AD I 0th century.
to Bengali literature.
., lshwar Chandra Vidhyasagar
Malayalam (1820-91) and Akshay Kumar Dutta
The language of Malayalam emerged (1820-86) were the two other vv1iters of
around the AD 11th century. By 15th th.is early period.
century, Malayalam was recognjsed as an .,
Sharat Chandra Chatte1ji (1876-1938)
independent language.
and RC Dutta, a noted historian and a
Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on prose writer, too contributed to the
Arthashastra and Kolrnshndisam are two making of Bengali literature.
great works. ., But the most important name that
0Rama Panikkar and Ramanujan influenced the whole of India was that
Ezhuthachan are well lmov,'TI authors of of Rabindra Nath Tagore (1861-1941).
Malayalam literature. Novels, dramas, short stories, criticism ,
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
music and essays, all flowed from his
pen. He won the Nobel Prize for
literature in 1913 for his Geetanjali.
Assamese Literature
0
Like Bengali, Assamese also developed in
response to the Bhakti movement.
a Shankaradeva, who introduced
Vaishnavism in Assam helped in the
growth of Assamese poeb.--y. Even the
Puranas were translated in Assamese.
0 The earliest Assamese literature
consisted of bw·anjis (court chronicles).
Shankaradeva has left several devotional
poems, which people sang ,vith
rapturous pleasure, but it was only after
1827 that more interest was shown in
producing Assamese literature.
Oriya Literature
0
Oriya language shows the maximum
influence of Sanslait. It originated in
the AD 9th century and its literai--y
development took place in the 13th
century.
0
Worth mentioning in Oriya literature at'e
Falci.nnohan Senapati and Rad.ha Nath
Ray, whose w1itings deserve considerable
attention in the hist01--y of Oriya
literature.
0
The works of Upendra Bhanja
(1670-1720) were in1portant as they
ushered a new period of Oriya literature.
1n Odisha, the works of Saraladasa are
regai'<led as the first works of Oriya
literature.
Punjabi Literature
0
Punjabi is a language vvitb several
shades. It is being written in two sc1ipts,
Gurumukhi and Persian.
a Guru Nanak was the first poet in
Punjabi. Some other conternporai--y
poets, mostly Sufi saints, used to sing in
tl1is language.
a Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th guru, was
educated in Patna (Bihai·), where he
leai·nt Persian and Sanslait.
0
He has composed two savaiyyas in
Punjabi, but these are not a part of the
Adi Granth. Similar is the populaiity of
Bulley Shah, who was a Su£ saint. He
has composed a large number of songs.
Indian Literature in English
Lano-uao·e
b b
0
English came into India ·with the British
and soon became a language of formal
education. Some of the eai·ly Indian
works in English were mitten by Raja
Rammohan Roy, Hem--y Vivian Derozio
and Madhusudan Dutt. Aurobindo
Ghosh vvrote his epic poem 'S[[Vitri: A
Legend and a Symbof in Engli.sh.
0
India's only Nobel laureate in literature
Rabindranatb Tagore wrote some of his
work originally in English and did some
of his own Engli.sh translation from
Bengali. Sai·ojini Naidu and Jawal1ai·lal
Nehru also wrote in English. Nehru 's
'The Discove1--y of India' and 'Glimpses of
World History' ai-e quite popular.
0 Some notable Indian poets, who w1ite in
English at'e Nissim Ezekiel, Dom
Mora.es, Arnn Kolakar and Dilip Chit1-e.
Other notable Indian ,,, 'liters ai-e
Khushwant Singh, Salman Rushdie,
Vila·am Seth, Arundhati Roy, Kamala
Mai·kandaya, Kiran Desai, Jhumpa
Lahiri etc.
MUSIC
The music of India is said to be one of the
oldest unbroken musical n·aditions in the
World.
Many different legends have grown up
concerning the 01igin and development of
Indian classical music.
Hindustani Music
Classical Music
0 Hindustani classical music originated in
North India at'ound the 13th and 14th
centw·ies. 1n conb.·ast to Cai·natic music
the Hindustani classical music was no~
only influenced by ancient Hindu
musical traditions and Vedic philosophy,
but also by the Persian elements.
0
Hindustani music is based on the Raga
system. The Raga is a melodic scale,
comprising of notes from the basic seven
- Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa., Dha and Ni.
0
On the basis of notes included in it, each
raga attains a different chai·acter. The
form of the raga is also determined by
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
the particular pattern of ascent and
descent of the notes, which may not be
strictly linear.
0 Hindustani classical music is primarily
vocal-centric. The major vocal forms
associated with Hindustani classical
music are the h.hayal, ghazal, dhrnpad,
Tappa, tarana and tlwmri.
Khayal
It is a form of vocal music adopted from
medieval Persian music . It is based on
imagination and improvisations of the
performer.
Dhrupad
It is the oldest form of Hin dustanj m usic,
n-aditionally performed by male singers . It is
mostly a poetic form. Tansen Sang in
dhrupad style.
Tappa
It is developed in 18th century from the folk
songs of camel riders of Punjab. They are
essentially folklore of love and passion and
vvritten in Punjabi. Developed as a form of
classical music by Mian Ghularn Nabi Shoti.
Tarana
It is a medium to fast paced song usually
performed towards the end of the concert . It
consists of a few lines of poeb.)' with
rhythmic syllables.
Thwnri
It is an informal vocal form of Hindustanj
classical music and is sajd to have begun
vvith the court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, the
Nawab of Oudh.
Ghazal
It is a poetic form consisting of rhyming
couplets on love and devotion.
It is an ancient form 01iginating in 6th
centul)' Arabic poetry. It spread into South
Asia in the 12th century, due to the influence
of Sufi mystics.
Gharana
There is a rich tradition of Gharanas in
classical Hindustani music . These schools
or Gharanas have their basis in the
n-aditional mode of musical trajnrng and
education. Every Gharana has its own
distinct features.
Gwalior Gharana
This is the oldest among all th e Khayal
Gayahi (vocal) styles. Its mstinctive
feature is its lucidity and simplicity. It is
founded by Hassu Khan and Nathu Khan.
Agra Gharana
The Agra Gharana places great
importance on developing forcefulness
and deepness in the voice, so that the
notes are povver:ful and resonant founded
by Haji Sujan Khan .
Kirana Gharana
It derives its name from the birth-place of
Abdul Kha.rim Khan of Kirana near
Kuruksheb.-a. 1n the Kirana style of
singing, the swam is used to create an
emotional mood by means of elongation
and use of Kana-s .
Rampur Sahaswan Gharana
ln Rampur Sahaswan Gharana, there is a
sb.-ess on the claiity of swam and the
development and elaboration of the raga
is done through a stepvvise progression.
Founded by lnayat Khan.
Patiala Gharana
Founded by Inayat Khan. Regarded as an
off-shoot of the Delm Ghai-ana., the
Patiala Gharana is characte1ised by the
use of greater rhythm play and by
Layakmi vvith the abundant use of Bols,
particularly Bol tans founded by ustad
Fateh Ali Khan.
Delhi Gharana
The Delhi Gharana \Vas represented by
Tanras Khan and Shabbu Khan. The
highlights of Delhi Gharana are pleasing
vistaar and exquisite compositions.
Founded by Ustad Mamman Khan.
Banaras Gharana
The Banaras Gharana evolved as a result
of great tilting style of khayal singing
knovm by Thumri singers of Banaras and
Gaya. Founded by Pt. Gopal Mishra.
Mewati Gharana
The Mewati Gharana gives importance to
developing the mood of the raga through
the notes forming it and its style is Bhava
Pradhan. It also gives equal importance
to the meaning of the text.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Musical Instruments and Instrumentalists

Instruments Instrumentalists
Stringed Instruments
1. Audra Veena Asad Ali Khan, Zia Moin-ud-din Dagar
2. Santoor Shiv Kumar Sharma,
3. Sarod Buddhadev Dasgupta, Ali Akbar Khan , Amjad Ali khan, Bahadur Khan,
Sharan Rani, Zarin S Sharma
4. Sarangi Ustad Binda Khan
5. Sitar Ravi Shankar, Hara Shankar Bhattacharya, Nikhil, Banerjee, Vilayat Khan,
Mustaq Ali Khan
6. Surb Ahar Sajjad Hussain, Annapurna
7. Veena Ooraiswamy Iyengar, Chittibabu, Emani Sankara Shastri, Dhanammal, S
Bala Chandran, KR Kumaraswamy
8. Viol in Gajanan Rao Joshi, MS Gopal Krishnan, TN Krishnan, Baluswamy,
Dikshrtar, Dwaran Venkataswamy Naidu Lalyuli G Jayaraman, Mysore T
Chowdiah, VG Jog
Wind Instruments
9. Flute TR Mahalingam, N Ramani , Hari Prasad Chaurasia , Pannalal Ghosh
10. Nadaswaran Sheikh Chinn a Moula, Neeruswamy Pillai, Rajaratanam Pillai
11 . Shehnai Bismillah Khan
Percussion (Striking Thumping) Instruments
12. Mridangam Palghat Mani Iyer, Karaikudi R Mani, Palghat Raghu
13. Pakhawag Pt Ayodhya Prasad , Gopal Oas, Babu Ram Shanker Pagaldas
14. Tabla Zakir Hussain, Nikhil Ghosh, Kishan Maharaj, Alla Rakha Khan, Pandit
Samta Prasad, Kumar Bose, Latif Khan
15. Kanjira Pudukkotai Oakshinamurthi Pillai

Instruments Vocalists
Carnadc MS Subbulakshm i, Balamuralikrishna, Bombay Jaishree, HK Raghavendra,
Aryakudi Ramanujan lyenegar Venkataram, Sitarajam, Mani Krishnaswamy ,
Akhil Krishnan, ML Vasanthakumari, MD Ramanathan, GN Balasubramaniam
Ohrupad Ustad Rahim Fahim-ud-din Dagar, Zahir-ud-din Dagar, Wasif-ud-din Dagar,
Bundecha Bandhu, Pt Abhay Narayan Mallick, Pt Ritwik Sanyal, Uday Bhawalkar
Hindustani Shubha Mudgal, Madhup Mudgal, Mukul Shivputra, Pandrt Jasraj, Parveen Sultana,
Naina Devi, Girija Devi, Ustad Ghulam Mustafa Khan, Gangubai Hangal, Krishna
HangaJ, V Rajput, Kumar Gandharva, Faiyyaz Khan, Mallikariun Mansur.
Thumri Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Ustad Mazhar Ali Khan, Ustad Zawad Ali Khan,
Poornima Chaudhary, Shanti Heerananda, Naina Devi, Rita Ganguly
Oawwali Ghulam Hasan Niyazi, Sultan Niyazi, Ghulam Farid Nizami, Hussain Khan
Bandanawaji , Aslam Sabaari, Chand Nrzami

DANCE
Indian Classical Dances
India has an old tradition of thousands of years in regard to classical and folk music and
dances. Indian classical dances traces their origin from Bharat Mum 's Natyasastra and
Nandi Kesvar's Abhinava Darpan. Classical dance forms that originated and evolved in
India are Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Mohiniattam, Odissi
and Sattriya .
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
Bharatnatyam
a Bharatnatyam is classical dance of
Tamil Nadu.
0
The music accompanying this dance
is Carnatic music. It evolved out of
the Devadasi system of South Indian
temples. Two famous styles are
Pandanallur and Tanjore.
° Famous dancers associated with
Bharatnatyarn are E Krishna Iyer,
Rukmini Devi Arundale and Anna
Pavlova.
Kathak
° Kathak is said to be derived from the
word lwtha, meaning the art of
storytelling.
° Famous centres are Lucknow and
Jaipur. Luclrnow school depicts " Famous exponents of this dance form are
Mughal Court etiquette, while the
Jaipur school depicts st01ies of
Rajput kings and Gods. Famous
e>rponents are Sitara Devi, Sambhu Odissi
Maharaj, Uma Sharma Shovana
o Odissi is one of the famous classical Indian
Narayan etc.
a It is a graceful and sensous dance style and
Kathakali
° Kathakili is the classical dance form
of Kerala. The word Kathalwli
literalJy means story play.
° Kathakili is considered as one of the
° Famous dancers of Odissi are lnch-ani
most magnificent theatres Of
iniagination and creativity.
° Famous exponents of Kathakili are
Vallathol Narayan Menon, Kunju
Kurup, Guru Gopinath etc.
Kuchipudi
a Kuchjpudi is the classical dance
forms of Andhra Pradesh. Kuchipud:i
exhibits scenes from the Hindu
epics, legends and mythological
tales.
° Famous exponents of Kuchipudi are
Lakshmj Narayan Shastri, Raja and
Radha Reddy, Swapana Sundarj and
Yamini Krishnamurti.
Manipuri
0
Manipuri is classical dance form of Manipur.
The most striking part of Manipmi dance is
its colow-fuJ decoration, lightness of dancing
foot, delicacy of abhinaya (drama), Wting
music and poetic cha.rm. Manipmi dance is
not only a medium of worship and delight
but also essential for all socio-cultmal
ceremonies of Manipwi people. Popular
eArponents are Javeri sisters, llita Devi,
Ninnala Mehta, Guru Bipin Singh etc.
Mohiniatta1n
0
Mohinfattam from Kerala is a solo female
dance and is knovvn for its rbythmjc and
unbroken flow of the body movements.
Mohinfattarn has the grace and elegance of
Bharatanatyam and vigour of Kathakili.
Kalyani Amma, Vaijayanthimala, Bharati
Shivaji and Hema Malini.
dances from Odisha state.
involves the tribhanga (three bends)
posture.
0
The (three bends) symbolise the means to
escape the limitations of the body.
Rehman, Sonal Mansingh, Ki.ran Sengal,
Rani Karna, Sharon Lowen and Myrta
Barvie.
Sattriya
0
Sattriya is the classical dance form from
Assam. It was created by Vaishnav Saint
Sremanta Sankaradeva in 15th century.
" It is traditionally performed by bhokos (male
monks) in monasteries, but now by female
also. The dance is based on mythological
themes.
0
It is pe1formed on Assamese music called
Borgeet and instruments used are Khol
(drum), Talas (cymbals) and Flute.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Folk Dances and Tribal Dances in India

States Danoes
Maharashtra Kathakeertan, Lezim , Dandaniya, Tamasha, Gata, Dahikala, Lavani.
Mauni, Dasavtar
Karnataka Huttari, Suggi Kunitha , Yakashagana
Kerala Kaikottikali, Kaliyattam , Tappatikkali
Tamil Nadu Kolattam, Pinnal Kolattam, Kummi, Kavadi, Karagam
Andhra Pradesh Ghanta Mardala, Veedhi Natakam , Burrakatha
Odisha Ghumara Sanchar, Chadya Dandanata , Chhau
Paschim Banga Kathi, Chhau, Baul, Kirtan, Jatra, Lama
Asam Bihu, Khel, Gopal, Rash Lila , Tabal Chongl i, Canoe
Punjab Giddha (women), Bhangra (men)
Jammu and Kashmir Rauf, Hikat
Himachal Pradesh Jhora, Jhali, 0ang li, Mahasu, Jadda, Jhainta, Chharhi
Haryana Jhumar, Ras Leela, Phag dance , 0aph, Dhama l, Loar, Gugga, Khoria ,
Gagor
Gujarat Garba, 0andiya Rass, Tippani, Gomph
Rajasthan Ginad, Chakri , Gangore, Teratali, Khayal, Jhulan Leela, Jhuma, Suisini
Bihar Jata Jati n, Jadur, Chhau , Kathaputli , Bakho , Jhijhiya , Samochakwa.
Karma, Jatra, Natna
Uttar Pradesh Nautanki , Thora, Chappeli, Raslila, Kajri
Madhya Pradesh Karma
Meghalaya Laho
Goa Manda
Mizoram Khantumm
Uttarakhand Choliya, Pandav Nritya, Jagars, Jhora

Classical Dancers of India

Danae Danoer
Bhaiatnatyam Bala Saraswati , CV Chandrasekhar, Leela Samson, Mrinalin i Sarabhaj, Padma
Subramanyam, Rukmini Devi , Sanyukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh, Yamini
Kri shnamurti
Kathak Bharti Gupta, Birju Maharaj, Damayanti Joshi, 0urga Das, Gopi Kri shna,
Kumudini Lakhia, Sambhu Maharaj, Sitara Devi
Kuchipudi Josyula Seetharamaiah, Vempath i Chinna Sathyam
Manipuri Guru Bipin Sinha, Jhaveri Sisters , Nayana Jhaveri, Nirmala Mehta, Savita
Mehta
Odfssi 0ebaprasad Oas, Dhirendra Nath Patnaik, lndrani Rahman, Kelucharan
Mahapatra, Priyambada Mohanty
Kathakali Mrinalini Sarabhai , Guru Shankaran, Namboodripad , Thottam Shankaran,
Kutti Nayyar, Shankar Kurup, KC Pannikar, TT Ram Kulti Nayyar, etc
Mohiniyattam Protima Devi, Sanyukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh, Pankaj Charan Das,
Keluoharan Mahapatra , Madhvi Mudgal , etc
Sattriya Jatin Goswami, Sharodi Saikja, Indira Bora, Maniram Datta, Anita Sharma.
Pradip Chaliha etc.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

The lndo-Islamic style was neither

ARCHITECTURE a

stiictly Islamic nor stlictly Hindu.

lndian architecture , which has evolved o The eai·liest building of this pe1iod is
through centu1ies , is the result of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque and the
socio-economic and geographical Qutub Minar at Delhi.
conditions of the region. Indian
architectw-e evolved in vaiious stages in PUPPETRY
different pai~ts and regions of the country.
Apart from the natural evolution Indian o The eai·ly puppet shows in India dealt
ai·chitecture was generally affected by mostly vvith histories of great kings.
many great and important historic Princes and heroes and also political
developments. satire in ruxal ai·eas.
a There ai·e four types of puppetl-y in
Raj put Architecture lndia-Stiing puppets, Shadow puppets,
a The Raj puts were great patrons of art and Rod puppets and Glove puppets.
ai·chitectw-e, the finest examples being
their forts and palaces. The Rajput PAINTING
palaces are complex compositions built
as inner citadels surrounded by the city T he hist01-y oflndian paintings is just about
and enclosed by a forti£ed wall as at as old as the hist01-y of the people of India.
Chittorgarh and Jaisalmer. Some forts, T he most primitive instances of paintings
such as those at Bharatpur and Deeg, in India can be ti·aced back to cave
were protected by vvide moats. paintings of Bhimbetka.
a The palaces of Jaisalmer, Bikaner,
J oclhpur, Udaipur and Kota represent the Mugbal School
maturity of the Rajput style. This school has a specific style of South
0

Asian painting. Usually, it was con.fined

Deccan Style
a The ai·chitecture of the Deccan is
mai·ked by its distinct originality and
independence of style, unlike the
to miniatures either as book depictions
or as individual works to be kept in
albums.
This practice materialised from Persian
0

ai·chitectural styles of the other miniature painting, vvitb Indian

provinces, which combined both the influences of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain.
temple ai·chitecture and the Islamic
o It wonderfully blossomed dwing the
building ideals. It derived its elements
from the ai·chitectural styles of the Mugh al Empire. Later, this school of
Sultan of Delhi and that of the distant painting reached other Indian courts of
Persia. Muslims and Hindus and afterwai·ds
Sikhs.
a Some key featw-es of this style are the

presence of bulbous domes with lotus Akbar and Jahangi:r were exceptionally
0

neck, militai-y style of architecture , great pati·ons of this painting. Mughal

presence of thick walls and combination
of gateway and mosque-like Clzarminar.
Mugbal Style
The medieval peliod saw great
developments in the field of architecture.
With the coming of Muslims to lndia ,
many new features came to be
introduced in buildings. The
development of Muslim style of
ai·chitecture of this pe1iod can be called
the Inda-Islamic ai·chitecture or the
Indian ai·chitecture influenced by
Islamic Art.
School of painting revolved around court
scenes, porh·aits, h unting scenes , lovers,
battle fronts etc.
Rajput School
0
This school progressed and thrived
during the 18th centu1-y in the majestic
Rajputana courts.
o This school of pain ting flooded from the
approach of M ughal painting.
o A typical style of painting with particular
common characteristics came up in
eveL-y Rajput realm.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• This school illustrated an assortment of themes like landscapes, events from the
Mahabharata, Ramayana , Kiishna 's life and about human beings.

Bengal School
0
This school was a fashfon of art , which progressed during the British Raj of Inma in
early 20th century.
a Inman Nationabsm was grea tly linked to this painting. British art administrators also
supported and promoted it.
0
Raja Ravi Verma and Abanindranatb Tagore were amongst the pioneer artists of this
school. Today 's renovvned artists, who belong to this School include Nilima Dutta ,
Sudip Roy, Paresh Maiti and Bikash Bhattachaijee.
Cultural Heritage
Site State
Mahabodhi Temple Bihar
Red Fort Delhi
Outub Minar Delhi
Humayun's Tomb Delhi
Champaner Achaelogical Park Gujarat
Churches of Old Goa Goa
Jantar Mantar Jaipur
Hampi Karnataka
Pattadakal Karnataka
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus Mumbai , Maharashtra
Ajanta Caves Maharashtra
Ellora Caves Maharashtra
Sanchi Stupa Madhya Pradesh
Khajuraho Madhya Pradesh
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka Madhya Pradesh
Elephanta Caves Maharashtra
Konark Sun Temple Odisha
Mahabalipuram Tamil Nadu
Great Living Chola Temples Tamil Nadu
Agra Fort Uttar Pradesh
Taj Mahal Uttar Pradesh
Fatehpur Sikri Uttar Pradesh
Mountain Railway of India Paschim Banga
Nalanda Maha Vihara Bihar
Hill Forts of Rajasthan Rajasthan
Ahmedabad City Gujarat
Jaipur Crty Rajasthan
Rani ki Vav Gujarat
Capital Complex Chandigarh
Victoria! and Art Deco Ensemble of Maharashtra
Mumbai
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
I WORLD HISTORY I
Mesopota1nian Civilisation
a It is the oldest civilisation of the world.
Mesopotamfa is the land between the rivers
Tigris and Euphrates.
Mesopotamfans were the first to use potter's
wheel, to make iron implements to make glass
ware, to evolve a proper system of vvriting
called Cuneiform. Cuneiform sclipt was
deciphered by Henry Rawlinson.
a Mesopotamfans discovered sexagesimal
system of counting (based on sixties),
Pythagoras theorem, lunar calendar and
calculated the length of day and night.
Chinese Civilisation
0
The earliest civilisation was by the Shang
(Chou) Dynasty, followed by the Chin and
Han dynasties.
a In 3rd century BC, the ruler of China dynasty
built the Great Wall
° Chinese sclipt was pictogi·aphic and their
calendar was a combination of solar-lunar
calendar.
a Silk became the chief item of export dw-ing
the Hans .
a The two major religions were Taoism and
Confucianism. They invented water clock,
abacus, umbrella, paper and seismogi·aph.
Iranian Civilisation
This civilisation developed in around 6th
centu1-y BC by the Achaemenid Empire under
its first ruler, Cyrus. llis capital was at
Pasarngadae .
llis successors were Darius I and Darius ill.
The Achaemenids introduced the use of gold
and silver coins.
a Thefr main religion was Zoroastrianism,
founded by Zai-athustra or Zoroaster. Their
official language was Aramaic.
Greek Civilisation
0 The civilisation developed around 800 BC,
when the small villages clustered to form
city-states.
a They worshipped Zeus (Sky God), Poseidon
(Sea God), Apollo (Sun God), Athena (Goddess
of victoi-y), Dionysus (God of Wine) etc.
., In the Battle of Mai-a th on ( 490
BC), Greeks defeated King Daiius
I. Alexander was the gi·eatest Greek
ruler.
0
The Olympic Games originated in
Greece. Iliad and Odyssey ai--e
among the best epics of the world
written by Homer.
Ro1nan Civilisation
0 Italy was the centre of the
civilisation. The city of Rome was
founded by Romulus in I 000 BC on
the bank of river Tiber.
., The vvai· between Cai-thage and
Rome is knovm as Punic War (264
BC to 146 BC).
0
Ju]jus Caesar, one of the generals,
murdered Pompey, another general
and occupied the throne. He was
attached to the Egyptian queen
Cleopatra. Caesai· was succeeded
by Octavian and Diocletian.
0
Romans worshipped the planets.
They developed the Latin
language.
0
Lucretius, Seneca, Cicero and
Mai·us were the famous Roman
philosophers and Horace and Virgil
were the poets. Tacitus and Pliny
were the historians.
0 They invented 'concrete ', usefuJ
for constructing buildings.
Renaissance
0
The Renaissance or "Revival of
lea1-r1ing" stai·ted in the AD 14th
centw-y in Italy. The fall of
constantinople by the Tw-ks in
1453 led to the dispersal of
scholai·s from Ew-ope to Itlay.
0 Renaissance led to the revival of
classical learning, mt and
a1·chitectu1--e and propelled
humanism . Renaissance
writers-Dante, Petrai-ch, Boccaccio
and Machiavelli, came to the fore.
0 Renaissance painters- Leonardo
da Vinci (The last Supper and
Monalisa), Michelangelo (The last
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

J udgement and the fall of man) and Raphael on a ship of East In dia Company into
(Madonna). the sea. This was because of the
The movement also helped in the problem on tea tax.
development of printing press. 0 On 4th July, 1776, the Declaration
of Independence was issued
Refonnation (16th Century) authored by Thomas Jafferson.
a This movement was started in Germany by 0 The war ended with the Treaty of
Martin Luther, by publicly protesting the Paris in AD 1783.
sale of Letters of Indulgence. 0
Benjamin Franklin established the
a It was a revolt against Roman Catholic American Philosophical Society.
Chlll·ch. As a result, Western Ew-ope was Americans were the first to have a
split between Roman Catholic and protestant w1itten Constitution.
counbies.
French Revolution
Glorious Revolution of aThe Revolution initiated on
England (1688) 5th May, 1789 dming the kingship of
Louis XVl.
0
This revolution started against the policies of
King James Il. He hied to secure freedom of ° French society vvas divided into three
worship for Catholics. estates (Clergy, Nobility and
Commoners).
0
This united the Whlgs and Tories of
Anglican Church against him , and they 0
The immediate cause of the
invited William of Orange to occupy English revolution was the eJ{h·avagant
throne. eJ{penditw-e and inefficiency by
Louis XV and Louis XVl.
a J ames Il threw the great seal into the
river Thames and fled to France. The event
0
Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau
is knmvn as Glorious or Bloodless were the French writers and thinkers
Revolution. of the pe1iod.
0
It ended the despotic rule of the Stuarts,
0
Liberty, Equality and Fraternity
established Supremacy of Parliament. The were the watch word of the
Bill of Rights (1689) was passed that settled revolution.
dovvn the problem of succession .
Unification of Germany
Industrial Revolution a This was the result of the Blood and
0 It began in B1itain in AD 1750 with the Iron Policy of Bismarck, the Prime
invention of Spinning Jenny by Hargreaves, Minister of King William I (Prussia).
Water frame by Richard Arkvn.ight (1769), 0
After the Napoleonic war
MuJe by Samuel Crompton (1779), Power (1803-15), the 38 independent
loom by Emmund Cartwright (1785) and states were unified under the king
Steam engine by James Watt (1769). of Prussia. From 1815 to 1850,
0
This fastened the production of cloth and Ausbia ruled over the German
confederation.
better quality yarn were produced. The
economic progress also affected the cultural 0
Bismarck defeated Austria and
and social life of the people. dissolved the German confederation.
a He founded a new confederation of
American Revolution 22 states in 1866. The unification
0 A sb·uggle by which 13 English colonies of was completed with the
North Ame1ica got independence from Prussia-France War (1870), in
Britain. which the French Emperor Louis
Bonaparte was defeated.
0
George Washington, the :fiTSt President of
America was the pioneer of this revolution .
0
William I, the king of Prussia was
declared as the Emperor of Germany
a Boston Tea Party (1773) A group of citizens
at Versailles in France.
of Boston dumped the crates of tea, loaded
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

IMPORTANT WARS OF THE

20th CENTURY
Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) Korean War (1950-1953)
The conflict arising from d1e rivalry of Conflict between North Korea, supported by
Russia and Japan for control of Manchu1ia China and South Korea, supported by UN
and Korea resulted in the ·war. Russia was forces dominated by the USA. Negotiations
forced to surrender Korea, the Liaotung continued for two years before a truce was
Peninsula and Sakhalin to Japan. agreed on in July 1953.

First World War (1914-18) Vietnam War (1954-1975)

International conflict began betwee □ Austria Conflict between US backed South Vietnam
and Serbia. The chief contestants vvere ilie and the Viet Cong, who had the support of
Central Powers (Germany and Austria) and communist North Vietnam. It followed the
ilie Triple Entente (Britain, France and partitio □ of Vietnam. In 1975, South
Russia). Many other countries joined as the Vietnam was oveiTun by North Vietnamese
war began. War ended with the Treaty of forces, and the country was united under
Versailles. Communist rule.

Sino-Japanese Wars (1931-33) Iran-Iraq War (1980-1990)

Two wars between China and Japan, War began shortly after the Iranian
marking the beginning and the end of Revolution of 1979. Iraq wanted control over
Japanese imperial e>.."Pansion on the Asian oil-rich Iranian border tenitory.
mainland. The first war in 1894-95 arose Falkland War (
from rivalry for control of Korea. The second 1982 )
war in 1937-45 developed from Japan's Military conflict between Great Britain and
seizure of Manchrnia. Argentina on the question of sovereignty
over the Falkland Islands led to the war.
Second World War (1939-45) Britain won the 1,,var.
International conflict arising from disputes
provoked by ilie expansionist policies of Gulf War (1991)
Gern1any in Europe and Japan in the far Military action by a US led coalition to e>.."Pel
East. The axis PO\•vers- Germany, Italy and lraqi forces from Kuwait. Kuwait was
(after September 1940) Japan-controlled liberated (26th February, 1991) and a
most of Europe and much of Northern ceasefire was declared on 28th February.
Africa, China and Asia. The United States
stayed out of the war until 7th December, Bosnian War (1992-98)
1941. The Allies (led by USA, Britain and Ethnically rooted war in Bosnia and
USSR) were the victors. Herzegovina, a republic of Yugoslavia with a
multiethnic population-Muslims, Serbs and
Arab-Israeli War Croats.
(1948-1949, 1956, 1967, 1973-1974)
Conflict between Israel and the Arab states. US-Afghan War(2001)
After the creation of the state of Israel Military action by US against Afghanistan in
(14th May, 1948), troops from Egypt, hag, protest against the 11th September's, attack
Lebanon, Syria and 'frans Jordan (Modern on WTC Towers.
Jordan) invaded the new nation.
Simmering Arab-Israeli hostilities Gulf War II (2003)
exploded into war in 1967, when Israel, Military action by a US led coalitio □ to oust
assailed by Palestinian gue1illas, launched Saddam Hussain from pov,er in Iraq. It was
a massive primitive sb.ike against Egypt, conducted on the prete>..-t of Iraq possessing
the Arab world's leading state. Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD).
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
FAQs (Indian History)
1. Who was the first Governor-General of
Bengal?
2. The Battle of Wandiwash (1760) was
fought between whom?
3. Who granted the permission to establish
the French factory at Masulipatnam?
4. The trade monopoly of East India
company was ended by which Act?
5. Sir Thomas Roe visited the court, of
which Mughal emperor?
6. In which year was Harappan Civilisation
discovered?
7. Water Management System of
Harappan times has been unearthed at?
8. Which animal was not represented on
the seals and terracotta art of the Indus
Valley Civilisation?
9. Which Governor General is associated
with Doctrine of Lapse?
1 o. Which place was the caprtal city of Tipu
Sultan?
11. Patanjali is known for the compilation of
which book?
12. Which Veda contajns an account of
magical charms and spells?
13. In ancient India, the earliest caprtal of
Magadh kingdom was at
14. A Buddhist council during the reign of
Ashoka was held at
15. Where did Lord Buddha breathed his
last?
16. Who founded the independent Sultanate
of Bengal?
17. Who is also known as Nigantha
Natoputra?
18. Chinese traveller Hiuen-Tsang studied,
at which university?
19. Under which system of assessment, the
Britishers collected revenue directly
from the farmers?
20. Who started the Public works Depart-
ment in India (1848)?
21. Who gave the theory of economic drain
in his book, "Poverty and the Un British
Rule in India" ?
22. Megasthenes was an ambassador, of
which Greek king?
23. The division of Mauryan society in 7
classes is particularly mentioned, in
which book?
24. Who was the first Mauryan ruler to
conquer Deccan?
25. Who was first to decipher the Brah mi script
of Ashoka?
26. Charaka was the famous court physician of
which king?
27. The first President of All India Trade Union
Congress was
28. The first Governor General and Viceroy of
British India was
29. Which Chinese general defeated
Kanishka?
30. Who was the founder of pattini cult related
to worship of Kannagi?
31. The silver coins of Gupta period were
Known as
32. The second session of INC was presided
over by
33. Who was the fi rst Muslim President of INC?
34. Who was the first Indian to become
member of the British Parliament?
35. Which period marks the beginning of
Indian temple architecture?
36. Which extremist leader dominated the
Lucknow Pact in December, 1916?
37. The Prayag Prasasti/Allahabad Pillar
Inscription is associated, with which ruler?
38. The rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram
were built under the patronage of king?
39. Two great religious conferences were held
by Harshavardhan at
40. The subject matter of Ajanta painting
pertains to to religion
4 1. In which movement did Gandhiji made the
fi rst use of Hunger Strike?
42. From where did Acharya Vinoba Bhave
start the individual Satyagraha in 1940?
43. Use of white marble, long legs and slender
frames-were the characteristic features of
which ancient art forms of India.
44. First major inscription in classical sanskrit
is that of
45. Who attended the Congress of Oppressed
Nationalist at Brussels in 1927, on behalf of
the Indian National Congress?
46. Who was the last British Viceroy of India?
47. Who was the President of Indian National
Congress, when the Mountabat1en Plan
was accepted?
48. The final arrangements for Indian
independence was worked out by which
plan?
49. Who constructed the Jagannath temple at
Puri?
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History
50. Who advocated on behalf of Indian National Army
in 1946 in the Red Fort trials?
51. Alberuni visited India, with which mu slim invader?
52. For which movement did Gandhiji give the
slogan,'Do or Die'?
53. The khilji Sultans of Delhi were, of which tribe?
54. Who was the Governor General of India during the
launch of Civil Disobedience Movement?
55. Outub Minar was completed , by which Sultan?
56. Who Presided over the All India Kh ilafat
Conference at Delhi(1919)?
57. In the sultanate period , the highest rural authority
for land revenue was
58. Whioh Committee was appointed by the Brttish
Government to investigate in Jallianwala Bagh
massacre?
59. The orty of Jaunpur was founded in the memory of
60. The congress in Travancore launohed a Civil
Disobedience Movement agajnst, whioh Dewan
of Travancore state?
61. Who was the Chairman of Joint Parliamentary
Committee (1935), that led to the framing of the
Act of 1935?
62. Which Congress President negotiated with both
Cripps Mission and Lord Wavell?
63. Who constructed the monumental
Rayagopurams in front of temples at Hampi and
Tirupati?
64. 'A Forgotten Empire, ' wrrtten by the historian
Robert Sewell refers to which empire?
65. Tulsidas composed his 'Ramcharitamanasa' in
the reign of
66. Which Mara th a Peshwa fallowed the ideal of
'Hindu pada-Pashahi'?
67. The Laxman Era was started in AD 1119, bywhioh
a'ynasty?
68. Mahaballipuram was established by the
69. The Balkan Plan for fragmentation of India was
framed by
70. Who organised the Chrttagong Armoury raid?
71. The leader of Bardoli Satyagrah(1928) was
72. Yahya bin Ahmed Sirhindi, the author of 'Tarikh
-i-Mubaraqshahi ', lived in the period of which
a'ynasty?
73. In the Delhi Sultanate, an ad ministrative unit
called Pargana was headed by
74. Which muslim ruler was hajled as the Jagadguru
by his subjects because of his belief in
secularism?
75. Where is the Vijaya Vrth ala temple, having its 56
carved pillars emrtting musical notes located?
76. Who was the founder of Sufi order in India?
Answers
1. Warren Hastings, 2. English and
Frenoh, 3. Abdulla Outub Shah ,
4. Charter Act of 1833, 5. Jahangir,
6. 1921 , 7. Dholavira, 8. Cow,
9. Lord Dalhousie,
10. Srirangapattanam , 11 . Yoga
Sutra , 12. Atharava Veda ,
13. Rajgir (Girivaraja) ,
14. Pataliputra, 15. Kushinagar,
16. Murshid Quli khan,
17. Vardhman Mahavira,
18. Nalanda, 19. Ryotwari , 20. Lord
Dalhousie , 21. Dada Bhai Naoroji,
22. Seleuous Nikator 23. lndica of
Megasthenes, 24. Bindusara ,
25. James Princep, 26. Kanishka ,
27. Lala Lajpat Rai, 28. Lord
Canning, 29. Pen chao,
30. Sengattivan, 3 1. Rupyaka,
32. Surendranath Banerjee,
33. Badar-ud- din Tayabji,
34. Dadabhai Naoroji, 35. Gupta
period , 36. Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
37. Samudragupta, 38. Pandya
Kings, 39. Kannauj and Prayag ,
40. Buddhism, 41. Ahmedabad
Strike, 1918, 42. Pavnar in
Maharashtra, 43. Amravati School
of Art, 44. Rudradaman,
45. Jawaharlal Nehru, 46. Lord
Mountbatten , 47. JB Kripalani,
48. Cabinet Mission Plan, 49. Ana nt
Varman, 50. Bhulabhai Desaj,
51. Mahmud Ghaznavi, 52. Quit
India Movement, 53. Turks,
54. Lord Irwin, 55. lltu tmish, 56. MK
Gandhi , 57. Choudhary, 58. Hunter
Commission, 59. Mohammad-bin
Tughlaq, 60. CP Rama Swami
Aiyer, 61. Lord Linlithgow, 62. Abul
Kalam Azad, 63. Krishna Deva
Raya, 64. Vijayanagara Empire,
65. Akbar, 66. Baji Rao I,
67. Senas, 68. Pallavas , 69. Lo rd
Mountbatten, 70. Surya Sen,
71. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel ,
72. Sayyid , 73. Amil, 74. Ibrahim
Adil Shah-II, 75. Hampi, 76. Khwaja
Muin-ud-din Chisti
 GEOGRAPHY
I WORLD GEOGRAPHY
• Geography is the science that studies
the lands, the features, the inhabitants
and the phenomena on the Earth.
• The discipline of geography was
invented in the 2nd century BC by the
Greek Scholar E1·atosthenes.
• llistodcal geography
Branches of Geography • Political geography
Geography js divided into two main •
branches i.e. physical geography and •
human geography.
Some Contributors
to Geography
• Eratosthenes was the first person to
calculate the ci rcumference of the Earth
and also calculate the tilt of the Earth's
axis.
• Anaximander created the first map of
world.
■ Varaha mihira' s Brihatsamhita gave a
thorough description of planetary
movements, rainfall, clouds etc.
• Ptolemy first presented India on the
world map.
• The History of Mankind was written by
Friedrich Ratzel.
Human Geography
Human geography is a branch of the
geography that studies the world, its
people, communities and cul tures, vvith
an emphasis on relations of land across
space and place.
I
The fields of human geography arre as follow:
• Cultural geography
• Development geography
• Economic geography
Transport geography
•
Population geography
Settlement geography
Physical Geography
Physical geography deals with the physical
envfronment and the various process that
bring about changes in the physical
environment on the Earth surface.
The fields of physical geography are as follow:
• Geomorphology It is the scientific study of
)and.forms and processes that shape them.
• Hydmlog-y It is the study of the
movement, distribution and quality of
water on Earth, including the hydrological
cycle, water resources and environmental
,,vatershed sustainability.
• Climatology It js the study of climate,
,,vbich is scientifically defined as weather
conditions averaged over a period of time.
• Pedology It js the study of soils in their
natw·al environment.
• Glaciology It is the study of glaciers and
ice sheets.
• Biogeography It is the study of
relationsWps of organisms with their
envfronment.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
Universe
• The universe is commonly defined as the
totality of everything that exists
including all physical matter and energy,
the planets, stars, galaxies and the
con ten ts of intergalactic space.
• The study of universe is knm,vn as
Cosmology.
• The universe comprises of billions of
galaxies. The galaxies are made up of
millions of stars held together by the
force of gravity and these stars account
for most of the masses of the gal3.A-y.
• Our own galaxy is called the Milky Way
(or the Akash Ganga) and it contains
about 300 billion stars and one of these is
the Sun. Planets and other objects
revolve around the Sun and make up the
solar system \"irith the Sun at the
cen tre.And1·omeda is our nearest galaxy.
• In AD 140, Ptolemy propounded the
theory that the Earth was the centre of
the universe and the Sun and the other
heavenly homes revolved around it.
• In 1543, Copernicus said that the Sun
and not the Earth is the centre of
universe.
• Kepler supported Copernicus but said
that the Sun is the centre of solar system
and not the universe.
• In 1924, Edwin Hubble first
demonstrated existence of galaxies
beyond Milley Way.
• Strl.lcturally, the galaxies an·e found in
three forms
(i) Spiral galaxies have a central
nucleus with great spiral arms. Milley
Way and Andromeda are the
examples.
(ii) EIUptical galaxies are without spiral
arms and have ellipsoid shape.
(ill) IrreguJai· galaxies have no shape.
Evolution of Universe
The tfuree main theories put fonuan·d to
explain the origin and evolution of the
zmiiverse are
(i) Big Bang Theory (Proposed by
Georges Lemaitre) Big Bang was an
e>...-plosion that occurred 13.8 billion
years ago, leading to the formation of
galaxies of stars and other heavenly
homes.
(ii) Steady State Theory Bonm, Gold and
Fred Hoyle developed this theory. It
states that although the universe is
expanding, it nevertheless does not
change its appearance over time and
it has no beginning and no end.
(ill) The Pulsating Theory According to
this theory, the universe is supposed
to be expanding and conb.·acting
alternately i.e. pulsating. At present,
the universe is expanding.
NASA h as launched the Cosmic
Background Explorer (COBE) and the
Willdnson Microwave Anistropy Probe
(WMAP) missions to study the ramation
present in the universe.
Stars
• Stars are heavenly homes made up of hot
burning gases. They produce their m,vn
light.
• A neutron star is about 20 km in
man1eter and has a mass of about 1.4
tin1es that of the Sun. Neutron stars are
formed by supernova explosions. A
pulsar is a highly magnetised and
rotating neutron star.
• A star's colour inmcates the temperatme
of its surface. Blue colour denotes
maximum temperatme. ,Vh.ite, yellov, 1
,
orange, red stars have sequentially
declining range of temperatures .
Evolutionary Stages of a Star
1. Proto Stai· It is the stage, where the
helium core become incl'easing]y
heavy, accompanied \"irith expanding
outer layers.
2. Red Giant This stage results into
the swelling and reddening of the
outer regions of the star. Such stars of
gigantic rnmension is called Red Star.
3. WhHe Dwarf If the mass of the star
is relatively small like that of our Sun,
the gases that reach the outer layer
are expelled. As these e>...'J)elled gases
cool and con tract, the star becomes a
Whjte Dwarf.
Stars: Quick Digest
• Brightest star outside solar system is Sirius,
also called as Dog Star.
• Closest star to our solar system is Proxima
Centauri (4.2 light years away) followed by
Alpha Centauri (4.3 light years away) and
Barnard's Star (5.9 light years away).
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Concept of Black Hole and • The end of Solar System is about 122
AU (Asb.·onon:tical unjts) away from
Chanch-ashekhar Limit the Sun.
• A renowned Indian Physicist Chandra-
shekhar had predicted an upper limit to the Components of the
mass of stars, v, Wch is called as
1

Chandrashekhar limit. It is 1.44 times the Solar System

mass of the Sun. Our Solar System consists of
• Above the upper limit, two conditions are • The Sun, Eight planets (excluding
possible. Pluto) and their respective satellites.
1. Explosion of the star to form neu t:ron • Interstellar debiis such as as teroids ,
star. meteoroids, comets.
2. Collapse and compaction of the stars to • The elecb.ically charged gases, called
form Black Hole . Plasma.
• The black holes ,He formed due to collapse • Interplaneta.1.1' dust particles.
and compaction under gravity, at the end of • the components of solar system other
the life cycle of a star. than planets, dwarf planets and
• Some of the units used for the calculation of satellites ,He called as Small Solar
distances in universe are as follows: System Bodies (SSSB) .
Units of Distance
Origin of the Solar System
Unit Description of the Unit Various theories were given to explain
Light year It is the distanoe that light can the Origin of the Solai· System.
travel in 1 year_ It is equal to almost
9.46 x 1012 km. Hypothesis Propounder
Astronomical It is the average distance Gaseous Hypothesis Kant
unit between the Sun and the Earth.
Nebular Hypothesis Laplaoe
1 AU = 150 million km
Parsec It is the distance from the Earth to Planetesimal Chamberline and
Hypothesis Moulton
a star ihat has parallax of 1 arc
seoond _ The actual length is Tidal Hypothesis Sir James Jeans
about 3.262 light years. and Harold Jettreys
Binary Star Hypothesis HN Russell

SOLAR SYSTEM Supernova Hypothesis F Hoyle

Interstellar Dust Otto Schmidt
• The solar system complises the Sun, 8
Hypothesis
planets, their satellites and other
non-stellar objects, v, Wch are believed to
1 Electromagnetic H Alfven
Hypothesis
have been developed from the
condensation of gases and other lesser Protoplanet Hypothesis Dr Von Weizsacker
and G Kuiper
bodies.

THESUN
• The Sun accounts for more than
99 per cent of the mass of the Solai·
System and due to this, the Sun
exerts immense gravitationaJ pull on
the plane ts to keep them rotating
ai·ound it in de.firrite elliptical orbit.
• The Sun is the major source of energy
• The Sun is at the centre of the solar system in the solar system. The energy is
and all the planets revolve around it in an provided by the nuclear fusion
ellipticaJ orbit. It is the nearest star to the reaction, that converts hydrogen into
Earth. helium in the core of the Sun.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• The glm"iring swface of the Sun that we see • Atll'ora The cons ti.tu en t particles of
1s called Photosphere. Above the the solar wind are rr·apped by the
photosphere is the red colomed Earth's magnetic field and enter the
Chmmosphere and beyond 1t is the Earth's upper atmosphere as Aurora. It
magnificent corona, which is most easily is described as Amora Borealis in the
visible during eclipses. Northern hemisphere and Amora
■ Hydrogen and helium are the main gases Ausrr·alis in Southern hemisphere.
present in the Sun. • Plages and Su.nspots The
■ The sun has a swface temperature of chrnmospbere of the Sun is
about 6000°C. continuously changing. Blight spots on
■ It takes 224 million years to complete one the chrnmosphere are called Plages
circle (revolution) around the cenb.'e of and dark spots are called Su.nspots.
the Milky Way. This is lmown as a Cosmic The Sunspots are cold and dark regions
year. on the Sun's sw:face with a peliodicity
■ The Sun is 1300000 tinJes bigger than the of 11 years. These spots greatly
Earth in terms of volunJe. influence the global climate.
• Superimposed on Sun's white light are
hun dred of dark lines call ed Frau.nhofe1· PLANETS
lines. Each line indicates some elements
existing as gases in the Solar System. • Planets are celestial bodies, which
continuously revolve around and are
Hydrogen
~\ oum[ilg
lighted by a star. There are eight
"' .,_~ core planets in the solar system that revolve
// f /1 around the Sun in an elliptical orbit.
/;.' ,/f\
r;, , 1
adlallve
layer
• The sequence of planets according to
-...:? 11 .. • ,/k their size (in descending order) is
,' Jupiter, Satw=n, Uranus, Neptune,
~ \ \ ~ 1):::.: - onvecllon
-7 \. ----
~~ ' , ". I . . \,.""" - layer Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury.
~fa.;~~_., --~~.-. ...,...- ~- • The sequence of planets according to
/ 0h
/ly~ , omosphere their distance from the Sun 1s Mercury,
1
Photosphe;~ 1'l(f t \ ' "\
1 11 1
t Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
/ 8 unspo Uranus and Neptune.
Corona
Layers of the Sun Classi£cation of Planets
Sun Fact sheet 1. Inner Planets Include Mercury,
Venus, Earth and Mars.
Average distanoe from 149600000 km
the Earth 2. Outer Planets Include Jupiter,
Diametre 1391980 km Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
Temperature of the core 15000000°C Inner Planet Outer Planet
Rotation speed 25.38 days (with
respect to equator); 33 They are called as They are called as
days (with respect to Terrestrial or Rock Jovian or Gaseous
poles) planets. They are planets.
nearer to the Sun. They are iar away
Time taken by sunlight 8 min and 16.6 sec
from the Sun.
to reach the Earth
They have very few They have a large
natural satellites (or number of natural
Concepts Associated with the Sun moons) or no satellites (or moons).
• Solai· Wmds The Sun is continuously satellites.
emitting streanJs of photons in all They have a oore of They are formed
directions either as spiral sb.·eanJs called molten rocks. mainly of gases, with
Solai· Wmd or bouts of incandescent a small rocky oore.
material called Solar Flarns. Solar flares They move faster and They move rather
rncreases ionisation in upper atmosphere have a shorter period slowly and have a
of revolution. longer period of
and thus pose danger to satelli te revolution.
communication.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Planets Fact sheet Hottest Planet Venus

Densest Planet Earth
Biggest Planet Jupiter
Biggest Satellite Ganymede Fastest Rotation in Solar Jupiter
(Jupiter) System

Blue Planet Earth Morning Star Venus

Green Planet Uranus Nearest Planet to Earth Venus

Brightest Planet Venus Nearest Planet to Sun Mercury

Brightest Star Outside Sirius (Dog Star) Red Planet Mars

Solar System Slowest Revolu1ion in Solar Neptune
Closest Star of Solar Proxima Centauri System
System Slowest Rotation in Solar Venus
Coldest Planet Neptune System
Smallest Planet Mercury
Evening Star Venus
Smallest Natural Satellite Deimos
Farthest Planet from Sun Neptune
Planet with Maximum Saturn Earth's Twin Venus
Number of Satellites Only Satellite with an Titan
Fastest Revolution in Solar Mercury Atmosphere Uke Earth
System

A Comparative Study of the Planets of the Solar System

Planets Special Characteristics
Mercury Smallest and the innermost
planet It has no
atmosphere. It has a
cratered su rlaoe, muoh like
the Moon.
Venus Also called as the veiled
planet as it is su rrounde d
by thick olouds known as
(Evening and Morning
star) as it is seen in the
East in morni ng and in the
West in the evening. It is
the brightest planet in solar
system because of almost
70% albedo.
It contains 90 to 95% CO 2 .
The night and day
temperature are almost the
same.
Earth The Earth is neither too hot
nor too oold. It is called as
the Blue Planet as 71 % of
surface is made up of
waler.
Mars Known as Red Planet It
has a thin atmosphere
comprising of nitrogen and
argon.
Rotation and Important Physical Satellite
Revolution Properties Systems
Time
Rotation: It has the maximum No satellite
58.65 days diurnal range of
Revolution: 88 days temperature.
(Fastest Revol ution
in the Solar System).
It has the slowest Rotates from East No satellite
rotational speed . It to West unlike the
has almost equal other planets. It is
rotation and the hottest planet
revolution. Rotation
(Clockwise) 243
days and
Revolution: 224.7
days.
Rotation :24 hours; It is the densest of Moon is the
Revolution : 365 all and is unique for only natural
days and 6 hours. the presence of satellite.
higher forms of liie.
Rotation 24.6 hour. It is marked by Two satellites
(almost equal to dormant volcanoes. : Phobos and
Earth) Revolution: Olym pus Mons is Deim os.
687 days. the highest
mou ntain, which is
three times higher
than the Mount
Everest.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
G
Planets Special Characteristics Rotation and Important Physical Satellite
Revolution Properties Systems
Time
Jupiter It is ihe largest planet in the Fastest rotational It is too massive to It has 67
solar system with a mass velocity (9.8 hrs) solidify as a planet satellites_
2.5 times greater ihan the Revolution : but not massive Some of the
combined mass of all the 11.8 years enough to develop prominent
remaining planets , nuclear fusion and satellites are:
satellites and asteroids put become a star. It Europa,
together. gives oft more Callisto and
It contains hydrogen, energy than it Ganymede.
helium , methane and receives from the These are
ammonia A great red spot Sun , because of called as
is detected on it. the heat inside. Galilean
Moons.

Saturn It is ihe 2nd largest planet Rotation in 10.3 It has the least It has 82
and is surrounded by a set hours. Revolution density of all the satellites, the
of eight rings , which are . 1 planets. 30 times largest being
made up of primordial dust in 29- 2
years. less dense ihan the Titan.
and ice particles. Earth.

Uranus It is unique as its axis of Unlike ihe others, Surrounded by a It has 27

rotation is inclined at 98° to which spin on their system of 9 faint satellites. The
its orbital plane. axis, Uranus actually rings. prominent
rolls, apparently from are Miranda
North to South. Ariel etc.
Rotation : 17.2 hours
Revolution : 84 years
Neptune It is iarthest planet irom the Rotation 16 hours It has 5 iaint ri ngs. lthas14
Sun. It has a dynamic and Revolution 165 It appears as vivid satellites. The
atmosphere, which years. blue in colour_ prominent
con tained an Earth sized are Triton and
spot called the Great Dark Nereid.
Spot that is si milar to the
Jupiter's Great Red Spot .

Pluto is not a Planet Now

• Plu to was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930.
• The redefinition of planet by the In ternational Astronomical Union (IAU) on 24th
August, 2006 sta tes that, in the solar system , a planet is a celestial body that
■ it is in orbit aroWJd the SWJ .
■ it h as sufficient m ass so that it assumes a h ydrosta tic equilibrium (near ly roWJd) shape.
■ it h as cleared the neighbourhood aroWJd its orbit.
• A non-satelli te body fulfilling the first two r ule is classified as a Dwarf planet. So, Pluto
was reclassified as a Dwarf planet.
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Rotation Period 27 day, 7 h, 43 min and

THE MOON 11.47s
The study of Moon is called Selenology. Atmosphere Absent
Part of Moon not visible 41 %
Specifics of the Moon from Earth
Distanoe from Earth 384400 km Maximum distance 406000 km
from Earth (Apogee)
Diameter 3475 km
Minimum distance tram 366400 km
Mass (with respeot to 1 : 81
Earth (Perigee)
Earth)
Ratio of Gravitational 1 : 6 Ciroumference 11000 km
Pull of Moon and
Earth • Moon is aJso lmm'l'Il as the foss il planet.
Highest Mountain 18046 ft • The Moon is the only natural satelli te of
(Hugyens Mountain) the Earth.
Time Taken by 1.3 s • The Moon h as no abnosphere and no
Moonlight to Reaoh
Earth
tv.iligh t.
Rotation speed 3680 kmph
• The size of the Moon is one-fomth (1/4th)
the size of the Earth .
Speed of Revolution 3680 kmph
around Earth • Gravitational pull of the Moon is one-sixth
Revolution Period 27 days, 7 h, 43 min (l/6th) that of the Earth.
around Earth and 11.47s • Silicon, iron, magnesium etc elements are
found mainly on the Moon's sur face.

Interstellar Debris :
Asteroids, Meteoroids, Comets
Various Asteroids or Comets Meteoroids/Meteors
Aspects Planetoids
Constilutents Composed of rocks, Comets may originate in Meteoroids are small fragments
and Genesis dust and metal. a huge cloud called the of rooks and metal. Under the
They cannot retain Oort cloud that is Earth's gravitational i ield, ihey
their atmosphere ihought to surround the burn and become while hot
due to small size. solar system. It is through triotion as they fall
composed of frozen through ihe atmosphere and are
gases and dusL seen as the Meteors or
Shooting stars.

Shape and No definite shape, Comets have a head No delinile shape.

Size rather same as of and tail, where the tail
Planetoids or small always points away
planet. tram the Sun because
of the solar wind and
the radiation pressu re.
Orbit They orbit the Sun in They have an extremely Meteoroids travel through space.
the asteroid belt, eccentric orbi t but with Meteors are scattered in the
whioh lies between definite periodicity. interplanetary space of the solar
the orbits of Mars system.
and Jupiter.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

The Earth
• Earth js the third planet from the Sun and the densest and the fifth-largest of the eight
planets in the solar system.I t is also the largest of the solar system's fom terrestrial
planets. Earth js also called as Blue Planet.
• The age of the Earth js estinJated about 4.6 billion years . The his tory of the Earth js
studied in terms of geologica1 eras, periods and epochs. The whole hjs tory is divided
into three Eras-Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic.
Geological History of the Earth
Cenozoic Era Beginning Remarks
Period
(years before present)
Ouarternary Period Holocene Epoch 10000 Modern man
Pleistooene Epooh 2 million Homo Sapiens
Tertiary Period Pliocene Epoch 5 million Early human ancestors
Miocene Epoch 24 million Flowering plants and
trees
Oligocene Epooh 38 million Early horses, cats,
dogs, camels
Eocene Epoch 55 million Rabbits , Hare
Palaeooene Epooh 63 million Small mammals : rats,
mioe
Mesozoic Era Cretaceous Period 138 million Extinction of dinosaurs
Jurassic Period 205 million Age of dinosaurs
Triassic Period 240 million Frogs and turtles
Palaeozoic &a Permian Period 290 million Reptiles dominate,
Replace amphibians
Lower Carboniferous 330 million 1st Reptiles
Period
Upper Carboniferous 360 million Fish
Period
Devonian Period 410 million Amphibians
Silurian Period 435 million Corals
Ordovioian Period 500 million Graptoliies
Cambrian Period 570 million Trilobites
Pre-Cambrian Period 4.5 billion Bacteria
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Earth Fact Sheet THE EARTH'S

Age 4.6 billion years
3
MOVEMENT
Mass 5.9 X 10 ' kg
• The Earth moves in space in two distinct
Volume 1083x 1012 Km 9 ways:Rotation and Revolution.
Mean Density 5.513 g/om 9 (i) lt rotates on its own axis from West
Shape An oblate
to East once in every 24 h ours . It
spheroid or a causes day and mght.
geoid (ii) lt revolves around the Sun in an
Radius of Earth 6400 km orbit once in every 365 ¼ days . It
causes the seasons and the year.
Total surface area 509700000 sq
km
Rotation of Earth
Land area (29%) 148400000 sq • Spins on its imaginary axis fro m West to
km
East in 23 holll's, 56 minutes and 4 .09
Water area (71 %) 361300000 sq seconds.
km
• The rotational speed at equator is
Rotation time 23 hours 56 maxim um (1667 JOJJ/br) and then
minute and 4.09 decreases towards the poles, ,,vhere it is
seoonds
zero.
Revolu1ion time 365 days, 5 • The days and the njghts are equal at the
hours, 48
minutes and equator.
45.51 seoonds The rotatfon of the Earth has the following
impli cations such as:
Orbit speed about the Sun 29.8 km/second
■ Causation of day and njght.
Mean surfaoe 1emperature 14°c ■ Change in the direction of v,IDds and
Highest temperature 58°C ocean currents.
recorded AI-Aziziyah
■ PJse and fall of tides everyday.
Mean Distanoe from the Sun 149598500 km ■ A difference of one hour between the
or 150 million two medrnans , 111Wch are 15° apart.
km (1AU)
lnolination of polar axis from 23° 26 min and
orbital plane 59 s
Revolution of Earth
• It is the Earth's motion in elliptical orbit
Deepest ocean point 11034m, around the Sun. It takes 365 days, 5
Mariana Trenoh
hours, 48 mmutes and 45.51 secon ds. lt
(Paoific Ocean)
leads to one exb.-a day in every fourth year.
Time ooordinate of Earth Longi1udes The revolution of the Earth results in
Temperature Latitudes ■ changes of season.
coordinate of Earth
■ vaiiation of the length of the days and
rughts at different times of the year.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Shifting of the wind belts.

The :figw:e given belm"i' shows the revolution of the Earth and its effects on seasons
and the vaiiations oflengths of day and night.
NP

~
~sf.

22nd December
21st June

Revolution of the Eai·th

Major Difference Between Rotation and Revolution of Earth

Rotation
Spinning of Earth on its own axis_
Earth takes 24 hours to oomplete one
rotation.
Rotation causes day and nighl
Revolution
Movement of the Earth around ihe Sun in an elliptical
orbit
The Earth takes 365.25 days to complete one revolution_
Revolution along with inolination of the Earth on its axis
causes ohange in seasons_

Earth's Position wrt Moon

Apogee Perigee
The period of the farthest distance between ihe The period of ihe nearest distance between ihe
Moon and the Earth is called Apogee. It is about Moon and the Earth is called Perigee_ It is about
406000 km. 356400 km.

Earth's Position wrt Sun

Perihelion Aphelion
The period of the nearest distanoe The period of the farthest distanoe between the Earth and ihe
between the Earth and the Sun is Sun is Aphelion_It happens on 4th July and the distanoe is
Perihelion. It happens on 3rd 152 million km .
January and the distanoe is 147
million km.

Tilt of the Earth's Axis

• The axis of the Earth is inclined to the plane of ecliptic (the plane, in which the Eai·th
orbits roun d the Sun) at an angle of 66 =/2°, giving Iise to different seasons and vai)'ing
lengths of day and night.
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• If the ax_js were perpendicuJar to Longest day in the Northern 21st June
this plane, all parts of the globe hemisphere
,,vouJd have equal days and Shortest day in the Northern 22nd December
nights at all times of the year. hemisphere
Equal day and night in the 21st March and 23rd
• The Earth js tilted about 23.5°
Northern hemisphere September
from a line perpendicuJar to
Longest day in the Southern 22nd December
ecliptic plane. hemisphere
Perpendioular Shortest day in the Sou thern 21st June
hemisphere
~ Equal day and night in the 21st March and 23rd
If/', Southern hemisphere September
.§
Eolipl:ic 0 Eolipl:ic Seasons
Plane
• They are the periods in to \"i1hich the year can be
divided as a result of the climatic conditions,
mainly due to the changes in duration and
intensity of solar radiation.
• There are four seasons:
Equinoxes Spring Summer Autumn Winter
• These are the days, when days When the When the Sun When the Sun The Sun is
Sun is is directly return s to the at the
and nights are equal. Under this directly overhead the equator and the Trop ic of
situation, the Sun is vertically overhead Tropic of North Capricorn
overhead at the equator. It the Cancer -the temperate zone and the
happens on two days of the year equator. North experiences the North
i.e . 21st March and 23rd (21st temperate zone season of temperate
Maroh) experiences autumn. (23rd zone
September. summer. (21st September) experience
• 21st March: Vernal Equinox. June) s winier.
• 23rd September: Autumnal (22nd
Equinox. December)

Sun1n1 er Solstice Latitude

• After the March equinox, the
Sun appears to move Northward
and is vertically overhead at the
'fropic of Cancer on 21st June.
This is lmm'l'Il as Sun1mer
Solstice.
• On 21st J une, the Northern
hem..isphere will have its longest
day and shortest night. The
Southern hem..isphere have
shortest day and longest night.
• Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the
Earth's surface from the centre of the Earth,
measured in degree. These lines are called
parallels of latitude and on the globe they are
represented as circles. The circumference of the
circles decreases from equator to pole and at the
pole it converges to a point.
• The distance bet\1veen any two parallels of
latitude is always equal. One degree latitude =
,,.ill 111 km (approx). The most important lines of
latitudes are Equator (0°), the Tropic of Cancer
(23 1/2°N) , the Tropic of Capricorn (23½ S), the0

Winter Solstice Arctic Circle (66½0 N) and the Antarctic Circle

(66½ S).
0

• On 22nd December, the SWJ is

overhead at the Tropic of
Capricorn. This is the winter
solstice, when the Southern
hem..isphere will have its longest
day and shortest n..igh t.
A summary of daylight howrs in
the Northern and Southern
hemisphere is as follows:
Longitude
• Longitude is the angu]ar dis tance of a point on
the Earth's surface along the equatm~ East or
West from the Prime meridfan. On the globe,
they form semi-circles from pole to pole passing
through the equator.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography
• Prime meridian is the semi-circle from pole to
pole, from which all the other meddians
radiate Eas tvvards an d Westwards up to 180°. •
In 1884, it has been decided that the zero
degree meridian js the one that passes through
the Royal Astronomical Observatory at
Greenwich near London. 180° meridian
(In ternation al Date Llne) is exactly opposite to
the prime meridian . Such points are called
antipodal points.
§{
E"
Lo
North Polo
90'N Lllllludc
e
time, which is 5 hrs 30 mins ahead
of the Greenwich Mean Time.
The Earth js divided in 24
longitudinal zones, each being 15
degree or l h our apart in time (360
degree = 24 hours, 360/24 =15
degree in 1 h our) or 1 degree in 4
min ute are called Standard TinJe
Zones.
• Larger countries such as USA,

~~.>L,.._.~ N
Russia and Canada, ,,vhich have
greater Eas t-West stretch h ave to
adopt several time zones for
5
:i: practical purposes.
~ ~ • Russia h as as many as 11 time zones.
~ • Both USA and Canada h ave five

!{ ~~~~r-r+:-+~-1~
. ,-'-,-:"/- Laliludc
time zones, viz, the Atlantic,
Eas tern, Cenn·al, Mountain and
Pacific time zones.
• A simple memory aid for time is
dl Mon Eas t- Gain-Add (EGA) and West-
(O" Longil Soulh Polo
(90'S Loliludc)
Lose-Subn·act (\iVLS) .
Latitude an d Longitude on the Earth International Date Line
Universal Time (Standard time) • lt js the 180 degree meddian
running over the Pacific Ocean,
and Time Zones deviating at Aleutian lsland, Fiji,
• To avoid confusion about having many local Samoa and Gilbert Island .
times within one country, a particuJar • At the In ternational Date Llne, the
meridian is chosen for the whole counb:y, date changes by exactly one day,
,,vbose time js lmO\Jvn as standard time. when it is crossed.
• The Indian Government has accepted the • Samoa and Tokelau shifted its
meridian of 82.5 degree East for standard posi tion to the West of the date line
on 30th December, 20 11.

ECLIPSE
• An eclipse occlll·s when the Sun , the Moon and the Earth are in a sb.·aight line. There
are two types of eclipses-Solar and Lun ar eclipse.
• Generally, a total of seven eclipse including solar an d lunar eclipses, take place in a
year.

Lunar Eolipse Solar Eolipse

■ It is the situation , when the Earth oomes between
Sun and Moon.
■ It oocurs only on a full Moon day. But, it does not
occur on every full Moon day because the Moon
is so small and the plane of its orbit is til led about
5 degree with respect to the Earth's orbital plan.
■ It is the situation, when the Moon
acmes between Su n and Earth.
■ It ooours only on a new Moon day.
But, it does not occur on every new
Moon day because of the inolination
of the Moon's orbital plan.
Umbra

Diagramatic Representations of Lunar and Solar Eclipse


EARTH'S INTERIOR
The interior of Earth is divided into
three parts
(i) Crust (ii) Mantle (iii) Core
The Crust
• The crust is the outermost and the
thinnest layer of the Earth. Tms
layer has the ]east density and its
thiclrness vaiies about 8 to 40 Ian.
Mohorovicic Discontinuity or
Moho, mai·ks the lower limit of the
crust. TWs discontinuity is
identified on the basis of rock
density.
• Thiclmess of the crus t is more in
the continents and lesser in the
oceans while density of continental
crust is lower than oceanic crust.
• The rocks forming the upper ]ayer
of crust of the Earth ai·e rich in
lighter minerals W<e silica and
aluminiwn. Hence, this layer is
also called as Si.A.I (silica and
aluminiwn). The average density of
this layer is 2.7 gm/cm 3 •
• Due to presence of minerals W<e
silica and magnesium in the lower
pa.it of Earth's crust, it is also
known as SiMa (silica and
magnesium).
• Sial and Sirna together form Eai·th 's
crust.
The Mantle
• This ]ayer is the intermediate ]ayer
of the Eai·th in terms of both its
location and density.
• It is about 2900 Jan in thiclrness,
composed of minerals in a semi-
solid state.
• It is divided into further two ]ayer
upper mantle and lower mantle.
The upper pa.it of the mantle is
ca11ed the _4sthenosphere, whkh is
about 250 lrnJ thick.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
• The average density of thjs layer is about 5.68
gm/cm 3.
• The b.-ansit::ional zone sepai·ating the mantle
from the core is called the Gutenberg
Discontinujty _
The Core
• The core is the innermost layer of the Eai·th
and occupies its centre. It is about 3500 lrnJ in
radius.
• The core is further divided in to two layers :
outer core and inner core.
• The outer pa.it of the core is believed to have
the properties of a liquid and the innermos t
part of the core (about 1255 ]an in radius)
may be called soUd or crystalline.
• Thjs layer is also Jmown as NiFe (nickel and
iron), because thjs ]ayer contain large
concentration of iron and nickel.
• Temperature of the core is between 2200°C
and 2750°C.
• Density of this part of the Earth is
3
13.6 gm/cm and is many times greater than
the average density of the Earth
(5.53 gm/cm 3 ) .
Oonrnd Dlaoonllnuily Upper Orust (SIAL)
wer Orust (SIMA) } Orust
km }Aalhonoaphoffi}
O km Upper lll11nUe
km
}"""' ' '""'"
}□c~F~)m
Inner Oora
(I\IIFs)
]
Internal Structme of the Earth
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Discontinuities Sea Floor Spreading Theory

The various layers are separated by • The concept of sea floor spreading was first
discontinuiries, which are evident in seismic formulated by H arry Hess in the year
data. 1960.
• Conrad discontinuity lies between upper • According to this theory, the mid oceanic
crust and lower crust 1idges were situated on the rising thermal
• Mohorovicic discontinuity lies between convective current coming from mantle .
crust and mantle. • The oceanic crust moves in opposite
• Repetti discontinuity lies between upper directions from mid oceamc ridges and
mantle and lower mantle. thus there is continuous upwelling of new
• Gutenberg discontinuity lies between molten mate1ials along the mid oceanic
core and mantle. Here, the Earth's density ridges. These molten masses cool down
as well as velocity of 'P' waves increases. and solidify to form new crust.
• Lehmann discontinuity divides outer core
and inner core. Plate Tectonics Theory
• Plate tectonic theory is a scien ti:fic them)'
that describe the large-scale motions of
Composition of the Earth's lithosphere.
Earth's Crust • The ,,vord tectonics comes from the Greek
Elements Peroent- Elements Peroent- word meaning builder.
age (0/o) age (0/o) • The theory of Plate tectonics states that
Oxygen 46 Caloium 3.6 the lithosphel'e is divided into several rigid
segments, which include both oceamc and
Silioon 28 Sodium 2.8 continental crusts. These segments are
Aluminium 8 Potassium 2.6 called plates and they are moving on the
Iron 6 Magnesium 1.5 asthenospbere, which is not a liquid, but a
semi-solid whkh flows under stress.
Continental Drift Theory • About 20 such plates have been identified.
• Thistheory is given by Alfred There are seven major plates such as
Eurasia, Antarctica, North America, South
Wegener, in 1915, to e>-.]Jlain the
Amelica, Pacific, African and Indian Plate.
01igin and evolution of the continents
and the oceans. According to this • There are vaiious intermediate sized plates
theory, about 250 million years ago, such as China~ Philippine, Arabian, Iran,
there was only one huge continental Nazca, Cocos, Caiibbean and Scotia
landmass named Pangea and it was Plates.
sunounded by one huge mass of water
body, named PantbaJassa.
Plate Margins
• The present shape of the continents Depending upon the type of movement, plate
margins are of three types :
and oceans is due to the break up of
Pangaea. (i) Divergent Plate Margin (Constructive
mai·gin s)
• This breaking process started about
200 mill.ion years ago. (ii) Convergent Plate Margin (Destructive
mai·gin s)
• The Northern 1ift cuts Pangea from
(iii) Parallel Plate Marg.in (Conservative
East to West creating Law·asia in the
margin or Transform Boundai-y)
North and Gondwanaland in South. A
shallow sea called Tethys was situated • Collision can occui- behveen two oceanic
behveen the Laurasia and the plates, one oceamc and one continental
Gondwanaland. plate or two continental pla tes.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Types of Plate Boundary

Divergent Plate Boundary
When the plates move apart
with ihe upwelling of material
from ihe mantle, divergent
plate boundary are formed.
Formation of the mid-oceanic
ridges are the example of
divergent plate margin.
Convergent Plate Boundary
A oonvergent plate boundary is
one, where two plates collide, one
plate bending downward and
subduoting below ihe other_
Deep oceanic trenoh is formed
adjacent to the zone of subduction.
Fold mountains are ihe result of
convergent plate boundary.
Transform Fault Boundary
They are located , where
plates slide past one another
without the creation or
destruction of crust.
San Andreas iault along ihe
West ooast of Mexioo is a
famous transform fault.

FORCES AND PROCESSES AFFECTING THE

EARTH'S CRUST
• Appearance of the surface of the Earth keeps changing.
• These changes are produced under the influence of two type of forces.
These are given below :

EXOGENETIC OR EXTERNAL FORCES

• The forces occurring on the surface of the Earth a1·e caJJed the external or exogenetic
forces.
• Weatheri.ng and Emsion are the examples of external forces.

Weathering
It is the process of disin tegration or decomposition of rocks in situ by natural agents.
There are three types of weathe7ing
1. Physical Weatheri.ng
The Process of Chemical Weathering
(or mechamcal weathering)
• It involves rock disintegration _
P_ro_o_e_s_s___
M_e_c_h_a_n_is_m
_ o_f_C
_h_e
_m_ io_a_l_W_e_
a_th_e_r_
in_g
without any change in the Solution It involves the dissolution of soluble
chemical constituents of the particles and minerals from the rocks
rocks. with ihe help of water.
Oxidation It represents addition of oxygen to form
• The factors responsible for oiddes.
physical weathering are Carbonation It is the reaotion of carbonate or
temperature change, bicarbonate ions with minerals.
crystallisation of water in to Hydration It is ihe process of addition of wa ter to
ice, the pressw·e release the minerals.
mechamsm. Hydrolysis It is the process wherein both minerals
2. Chemfoal Weatheri.ng It of rooks and water moleolues
involves the decomposition due deoompose and react in suoh a way that
new mineral compounds are formed_
to chemical changes. There a1·e
va1ious chemical processes,
\"i 1hich cause chemical weatheLing such as Solution, Oxidation, Ca1·bonation,
Hydration, Hydrolysis and Chelation.
3. Biological Weatheri.ng It is mainJy controlled by plants and animals and human
beings. It is divided into three hJpes
(i) Fauna.I weathedng (ii) Floral weathering (ili)Anthropogenk weathering

Erosion
• It involves removal of rock matedal and their transportation. Erosion is performed by
mobile agents such as rivers, streanJs, winds, , 111aves and underground water.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

ENDOGENETIC OR Orogenetic Force

• Orogenetic movement is caused due to
INTERNAL FORCES endogenetic forces wocldng in horizontal
• The forces originating in the movement. Horizontal forces and movemen ts
intelior of the Earth are called the ai·e aJso called as tangential forces.
internal or the endogenetic forces. Orogenetic or horizontal forces worh in huo
• These forces are of huo tzJpes ways, namely
(i) in opposite direction from each other and
Sudden Endogenetic (ii) towards each other.
Forces or Catash"opbic • When it operates in opposite direction it is
called tensionaJ force. Tensional force create,
Forces faulting cracking and iractrn·e. Tensional
• Sudden endogenetic forces are the forces ,He aJso called as <livergent forces.
resu]t of long periods of
preparation deep witmn the Earth. • The force, when operates face to race, is caJled
compressional force or convergent force.
• But their cumul ative effects on
CompressionaJ forces create folding and
the Earth's surface are quick and
sudden. warping.
• Volcanoes, and Earthquakes are Forces Affecting the Earth's Cru st
the examples of sudden
endogenetic forces.
I
I
Endogenelic Forces
1.
Exog0ne11c Foroes
Slow and Gradual
I
Endogenetic Forces or I
Sudden
I
Slow and Gradual .---1-,sion
Diastropbic Forces Endogenetic Endogenetic Forces LWealh~rf~g
~
• Diastrophk forces include both
vertical and horizontal movements
wruch are caused due to forces
deep within the Earth. These Volcanoes Earthquake
diaslTophic forces operate very
slowly and there effects become _I
Faulting
visible after thousands and millions _J[ Craolung
Epirogenelic Orogenelic ~ Tension Fracture
of yea1·s. Force Force L Compression
• These forces termed as
constJ-uctive forces affects larger I !=Folding
areas of the globe and produce I Warping
Upward Downward movement
mesa-level reliefs e.g. mountains, movement
plateaus, plains, tectonk lakes,
big faults etc.
• These diasb.·opruc forces are EARTHQUAKES
fmther subdivided into two groups
namely epirogenet:ic forces and • It refers to the vibration on the Eai·th 's surface
orogenet:ic forces. caused by the catasb.·ophk endogenetic forces.
Epirogenetic Force • The magnitude or intensity of energy released
by an earthquake is measmed by the Richter
■ These are verticaJ movements. Scale, , vhereas the damage caused is measmed
1

■ It causes upliftment and by modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.

subsidence of continentaJ masses
through upward movements. • The place of origin of eai-thq uake is caJled
These forces and resultant focus. The place on the ground surface, whkh
movements affect larger paiis of 1s perpendicu]ai· to the focus or hypocentre is
the continents. These are fmther called Epicentre.
divided in to two type: upwai·d • Seismology is the speciaJ branch of geology
movement and dowmvai·d that deaJs Vlrith the study of earthquake .
movement.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• Earthquakes occm in Assam,

EARTHQUAKE WAVES Arunachal Pradesh, Na.gala.ad, Tripma,
Earthquake waves are seismic waves that Manipur, Mizoram, AndanJan and
are created when energy builds up in rocks Nicobar Islands, Jammu and Kashmir,
and they fracture. the North-Western region of Uttar
Pradesh and the Northern region of
Earthquake waves are basically of h11ro
Bihar etc.
types : body waves and surface waves.
Disb-ibution of Earthquakes
Body Waves Most of the world 's eal-thquakes occm in
They are generated due to the release of
• the zones of young fold mountain
energy at the focus and move in all
directions travelling th.rough the body of • the zones of folding and fa ul ting
the Earth . The body waves interact with • the zone of junction of continental and
the surface rocks and generate ne\"i' set of oceanic mal·gin
waves ca.lied Sw·face Wave. There al'e hvo • the zone of active volcanoes
types of body waves, Primal'Y and
• along different plate boundal·ies
Secondal'Y waves.
The traditional zones of earthquah.es are
1. Priniary Waves • Circum Pacific belt
Primal)' Waves (P Waves) These are the ■ Mid Continental belt
waves of short wavelength and high ■ Mid Atlantic belt
frequency. They al'€ longitudinal waves
and can travel thrnugh solid, liquid and
gases.
2. Secondary Waves
Secondal'Y Waves (S Waves) These are the
,,,.,aves of short wavelength and high
frequency. They al'e transverse waves,
whkh travel thrnugh only solid particles.

Surface Waves or Long

Waves (L Waves)
They are the waves oflong wavelength, and
they travel through the Earth 's crnst. It
causes most of the structural damage on
the surface of Earth dw:ing an eal-thquake.
Earthquake Waves
THE EARTHQUAKE
ZONES IN INDIA SHADOWZONE
The Indian plate js moving from South to
• There al'e some specific area where
North at the speed of 5 cm/year and the
earthquake waves do not occur or occur
Emasian Plate is static at its own fixed
rarely. Such al'eas are termed as Shadow
position, so there is a collision behveen
zones.
Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate. Due to
tWs collis:ion, the eal·thquakes occms in the • It is located between l05° and 140° from
Himalayan region of India. The collision epicentre.
also resul ts in the increase of the height of
Himalayas at the speed of 1 cm/year. VOLCANISM
• An important earthquake zone js located
• Volcanism includes all phenomena
pal·allel to Punjab and Rann of Kachchh.
It occms due to the movement behveen connected with the movement of heated
the transform boundaries of Emasian mateLial from the interior towal·ds the
and Indian Plates. surface of the Earth.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

• A volcano is a vent or opening, thrnugh which h eated molten matedals consisting of

gases, water, liquid lava, fragments of rocks are ejected from the highly heated and
melted interior to the surface of the Earth.
Volcanic eruptions are closely associated \"irith several integrated processes such as:
• Gradual increase in temperature \"irith increasing depth, due to the heat generated by
degeneration ofrachoactive elements inside the Earth.
• Oligin of magma due to the lower:ing of the melt:ing point caused by reduction in
pressure of overlying rocks \'l Wcb js due to fractures caused by splitting of plates.
1

• Oligin of gases and wa ter vapour due to heating of water.

• Ascent of magma due to pressw·e from gases and vapom·.
• Occurrence of volcanic eruption.

Classification of Volcanoes
On the Basis of Mode of Eruption
Central Eruption or Explosive Type
Here the magma comes with great force
through the small vent and forms volcanic
cones. e.g. Hawaiian type, Strombolian type,
Pelean type, Vesuvious type , etc.
Fissure Eruption or Quiet Erupilon
Large quantities of lava quietly flow up from
fissures and spread out over the surrounding
areas. Successive flow of lava re sults in the growth
of lava plateau. e.g. Oeocan Plateau.

On the Basis of Periodicit1J of Eruptions

Aouve Voloanoes Dormant Voloanoes Extinct Volcanoes

Those volcanoes that Those volcanoes that have been Volcanoes that have not erupted at
frequently erupt or they known to erupt and show signs all in historic times but they retain the
have erupted in re cent of possible eruptions in future. featu res of a volcano.
times. e.g. Mt Etna in e.g., Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa e.g. Mt Chimborazo in Eouador
Italy.

Volcanic Belts
• Cfrcum-Pacific Belt (Fire girdle of the Pacific or the fire 1ing of the Pacific). It
extends across the Kan1chatka Peninsula, Kurile Islands, the Islands of Japan,
Philippines, New Guinea, New Zealand and the Soloman Islands.
• Major volcanic peaks in the circumpaci:fic belt includes Mt. Kralcatoa, Mt. Saint
Helens, Mt. Ruapebu, Mt. Fuji, Mt. Popa Catepte, Mt. Ojas Del Salado, Mt. Olrn1ok etc.
• Mid-Continental Belt (Volcanic zones of convergent continental plate
Mar·gins). It includes volcanoes of Alpine moWJtain chain, the Mediterranean sea
and the fault zone of Eas tern Afdca of Stromboli, Vesuvius, Ema, Kilimanjaro e tc.
• Mid-Atlantic Belt, in which the volcanoes are :fissme eruption type, e .g. Iceland,
Canary Rslands, Cape Verde, Azores etc.
Important Volcanic Mountains
Names Height (m) Country Last Eruption
Visuvius 1281(m) Italy 1944AO
St. Helens 2550{m) U.S.A 1980 AO
Krakatoa 813(m) Indonesi a 2019 AO
Mauna Loa 4169(m) U.S.A (Hawaii) 1984 AO
Cotopaxi 5897(m) Eouador 2015 AO
Fujiyama 3776(m) Japan 1707 AO
Popo Celepll 5426(m) Mexico 2016 AO
Ojas Del Salado 6893(m) Chile-Argentina 700± 300 AO
 GENERAL KN OWLEDGE ~ Geography

Rocks • Extrusive Rocks They are formed

• An aggrega te of one or more mmerals
fowJd on the swface of Earth is lmown as
Rock.
• Rocks may be hard, soft and vaiied in
colow·s.
• Various Minerals ai·e obtained from rocks.
Rochs arre classified in three main types
depending on the process of theirfonnation
(i) Igneous (ii) Sedimentai--y
(iii) Metamorphic
Igneous Rocks
• Formed due to the cooling, solidification
and c1--ystallisation of hot and molten
magma.
• They ai·e known as the primary rocks as
all the other rocks are formed directly or
indirectly from the igneous rocks.
• It is believed that the igneous rocks are
formed during each period of geological
rnstm--y of Eai·th .
• They are hai·d, granuJar and crys taJline
rocks, less affec ted by chemical
weathering.
• Moreover, it does not have any foss il or
does not form any sb:ata or layers of lava.
~ Conglomerate rock
due to cooling and solidification of hot
and molten magma at the Earth
swface, e .g. Basalt, Gabbro e tc.
On the basis of Silica Content
• Acidic : It has more silica con tent e.g.
Granjte.
• Basic : It has less amount of silica
content e .g. Gabbro.
Sedimentary Rocks
• The word 'Sedimentai}'' is derived from
the Latin word sedimentum, wWch
means settling.
• It is formed due to the aggregation and
compaction of sediments delived from
the older rocks or dead remains of
plants, animals and contains fossils of
plants.
• The sedimen tai--y roc ks can be
classified on the basis of the natme of
sediments : mecharucally, chemkally
and orgarucally formed roc ks.
Mode of Formation
Me chanically Chemically Organically
Formed Form ed Formed
Sandstone Gypsum, Salt Limestone,
Coal, Peat,

trJ~~~~~/ ~~~~:u~~or
Dolomite

deposl\107 ~
Metamorphic Rocks

~lRock
~
The
Cycle
--~
Met.amorphic
• These ai-e the changed form of Igneous
and Sedimentai-y rocks.
• These ai·e the rocks, '"''mch change
ejther in form or composition without
disintegration.

oreru~~~~
lnlrus~ \ /2aland
extreme heat
• Already formed 1gneous, sedimentai--y
or even metanJOrpmc rocks are
changed to other forms and tms
~ process is called metamorphosis .
The Formation of Rocks • The agen ts of me tamorpmsrn ai-e heat,
compression and solution.
CLASSIFICATION OF Rock Transformation
IGNEOUS ROCKS Original Rook Metamorphic Rook
Limestone Marble
On the basis of Mode ofOcmrrence
Sandstone Quar1zi te
• Intrusive Rocks They are formed due to
the solidification of dsing magnJa belo\'v Sh ale/Clay Slate, Phyllite, Sohist
the surface of the Eai-th, e .g. GranHe, Coal Diamond
Lapolith, Batholiths, Sills e tc Granite Gneisse
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Landforms
Classification of Landfo11ns mountains or horsts or it subsides into a
• There are four major landforms formed depression termed as PJ:ft valley or
on Earth's sw,face. These are Graben.
mountains, hills, plateaues and plains. Horsts
11' 11'
Landform % of the total Global
Surface Area
Plains 41
Plateau 33
Hills 14
Mountains 12
Block Mountains
Mountains • Example of Block mountain : Vindhyan
Based on their mode of Jonna tion four and Satpura in India, the Vosges in France
main types of mountain can be and Black forest in Germany (thrnugh
distingwished. which Rhine river flows).
Fold Mountains Volcanic Mountains
• It is formed due to the face to face • They are formed due to the accWJrnJation
orogenetic movements generated by of volcanic matedal_.
endogenetic forces. • They are also called Mountains of
• Example of fold moutains : l--Umalayas, Accumu lation.
Alps, Andes, Rocldes, Atlas etc. • Examples : Mt Fuji (Japan), Cotopaxi in
On the basis of age, fold mountains are Andes, Vesuvius and Etna in Italy, Mt
grouped into Mayon (Philippines) etc.
(a) Young/New Fold Mountains lt came
in to existence after the continental Residual or Dissected Mountains
drift and plate movements. e.g. • They are formed as a resuJt of erosion of
llimalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alps. plateaus and high planes by various
Himalayas are regarded as the a gen ts of erosion .
youngest mountains in the world. • Examples : Catskill mountains of New
(b) Old Fold Mountains They were York, Sierras of Central Spain, lligh]ands
once young fold mountains. But of Scotland, Paras □ ath, Gimar, Deccan
nm'I', they have denuded due to Plateau and Rajmabal of lndia.
erosional processes.
e.g. Pennines (Eurnpe), Appalachians Major Mountain Ranges
(US), Aravallis (India) etc.
Ranges Locations Length (km)
Andes South America 7200
Himalayas, South Central 5000
Karakoram and Asia
Hindu kush
Fold Mountains Rockies North America 4800
Great Dividing East Australia 3600
Range
Block Mountains Mas North-West 1930
• It is formed when great block of Earth's Africa
crust may be raised or lowered due to Caucasus Europe 1200
tectonic activ1ties. Alps Europe 1200
• The ]and between the h 'l'O paral1ed
Alaska USA 650
fauJts either rises forming Block
 GENERAL KN OWLEDGE ~ Geography

Plateaus Volcanic Plateau These are formed by

accumulation of lava. e.g. North-Western
• Tabular upland having relief of more part of Deccan Plateau (India).
than 500 feet may be defined as plateau.
Dissected Plateau Through the continual
• Tibetan plateau (5000 m) is the process of weathering and erosion by
rnghest plateau in the world. running water, ice and winds, high extensive
Major Plateaus plateau are gradually worn down, and their
surface becomes irreguJar. For example, the
Plateau LooaUon Scottish l-ligh]ands.
Tibetan Plateau Between Himalayas
and Kunlun mountains
Plains
• A relatively low-lying and flat land surface
Deocan Plateau Southern India
with the least difference be tv1reen its
Arabian Plateau South-West As ia hjghest and lowest points is called a Plain.
Plateau of Brazil Central-Eastern South • The plains are divided into sb.7..lctural,
America erosional and depositional plains.
Plateau of Mexico Me><ioo Classification of Plains
Plateau of Colombia USA
Structural Erosional Plain Depositional
Plateau of Madagascar Plain Plain
Madagascar
Formed Formed when the Formed by
Plateau of Alaska North-West North due to the elevated tract of Tilling up of
America uplift of a land is \1/orn do\1/n sediments into
Plateau of Bolivia Andes Mountains part of the to a plain by the depressions
sea floor process of along the
Great Basin Plateau South of Colombia e.g . the erosion. e.g. Plain foothills, lakes
Plateau, USA Great Plain of North Canada. and seas e.g_
of USA_ Inda Ganga
Colorado Plateau South of Great Basin Plain.
Plateau, USA
Kimberley Plateau Australia
ATMOSPHERE
Antolia Plateau Turkey
Atmosphere is a truck gaseous envelope
Patagonia Plateau Argentina
surrounding the Earth from all sides and
Iberian Plateau Spain attached to the Earth through the force of
gravity.
Katango Plateau Democratic Republic
of Congo
Significance of Atmosphere
According to their mode offormation and • Acts as a fil ter because it absorbs the
their physical arppearance, plateaus may harmful Ul rr·av:iolet radiation.
be grouped into the foll01.uing tzJpes: • SouTce of va.Iious life supporting gases
Tectonjc Plateau These are formed by such as OA"}'gen, carbon dioxide etc.
Earth movements whkh cause uplift. • Supports life forms in biosphere.
They are normally of a considerable size
and fairly uniform altitude. Extent of Atmosphere
• Exan1ples of Tectornc Plateau ~ue: • Though the exact attitude of alJnosphere
Tibetan Plateau bet:\1veen the is not ]mown, but it is estimated that it
l-limalayas and the Kunlun and the extends till 10,000 km above the Earth's
Bolivian Plateau between hvo ranges of surface.
the Andes. • The vertical distribution of atmospheric
• When plateau are enclosed by Fold layers is not uniform.
mou tains, they are lmmvn as • Almost 98% of atmospbe1ic mass is
lntermont Plateau. e.g. Bolivian limHed to an al titude of 30 Jrm from the
Plateau . surface of Earth.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Composition of Abnosphere
• The abnosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and particulates.
• Gases such as Helium, Ozone and Hydrogen etc are present in traces.
• Ozone gas absorbs the ultraviolet radiations and protects the biosphere from its
adverse impac t.
The percentage composition of the various gases in atmosphere upto 50 hm is given below:
Gases Peroentage ComposWon Signifioanoe
Nitrogen 78.08% Acts as dilutent and is generally chemically inactive.
Oxygen 21% Inhaled by biotic components for survival. Oxygen is
also essential for combustion of burning matter.
Argon 0.93% Inert gas.
Carbon 0.03% Being a greenhouse gas, it maintains the
dirn<ide temperature of the lower atmosphere.
Neon 0.0018% Inert gas
Helium 0.0005% Inert gas

• Stratosphere is free from dust

Layers of Atmosphere
Troposphere
• It extends upto an average altitude of 18
km from the Earth's swface. Thiclmess
vai1es from 8 Jan at the poles to 18 Ian at
the equator.
• At every 165 m, there is a drnp of 1° C (or • Mesosphere extends above the
6.4° C per km). This is called Normal
Lapse Rate of Temperatw·e.
• Tropopause sepai·ates b:oposphere from
sb:atosphere.
• This layer accoWJts for practically the
entire water vapour, all dust pai·ticles and
most of the Cai·bon dioxide contained in
the abnosphere. Due to this all weather
phenomena such as condensation,
precipitation and storms etc occui- in the
troposphere only.
Sh·atosphere
• The stratosphere extends up to about 50
km, '"''here stratopause sepai·ates it from
the mesosphere.
• In this layer, the temperatme increases
, 1vith increase in height. This phenomenon
is lmown as temperatw·e inversion.
• Tbe temperature rises in this layer from
about-60°C at the tropopause to 0°c at
sb:atopause.
• The pa.it of the sb:atosphere, in which there
is a concentration of ozone js often called
ozonosphere. It absorbs ultraviolet
radiation, whkh js harmful for life forms in
the biosphere.
pai·tides and also from atmospheric
turbulence. Hence, thfa )ayer is
considered ideal for :flying of jet
aircrafts.
Mesosphere
sb:atopause up to a height of about 80
km.
• In thfa layer, the temperatille
decreases with height W{e in the
troposphere and it falls from about
0° C at its base to about - 100° C at an
heigh t of 80 Jan . lt is considered the
coldest layer of the atmosphere.
• The upper limit of the mesosphere is
marked by the Mesopause, a
transitional layer sepai·ating it from
the ionosphere.
• Meteoroids bmn in this layer which
prevents them from colliding vvith the
Earth's surface.
Ionosphere
• Ionosphere is located above the
mesosphere and extends up to about
600 km. Tbjs )ayer is called
ionosphere because it contains
elecb.1cally charged ions that reflect
the radio waves back to the Earth
which makes radio commumcation
possible. Absorption of solar radiation
by iorused pai·ticles causes an increase
in temperatille with increasing height
in the ionosphere.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Thermospbere
• The zone between the 85 Jan and 600 Jan above the surface is often called
Tbermosphere. In this layer, the temperature incrnases with increasing altitude. The
upper hmjt of the thermosphe1·e, the thermopause is generally taken at an altitude of
about 600 Jan.
• The day temperature at 600 km altitude exceed 1400° C while rnght temperature
remain about 225° C .
• The upper part of the thermosphere contains only the lighter gases Wee helium and
hydrogen.

Exosphere and M~onetospbere

• The outermost pait of the atmosphere of the Eai·th is called Exosphere.
• Trus zone of the atmosphere is about 10,000 km thick.
• The upper limit of the exosphere is uncertain as this ]ayer acts as a transitional layer
bet\ veen the Earth's atmosphere and the outer space. The outer part of the exosphere
1

is called Magnetosphere.
Temperature
Exosphere more than
1000°c
Thermosphere
600 km 600 km
Thermosphere
Temperature
Ionosphere increases
with height

Mesopause waves
80 km 80km
-::,::, (-100°C)
(-100°C} ':; Meteors
Mesosphere Temperature
decreases

-1 --7t~:::----------
with height
50 km 60km
(0°C} (0°C)
z Temperature
~~ S tratosphere increases
with height
i T opopause --- -- 18 km
------~ - -------MtEve es (- 80°C)
8km
(-45°C) -t;;j
, ,,,, Troposp here ~ ) ~ '••
1
Temperature
decreases
Earth with height
Structme of the Atrnosphere

Chemical Co1nposition of the Atm osphere

On the basis of chemka1 composition, the atmosphere is mvided in to
• Homosphere The atmosphere upto 80 Jan altitude is lmmvn as homospbere. There is
a homogeneous composition of vaiious gases like rntrogen, o:,..-ygen, ai·gon, CO 2 e tc. in
the Homosphere. Due to growing indust:Iialisation, the homogeneity of this ]ayer has
been msturbed.
• Heterosphere Trus )ayer stai·ts from 80 km and coincides with the thermosphere.
There are rnstinct layers of gases in the atmosphere, v, ruch ai·e ai-_ranged according to
1

their mean molecular weights. Fom mstinct ]ayers of gases are formed - N 2, 0 , He, H .
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
These layers in the order of height are
Layers Height (km )
Moleoular Nitrogen 100-200
Atomic Oxygen 200-1100
Helium Layer 1100-3600
Hydrogen No upper limit
The order is in decreasing order of the
atomk mass.
Insolation
• Solar radiation that is intercepted by
the Earth is lmm'VIl as lnsolation.
■ Insolation is measlll'ed with the help of
Pyranometers.
The amount of insolation depends on
following factors:
(i) The area and nal:1..ll'e of the swface.
(ii) The inclination of the rays of the Sun.
(iii) Distance between the Earth and the
Sun.
(iv) Length of the day.
(v) The transparency of the atmosphere.
• As the angle of the Sun's rays decreases
poleward, the amount of insolation
received also decreases in that direction.
• The Earth's swface does not absorb all
the energy that it receives. The
proportion of the solar radiation
reflected back from the swface 1s called
Albedo.
• On an average, insolation 1s rughest
near the equator, marginally lower at
the b:opics and lowest at the poles.
Heat Budget of the Earth
• The Earth receives energy continuously
■ Atmospheric pressme is neither the sanJe
from the Sun but 1ts temperatme is s till
almost constant. Trns js because the
atmosphere loses an amount of heat
equal to the amount of heat gain ■ Atmospheric pressme is affected by
through insolation. This mechanjsm of
maintainmg the balance between
incommg and outgoing heat in the
atmosphere 1s called the Heat Budget
or Heat Balance.
• Let us assume that 100 units of energy
reach the top of the atmosphere of the
Earth. 14 uni tis are absorbed cfu·ectly
by the atmosphere and 35 units are lost
to space through reflection.
G
■ The remaining 51 unHs reach the Earth's
swface and are absorbed by the Earth
due to which the surface gets heated.
■ The heated surface of the Earth starts
radiating energy in the form oflong waves
and this process 1s called Terrestrial
Raillation.
■ Out of the total 51 units given up by the
swface in the form of terrestrial
radiation, the atmosphere (mainly CO 2
and water vapour) absorbs about 34
u.n.its and the remaining 17 units escape
to space.
• In thjs way, the atmosphere recejves a
total of 14 + 34 = 48 uni ts and this
amount is radiated back to space by the
a!JJrnsphere .
■ The total loss of energy to space thus
amounts to 100 umts. 35 units reflected
by the atmosphere, 17 umts lost as
terrestrial radiation and 48 units from the
a!JJrnsphere.
• In this way, no net gain or loss of energy
occurs on the Earth's sw:face.
■ At equator, the amount of incommg
radiation 1s more than outgoing radiation,
whereas the anrnunt of outgoing
radiation is more than incommg
radiation in polor regions. The transport
of surplus heat from equator to poles is
knmm as 'Melidional Transport of Heat'.
Atmospheric Pressure
■
Air is a mixtme of several gases h aving
their m,vn weight. The pressme exerted
by air due to lts weight is called
atmospheric pressUJ·e on the Earth's
swface.
for all the regions nor the sanJe for one
region all the time.
various factors such as altitu de,
temperature and Earth's rotation.
Influence on the
Atmospheric Pressure
Altitude Air pressure increases, when air
descends. Trus is due to the decrease in
volume of the air. When ,rir rajses 1ts
volume inci·eases and the pressure of 1ts
molecules is spread over a larger area so, its
pressure decreases.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Temperatw·e The pressure of ail· rises, when its temperature falls. Low temperature at
the poles cause the ail· to contract-high pressure develops; , 1\'hereas the high temperature
along the equator cause the ail· to expand-low pressw-e develops.

THE GLOBAL PRESSURE BELTS

. ._.,_«-/
/ //
Descending a ~ Np

Polar Easterlies

As:~!'1"!;//; 7----;--- ---7L7 6~~sterlles

Descending air ===:: --- -H ----------- ---------++------ 30°N
Hadley cell rj I I I I ~airtn-East Trade Winds

Ascend ing air -l Inter Tropical Converg ence Zone -1:.- - - 0°N
t
-+----'

Hadley cell \ \
- -

\ \ \ \
5°s
South-East Trade Winds
Descending air =:: --++------------- -------- +1- ----- 30°N
Ferrel 0011\ \ \ \ \ \
1==
Ascending air
W-- \ \ \
--- b.-------- ------- -1=- ---- 60°N
Polar Easlerlies
Descending a ~ Sp
Pressw-e Belts

Equatorial Low Pressure Belt • Here the convergence of ·winds at

• It is located on either side of the Wgher altitude above tWs zone results
geographical equator in a zone extending in the subsidence of air. Subsidence
behveen 5°N and 5°S. Its location js not results in concenb.-ation of their
stationa.1.1' and there js a seasonal drift of volume and ultimately causes rugh
this belt with the Northwa.1.·d (summer pressure in this zone.
solstice) and Southwa.1.·d (winter solstice) • This zone of Wgh pressure js also
mjgration of the Sun. called Horse Latitude.
• It is thermally induced because of the
intense heating of the ground surface by the Sub-Polar Low Pressure
almost vertical Sun rays. Belt
• It represents the zone of convergence of • It extends between 60° to 66°
North-Eas t and South-East trade winds. latitudes in both the he □Jispbere .
This convergence zone 1s charactelised by
The low pressure belt does not appea.1.·
light and feeble winds. And because of the •
to be thermally induced because
frequent calm conditions, this belt is known
there js low temperature throughout
as a belt of calm or doldrums. the year. Naturally, there should have
been high pressw-e belt instead of low
Subh~opical High Pr pressure belt. But as i t js dynamkally
• It extends behveen 30° to 35° latitudes in induced low pressure is formed.
both the hemispheres.
• It js more developed and regu]a.1.· in
• It is not thermally induced, but dynanncally Southern he □Jisphere than in
induced as it is formed by the rotation of the Northern he □Jisphere because of the
Ea.1.·th and sinking and settling down of over dominance of water (ocean) in
,,.fuds. the Southern hemisphere .
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Polar High Pressure Belt deflected to the left in the

Southern hemisphere with
• lligh pressw-e persists at the poles throughout respect to the rotating Earth.
the year because of the prevalence of very low
temperatme all the year round. • Tb.is is referred to as Ferrel's Law.
The C01iolis force is absent along
• Thus, it is thermally induced pressw-e belt.
the equator, but increases
progressively towards the pole.
Shifting of Wind Belts • The factors that conb.-ol the air
• The entire system of pressw-e and v,rind bel ts motion on Earth's surface are as
follows the movement of m.idday Sun. In ]llile, follows:
,•vhen the Sun is over the n·opic of Cancer, all
■ Pressure grad.ient
the belts move about 5°- 10° North of their
average position. ■ Rotation of Earth and Coriolis
force
• In the same manner, ,•vhen the Sun is overhead
■ Flictional force
at the Tropic of Capricorn in December, all the
belts sh.ift 5° - 10° South of their averaO'e ■ Centrifugal action of wind
b

position. • The \!\rinds blowing parallel to the

isobars generally at the height of
600 mis called geosfrophic wind.
"N 40"N
Primary Wind Movement
LQV_! E~e_§~U_!e
"N11--------1
(Permanent Winds)
30"N1--------1 These winds include trade wind,
High westerlies and polar winds.
C>e'=' Prsss-ure
\~
Trade Winds
Summer LolV Pressure
• These are steady currents of air
QI!!_ ~e~~u.re
(June) Normal position blowing from the sub-tropical high
(Maroh and Seplemb er) Winler pressure belt towards the
(Decemb er)
equatorial low pressure belt.
Shifting Wind Belts • Under the influence of the Cmiolis
forces they flow from the
Wind System North-East in the Northern
• The pressw-e difference is the major cause of hem.isphere and from South-East
the genesis of the ,,.rind system. The air in the Southern hem.isphere.
moves from h.igh pressw-e to low pressure.
• The slope of pressure from high to low is called West erlies
as pressrn·e gradient, which is also called as • The permanent winds blo\i\ring
barometric slope. from the sub-tropical high
• The imaginary line joining the points h aving pressure belt to the sub-polar low
same pressure is called isobars. Ideally, the pressure belt in both the
direction of air movement should be hemisphere is called WesterUes.
perpend.icular to the isobars but the winds are • The general direction of the
deflected due to the CorioUs force caused by westerlies is South-West to North-
the rotation of the Earth. East in the Northern hemisphere
and North-West to South-East in
Wind Direction the Southern hemisphere.
• Because of the dominance of the
and Related Laws land masses in the Northern
• The Cmiolis force generated due to the hem.isphere the Westerlies become
rotation of Earth acts as a deflective force to more complex and complicated.
the \!\rind direction. Because of the Cmiolis They become less effective during
force, all the ,,.rinds are deflected to the right in sWJlJiler seasons and more
the Northern hemisphere while they are vigorous dw:ing winter seasons.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

The Westerlies become more Iigorous in the Southern hemisphere because of the lack
of land and dominance of water surface.
• Their velocity increases Southward and they become stormy so they are caJ]ed 1·oa.ring
forties betvveen 40°-50° South latitudes, fm·ious fifties at 50° South latitude and
screaming sixties at 60° South latitude.

Polar Winds
Polar winds blows from polar high pressure belt to sub-polar lm•v pressme belt. They are
North-Easterly in Northern hemisphere and South-Easterly in the Southern hemisphere.

Secondaiy Wind Movement

Secondary wind movements include those , 1vind patterns that are not permanent W<e the
pLimary winds. Secondary Wind Movement includes seasonal peLiodic winds. Seasonal
winds are the winds, which reverse their direction completely every 6 months vvith
change in season . The best example is Monsoon winds.
Tertiary Movement (Local Winds)
Wind Nature Region
Land Breeze Warm Land breeze blows from land to sea.
Chinook (sno\1/ ea/er) Warm Rockies (USA and Canada)
Fohn Warm Alps/Europe
Zonda Warm Argentina, Chile/Andes
Santa Ana Warm USA (California)
Berg Warm South Africa
Yoma Warm Japan
Siroooo Hot North Africa
Khamsin Hot Egypt
Harmattan (The Dootor) Hot Sahara to Guinea Coast (Ghana, Nigeria sic)
Brick Fielder Hot Australia
Samun Hot Iran
Norwester Hot Wind New Zealand
Leveche Hot Algeria, Moroooo, Spain
Karaburan Hot Tarim Basin (Central Asia)
Black Roller Hot/Dusty North America
Kalbaisakhi Hot North India
Sea Breeze Cold Sea breeze blows from sea to land.
Blizzard Cold Siberia, Canada, USA
Bora Cold Yugoslavia
Southerly Buster Cold Australia
Purga Cold Russian , Tundra
Marin Cold France
Cape Doctor Cold South African coast
Levant Cold Wind Spain
Mistral Cold France to Mediterranean (Rhine valley)

CYCLONES
Cyclones are the centres oflow pressure sw:rnunded by closed 1sobars having inci·easing
pressw·e ouhvards due to lov,, pressure at the centre, there 1s continuous flow of air
towards the centre.
• Afr blows inward in anti-doclmrise direction in the Northern hemisphere.
• Afr blows inward in clockwise direction in the Southern hemisphere.
Cyclones are mainly of two types
(i) Tropical Cyclone (ii) Temperate Cyclone
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
e
Naming of Cyclones in Different • They are high pressure system and
Reg ions common in sub-tTopical belts and
practically absent in the equatodal
Name of Cyolone Region region .
Typh oons South China Sea • They are generally assocfated ·with
Tropical Cyolones Indian Ocean rainless fair weather and that's why they
Hurricanes Caribbean Sea are lmm,vn as weatherless phenomena.
Tornadoes USA
Thunderstornis
Willy Willies Northern Au stralia
• Thunderstorms are local storms
Differences Between Tropical and charncterised by swift upwar·d
Temperate Cyclones movement of air and heavy rainfall ,,vith
cloud thunder and lightening.
TropioaJ Cyolone Temperate Cyolone • Sb.7..Ictu.rally, thunderstorms consist of
They are found in the Normally found several convective cells, which are
trade wind bel t, between 30 to 65
between 8-20 degree degree North and
characterised by sb.·ong updraft of air.
North and South . But South in the sub-polar Tornado
not found between O to frontal zone, where
8 degree as there is no oold p olar air m ass • Tornadoes ,ue very sb.·ong rr·opical
ooriolis force there. meets the warm cyclones of smaller size. In the
tropical air mass . Mississippi valley (US), they ar·e called
It travels from East to It moves from West to Twisters.
We st in the Easterly East embedded in the
wind bell Westerly wind bell • They are more desb.·uctive than cyclones
Tropical cyolones are They form over a
as the speed of winds is very hjgh,
muoh smaller with a much large area with exceeding 220 km per hom.
diameter of about 200 a diameter 300 to
to 500 km. 1500 km. Jet Sh·eam
Tropical cyolones are Temperate cyolones • The strong and rapidly mmring
non frontal in nature. are fronta l in nature. circumpolar· Westerly air circuJation in a
It is formed only over It is formed either narrow belt of a fev,, hunched kilomeb.·es
the ooeans. over con- tinent s or width in the upper limit of troposphere
over the ooeans. js called Jet St.ream.
Tropical cyolone can They can form both in
• Their circulation path js wavy and
form only in the summer: summer as well as in
winte r. meandering.
It does not have It take s m ore time to • The ex tent of the Je t StTeams nar-rows
definite lifecycle and di ss ipate as it has a dm'lrn during the summer season
they dissi pate as they more definite because of their Northward shifting
pass over the land liiecyole.
surface.
,,vruJe these extend up to 20° North
latitude during winter season.
Anticyclone HUMIDI1Y
• They are the \'l'l.Ild systems, whkh have
the highest air pressW'e at the centre • Humidity of air refers to the content of
and lowest at the outer margins. the water vapour present in the air at a
■ The wind blows from the cen b:e to particular· time and place. Humidity is
outward in clockwise direction in measured by an instTu.ment called
Northern hemisphere and from centre to hygrometer. Another instrument used
ouh\1ard in anti-clockwise direction in for the same purpose is sling
Southern hemisphere . psychmmeter.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

The atmospheric hwmidity is ex.pressed in a • Fog is made fro m the droplets of water
number of ways such as: suspended in the lower layer of the
atmosphere. Fog is not considered as a
Way of Measurement Definftion form of precipitaion. Visibility of less
of Humidity than 1 km is the internationally
Humidity Capacity The capacity of air recognised definition of fog.
of certain volume at
certain temperature
• Haze is formed by ,,,.,ater particles that
to retain maximum have condensed in the atmosphere and
amount of moisture visibility lie between 1 km to 2 km.
contenL • Frost is the moistlll'e on the ground
Absolute Humidity The total weight of swiace that condenses directly into ice,
moisture content i.e. when condensation occU1·s below
per volume of air at
delinite
freezing point.
temperatu re is
called absolute
humidity_
RAINFALL
Speoiiic Humidity The mass of the On the basis of its origin, Rainfall may be
water vapour in classified into three main types
grams contained in • Convectional Rainfall Bt occUl's due to
a ki logram of air_ It
thermal convection currents caused
represents the
actual quantity of due to insolational beating of ground
moisture present in swiace.
a def iniie amount

~~
of air_
Relative Humidity It is the ratio of the
amount of water
vapour actually A A
u u -u A ll11 11111111111111111111
Relative Humidity 11 1111111111111111111111
present in the air l1l1l1l1l1l 1l 1l1l1l1l1 l1

ft 1}
i
Absolute humidity x :i111: 111111111111111111111
Rainfall d1
100 having definite
Humidity capacity volume and 111111111 111111 11111 1111
temperatu re (Le_ :1:1:1 :1:1:1 :1:1:1 :1:1:1
absolute humidity) nd from land
~ ::::::::::::::::::::::::
to the maximum Convectional Rainfall
amount the air can
hold CT-e- humidity • Orographlc Rainfall occUl's due to
capacity) _
ascent of air forced by a mountain
barrier.
Condensation and Its Forms
• When the relative hwniclity reaches
l 00%, the air is completely saturated_ The Rainfall
air temperature is said to be at dew-point. Wind beco
cold and
• It is the change of physical state of matter
from gaseous phase into liquid phase and
is the reverse of vaporisation. The
process of condensation depends upon Orographk Rainfall
the anJount of Relative Hwnidity present
• Frontal Rainfall or Cyclonic It occU1·s
in the air. due to upward movement of air caused
• Smog (Smoke + Fog) is a form of fog that by convergence of cold air masses
occ1us in areas, where the air contains a against warm air masses.
Jarge amount of smoke.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Characteristics of Rainfall
Convectional
■ It oocurs daily in the
afternoon in the equatorial
regions_
■ It is of very short duration
but oocurs in the form of
heavy rainfall.
■ It oocurs through thiok, dark
and extensive oumulo-
nimbus olouds_
■ It is aocompanied by oloud,
thunder and lightening_
Orographic Frontal or Cyclonic
■ The windward slope ■ Ra inf all assooiated with the
reoeives the maximum temperate cyclone oocurs,
amount of rainfall , when two extensive air
whereas the leeward side masses of different physical
reoeives less rainfall. properties converge_
■ The windward slopes of ■ In temperate regions, two
the mountajns at the time extensive air masses of
of rainfall are similar physical properties
characterised by converge to form temperate
oumulus clouds while oyolones that cause heavy
leeward slope has rainfall in these regions.
stratus olouds. It can
occur in any season.

Clouds
• Clouds are the masses of small wa ter droplets or tiny ice crystals.
• Clouds are classtfied according to their appearance, form an d height.
There are four groZLps
(i) I-Ugh Clouds 6 to 20 Jan
(ii) Middle Clouds 2.5 to 6 lrnJ
(iii) Low Clouds below 2.5 Jan
(iv) Clouds of great vertical extent upto 9000 m
The different tzJpes of clouds are given Latin names, which arre the combination of the
following words:
■ Cirrus means looking like a feather and used to describe the very high clouds.
■ Cumul us means looldng like a heap. It is used to desc.dbe the clouds having flat bases
and rounded tops.
■ Stratus means lying in level sheets. lt is used for layer type of clouds.
■ Alto means at middle altitudes.
■ Nimbus means rain cloud.

Types of Clouds
High Clouds Middle Clouds Low Clouds Clouds with Great
Vertical Extent
Cirrus Composed of Alto-cumulus Strata-cumulus Large Cumulus Round topped
small ice crystal , Composed of globular masses, bumpy and flat based forming a
transparent white, water droplets looking, soft and grey in whitish grey globular
and iibrous in in layers and appearanoe forming a mass, consists of
appearanoe. patches_ pronounced regular and individual aloud uniis.
sometimes wavy pattern.
Cirro-cumulus Alto-stratus Nimbo-stratus Dark grey Cumulo-nimbus They
Composed of ice Composed of and rainy looking, dense have a great vertical
crystals , but globular water droplets , and shapeless , often extent, white or black
or rippled in forming sheets gives continuous rains. globular masses, whose
appearanoe. of grey or blue rounded tops often
colour clouds. spread out in the form of
anviL It is characterised by
convectional rain, lightning
and thunder.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Types of Clouds
High Clouds Middle Clouds Low Clouds Clouds with Great
Vertical Extent
Cirro"stratus Looks Stratus These are low, Noctiluoent clouds They
like a thin white grey and layered , almost are made of ice orystals.
almost transparent fog like in appearance, They are normally too
sheet. which causes b ri nging dull weather and faint to be seen as they
the Sun and Moon to often accompanied by form in the upper parts of
shine through it with drizzle. atmosphere_
a characteristic
'halo'.

Climate and Weather

Weather refers to the sum total of all the a!JJ10spheric conditions in term s of
temperatlll'es, presslll'es, win d, m oistlll'e, cloudiness, rainfall etc of a particuJar place at
any given tim e. The climate of a place is defined as an aggregate weather condi tions over
a considerably long peliod of time.
World Climatic Types
Climatic Zone Climatic Types Rainfall Natural Vegetation
Equatorial Zone 1. Hot, wet equatorial Rai nfall all the year Equatorial rain
(0°-10°N and S) (80 inches) forests
Tropical Zone 2. Tropical Monsoon Heavy summer rain Monsoon forests
(10°-30°N and S) (60 inches}
3. Sudan type Rain mainly in Savana (Tropical
summer (70 inohes) grassland)
4. Desert Little rain (5 inohes) Desert vegetation
(a) Saharan type and scrub
(b} Mid latitude ~~e
Warm Temperate 5. Western m argin Winter rain (35 inches) Mediterranean
Zone (30°-45°N (Mediterranean type) forests
and S) 6. Central Continental type Ught summer rain (20 Steppe, temperate
(Ste~~e ty~e) inohes) grassland
7. Eastern Margin Heavier summer rain Warm, wet forests
(45 inches) and bamboo
(a} China ~~e or Gutt Ty~e
Cool Temperate 8. Western Margin Rain in autumn and Deoiduous forests
Zones (B ri tish Type ) winter (30 inches)
(45°-66°N and S) 9. Central Continental Ught summer rain Coniierous forests
(Siberian Type ) (25 inches)
10. Eastern Margin Moderate summer Mixed forests
(Lauritian Type ) rain (40 inohes) (coniferous and
deoiduous)
Cold Zone 11 . Arotic or Polar Very light summer rain Tundra, mosses,
(66°-90°N and S) (10 inches) lichens
12. Mountain Climate Heavy rain fall Alpine, fem,
(vari able) coniferous,
~astu res, snow
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Hot Wet Equatorial Climate

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Eoonomy

Found between 5° Mean monthly Tropical rain forest Sparsely populated

-10° latitudes on temperature around with multitude of pri mitive people live as
either side of 24--27 degree C. evergreen trees suoh hunter and gatherer in
equator_ Diurnal and annual range as mahogany, ebony_ the forests.
It is found mainly in of temperature is small_ Climbers like lianas, Praotioe of shitting
the lowlands of Convectional rainfall with epiphytic and parasitic cul1ivation is prevalent.
Amazon , Congo, average annual rainfall of plants are also iound_
Malaysia and the 250 cm .
East Indies.

Tropical Monsoon
Distribution Climate Natural Eoonomy
Vegetation

■ Found between ■ Summer and winter seasons ■ Normally ■ Agrioulture

5°-30° latitudes are sharply differen tiated due deoiduous. based
on either side of to the North and Southward ■ Most of the economy_
the equator_It is movement of the Sun. forest yields ■ Agricul ture orops
found majnly in ■ Average temperatu re of valuable includes rioe,
India, Burma, warm dry summer months timber like sugarcane, jute
Thailand, ranges between 27-32° c_ teak, sal, etc.
Laos, Cambodia, acaoia etc_
■ Orographic and Cyolonic
Northern
Rainfall
Australia_
■ Monsoon rain through
South-West monsoon winds_

The Sudan or Savanna Climate

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Eoonomy

■ Located between ■ Alternate hot, rainy and ■ Characterised by ■ Tribes live in

5°-20° latitude on oool dry season. Mean tall grass and short the Savanna
either side of the high temperature trees (flat top)_ lands_
equator. th roughout the year is ■ Trees are ■ Some tribes
■ Mostly found in between 24 and 27 deciduous and live as
Llanos of Orinoco degree C. hard. Pastoralists
valley, the ■ The e>Ctreme diurnal range ■ Scrubland is well like the
Campos of Brazil, of temperature is a represented by a Maasai.
hilly areas of oharacterislic of Sudan number of speoies ■ Hausa are
Central America, type of climate_ in Australia like se ttled as
Southern Zaire ■ The average annuaJ mallee, m ulga, oultivators in
etc_ rajnfall ranges between spinifex grass etc. Northern
100 om and 150 om. Nigeria_
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Hot Desert and Mid - Latitudinal Desert Climate

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
■ Major hot deserts ■ Lie on the sub- ■ Vegetation is ■ Inhospitable
are located on the tropicaJ high pressure mostly Xerophytic conditions of the
Western coasts of bel~ where air is or drought deserts are barrier
continents desoending. resistant scrub. to economic
between 15°-30° ■ Relative humidity is Plants that exist in development.
latitudes in both extremely low. deserts have ■ The Bushmen of
the hemispheres. ■ Ra inf all is highly specialised the Kalahari and
convectional type means of the Bindibu of
with violent thunder adapting AustraJia are
storm. themselves to the primitive tribes.
■ The diurnaJ range of arid environment
temperature is very such as few or no
high. leaves, needle
shaped leaves
etc.

Warm Temperate Western Margin : Mediterranean

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
■ This is found in ■ The climate is ■ Evergreen trees ■ Economy is
California, in parts characterised by hot, such as oak and based on
of Western and dry summers and cool, eucalyptus, jarrah cultivation of
South Australia, in wet winters_ and kari are fruits, wine
South-Western ■ During summer, regions found. making and
South Africa, of Mediterranean ■ Evergreen cereal growing
parts of Central climate are dominated coniferous trees and a wide
Chile and around by sub-tropicaJ high are pines, firs, range of citrus
the Mediterranean pressure cells causing cedars and fruits_
region. no or little rainfall. cypresses.

Temperate Continental Steppe Climate

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
■ Pustaz of Hungary, ■ Continental ■ It has the scanty ■ Grazing of
Prafries of North climate with vegetation of the animals,
America, Pampas of extremes of sub-arid lands of extensive and
Argentina and temperature_ continental Eurasia_ mechanised
Uruguay, Bush Veld ■ Winters are very ■ They are treeless, wheat
of South Africa_ cold. having very short cultivation_
grasses.

Warm Temperate Eastern Margin : China Type or Gulf Type Climate

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
■ Found on the ■ Characterised by warm ■ Evergreen broad ■ Rice, tea and
Eastern margin moist summer and a leaved forests mulberries are
of the cool dry winter. and deciduous extensively grown
continents in ■ Uniform distribution of forests. in monsoon
warm rajnfall throughout the China
temperate year is an important ■ Other important
latitudes. feature. crops are corn,
tobacco and
cotton_
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Cool Temperate Western Margin : British Type

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
■ From Britajn, this ■ It is under the ■ Deoiduous forest ■ Fishing is
belt stretches far permanent influence vegetation. Some important in
inland into the of the Westerlies . of the common Norway and
lowlands of ■ Summers are in fact species are oak, British
North-West Europe never very warm. elm, birch, beech, Columbia.
including regions Winters are mild. poplar etc. ■ Market
such as Northern ■ As the rain bearing gardening is
and Western winds come from widely
France, Belgium, the West, the practised in
the Netherland, Western margins North-Western
Denmark, Western receive the heaviest Europe.
Norway. rajnfall.

Cool Temperate Continental: Siberian (Boreal Type)

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
■ Experienced only in ■ Characterised ■ Here the ■ Saw mills for the
Northern by a bitterly Coniferous forest softwood are
hemisphere_ cold winter of belt of Eurasia and prevalent.
■ On its polar side, long duration North America are ■ Many of the
it merges into the and a oool brief the richest souroe Samoyeds and
Arctic Tundra and in summer_ of the softwood_ Yakuts of Siberia
Southern side, ■ The winter ■ The major species and some of the
it fades in to the precipitation is are pine , fir, spruce Canadians are
temperate steppe in the form of and larch. engaged in hunting,
olimate. snow_ trapping and fishing.

Cool Temperate Eastern Margin: Laurentian

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
■ It is found in North- ■ It has cold, dry ■ Generally, the ■ Lumbering and
Eastern North America winter and warm, forest is associated
and the Eastern Coast of wet summers _ Coniferous_ Some industries like
Asia. ■ Winter of the important timber, paper
■ It is absent in Southern temperature may speoies are oak, and pulp are
hemisphere because be well below maple and birch. the most
only a small portion of freezing point important
Southern continents and snow falls to economic
extend South of the 40° quite a depth. activities.
South latitude.

Arctic and Polar

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
■ It is found ■ Characterised ■ There are no trees ■ The few people, who live in
majnly by a very low in the Tundra. the Tundra live a semi-
North of the mean annual ■ The greatest factor nomadic lire. Eskimos live
Arctic cirole_ temperature. inhibiting the in Greenland, Northern
Winters are growth of trees is Canada and Alaska_
long and lack of sunlight. ■ In the Eurasian Tundra,
severe , ■ Such an there are other nomadic
summers are environment can tribes such as the Lapps of
cool and brief. support only the Northern Finland and
■ Precipitation is lowest form of Scandinavian , the
mainly in the vegetation, Samoyeds of Siberia,
form of snow mosses , lichens Yakuts, Koryaks and
fall in winters. and sedges. Chuckchi of North- Eastern
Asia_
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Famous Grasslands HYDROSPHERE

of the World
The water component of the Earth js called
Grasslands Countries hydrosphere v,1hich covers about 70% of the
Steppe Eurasia swface of Earth . It indudes the oceans, seas,
lakes, ponds, Iivers and streams.
Pustaz Hungary
Prairie USA Composition of Hydrosphere
Pampas Argentina Storage Component % of Water
Veld South Africa Ooeans
Downs Australia loe caps and glaciers 2.05
Cantebury New Zealand Ground water 0.68
Soil moisture 0.001
Great Deserts Saline lakes and inland seas 0.006
Lakes 0.013
Name Country/ Freshwater rive rs 0.0001
Region
Atmosphere 0.0009
Sahara (Ubyan, Nubian) North
Africa
Australian (Gibson, Simpson, Australia
OCEANS
Victorian, Great Sandy) There a.re four oceans. In the order of their
Arabian (Rub•al-Khali, Arabia size they are: Pacific ocean, Atlantic ocean,
An-Nafud) Indian ocean and Arctic ocean. The average
Dast-e-Lut (Barren Desert) Iran depth of oceans on Earth is about 4 Jan.
Dast-e-Kavir (Salt-e-Kavir) Iran Major Oceans
(Salt Desert)
Ooean Important Information
Seohura Desert Peru
Pacific It is the largest and deepest of ocean _
Atacama North Chile Most of ihe Islands of the ooean are of
Patagonia Argentina volcanic or coral origin. Mariana
Trench, the world's deepest trenoh with
Ka lahari Botswana depth 11033 km is in Paonic ooean.
Namib Namibia Atlantic It has the longest coast line. It is the
busiest ocean for trade and oommeroe
sinoe its sea routes oonnect the two
Some Important Isopleth most industrialised regions, namely
Western Europe and North-Eastern
Isopleth Represents United States of America. Atlantic ooean
is still widening. Puerto Rioo Trench is
lsohels Sunshine the deepest point of thi s ooean.
lsohyets Rainfall Indian Only ocean named after a oountry. It is
lsonif Snow deeper than the Atlantic ooean. Here
the number of continental islands is
Isocline Slope more ihan that of volcanic islands .
Sunda Trenoh (earlier known as Java
Isotherms Temperature
Trench) is the deepest p oint of this
Isobars Equal Pressure ooean.
lsobath Equal depth in sea Arctic It is the smallest ocean and lies within
the Arotic oircle. The North pole lies in
lsohaline Salinity the middle of the Arotic ooean. Most of
lsohypse Elevalion above sea-level the part of the ocean is frozen and
henoe it is least saline and the
lsodapane Equal transportation cost shallowest among all the oceans .
Nansei Trenoh is the deepest point of
lsobronts Thunder storm at the same
this ocean.
time
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography
Relief of the Ocean Basin
Continental Shelf
• The shallow submerged extension of the
continent is caJJed the continental shelf.
• Extends to a depth of 100 fathoms
(1 fathoms= 18 m).
• Average width 70 km ; average slope of
about 1°.
• Continental shelf covers 8.6% of total
area of the oceans . It extends over 13.3%
of the Atlantic ocean 5. 7% of Pacific
ocean and 4.2% of Indian ocean.
• If mountains extend along the coast, the
shelf will be narrower.
• About 20% of oil and gas are found here.
They also provide the 1ichest fishing
grounds in the world.
Continental Slope
• Extends seav,,ards from the continental
shelf.
• Depth-200-2000 metres.
• Average slope is 2 to 5 degrees.
Continental shelf
Relief of the Ocean Basin
Deeps/Trenches
• Trenches are narrow and steep side
depressions. Trenches are formed, ,,.,hen
one plate of Earth 's crust is subducted
below the other.
• Matiana trench (Challenger deep) js the
deepest point in the world situated in the
NW Pacific ocean, neat· Philippines. It is
more than 11 Jan deep.
• The boundary between shelf and slope is
known as shelf break, which is a seaward
edge with an abrupt drop.
• They cover about 8.5% of the total ocean
area.
Continental Rise
• Continental rise js an area at the foot of
the slope, slightly rising due to the
accunrnJation of debds transported over
the slope.
• Average slope-0.5° to 1°.
• Oil deposits occm here.
Abyssal or the Deep
Sea Plains
• It js an underwater vas t and flat plain on
the oceamc floor.
• Average depth 3000 m to 6000 m.
• It covers about 40% of total oceamc area.
• Parts of the Abyssal plains are occupied
by raised ridges or submai:ine mountains
and by very deep trenches or canyons.
Sea mount
Deep sea plain (forming island)
Oceanic Ridges
• Oceanic Ridges are formed by the
volcank activity along the divergent
boundat)' of plates.
• It is a thousand km long and humheds of
km wide mountain range on the oceanic
floor.
• Their swnntits may rise above the sea
level in the form of Islands i.e. Azores
Island of Iceland.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
Sea Mounts and Guyouts Barrier Reefs
• A ridge rising more than l 000 m
above the ocean floor js called
sea.mount. Flat topped sea mounts
are called Guyouts.
• Both of them are formed by the
volcanic activity.
• Largest nunJber of sea mounts and
Gu you ts are found in the Pacific
ocean.
Submarine Canyons
• Submarine canyons are the deep
gorges on the ocean floor and are
restlicted to the continental
shelves, slopes and dses.
• Many submarine canyons are
found along the mouths of major
1ivers e.g. Hudson canyon .
CORAL REEFS
• Coral reefs are formed due to
accunJulation and the compaction
of skeletons of linJe secreting
orgarnsms known as Coral Polyps.
• Corals are found mainly in the
tropical oceans and seas because
they require high mean annual
temperatme ranging between 20°C
to 25°C.
• Corals do not live ill deeper waters
due to lack of sufficient sunlight
and OA'Ygen.
On the basis of nature, shape and
mode of occurrence, the coral reefs are water and is expressed as pai-t per
classified into four tzJpes:
Fringing Reefs
• It develops along the continental
margins or along the islands.
• The sea\Jvard slope is steep and • Average salinity ill Southern hemisphere is
vertical whj]e the landward slope js
gentle.
• They are usually attached to the
coastal land, but occasionally they
are separated from the shore by a
shallow and narro\'\' lagoon called
Boat Channel.
• These type of reefs are found near
RameshwaranJ in the Gulf of
Mannai· and AndanJans.
• The harder reef lies at a distance away from
the coast. Hence, a broad lagoon sepai·ates the
reef and the shore.
• The Great Barrier Reef of Ausb."alia is the
largest barrier reef in the world. In India~ it is
found ill Nicobai· and Lakshadweep.
Patch Reefs
• Patch reefs ai·e isolated and discontinuous
patches lying shorewai·d of offshore reef
sb."uctmes. These are found in the Palk Bay,
Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Kutch.
Atoll
• A reef of narrow grm'lfug corals of horse shoe
shape and crowned with palm tl'ees js called an
atoll.
• It is formed around an jsland or in an elliptical
form on a submaiine platform.
• Funafuti atoll of Ellice !slands js a famous
atoll. They are also found in Laksbadweep and
Nicobai·.
Coral Bleaching
When corals are stressed by changes in conditions
such as temperature, light or nutrients, they expel the
symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them
to turn completely white, this phenomenon is known
as coral bleaching_
SALINI1Y
• Salinity is defined as the total anrnunt of salt
content ill grams contained in l kg of sea
thousand. The oceanic salinity not on1y affects
the marine organism and plant community,
but also affects the physical properties of the
ocean such as temperature, presstll'e, density,
waves and currents.
more than that of Northern hemisphere.
• Iso-haJines represent the salinity distribution
ill the surface of the sea. These are the lines
joining places having an equal degree of
salinity. The ma.ill source of salinity is
dissolution of the rocks of ocearnc crust, which
contaill vadous salts.
• Poles h ave minimum salinity because of
addition of fresh water in the form of icebergs
and excessive snowfall.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography
e
• Variation in salimty causes Controlling Relation with Salinity
vertical circulation of water. Factor
More saline water freezes slowly
Evaporation Greater the evaporation, higher the
while the boiling point of saline salinity.
water is higher than the fresh
, 1vater.
Preoipitation Higher the preoipitation , lower the salinity.

• Salimty also increases the Influx of river Big voluminuous rive rs pour down
water immense volume of fre sh water into the
density of water. ooeans and salinity is reduced at the
Composition of Sea Water mouth.
Atmospheric Anticyclonic conditions with stable air and
Salt Percentage pressure high temperature increases the salinity of
Composition (Ofo) the surf ace water of the ooean.
Sodium 77.8 Circulation Ooean currents affect the spatial distribution
Chloride of oceanic of salinity by milting sea waters .
water
Magnesium 10.9
Chloride
Magnesium 4.7
MOVEMENTS OF OCEANIC
Sulphate WATER
Calcium 3.6
Sulphate Waves
Potassium 2.5 • Waves ar--e the osciJJatory movements in wa ter
Sulphate mainJy produced by winds, manifested by an
Others 0.5 alternate lise and fall of the sea swface.
• The ,,vaves are the important agents of erosion in
Most Saline Water Bodies the coastal regions, where they carve out various
landforms like caves, bays, gulfs, capes and cliffs.
Water Peroentage • Seismic waves or Tsunamjs are the waves caused
Bodies Composition (0/o) by ear-thquakes or volcanic eruptions at the sea
Lake Assel 34.8 bottom.
(Ojibuli)
• The Tsunamis, which mt the coast in South-East
Dead Sea 33.7 Asia on 26th December, 2004, caused very heavy
(West Asia) damage in that region.
Great Salt Lake 32.0 • Tsunamis in the Indonesian Islands of SuJawesi,
(USA)
Java and Sumab.-a in 2018 killed many and injmed
Lake Van 23 a lar·ge number of people.
(Turkey)

Salli:rity on an average decreases

from equator to poles. The
highest salimty is recorded near·
the tropics rather than the
equator because of the heavy
precipitation in the equatorial
region.
Factors Controlling
Oceanic Salinity
The salimty of oceans and
different seas depends on a
number of factors such as
evaporation, precipitation, influx
of the river water, prevailing wind,
ocean cunents and sea waves etc.
Ocean Currents
• An ocean cunent is a continuous, direc ted
movement of ocean water generated by the forces
acting upon it, such as breaking waves, wind,
coriobs effect, temperature and salinity
differences and tides caused by the gravitation
pull of the Moon and the Sun.
• Ocean currents circulate in clockwise direction in
Northern h emisphere and in anti-clockwise
direction in Southern hemjsphere.
Ocean cunen ts are of two types:
(i) Warm Cw-rents The ocean cw:rents flowing
from lower latitude to higher latitude ar·e
known as warm currents.
(ii) Cold Cm-rents The ocean cunents flowing
from mgher latitude to lower latitude are
known as cold currents.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
CURRENTS OF NORTH
PACIFIC OCEAN
Warm Currents
• North Equatorial CuJTent It flows
West,,v ards from the Western Coast of
Mexico to th e Philippines.
• Kw·oshfo Cw-rent It is an extension of
North Equatodal Current near Japan
Coast. It flows towards North.
• North PaciJ1c Dri.ft KurosWo current
extends further Northwards to form North
Pacific drift. The warm North Pacific drift
keeps the Alaskan Ports Ice free.
Cold Currents
• Oyashio CwTent It flows down from
Bering Sea towards J apan from North
pole . It joins KurnsWo currents.
• Kw·U CuJTent It flows down from sea of • Nor th Atlantic Drilt Gulf Stream
Okhotsk and joins Kll.l'oshio current to the
North of Japan.
• California CwTent Bt is an extension of
North Pacific drift. It finally joins the
North Equatmial cmrent and completes
clocbvise circulation of wa ter.
Currents of South Pacific
Ocean
W arrn C1urents
• East Australian CuJTent or Great
Barrier Cturent It flows towards East
coast of Austrilia from equator towards
the Pole.
• South Equatorial CwTent It miginates
due to South-East trade \'IIDds and flows
Westwards. It bifUl'cates near New
Guinea.
• Counter Equatorial Cw·rent It flows
exactly on equator from West to East
between the North and South equatmial
currents.
Cold Currents
• Peruvian CwTent (Humboldt current). It
flows from South pole towards equator on
the Coast of CWle and Peru.
• West Wind DriJt It flows from Tasmama
to Chj]e Coast of South America in
40°-50° S latitudes. It flows under the
influence of \i\fes terlies .
CURRENTS OF
NORTH ATLANTIC
OCEAN
w arrn Currents
• North Equatorial CwTent It is present
between Equator and I0°N.
• Cayenne Cw-rent It flows adjacent to
French Guinea and enters into
Canibean Sea and Gulf of Mexico.
• Florida CwTent Cayenne cunent near
Flmida (US Coast) is called Florida
current.
• A.ntilJes Cunent It flows to the Eas t of
West Indies and Other Islands.
• Gull Stream It flows from US coast
towards North-West Eurnpe under the
influence of wes terly \'IIDds.
bifurcates in to
(i) North Atlantic Drift (warm)
(ii) Wes t Wind D1ift (cold) and
Canaiies current (cold)
Cold 0...,,-rents
vlll
• Labrador CwTent It orginates in
Baffin Bay and Davis Strait and me1·ges
with Gulf Stream near Newfoundland .
NewfoundJand is a famous zone of
fisWng, commonly knm'lrn as Grand
Bank.
• Irmfager Cw-rent or East GreenJand
Cw-rent It flm 1vs between Greenland
and Iceland and merges with North
Atlantic mift.
• Canaries CwTent It flows along the
\i\festern Coast of North Africa betv11een
Madeirn cape verde and it joins North
equatmial current.
CURRENTS OF SOUTH
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Warm Currents
• Sou th Equatorial Current It flows
between equator and 10° latitude.
• Braz man Cunent It flows to the East
Coast of Brazil from equator towards
pole.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Cold Currents
• Falkland Cw-rent It flows along the South-East Coast of South AnJedca from South to
North.
• Benguela Cturent It flows from South to North near the 'Cape of Good Hope' .
• West Wlnd Drift It is a continuation of Brazilian and Falkland current.
• Gu.inea Cunent It flows near Coast of Guinea (Africa).

Currents of the Indian Ocean

• The Asiatic Monsoon influences the cmrents of the North Inman Ocean, while the
cunents of South Indian ocean are influenced by the abnosphere's anti-cyclonic
circuJation.
• North Equatorial CmTent This current flows from East to West and upon reaching
the East Coast of Africa, a good portion turns Southv,,ard, crosses the equatm~ and
becomes the Mozambique current.
• Mozambique Cm-rent The Mozambique cunent flows South along the East Coast of
A.fi.ica near the equator to about 35°S , where it becomes Agulhas StreanJ.
• AguJbas St.ream The Agulhas srream flows West\1vard along the Southern West of
Madagascar and joins the Mozambique current along the East African coast.
• West Wind Drm Cm-rent It flows acrnss the Inman ocean to the waters of South-West
of Australia.
• North-East Monsoon Drift It flows along the coast of India during "'rioter.
• South-West Monsoon Drifi Bt flows along the coast of India during Summer.
• South Equatorial Cturent It is a significant Pacific, Atlantic and Inman ocean current
that flows Eas t-West between the equator and about 20 degrees South.
• Somalia Cw-rent It is an ocean boundary cunent that runs along the coast of Somalia
and Oman in the Western Indian ocean . It is similar to the Gulf St:reanJ in the Atlantic
Ocean.
• West Australian Cm-rent It flows along the Wes t coast of Ausb.'alia from poles to the
equator.
• There 1s no cowJter equatmial cunent in the Inman ocean rathei- only monsoonal
cunents , 1vhich change their direction with respect to seasons.

Cold currenls

Cold water
)
sinking
\ ~ ~ - Cold currenls
-;--, } , ~ Upwelling of
cold waler
(
North equatorial
currenls
Counter equalmial • South equatorial
current
,.,.__,,_ currenls
Warm currenls
Cold water
sinking
___l_ Cold currenls

Upwelling of
cold waler

Cold currenls
West wind drift

Pattern of Oceanjc Current Movement

\
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

TIDES
• The periodic rise and fall of the sea level as a result of the gravitational forces bet\veen
the Earth, the Moon and the Sun is called a tide. The time interval bet\1\reen tvvo tides
1s 12 hours and 26 minutes.

Spring Tides
• When the Earth, the Moon and the Sun are in a straight line (SyzyGY) the Sun
assists the gravitational pull of the Moon, creating a condition of hjgher hjgh tides and
lower lov,r tides lmown as spring tides.

Neap Tides
• When the Sun and Moon are at right angles to the Earth (Quac:lrattue), the Sun
partially reduces the gravitational pull of the Moon, producing lower hjgh tides lmown
as a Neap tide.

Spring Neap
Tldes ~ d e s
New
Moon SUN

SYZYGY
Quadrature
Tides

Continents of the World

Asia~ Afdca, North America, South Population 4.46 billion 0argest)
America, Europe, Australia and Oceans and Seas Arctic Ocean, Pacific
Antarctica are the seven continents. Ocean, Indian Ocean, Red Sea~ Gulf of Aden,
Area of the Continents Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Arabian Sea,
Bay of Bengal, China Se~ Yellow Sea, Okhotsk
Continents % of Earth Area and Bedng Sea.
Asia 29.5
Africa 20.4
North America 16.3
South America 11.8
Antarctica 9.6
Europe 6.7
Australia 5.3

IDgbest Point Mt Everest (8848 m)

ASIA
It has 49 counb.1es and 5 disputed other
nations.
Latitude 10° S and 80° N
LongHude 25° E and 170° W
Area 44579000 sq Jan
(approx 29.5% of the world)
Lowest Point Dead Sea (- 396 m)
Straits Strait of Malacca, Bering StJ:ait,
Hormuz Strait, Dardenelles Strait
Islands Kurile, Salrnalin, Honsh u, Hokkaido,
Tai,111an, Borneo, Sumatra and Jav~ Celebes,
New Guinea, Philippines, Sd Lanka, Bahrain
and Cyprus.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography
e
Peninsulas Kamchatka Peninsula, • QuinUog mountains divide China into
Peninsula of Korea, Peninsula of In do-China, North and South China.
Malay Peninsula, Indian Peninsula and • Amur river forms the boundary bet\1veen
Arabian Peninsula. Russia and China.
Description • Yangtze Kiang is the longest 1iver of Asia.
• It is the largest continent in the ,,vorld both • Mekong river flows through China,
in terms of the population and area. Thailand-Laos border, Cambodia and
Vietnam into the South China Sea.
• It is situated entirely in the Northern
hemisphere except some of the islands of • Laos is the only landlocked counb.1' in
Indonesia. South-East Asian Peninsula.
• To the North of it lies the Arctic ocean, to • Indonesia is the largest group of Island
the East the Pacific ocean, to the South, or archipelago in the , 1vorld.

the Indian ocean and to the West lies • lrawaddy liver is ]mown as the lifeline
Mediterranean sea. lt is separated from of Myanmar. It falls into Gulf of
Europe by the Ural mountains, the Marta.ban where pearls are found.
Caspian sea, the Black sea, the Caucasus • Lake Van of Turkey is the most saline
mountain and the sb.-ait of Dardanelles in water body in Asia.
the West. • Fujiyama~ a volcanic mountain is the
hjghest peak of Japan.
Imp01tant Information about Asia
• J apan js the most indusrralised nation
• Caspian Sea js the world's largest lake and of Asia.
five tinJes larger than the Lake SupeLior. It
• Myanmar is called land of mountains
separates Europe from Asia.
and rivers.
• Dast-e-KaviI· is the largest sal t desert of
• Pakistan is called counfry of canals.
the world situated in the Northern Iran.
• J apan is called land of Rising Sun.
• Lop Nor Lake in China is a site for
numeTous nuclear tests. • Dead Sea js one of the saltiest water
body in the world, is a landlocked sea. It
• Hwang Ho js lmmm as China's Sorrow. It
lies between Israel and Jordan and its
flows through loess land, hence it is also
shores are considered as lowest land
called as YelJow river.
based elevation on Earth.
Physical Aspects of Asia
Mountains Himalayas , Karakoram , Kailash, Kunlun Shan, Tienshan, Altai, Sayan,
Yablonovy, Stanvoy, Kolyma, Verkhoyansk, Pegu Yoma, Arakan Yoma,
Hindukush, Elburz, Sulaiman, Kirthar, Makran, Zagros, Pantie, Taurus.
Rivers Ganga, Ob, Yenisey, Amur, Yalu, Hwang Ho, Si kiang, Mekong, Tigris,
Eupharates, Amu Darya and Syr Darya
Lakes Baikal, Balkash, Van , Turnool, Assad, Dead Sea, Tonie Sap,
Toba, Lop Nor, Caspian Sea and Sea of Gallilee.
Plains Manohurian, Great Plain of China, West Siberian Plain, Mesopotamian.
Deserts Rubnal-Khali, Al Nafud, Dasht-1-Kavir, Dasht-1-Lut, Gobi, Thar, Takla Makan, Syrian
desert
Plateaus Ladakh, Tibet, Yunan , Pamir, Armenian, Iranian, Mongolia, Inda-China, Shan,
Deccan, Baloohistan, Arabian , Anatolia , Loess.
Mountains from South-West Sulaiman
Pamir Knot South-East: Himalaya, Karakoram and Kunlun
North-East: Tien Shan
North-West: Hindukush
Mountains from South-West : Taurus
Armenian Knot South-East: Zagros
North-East: Elburz
North-West: Pantie
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

• lt js also Jmown as Dark Continent

AFRICA
It h as 54 countries.
Latitude 35° Sand 37 ° N
LongHude 50° E and 17 ° W
Population 1216100000 (2nd larges t)
.Are a 30065000 sq Jan (approx 20.4 % of and
the world)
because the greater part of its vast
intedor remained little ]mown to the
outside world un til the last century.
Physical Aspects of Africa
Mountains Atlas, Ethiopi an Highlands, Mt
Kenya, Mt Elgon, Mt Kilimanjaro,
Plateaus Drakensberg, Mt Cameroon, Mt
Rouwenzori , Katanga Plateau and
Jos Plateau
Rivers Nile, Zaire or Congo, Niger,
Orange, Limpop o, Zambezi
Lakes Kariba, Nyasa, Mweru ,
Tanganyika, Edward, Tana,
Nass er, Chad , Volta and Assa!,
Victoria
Deserts Sahara, Ubyan, Arabian , Nubian,
Namib and Ka lahari

Oceans and Seas Inclian Ocean , Red Sea,

Atlantic Ocean, Madagascar Sea, Gulf of
Guinea, Mecliterranean Sea.
Highest Point Kilimanjaro (5895 m)
Lowest Point Lake Assa.I (-155 m)
Straits Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb and Strait
of Gibraltar Mozam bique channel.
Is lands Madagascar, Cape Verde Islands,
the Comoros, Zanzjbar, MaLllitius and
Seychelles.
Plateaus The entire continent js a
plateau .
Description
• lt js the second largest continent after
Asia and about nine tinJes the size of
Inclia.
• lt js situated South of Eurnpe and
South-East of Asia. lt is bound by
Mecliterranean sea in the North , the
Atlantic ocean ill ilie West and
South-Wes t, the Inclian ocean in the
East and Red sea ill the North- Eas t.
• Africa belongs to all four h emispheres
and bulk of ilie continen t lies in tropics .
lt is joined to Asia by the naiTO\'I' isthmus
of Suez and separated from Elll'asia at
iliree different points (Sb.-ait of
Gibraltar, Suez canal and the Strait of
Bab-el-Mandeb) .
• lt is the only con tinent, whkh js
intersected by Tropic of Cancer, Equator
and 'fropic of Caplicorn.
Imp01tant Irifonnation abollt
Africa
• Lake Victoria js the largest lake of
Africa, whkh js located behveen Uganda,
Kenya and Tanza.ma. lt is soll.l'ce of White
Nile river. The equator passes thrnugh it.
• Nasser lake js a man-made lake, whkh
hes on Nile river and located between
Egypt and Sudan .
• NiJe river js the longes t liver of the ,,vorld
and life line of Egypt.
• The White Nile and the Blue Nile meet at
Khartoum (Sudan) to form river Nile.
• Congo river cuts equator h'lrice .
• Port Harcourt of Njger is located on
Niger Delta.
• The Zambezi 11ver includes the Victoria
fall , one of the largest falls ill the world. It
makes the natw_·al political boun dai-y
between Zambia and ZmJbabwe .
• The Orange river forms the natural
boundary between South Africa and
Namibia.
• The Limpopo river cu ts ilie Tropic of
Capricorn twice and it separates South
Africa from Bots,\1ana and Zimbabwe.
• The highest peak of Africa is
Mt KiJlmanjaro and is located ill
Tanzania.
• The thrne poin ts, where Africa almost
touches Elll'asia are Gibraltar, Suez and
Bab-el-Man deb.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography
• The highest temperature in the world
has been recorded at AI-Aziziyah
(Libya) at 58°C making it the hottest
place in the world.
• Swahlli js a famous language spoken in
Tanzania.
• Sahara desert js the largest single
sb:etch of desert, which is 5500 Jan from
East to West and 1900 km from North to
South.
• KaJahari desert js the home of the
A:fdca's one of the oldest races, the
Kalahari Bushmen.
• Food crops such as ,,vheat, lice, maize
and cash crops such as cotton, coffee,
cocoa, oil palm, sugarcane, rubber,
tobacco are grO\Jvn in Afdca.
• Afi.jca is rich in mineral deposits and
these minerals are mostly found on the
plateau region, South of the Equator.
The minerals found in Afi.jca are
diamond, gold, copper, bawdte,
platinum, iron ore, peb.·oleum,
manganese etc.
NORTH AMERICA
It has 23 counrr~Jes.
Latitude 7 ° N and 84 ° N
LongHude 20° W and 180° W
Area 24235280 sq km (approx 16.3 %)
Population 589313359 (4th largest)
Major Deserts Chihuahuan, Colorado,
Mojave, Sonoran
• Canada has the longest coast line in the
• Canada is the second largest country (in
• USA is the fourth largest counb.-y in area
• 49th parallel forms the boundai1'
Oceans and Seas Atlantic Ocean, • Erie Canal, Great Lakes wa terways, St
Calibbean Sea, Gulf of Californfa, Gulf of
Alaska, Bedng Sea and Hudson Bay.
Islands Greenland, Baffin, Vic toria, New
FoundJand, Cuba, JanJaica and Haiti,
Bermuda, Hawaii.
Highest Point Mckinley also lmown as
Denili (6194 m)
G
Lowest Point Death Valley (-86 m)
Description
• It js the 3rd largest continent after Asia
and Africa. It is sunounded by the
AtJantic ocean in the East, Gulf of
Mexico in the South, the Pacilic ocean in
the West and the Arctic in the North. To
the North East it is separated from the
Easternmost tip of Sibelia by the Bering
Strait.
• 49° latitude parallel forms the boundary
between Canada and USA and 100° W
longitude divides the North Amedca into
more or less two equal parts.
Physical Aspects of North
America
Mountains Brook's range, Alaska, Aleu1ian
Range,Cascaderange, Rocky
mountain, Coast range, Sierra
Nevada etc.
Rivers Mississippi-Missouri, St Lawrence,
Colorado, Columbia, Saoramento,
Rio Grande, Yukon , Mackenzie,
Nelson, Saskatahewan, Peace etc.
Lakes Great Bear, Great Slave,
Athabasca, Winnipeg , Superior,
Miohigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario,
Great Salt and Mead.
Plateaus Columbia-Snake, Colorado and
Me><ican.
Peninsula Ungava, Yucatan and Kenai.
Imp01tant JriformationAbout
N01thAnierica
, 1vorld .
area) in the world.
and third largest country (in population)
in the wodd .
between Canada and USA. It is the
longest boundary between two counb.1es.
Lavvrence Seaway ai--e some of the most
important Canals of North America.
North America is rich in mineral
resources such as iron ore, peb.·oleum
and natural gas, copper, gold, silver,
nickel, sulphw~ coal etc. The Prai.I1e
region of North Amelica is ideally suited
for the cul tivation of wheat.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

• The coniferous fores ts of the North • It is situated to the South of North

America provides large quantities of soft America, mostly in Southern
vwod. The prominent trees are fir, pine, hemisphere. lt js surrounded by
larch and spruce e tc. Caribbean sea in the North, Atlantic
• Lake Superior is the largest sweet wa ter ocean in the East, Southern ocean in
Jake in the ,,vorld. the South and Pacific ocean in the West.
• Maize, wheat and barley are the • South America as well as Mexico,
important cereals grown in North Central America and West Indies are
America. collectively lmown as Latin America.
• Canada is the largest producer of Physical Aspects
newsprint in the world . of South Ameri ca
• The Panama Canal connects Atlantic
and Pacific ocean. By using Pana.ma Mountains Western Mou ntains, Andes,
canal, the distance from New York to San Brazilian high lands and
Guiana Highlands
Francisco can be shortened by nearly
23200 Jan. Rivers Amazon, Magdalena, Orinioo,
Parana and La Plata
SOUTH AMERICA Lakes Maracaibo, Titicaca, Popa
Plateaus Bolivian, Patagonia, Al1iplano
It has 13 countries.
Latitude 12° N and 55° S
I mp01tant Infor,nationAbout
LongHude 35° Wand 81° W
SouthAm,erica
Are a 17820770 sq Jan (approx 12 %)
Population 418762546 (5th larges t) • It has the ,,vorld's highest wa terfall i.e.
Angel falJs in Venezuela on Orinoco
river.
• It bas the world's 2nd longest IJver after
Nile and the largest river by volun1e i.e.
Amazon IJver.
• The longest mountain range of the
world i.e. the Andes ues in South
America.
• Moreover, the di1est place on Earth i.e.
Atacama dese11, the largest rain forest
llighest Point Aconcagua (6960 m)
i.e . the Amazon rain fores t, the rnghest
Lowest Point Laguna del Carbon (- 104 m) capital city i.e . Lapaz (Bolivia), the
Straits Strait of Magellan, Drake Passage highest commercially navigable ]alee i.e.
De se11s AtacanJa and Patagonfa Lake Titicaca a1·e situated in South
Description America.
• South America has been divided into three • Llanos and Campos are the Savanna
physical divisions namely two Easte1·n grassland in South Amedca. Selvas are
rnghJands, the central plains, the Western the equatorial rainfores ts of Amazon
mountains and the Western coastal strips. basin. Some of the countries of South
• Cotopaxi in Ecuador is one of the highest America are specialised in coffee
active volcanoes in the world . plantation (Brazil, Ecuador, Columbia
• Paraguay and Bouvia are the only and Venezuela etc), maize cultivation
landJocked countries. and wheat cultivation.
• Pampas is the mos t fertile region of • South Amedca is rich in minerals such
as petroleum, aluminium, bauxite,
South America and Alfa-Alfa grasses are
copper, gold, lead, nickel, nitrates,
found here. diamond coal etc.
• It is the fourth largest continent and • Brazil bas the world's la1·gest reserves of
roughly trianguJar in shape. fron in Serra dos carajas mountains.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography
• Brazn js also Jmown as the coffee bowl
of the world, because it js the largest
producer of coffee .
• Brazn is the only country through
,,vbich both equator and one of the
tropics (Tropic of Capricorn) pass.
EUROPE
Latitude 35° N and 73° N
LongHude 25° W and 65° E
.Area 10530750 sq Jan (approx 6.7 %)
Population 783849000 (3rd largest)
Ocean and Seas Atlantic Ocean , Arctic
Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Caspian Sea,
Black Sea, White Sea, North Sea,
Norwegian Sea, Baltic Sea, Gulf of
Bothnfa, Gulf of Finland, Bay of Biscay,
Aegean Sea and Achfatic Sea.
Highest Point Mt Elbrus (5642 m)
Lowest Point Caspian Sea (-28 m)
Straits Dardenelis Strait, English
Channel, Strait of Gibraltar
Lakes Lake Ladoga, Onega, Peipus,
Vanern, Vattern
Islands Bdtisb Isles, Iceland, Sa..rdinfa,
Sicily, Crete
• Greenland js the ,,vorld's largest island
and it belongs to Denmark.
Important Gulf and Bays
Gulf/Bay Looauon
Guli of Bothnia Sweden and Finland
English Channel Brttain and Franoe
Gulf of Lions South of France
Bay of Biscay Franoe and Spain
Description
• Wheat js the most important crop of
Europe. The Ruhr in Germany js the
biggest and richest coal field of Europe .
Other coal fields in Germany are Saar
and Saxony.
• It js the second smallest continent in the
world, by area, after Austraba.
• Eurnpe is situated between Ura.J
mountains in the East and Atlantic ocean
in the West, in the West of Asia and North
of Afiica.
• To the North of Eurnpe lies Arctic ocean,
to the Sou th lies the Mediterranean sea,
the Black sea and the Caucasus mountain
and to the East Ural mountains and the
Caspian sea .
• Balkan States It is a group of 9 countries
nanrnly Serbia, Montenegro, Slovenia,
Croatia, Bosnfa-Herzegovina, Nm·th
Macedorna, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania,
Albanfa and Kosovo. However,
Montenegro becanJe an independent state
in 2006 and Kosovo in 2008.
• Baltic States It is a group of thrne
coun tdes nanJely Es torna, Llthuanfa and
Latvia. Nonva)~ Sv11eden and Denmark are
collectively called as Scanclinavian
counb.ies. The , 1v01Jd's most Northerly
capital is Reykjavik (]celand).
Physical Aspects of Europe
Mountains Vesuvius, Appennine, Vosges, Alps,
Mt Etna, Dinaric Alps , Carpathian,
Pindus, Ural, Caucasus, Blaok
Forest, Mt Stromboli, Kjolen,
Pennines, Cantabrian Pyrenees,
Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada
Rivers Po, Tiber, Rhine, Ebro, Garonne,
Loire, Seine, Weser, Elbe, Wista,
Onega, Dvina, Mezen, Volga, Don,
Dnieper, Dnister and Danube,
Rhine
Peninsula Iberian, Balkan and Kola
Imp01tant I11for1nationAbout
Europe
• Copenhagen, capital of Denmark is
Jmown as the key to the Baltic.
• Finland is ]mown as the land of forests and
lakes.
• Both intensive and extensive cultivation
are done in Europe with a great variety of
crops due to the occurrence of different
lci.nds of soil and climate. On the steppes,
wheat, sugar beet and sun flowers are the
major crops, ,,vhereas in the
Mediterranean region, fruit cultivation is
prominent. Moreover, cattle, sheep and
pigs are reared for meat, milk and other
products.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

• The continental shelf areas around Eurnpe Physical Aspects of Australia

including Dogger Bank are 1ich in fish .
• Europe is rich in m.ine1·als such as iron ore, Mountain s Great Dividing range,
petroleum, coal,, copper etc.
• United Kingdom js the name given to the
combination of Great Blitain and Northern Deserts
IJ·eland . Great Britain consists of England,
Scotland and Wales.
• UK is one of the most industrialized nations of
the , 1vorld, though it lacks the raw matedal . It
js self sufficient in oil production.
• France is the third lai·gest country in Eurnpe.
Russia is the lai·gest country of the world and I mportant I11for1nation
the hjghest populated country of Europe.
• Vatican city is sunounded by Rome, Italy. It is • Australia js Jmm'l'Il as Forgotten
the smallest counb.-y of the world both in terms
of ai·ea and population.
AUSTRALIA
Australia is an island continent.
Latitude 10°4 l 'S and 39°S
LongHude l 14°E and 154°E
Area 7830682 sq Ian (5.3%)
Population 25356092
Highest Point Mt. Kosciusko (2228 m)
Lowest Point Lake Eyi·e (- 15.8 m)
• Island s Tasmarua, Fraser, Kangai·oo, Lord
Kowe .
Description
• It is the smallest continent of the world. lt lies
entirely in the Southern hemisphere. The
Tropic of Capricorn runs almost thrnugh the • Coal, irnn ore, bauxjte, w·amum,
mjddJe of the continent and divides the
continent in t\ivo equal paiis.
• It is the only continent that is also a country
and it lies betv1reen Pacific and Indian ocean. It
js sw-rounded by Timar sea in the North-West,
Arafura sea and Gulf of Carpentada in the
North, Great Barrier Ree£ in the North-East
and Great Australian Bight in the South. To • The Australian ti·ade is based on
the South-East of the mainl and lies the
mountainous js]and of Tasmarua.
Darling range, Musgrave,
Flinders and Australian
Alps
Gib son, Great Sandy,
Great Viotoria, Simpson ,
Uttle Sandy, Western
desert, Rangipo and
Tanami etc
Rivers Murray, Darling and Swan
A boutA1-lstralia
land. It was discovered by Captain
James Cook in l 770.
• It is divided into six sta tes. The six
s ta tes are Wes tern Australia,
Northern Tenitory, Queensland,
Nev,, South Wales, South Australia
and Vic tmia.
• Larges t city of Australia is Sydney.
• The mghest peak of Australia is Mt
Kosciusko (2228 m).
• G1·eat Barrie r reef js the world's
longest coral Reef and is located in
the North-East of Australia. The
largest lake of Australia js Eyi·e .
• The firs t European to dicover New
Zealand was Abel Tasman.
• The mghestpeakofNew Zealand is
Mt Cook (3724 m).
• Agricul ture is carried out in the
Mun·ay Dai·1ing Basin, ai·ound the
liver Swan in Perth and along the
rainy East coas t. ,Vbeat and
sugarcane are impor tant crops.
Moreover, commercial fai·m.ing is a
big business in Australia.
gold and petroleum ai·e the major
mmeral resources of Australia.
• Being a rn-y counti-y, forest do not
occw· in continuous belt, however
ti·opical fores ts are found in the
North coastal region, which ge ts
monsoon rain.
agiiculture, animal reaiing and
mmerals.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

ANTARCTICA
• It was discovered in 1820.
• Roald Amundsen was the first man to reach geograprucal South pole in Antarctica.
• It is Jmown as the continent for science because it provides unique opportunity to
scientists to learn about the Earth.

• Mt Erebus is the only active volcano on Antarctica.

• Mt Vinson (4897 m) is the highest peak of Antarctica.
• Deep Lake, Ves t fold hills (-50 m) js the lowest point in Antarctica.
• It is the only continent, v,1hich is completely frozen. It is, therefore, lmown as White
Continent.

Highest/Lowest Points of Various Continents

Continent Highest (m) Lowest (m)
Asia Mt Everest (8848) Dead Sea (-396)
Africa Mt Kilimanjaro (6896) Lake Assal (-156)
North America Mt McKinley (6194) Death Valley (-86)
South America Mt Aconcagua (6960) Laguna del Carbon (-104 m)
Europe Mt Elbrus (5642) Caspian Sea (-28)
Australia Kosoiusko (2228) Lake Eyre (-16)
Antarctica Vinson Massif (4897) Deep lake, Vest fold hills (- 50)

Important Straits of the World

StraH Water Bodies Joined Area
Babnal- Mandeb Red Sea and Arabian Sea Arabia and Afri ca
Bering Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea Alaska and Russia
Bosporus Black Sea and Marmara Sea Turkey
Dover North Sea and English Channel England and Franoe
Florida Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean Florida and Bahamas Islands
Gibraller Mediierranean Sea and Atlantic Ooean Spain and Morocoo
Malaoca Andaman Sea and South China Sea Indonesia
Palk Bay of Bengal and Palk Bay India and Sri Lanka
Magellan South Paoific and South Atlantic Ooean Chile
Sunda Java Sea and Indian Ocean Indonesia
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Important Canals of the World City River

Canal Connects Warsaw (Poland) Vistula
Yangon (Myanmar) lrawady
Panama Pacific Ooean with Caribbean Sea
Suez Mediterranean Sea to Red Sea
Major Rivers of the World
Erie Atlantic Ooean to Great Lakes
Kiel North Sea to Baltic Sea River Origin
Nile Lake Viotoria
Oceans of the World (Area wise) Amazon Andes (Peru)
Yangtze Tibe tan Plateau
Ocean Deepest Point (Tanggula Mountain)
Paoiiic Mariana Trench Mississippi- ltaska Lake (USA)
Atlantic Puerto Rioo Trenoh Missouri
Yenisei Mungaragiyn-Gol Mountain
Indian Sunda or Java Trenoh
Huang Ho Kunlun Mountains
Arctic Litke Deep in Eurasian Basin
Ob Altai Mountains, Russia
River Side Cities Congo Lualaba and Luapula rivers
Amur Onan river-Shilka river
City River
Lena Baikal Mountains
Sittwe (Myanmar) Kaladan
Mekong Tibe tan Highlands
Baghdad (Iraq) Tigris Niger Guinea Highlands
Basara (Iraq) Tigris and Euphrates
Belgrade (Serbia) Confluence of Sava Important Lakes of the World
and Danube
Berlin (Germany) Spree Lake Location
Bristol (UK) Avon Caspian Europe and Asia
Budapest (Hungary) Danube Superior North America
Cairo (Egypt) Nile Victoria Africa
Wuzhou (China) Si-Kiang Huron North America
Glasgow (Scotland) Clyde Michigan North America (USA)
Hamburg (Germany) Elbe Tanganyika Africa
Jamshedpur (India) Cont luence of Kharkai Baikal Asia (Russia)
and Subarnarekha Great Bear North America (Canada)
Kabul (Afghanistan) Kabul Aral Asia (Kazakhstan-Uzbekistan)
Karaohi (Pakistan) Indus Great Slave North America (Canada)
Khartou m (Sudan) Nile
Lahore (Pakistan) Ravi List of Waterfalls
Lisbon (PortugaQ Tagus Rank Waterfall Location
London (UK) Thames Angel Falls Venezuela
Lucknow (India) Gomti 2 Tugela Falls South Africa
Montreal (Canada) Ottawa 3 Tres Hermanas Falls Peru
Nanking (China) Yang-tse-Kiang 4 Olo'upena Falls United Sates
New Castle (UK) Tyne 5 Catarata Yumbilla Peru
New Orleans (USA) Mississippi
New York (USA) Hudson
Major Islands of the World
Paris (Franoe) Seine Rank Island's Area (km) 2 Country
Philadelphia (USA) Confluence of Name
Schuylkill and
Delaware 1 Greenland 2130800 Denmark
Rome (Italy) Tiber 2 New Guinea 785753 Indonesia
and Papua
Shanghai (China) Yang-tse-Kiang New Guinea
Srinagar (India) Jhelum
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Rank Island's Area (km) 2 Country Agrioultural Produoe Leading Producer

Name Wheat China
3 Borneo 743330 Bru nei, Maize USA
Indonesia
Wool Aus tralia
and Malaysia
Sisal Brazil
4 Madagascar 587041 Madagascar
Cloves Indonesia
5 Baffi n Island 507451 Canada
6 Sumatra 473481 Indonesia Industrial Cities
Minerals of the World Countfy' Industry
Anshan (China) Iron and Steel
Mineral Leading Produoer
Baku (Azerbaijan) Petroleu m
Gold China
Belfast (Northern Ireland) Ship building
Bauxite Australia
Copper Chile Birm ingham (UK) Iron and Steel
Platinum Sou1h Africa Chicago (USA) Meat paoking
Chromium Sou1h Africa Detroi t (USA) Automobile
Vanadium China Havana (Cuba) Cigars
An timony China Hollywood (USA) Films
Tungsten China Johannesburg Gold Mining
Phosphate Moroooo (South Africa)
Manganese Sou1h Africa Kansas City (USA) Meat paoking
Diamond Russia Kawasaki (Japan) Manufacturing
Iron ore China Kimberley Diamond mining
Petroleum USA (South Africa)
Krivoi Rog (Ukraine) Iron and Steel
Mines of the World Leeds (U K) Woollen teKtiles
Saint Petersbu rg (Russia) Ship building
Mine Mineral
Los Angeles (USA) Petroleu m
Kimberley (South Afri ca) Diamond
Lyon (France) Silk teKtiles
Lubu mbashi (Democratic Copper
Republic of Congo) Saint Petersbu rg (Russia) Iron and Steel
(Zaire) Manohester (UK) Cotton teKtile
Hwange (Zimbabwe) Coal Milan (Italy) Automo tives
Wi twatersrand Gold
Multan (Pakistan) Pottery
(Sou1h Africa)
Munioh (Germany) Lenses
Katanga (Democratic Copper and Cobalt
Republic of Congo) Nagoya (Japan) Automobiles
Kasai Province Diamond Philadelphia (USA) Looomotives
(Democratic Republic of
Pittsburg (USA) Advance
Congo)
Manufacturing
P~mou1h, Massaohusets Ship building
Agriculture ( SA)
Agrioultural Produce Leading Producer Rourkela (Ind ia) Iron and Steel
Coffee Brazil Sheffield (UK) Cu11ery
Rubber Thailand Vladivostok (Russia) Ship building
Tea China Wellington Dairying
Oil Palm Indonesia (New Zealand)
Cocoa Ghana Arizona (USA) Mining
Cooonu1 Philippines Bhiwandi (India) TeKtile
Date Palm Egypt Bhagalpur (India) Silk TeKtile
Cotton India
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Changed Names of Cities, Important International

States and Countries Boundary Lines
Old Name New Name Name of In Between Countries
Boundary Une
Abyssinia Ethiopia
Radolifie Line India and Pakistan
Angora Ankara
Maomohan Une India and China
Basutoland Lesotho
Durand Line Pakistan and Afghanistan
Batavia Jakarta
Hindenburg Line Germany and Poland
British Guiana Guyana
Maginot Line Franoe and Germany
Burma Myanmar
Order Neisse Line Germany and Poland
Cape Canaveral Cape Kennedy
Siegfried Line Fortiiication between Germany
Cawnpore Kanpur and Franoe
Central Provinces Madhya Pradesh 38th Parallel Line North and South Korea
Ceylon Sri Lanka 49th Parallel Line USA and Canada
Christina Oslo 24th Parallel Line Pakistan olaims i hat it is the
(Si r Creek) boundary bel\lJeen India and
Coohin Koohi Pakistan in Rann of Kutch
Constantinople Istanbul 17th Parallel Line North Vietnam and South
Daoca Dhaka Vietnam (now abandoned)

Dutch East Indies Indonesia

Famous Tribes of the World
Dutch Guiana Suriname
Abhors Mongoloids living in North-Eastern part
Gold Coast Ghana of India
Holland The Netherlands Afridis Tribes residing in the North-West Frontier
(Pakistan)
Ivory Coast Cote D'Ivoire
Bantus Negroes living in the Central and South
Madagascar Malagasy Africa
Nippon Japan Boers The Dutoh settlers of South Africa
Northern Rhodesia Zambia Cossacks People living in the West and Central
regions of Russia
Nyasaland Malawi
Eskimos Inhabitants of Siberia, Alaska, Canada &
Peking Beijing Greenland
Persia Iran Flemings A term used for the people native to
Belgium
Petrograd Leningrad
Hamites Inhabitants of North-West Africa
Ouilon Kallam
Khirgiz People native to Central Asia
Rangoon Yangon
Kurds Tribes living in Kurdistan (South eastern
Rhodesia Zimbabwe Turkey, Norlh Western Iran, Northern Iraq
and North Syria)
Saigon Ho Chi Minh City
Magyars Inhabitants of Hungary
Sandwioh Islands Hawaiian Islands
Maoris Inhabitants of New Zealand
Siam Thailand
Negroes Mostly native to Africa
South-West Afri ca Namibia Pygmies Short statu red people found in Congo
Spanish Guinea Equatorial basin in Africa
Guinea Red Indians Original inhabitants of North America
Zaire Demooratic Semites Caucasian people of ancient i imes
Republic of Zulus People of South Afri ca living in certain
Congo
part of Natal
 I INDIAN GEOGRAPHY I
• India is the 7th largest counb.--y in the world with an area of 3287263 sq Ian, v,1hich is
2 .42% ohvorld's area.
• India 1s the second most populous coWJb.1' in the world with a popul ation of l.21
billion (20 11), whkh is 17.44% of the world's population.
• Indian sub-continent 1s located in the Northern and Eastern h emisphere.
• India shares longest boundai--y with Bangladesh (4096 lan) , followed by Churn (3488
km), Pakistan (3323 lan), Nepa.J (175 1 lan), Myanmar (1643 JaJ1), Bhu tan (699 Jan)
and Afgharristan (106 lan).
• In India, the TI:opic of Cancer (23.5°N latitude) passes thrnugh 8 States (Gujai·at,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh , Chhattisgai:h, Jh arkhand, West Benga.J, Tripw-a and
Mhoram).
• Islands Andan1an an d Nicobar Island group in the Bay of Benga.J; Lakshadweep,
1sland group in the Arabian Sea.
• lnclian Standard Time (1ST) The 82°30' E longitude is taken as the Standard
Meridian of India, as it passes through middle of India (from Na.ini, near Allahabad).
• The 82° 30' E Meridian also decides the time in Sli Lanka and Nepa.J .
• On the South-East, the Gu]f of Mannar· and the Palk Strait separates India from Sli
Lanka.

INDIA : BASIC INFORMATION

■ Latitudinal extent 8°4' North to 37° 6' North
■ Longitudinal extent 68°7' East to 97° 25' East
■ North-South extent 3214 km
■ East-West extent 2933 km
■ Land Frontiers 15200 km
■ Total Coastline 7516.6 km
■ Number of States 28
■ Number of Union Territories 8
■ Land Neighbours (7) Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar
■ States with Longes t Coastline Gujarat
■ Active Volcano Barren Island in Andaman and Nicobar Islands
■ Southern most point Indira Point or Pygmalion point in Great Nicobar
■ Southern most tip of mainland Kanyakumari
■ Northern most point Indira Col
■ Western most point West of Guhar Mota in Gujarat
■ Eastern most point Kibithu in Arunachal Pradesh
Indian States Situated on the Border
Country Indian States Shanng their Borders
Pakistan (5) Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Ladakh and Jammu and Kashmir
Afghanistan (1) Ladakh
China (5) Ladakh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh
Nepal (5) Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim
Bhutan (4) Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunaohal Pradesh
Bangladesh (5) West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

PHYSICAL FEATURES

INDIA : PHYSICAL

CHINA

TIBET

l>
5 0

£ t
: tTI;. • .
0

~ • \f.'
g ·o':
~
t---
0

LAKSHADWEEP
(INDIA) i
.-- - -~-1-0,-:-,M- l-O.-~- - -- ~ ~~
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!Olouolua 100 0 100 100 9JO •tOOHTu m.t ll ez, 0
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Physiographic divisions of India are as follows:
• The Himalayan Range of MoWJtains
• The Peninsular Plateau
• Tbe Great Plains of lnrna
• The Coastal Plains
• The Islands of India
The Himalayas
• Himalayas means 'Abode of snm'I,'. These
are yoWJg fold mountains of tertiary period,
\'l1hich were folded over Tethys sea due to
inter-continental collision .
• They are one of the yoWJgest fold mountain
ranges in the world and comprises mainly
sedinJen tary rocks.
• They sb:etch from the Indus river in
the West to the BralJmaputrn river in
the East.
• The Pamirs, popuJarly known as the
Roof of the World js the connecting
link between the H.inJalayas and the
high ranges of Central Asia.
• The total length is about 2500 Ian
with varying width of 240 to 400 km
and a total area of 595000 km 2 .
They consists of three parallel ranges
such as:
(i) Himadri (Greater Himalayas)
(ii) Himachal (Lesser Himalayas)
(iii) Shiwaliks (Outer H.inJalayas)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Greater Himalaya (Himadri) Important Passes in

• Northern mos t part of the Himalayan Middle Himalaya
range, it js one of the world's highest Pass Looauon Connectivity
regions \i\ri.th an average altitude of 6100
m above sea level. Pi rp anjal Jammu and Jammu-Srinagar road
Pass Kash mir passes from this
• It includes wodd's highest peak, Mt pa ss
Everest (8848 m) located in Nepal. It js
Banihal Jammu and Jammu-Srinagar
known as Sagarmatha in Nepal and Pass Kas hmir NH-44 passes from
Ghomolungma in China. this pass. Jawahar
• Zaskar range is situated on the \i\festern tunnel (India 's
longest road tunnel)
part of Greater Himalayas. It includes
Nanga Parbat (8126 m) in Kashmir- Rohtang Himachal Kullu va lley with
Pass Pradesh Lahaul and Spiti
llimachal region) and Dhaulagiri
valley in Himachal
(8172 m) in Nepal. Pradesh

Other Important Peaks • Average altitude of the Middle Himalaya

• Kanchenjunga (8598 m, Sikkim) is 3700-4500 laJJ.
Makalu (8481 m, Nepal), Mansalu • Important hill resor ts are ShinJJa,
(8156 m, Nepal), Nanga Parbat (8108 Ra.nikhet, Almora, Nainital and Daijeeling.
m, Gilgit Baltistan), Ka.met (7756 m,
Uttarakhand) and Nanda Devi (7816 m, Outer Himalayas (Shiwalik)
Uttarakhand) . • These are the Southern most Himalayan
Important Passes in Greater mountain range.
Himalaya • Their average altitude va.11es from 600 to
1500 metrns.
Pass Looauon Connectivity • They are Jmown as Jammu hills in
Karakoram Ladakh India to China J anJm u and Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi
Pass hills in ArwJachaJ Pradesh.
Burzil Pass PoK Kash mir valley
• They are the youngest part of Himalayas.
to Gilgit
• They form the foothills of Himalayas.
Zojila Pass Ladakh Srinagar to
Leh
Trans Himalayan Zones
Shipki la Pass Himachal Shimla to
Pradesh Gartok (Tibet) • This zone lies to the North of the Great
Jelep la Pass Sikkim Sikkim to Himalayas.
Lhasa (Tibet) • Some important ranges of this zone are
Yangyap Pass Arunachal Entry of Kai·akoram and Lada.kb etc. The highest
Pradesh Brahmaputra peak in region is K2 or Godwin Austin or
river Qagir (8611m, in Pak occupied
Kashmir) . Mount K2 js also the 2nd
Middle Himalaya or Lesser highest peak of the wodd and the highest
Himalaya (Hirnachal) peak of India, located in Karakoram
range.
• From West to East middle Himalaya is
• Mt Rakaposhi is the highest peak in
divided into following ranges:
Ladakh range and the steepest peak in
■ Pirpanjal range (Jammu and the ,,vorld.
Kashmir). It js longest range of the
• Sia.chin glacier js second longest glacier
middle Himalaya
of the world ou tsi.de the polar region
■ Dhauladhar range (l-limachaJ Pradesh)
(75 km) and is located in Nubra valiey.
■ Mussoor:ie range (Uttarakhand) Ladakh, Baltoro, Bia.fa, Batura, Hispar
■ Nagtibba range (Uttarakhand) are the other important glaciers in th.is
■ Mahabharat range (Nepal) region.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Geography

Mountain Peaks : Quick Digest The Great Plain

Highest peak of India Mt Ka or Godwin • To the Sou th of the Him alayas and to
Austin (8611 m) the North of the peninsu]a lies the
Highest peak of Satpura Dhupgarh great plains of North Ind.fa.
Highest peak of Aravalli Gurushikhar in Mount • It extends fro m West to East for 2400
Abu (1722 m) Ian h aving an average width in
Highest peak of Western Anaimudi (2695 m) behveen 150-300 Jan .
Ghat • The plains are formed by depositional
Highest peak of Eastern Mahendragiri works of three major 11ver systems
Ghat (1501 m) Indus, Ganga and Brahm aputra.
Highest peak of Nilgiri Dada Beta (2637 m) • The vast plains of North India are
Highest peak of Naga hills Saramati (3826 m) aJJuviaJ in nature an d the Western
Highest peak of Andaman Saddle peak (731 m) most portion 1s occupied by the desert.
and Nioobar • It 1s composed of Bhangar ( old
aJJuvium), Khadar (new alluvium) in
Himalayan Mountain Peaks the river bed, Bhabhar (plains
Peak Height (m) Country containing porous gravel and pebbles
, 1vhere the streams disappear) and Terai
Mt Everest 8848 Nepal-China
(damp, thick forest area, where Bhabhar
Mt K2 8611 PoK (India) sb:eams reappear).
Kanohenjunga 8686 Nepal-India
Lhotse 8616 Nepal-China
Difference Between
Makalu 8481 Nepal-China
Bhangar and Khadar
Cho oyu 8201 Nepal-China Bhangar Khadar
Dhaulagiri 8172 Nepal
These are low The new deposit of fresh
Manaslu 8163 Nepal plains, alluvium every year
Nanga Parbat 8125 Pakistan composed of brought by the Himalayas
older alluvium. rivers makes this belt in
Annapurna 8091 Nepal the Northern plains.
Gasherbrum I 8080 Pakistan-China
It oontains It does not contain
Broad peak 8051 Pakistan-China calcareous calcareous deposits of
deposits locally calcium.
Mountain Peaks in India known as
Kankar.
Highest Peak Height (m) State
MtK2 8611 PoK (India) Difference Between
Kanchenjunga 8586 Sikkim Terai and Bhabar
Nanda Devi 7817 Uttarakhand
Teraj Bhabar
Saltoro 7742 Jammu and
Kashmir Terai is a broad long Bhabar is a long
Kangto 7090 Arunaohal zone South of Bhabar narrow plain along
Pradesh plain. the foothills of
Himalayas.
Reo Purgil 6816 Himaohal Pradesh
It is a marshy damp It is a pebble
Saramati 3841 Nagaland area covered with studded zone of
Sandakphu 3636 West Bengal dense ioresL porous rocks.
Khayang 3114 Manipur It is 20-30 km wide. It is 9-16 km wide.
Anaimudi 2695 Kerala
It is most suitable for It is unsuitable for
Doda Beta 2636 Tamil Nadu ag ri oulture. agriculture.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography
Sub-Divisions of the Great Plain
The Thar or Great Indian desert is the
Rajasthan Western most region of the Great
Plain Indian plain. A semi-arid plain,
lying to the East of Thar desert is
known as Rajasthan Bagar. The
Luni is the only South-West
flowing river of the region.
The It extends from Punjab in the
Punjab- West to Yamuna (Haryana) in
Haryana East. They are composed of
Plain Dhaya (Heavily gullied bluffs)
and Bets (Khadar Plains).
The It extends from Delhi to Kolkata
Ganga across the states of Uttar
Plain Pradesh, Bihar and West BengaL
The Ganga and its tributaries
deposit larg e amount of alluvium
and make this extensive plain
more fertile.
The Low level plain formed by
Brahma- Brahmaputra river system. It is
putra Plain situated between Eastern
Himalaya in North and lower
Ganga plain and Inda-
Bangladesh border in the West
• The Punjab - Haryana plain is drained
by five 11vers and the in tervening area
betv11een the rivers js known as doab.
From South to North. doabs are as
follows:
Doab Region
Bist Doab Between Beas and Sutlej
Bari Doab Between Beas and Ravi
Rachna Doab Between Ravi and Chenab
Chaj Doab Between Chenab and
Jhelum
Sind Sagar Doab Between Jhelum, Chenab
and Indus
The Peninsular Plateau
• llising from the height of 150m above
the river plains up to the average
elevation of 600-1000 m is the irregu.lar
tJ.iangle knm,vn as the peninsular
plateau.
• It is composed of the old cystalline,
igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• It covers a total of 160000 lm1 2 (about
half of total land area of the country).
• Narmada, which flows thrnugh a 1ift
valley divides the region in to two parts:
the Central H.igh]ands in the North and
the Deccan plateau in the South.
• The Deccan pla teau js the largest plateau
in India.
Plateaus of Peninsular India
The Central Highland
• The Cent:J.·al lligh]ands lie to the North of
the Narmada river covering a major area
of the Malwa plateau.
• The Aravalis range is bounded by the
Central H.igh]ands on the North-West
and Vindhyan range on the South.
• It js also known as Madhya Bharat
Pathar.
The Deccan Pla;teau
• The Deccan plateau is a t:J.janguJar land
lying to the South of the river Narmada.
It is made up of Java flows in the
cretaceous era through the fissure
eruptions.
• It complises Maharashtra pla teau,
Karnataka plateau and the Telangana
and Rayalseema plateau (Andhra
Pradesh).
• The general slope is from West to East.
• The Eas tei-n and Western Ghats
demarcate the Eastern and ,i\festern edges
of the Deccan plateau.
Meghalaya Plateau
• This plateau js separated from main
block of the peninsular plateau by a gap
called Garo-RajMahal gap.
• From East to West, the plateau comprises
Garo, Khasi~ Jaintia and Milcir hills.
The Bundellchand Upland
• It js located to the South of Yamuna river
between Madhya Bharat Pathar and the
Vindhyan Range. It is composed of
granHes and gnefas.
The Mar'a!Jar Upland
• It lies East of Aravali range. It is made up
of sandstone, shale and limestone of
Vindhyan peLiod.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Chhotanagpur Plateau • It runs from the Sou th of the valley of

river Ta.pi to Kanyakumaii.
• It covers mostly Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh
and Punilia region of West Bengal. • The Sahyadris upto 16° North latitude
are mainly composed of basal t.
• It is composed mainly of Gondwana rocks
with patches of granites and gneisses and There awe three iniportant passes in the
Deccan Javas. Sahyadris
(i) Tbalghat (between Mumbai and
Hill Ranges of the Peninsula Pune)
(ii) Palghat (between Palakkad and
Araroali Range CoinJ ha.tore)
• Aravalis are one of the world's oldest fold (iii) Bhorghat (between Mumbai and
mountains running in North-East to Nashik)
South-East direction from Delhi to • The Eastern and the Western Ghats
Pa.Janpur in Gujarat. It is an example of meet each othei- at the Nilgiri hill.
relict mountain.
• It separates the fertile regions of Udaipur
Difference Between Eastern
and Jaipur regions from the semi-arid Ghat and Western Ghat
regions of Rajas than . Eastern Ghat Western Ghat
• Piphghat, Barr, Dewair and Desuri passes Located East of Located West of
allm"i' movements by roads and raih vays. Deccan Plateau. Deocan Plateau.

Vinahyan Range They are paral lel of They are parallel to

• This range acts as a water divide between
Ganga river system ,vith the river system
of South Inrua. The Maikal range forms a
connecting link between Vindhya and
Satpura.
Satpura Range
• It is a selies of seven mountains running
in Eas t-West direction South of Vindhya
and in between the Narmada and Ta.pi.
• It complises Rajpipla hills, Mahadeo hills
and Maika.J Range.
Eastern Ghats
• It comprises the ruscontinuous and
)ow hills that are highly eroded by
the rivers such as the Mahana.di~
the Godavari, the Ktisbna, the Cauved
etc.
• Some of the important ranges include the
Java.di hills, the VeWrnnda range, the
Nallamalai hills, the Mahenmagiri hills
etc.
Western Ghats
• Western ghats ai·e locally knmvn by
different names such as Sahyadri in
Maharashtra, Nilg.iri hilJs in Ka.rnataka
and Tamil Nadu and AnaimaJai hllJs,
Cardamom hUJs in Kera.la.
Eastern Coast i.e. Western Coast. i.e.
Coromandel and Konkan, Malabar etc.
Northern Circar etc.
Mahanadi, Cauveri, Narmada, Tapi ,
Godavari, Kri shna etc Sabarmati and Mahi
rivers are drawn in this etc rive rs are drawn in
region. this region.
Mahendragiri with an Anaimudi with an
altitude of 1501 m is altitude of 2696 m is
the highest peak here. the highest peak here.
The Coastal Plains
On the basis of location and active
geomorphological processes, it can be
broadly divided into
• Eas tern coastal plain
• Western coastal plain
The Eastern Coastal Plain
• The East coasta.1 plain extends from the
deltaic plains of the Ganga in the North
to Kanyakumaii in the South for llOO
Jan with an average width of 120 laJJ.
• Utkal plain extends from de]taic plains
of Ganga to the Mahanaru delta for
about 400 laJJ.
• Andhra coastal plain extends from the
Southern limit of Utkal plains to Pulicat
la.lee (Andhra Pradesh). It h as l.uge
deltas of Krishna and the Godavaii
rivers.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography
e
• TamjJ Nadu plains extend from the Andan1an and N icobar Group
North of Chenna_j to Kanyakumari in
• It js loca ted in Bay of Bengal.
the South. Coromande] coast js a part
of thjs plain. It has the delta_jc plains of • There are nearly 325 islands in AndanJan
Cauveri and js popuJ arly lrnm,vn as the group, ,,vhereas the Nicobar· group of
Ga·anary of South Indfa. islands consist of 24 7 islands.
• Ten degree channel sepai·ates AndanJan
The Western Coastal Plain group from Nicobar group. Duncan
It is about 1500 lrnJ long extendmg from passage bes betv,,een South Andaman and
Surat to Kanyakum ar-i. Little AndanJan group.
These plains are sub-divided into six
Western Coastal Plain :
Laksbadweep Group
1. Kachchb Plains lt js an ar·id and • It is loca ted in Arabian sea.
se □n arid region having sal t deposits • Minkoy is the second lai·gest and Southern
Great Rann and Li ttle Rann are most island and the Andrott island is the
located withm it. largest island of tms group.
2. Kathiawar Plains It extends from • Minkoy is separ·ated from rest of the
Rann of Kucbchb to DanJan in the Lalcshadweep by Nine Degree Channel.
South.
• Eight deg1·ee channel separates
3. Gujarat Plains Lles to the East of
Kachchb an d Kathfawar·, formed by Lalcshadweep group from Malrnves.
the rivers Narmada, Tapi, Mam
and Sabar·mati. DRAINAGE SYSTEM
4. Konkan Plai ns It extends from OF INDIA
DanJan to Goa for a rnstance of
about 500 km. • Water drains in two directions of the main
5. Ka.rnataka Plains l t extends from water divide line of lnrna. 90% of water
Goa to Mangalore in a nar-row belt. drains into Bay of Bengal and the rest
6. Malabar or Kerala Plains It drains into Arabian sea.
extends between Mangalore an d • Those Himalayan livers, '"''Wch originated
Kanyakumaii. The backwaters, be.fore the formation of HinJalaya are
locally called kayals ai·e the known as Antecedent rivers, such
shallov,, lagoons. The largest among as-Indus, Brahmapub.-a and Sutlej.
these is Vembanad Kayal followed • India is blessed with hun dreds oflarge and
by Ashtanmdi Kayal. small livers, wmcb drains the length and
breadth of the counb.-y.
Difference Between Eastern
and Western Coast In India, the rivers earn be divided into two
main groups:
Eastern Coast Western Coast (i) Himalayan rivers (ii) Peninsular 1ivers
Smooth ouiline Dissected outline
The river basins have been divided into three
Occurrenoe of Oocurrenoe of
deltas estuaries parts such as:
Less rainfall More rainfall River Basins
Broader Narrower
Major Medium Minor
Long rive rs Short rivers
River basins River basins River basins
with catchment with catohment with
Islands area of 20000 area between catohmen t
sq km and 2000- 20000 sq area below
• lnrna h as large number islands, most above. km_ 2000 sq km.
of wmch arse located in two groups It aooounts for It aooounts for It aocounts
■ Andaman and Nicobar group 86% of the total 7% of ihe total for 8% of the
■ Lakshadweep group run ott of all the run off. total run off.
• Group of islands is call ed rivers.
arch_ipelago.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Himalayan Rivers The Ganga System

Himalaywn rivers arre divided into three • The Ganga system is the second major
major river systems: drainage system of India.
• It rises in the Gangotri glacier near
The Indus System Gaumu.kh (7010 m) in the Uttarakhand.
• The Indus, also known as Sindhu, is Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi . At Dev
the Western most of Himalayan rivers Prayag, the Bhagirathi, meets the
in lndia . AJaknanda, hereafter, it is ]mown as the
• It is one of the largest river basins of Ganga The AJaJmanda has its somce in the
the world covedng an area of Satopanth glacier above Badrinath.
1178440 sq km (in India it is 321284 • The AJaknanda consists of the Dhauli and
sq km) and a total length of 2880 km the Vishnu Ganga, which meet at J oshimath
(in India 709 Jan). or Vishnu Prayag.
• It originates from a glacier near • The other tributaries of AJaknanda such as
Bokhar Chu in the Tibetan region the Pindar joins it at Karna Prayag, while
near Mansarova.1· lake. Mandak:ini or Kali Ganga mee ts it at Ruch-a
• In Tibe t, it is known as Singi Prayag.
Khamban or Lion's mouth. • It is 2525 Jan long of which 1450 km is in
• In Jamrnu and Kash.mir, its Uttarakhand and UP, 445 knJ in Bihar and
Himalayan tiibu taries ,He Zanskar, 520 km in West Bengal.
Dras, Gortang, Shyok, Shigar, Nubra, • The left bank tributades of Ganga are
Gilgit etc. Ramganga, Gomti, Kali or Sharda,
• Its most important tributai1es, Gan dh ak, Kosi, Mahananda.
,,.,hich join Indus at vai1ous places, • The right bank tributaries of Ganga are
ai·e Jhe]um, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Yamuna and Son. Yarnuna joins the Ganga
Sutlej_ at Allahabad .
• According to Indus Water Treaty • Kosi is call ed as Sorrow of B ihai· whi1e
signed between India and Pakistan in Damodai· is called as Sorrow of Bengal as
1960, lndia can u tilise only 20% of these cause floods in these regions.
the total dischai·ge of lndus, Jhelum Hooghly is a distributot)' of Ganga :flowing
and Chenab. thrnugh Kolkata.
Indus River System • ln terms of area and length Ganga is the
largest as well as longest river in lndia.
River Source Length Falls
(km) into Ganga River System
Indus Near 2880 Arabian River Source Length (km)
Manasarovar (709 in Sea Ganga Gangotri Glacier 2525
Lake India)
Yamuna Yamunolri Glacier 1376
Jhelum Verinag 724 Chenab Chambal Near Mhow (MP) 1050
Chenab Bara Lacha 1180 Indus Aamganga Garhwal district 696
Pass
Ghaghra Near Gurla Mandhota 1080
Ravi Near 725 Chenab peak South of
Aohtang Manasarovar
Pass
Son Amarkantak Plateau 784
Beas Near 460 Sutlej Damodar Chhotanagpur 541
Aohtang Plateau
Pass
Gandak Tibet-Nepal border 425*
Sutlej Manasarovar- 1450 Chenab
Kosi Sikkim-Nepal-Tibet 730*
Rakas Lake (1050 in
Himalaya
India)
* length in India
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography
G
The Brahmaputra System
• It 1s one of the largest rivers of the world.
• It is Jmown as Tsangpo in Tibet, Dihang or Siang in ArunachaJ Pradesh,
Brahmaputra in Assam and Jamuna in Bangladesh.
• Brahmaputra forms large nwnber of riverine 1slands. Majuli is the largest riverine
1sland in the ,,vodd.
• The combined sb·eam of Ganga and Brahmaputra forms the biggest delta in the world,
the Sundarbans, covedng an area of 40,000 sq Ian. Its major part is in Bangladesh.

Brahmaputra River System

Name Source Total Length Information
Brahmaputra Rises in 2900 km Mariam La pass separates it from
orTsangpo Chemayungdung (900 km in India) Mansarovar lake. Important tri butaries are
glaoier in the Subansiri, Kameng , Dhansiri, Dihang, Lohit,
Kailash range. Tista, Manas, Dihing etc

The Peninsular River System

Peninsular 1iver system can be divided in two groups:
East Flowing Rivers
(or Delta forming rivers)
• East flm11Wg rivers form Delta.
• East flm11Wg rivers fall in Bay of Bengal.

West Flowing Rivers (or Estuaries forming rivers)

• West flowing rivers do not form delta.
• West flowing rivers fall in Arabian Sea.
East Flowing Rivers
Rivers Source Length Tributaries
Mahanadi North foothills of 867 km Seonath, Hasdeo, lb, Mand, Tel, Ong
Dandakamaya and Jank.
Godavari Triambak plateau of North 1466 (longest Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga
Sahyadri near Nashik river at Peninsular lndravati, Sabari , Manjira.
India)
Krishna North of Mahabaleshwar in 1400 km Bhima, Tungabhadra, Ghat Prabha,
the Western Ghats Malaprabha, Musi and Koyna
Cauveri Rise in Brahmgiri range in 800 km Herongi, Hemavati, Shimsa, Arkavati,
Western Ghats Kabani, Bhavani and Amravati etc.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

West Flowing Rivers

River Souroe Length Desoription
Sabarmati Mewar in Aravalli 320 km It falls into Gulf of Khambat and its
range tribu taries are Hathmati, Sedhi, Wakul.
Mahi Rises from 533 km Flows in Madhya Pradesh , Rajasthan and
Vindhyan range Gujaral
Narmada (largest Amarkantak 1312 km Hiran, Tawa, Banjar, Shar, Shakkar and
West flowing plateau Bu rhner. It flows into Gulf of Khambal It
peninsular river flows through Madhya Pradesh,
system) Maharashtra and Gujaral Famous
watertalls Dhuandhar and Kapildhara are
located on this river.
Tapi Rises from Multai 730 km Also known as Twin or handmaid of
on the Satpura Narmada Tribuia ries are Puma, Betul,
range Arunavati, Ganja! etc.
Luni Rises from 482 km Also called salt river. It is fi nal~ lost in the
Aravalis marshy grounds at the head o the Rann of
Kachchh.

Difference Between Delta and Estuary

Delta Estuary
It is the tri angular deposition of alluvium at the It is the funnel shaped mouth of river.
mouth of river at its fall into the sea.
Excess deposition of silt and soil forms a delta. Tidal waves remove the silt out and an estuary
is fo rm ed.
It is more fertile land. They provide cri tical habitats for m any iish
species.

Differences Between Himalayan River System and Peninsular System

Himalayan Rivers
They have large basins and catchment areas.
They are the example of antecedent drainage.
They are perennial in nature, Le. the water
flows throughout the year.
These rivers are still in thei r you thful stage.
These rivers form meanders.
Peninsular Rivers
They have small basins and catchmen t areas.
They are the example of consequen t drainage.
They are seasonal in nature and receive water
mainly from rainfall.
These rivers have already reached their m aturity
stage.
There is litij le scope for meander formation.

Important Waterfalls of India

Waterfall Height (km) State
Barehipani 400 m Odisha
Nohkalikai 340 m Meghalaya
Dudhsagar 310 m Kamataka and Goa
Jog or Gersoppa 253 m Kamataka
Duduma 157 m Odisha and Andhra Pradesh
Bishop 135 m Meghalaya
Hundru 100 m Jharkhand
Shivasamundram 100 m Kamataka
Langshiang 85 m Meghalaya
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography
e
Important Indian Towns on Rivers
Town River Town River
Jamshedpur Confluence of Kharkai and Ahmedabad Sabarmati
Subamarekha Patna Ganga
Delhi Yamuna Kola Chambal
Kanpur Ganga Jabalpur Narmada
Surat Tapi
Panji Mandavi
Ferozpur Su1Iej
Ujjain Kshipra
Allahabad At the confluence of the
Ganga and Yamuna Guwahati Brahmaputra
Varanasi Ganga Kolka ta Hooghly
Haridwar Ganga Cuttack Mahanadi
Badrinath Alaknanda Hyderabad Musi
Ludhiana Su1Iej Nashik Godavari
Srinagar Jhelum Lucknow Gomti
Ayodhya Saryu

Important River Projects and their Beneficiary States

Project River Purpose Benefioiary States
Bhakra Nanga/ Project Su1Iej Power and irrigation Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,
Haryana and Rajasthan
Damodar Valley Damodar Power, irrigation and Jharkhand and West Bengal
flood control
Hirakud Mahanadi Power and irrigation Odisha
Tungabhadra Project Tungabhadra Power and irrigation Andhra Pradesh and
Kamataka
Nagarjunasagar Project Krishna Power and irrigation Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
Gandak River Project Gandak Power and irrigation Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Nepal
Qoint venture of India and NepaQ
Kasi Project Kasi Flood control, Power Bihar
and irrigation
Farakka Project Ganga, Power, irrigation, West Bengal
Bhagirathi removi ng acoumulation
of silt irom Kolkata port
Beas Project Beas Irrigation and power Rajasthan , Haryana, Punjab
and Himachal Pradesh
Indira Gandhi Canal Su1Iej, Beas Irrigation Rajasthan , Punjab and
Project (Rajasthan Canal and Ravi Haryana
Projec0
Chamba/ Project Chambal Power and irrigation Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan
Kakrapara Project Tapi Irrigation Gujarat
Ukai Project Tapi Power and irrigation Gujarat
Ta\1/a Project Tawa Irrigation Madhya Pradesh
(Narmada)
Poochampad Project Godavari Irrigation Telangana
Ma/aprabha Project Malaprabha Irrigation Kamataka
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography
Project River
Durgapur Barrage Damodar
Sardar Sarovar Dam Narmada
lddukki Project Periyar
Ramganga Multipurpose Chui sot
Project stream near
Kalagarh
Matatilla Project Belwa
Tehri Dam Project Bhagirathi
Rihand Dam Rihand
Shivasamudram Project Cauveri
Mahi Project Mahi
Thein Project Ravi
THE CLIMATE OF
INDIA
• India h as tropical monsoon type
of climate. It is greatly
influenced by the presence of
Himalayas in the North as they
block the cold air masses from
Central Asia. It is because of the
Himalayas that the monsoon
v,rinds shed their water in India.
• The Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N)
divides India into two almost
equal climatic zones, namely,
the Northern zone (sub-b.'opical)
and the Southern zone (b.·opical).
• The sub-b.'opical climate of the
Northern zone gives it cold
,,.rin ter season and hot summer
season.
• The Southern n·opical climate
zone is warmer than the North
and does not h ave a clear cut
win ter season.
The Southern zone has the
midday Sun almost vertically
overhead at least h"irice every year
and the Northern zone does not
have the rnidday Sun vertically
overhead during any part of the
year.
Purpose Beneficiary States
Irrigation and West Bengal and Jharkhand
navigation
Irrigation Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Hydroelectrioity Maharashtra, Rajasthan
Hydroelectrioity Kerala
Power and irrigation Uttarakhand
Power and irrigation Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh
Hydroelectrioity, Uttarakhand
Irrigation
Hydroelectrioity Uttar Pradesh
Irrigation Karnalaka
Irrigation Gujarat
Irrigation Punjab
Factors Influencing
the Climate of India
The factors influencing the climate of India are as
follows:
• Location and Latitudinal extent The 'fropic of
Cancer passes thrnugh the middle of the counb.-y.
The region to the Sou th of Tropic of Cancer
expedences tropical climate, whereas the region
to the North of the Tropic of Cancer expedences
warm tern perate climate.
• Distance from Sea The areas near to the sea
expedence maritinJe climate, whereas the areas
away from the sea e>...]Jedence continental
climate.
• The Northern Mountain Range The Northern
Himalayan range protects India from the bitterly
cold and dry ,,.rinds of Cenn·al Asia during ,,.rinter.
Moreover, it acts as a physical barrier for the rain
bea.iing South-West monsoon.
• Physiography The physiography h as great
impact on the major elements of climate such as
temperatme, atmospheric pressme, direction of
·wind and anJount of rainfall.
• Monsoon Wind It is the most dominating factor
of Indian climate. The South-West summer
monsoon from the Arabian sea and the Bay of
Bengal bring rainfall to the enru·e counb.-y.
Besides the North-East \l\rinter monsoon
travelling from land to sea causes rainfall along
the Coromande] coast after acquiring moisture
from the Bay of Bengal_.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

• The warmm g of tropical Pacific waters

Western Disturbances
These are the depressions generated over the
Mediterranean sea and enter India after
crossing over Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and
Pakistan under the infl uence of Westerly jet
strea m. After reaching India, they move
Eastwards, causing light rain in the
lndo-Gangetic plains and snowfa ll in Himalayan
belt
• Upper Ai r Ci1·cuJation The upper air
circul ation of lnd.ia js domin ated by a
westerly flov, 1• An important component of
this flow is the Jet Stream . The Western
cyclonic mstmbances experienced in
North and North Western parts of the
counb.--y are brought in by tbjs Westerly
flow.
• Tropical Cyclones The b.'opical cyclones
generated in Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal
during the Sou th-West monsoon and the
retreating monsoon seasons rn.fluence the
weathei- conmtions of the Peninsula1· lnma.
• El Nino and La Nina El Nino js a narrow
warm current, which occasionally appea1·s
off the coast of Peru in December by
temporarily replacing the cold Peru current.
affect the global pattern ofpressme an d
\'\rind systems induding the mon soon
"'rinds in the Inman ocean. La Nina is
the reverse of El-Nino. lt is a h arbinger
of heavy monsoon shm1vers in lnma.
• Southern OscilJation Whenever the
swface level pressUl"e is high over the
lnd.ian ocean, there js low pressme over
the Pacific ocean an d vi ce versa. This
inter-relation of hjgh and low pressUl"e
over the Pacific and the In man ocean is
called Southern Oscillation.
Seasons in India
• lnd.ian climate is characterised by
d.istinct seasonality. Inman
Meteorological Department (IMD) has
recognised the following fo wr distin ct
seasons:
(i) The cold season or v,rin ter season.
(ii) The h ot weather season or
sWJ1Jiler season .
(iii) The South-West monsoon season
or rainy season .
(iv) The season of the retreating
monsoon or cool season.

Seasons and their Climatic Features

Season Temporal Preoipitation Other Climatic Features
Aspect
Winter Season November to Rainfall in sub- Himalayan belt Clear sky, low temperature and
Maroh by Western disturbances humidity with high range of
iemperature
Summer Season Maroh to June Only 1% rainfall of total Indian Dry season , high temperature
(Pre-monsoon) rainfall mostly by storms by and low humidity
oonveotive ourrents
Rainy Season June to Rainfall through South-West High heat, high humidity,
September monsoon extensive aloud and several
spells of moderate to heavy
rain fall are the characteristics
Cool Season Mid September RelreaLing monsoon causes No olouds, severe and
to November rainfall in Tamil Nadu and devastating tropical cyclones,
adjoining areas of Andhra olear sky
Pradesh
A
•
Local Storms in India
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Name Signifioanoe
Norwester It is a spring storm shower and causes rainfall in Assam and West BengaL
Mango Shower Thunderstorm causing rainfall in Southern plateau, helps in mango ripening.
Cherry Blossoms Thunderstorm causing rainfall in Karnataka, helps in flowering of ooHee_
Kalbaisakhis Storms in West Bengal during su mmer due to the strong convective
movemenL

Climatic Regions of India

Trewaitha's Classification
• Dr Trewartha's scheme has been mos t prominent of all classifications of the Indian
climatic regions. He presented a modified form of Koppen's classification .
• Dr Trewartha's classification divides India into four major regions of the A, B, C and H
types. The A type refers to b:opical rainy climate, where high temperatures are
consistent. The B type stands for a dry climate with mgh temperatures, but nttle
rainfall. The C type indicates a region ,,vi.th dry winters, where there is lm'I' temperature
range between 0°C and 18°C. The H type indicates a mountain climate. The A, B, and
C types are further sub-divided.

Climatic Regions of India

Climate Type Areas Characteristics
■ Tropical Rain Forests Western Ghats, West High temperature throughout the year,
Climate (Am) Coastal Plains, Parts of heavy seasonal rainfall, average annual
Assam and Tripura. rainfall 200 om (May to November).
■ Tropical Savanna Most of Peninsular region Dry winters, annual rainfall varies from
Climate (Aw) (except leeward side of 76 om to 1OD om.
Western Ghats)-
■ Tropical Semi-Arid Rainshadow belt running Low rainfall, varies from
Steppe Climate (Bs) Southward from Central 38 om to 80 cm and temperature from 20°
Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu to 30°C.
■ Tropical and Punjab, Haryana, and Temperature varies from 12°-35°C.
Sub-tropical Steppes Kachchh region. Annual Rainfall deolines to 60 cm.
Climate (Bsh)
■ Tropical Desert Western parts of Barmer, Scanty rainfall (mostly in form of aloud
Climate (Bwh) Jaisalmer and Bikaner burst) , high temperature.
districts of Rajasthan and
parts of Kachchh.
■ Humid Sub- tropical South of Himalayas, in the Mild winters and extremely hot su mmers
Climate with dry Northern plains _
Winters (Caw)
■ Mountain Climate (H) Mountainous region (above Rainfall varies from 60 om to 250 cm.
6000 m). (Mostly during South-West Monsoon)_

Annual Rainfall
India can be divided into the following regions depending upon the annual average
rainfall received by these regions
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography
e
Distribution of Rainfall
Areas of Very High Areas of High Rainfall Areas of Low Areas of Very Low
Rainfall (100-200 cm) Rainfall Rajnfall
(above 200 cm) (50- 100 cm) (below 50 cm)
IE inoludes almost whole of It includes Eastern It inoludes large It lnoludes arid and
Assam, Nagaland, slopes of Western parts of Gujarat, semi-arid area and
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Ghats, major parts of Maharashtra, inoludes large areas of
Arunachal Pradesh , Sikkim, Northern Plain, Odisha, Western Madhya Western Rajasthan,
parts of Manipur, West Madhya Pradesh, Pradesh, Andhra Kaohchh and most of the
Bengal and ihe Western Andhra Pradesh and Pradesh and regi on of Ladakh
Coast from Mumbai to Tamil Nadu. Eastern Rajasthan (Jam mu and Ka shmir).
Thiruvananthapuram. etc.

FOREST AND NATURAL VEGETATION

According to state records, the forest area covers 23.34% of the total land area of the
country.

Indian State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021

As per the report, it has been revea led that tota I forest and tree cover in India has increased to over
807276 sq km. Other key facts of the report are as follows :
• The total forest and tree cover in India is 24.62% of total geographical area of the country_
• Mizoram has the highest forest cover in terms of percentage geographical area i.e. 85.41 %.
• Madhya Pradesh has the maximum forest cover i.e. 77,482 sq km.

INDIA : NATURAL VEGETATION

I Alpine and Sub-alpine

f·
f•
::;"-= Himoloyan Moist Temperafe
Troplcfll Moist Deciduous o
=~~== Sub-lfoplcal Deciduous ·~
Troplcfll We! E11ergreen \
Troplcfll Thorny Veget□ Uon
Hol Desan
Forest in India @
Forest Type Distribution Climatic Conditions Charac terlstlcs Speoles
Tropical Evergreen ■ Rainy slopes of Western Ghats. ■ Rainfall > 200 om ■ Height of trees is 40 Mahogany, Mahua, Bamboo,
Forests ■ NE India exoept Arunaohal Pradesh. ■ Relative Humidity> 70% to 60 m. Canes, Ironwood, Kadam,
■ Eastern part of West Bengal and ■ Average temperature is about ■ Leaves are dark lrul, Jamun, Hopea1 Rubber
Odisha. 24°c. green and broad. tree\ Toon, Telsur etc,
■ Andaman and Nioobar Islands. ■ Hot and Humid olimate.
Tropical Moist ■ Eastern parts of Sahyadris (Western ■ 100 to 200 om rainfall per ■ 30 to 40 m high Sal, Teak, Arjun, Mulberry,
Deciduous Forests Ghats). annum. trees. Kusum, Sandalwood\ Siris1
■ North-Eastern part of Peninsula. ■ Moderate temperature. ■ Due to defioienoy of Haldi, Khair, Mango\ Banyan
■ Middle and lower Ganga valley. water, they shed their tree etc.
leaves in dry season
■ Foothills of Himalayas in Bhabar and (onset of summer).
Tarai regions,
■ These oover about
1
20% lndia s forest
G)
area.
m
Tropical Dry ■ Large parts of Maharashtra, ■ 50 to 100 om rainfall. ■ 6 to 15 m high trees. Teak\ Sal, Bamboo, Mango, z
Deciduous Forests Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, ■ Moderate humidity. ■ Roots are thiok and Acacia, Neem, Shisham sic. m
■ Parts of Punjab, Haryana and Eastern
parts of Rajasthan.
long. ~
r
■ Northern and Western parts of
Madhya Pradesh.
■ Tamil Nadu.
"z
0
■ Southern parts of Uttar Pradesh. :E
r
Dry Forests or A1•id ■ Rajasthan and adjoining areas of ■ Low rainfall (less than 50 om ■ Thorny vegetation. Cactus 1Thorny Bushes, m
C
Forests Haryana1 Gujarat and Punjab. per annum). ■ Roots are very long. Kikar1 Babool, Date Palm, G)
■ Rainshadow areas of Peninsular ■ Relative humidity is less. ■ Leaves are small. Acacia, Khair, Euphorbias m
India. elc. l
Mountainous ■ In Himalayan regions ■ Due to inorease of allitude the ■ Eaoh vegetation belt Sal, Teak, Chir, Deodar 1Oak1 G)
CD
FOl'ests or temperature deoreases henoe ooours at a height of Olive\ Chestnut, Conifers, 0
Himalayan Forest Himalayan forests oontain all 300 m or more in Spruce and Larch etc. cc
...,
the varieties of world exoept Eastern Himalayas. ll)
"O
equatorial forest. ::::r
'<
 G)
Soils in India m
z
lnclian Co u nciJ of AgricuJtu rnJ Research (]CAR) has clivided Indian soiJs into eight major gro u ps. m
Type of Soils States where Found/Occurrence Composition Crops Grow ~
r-
■ Alluvial Punjab , Haryana, Ut1ar Pradesh Bihar, Rich in Phosphorus, pol ash and lime, but Large varie\y of Rabi and KharH crops ;,:;;
Jharkhand deficient in nilrogen . such as wheat , rice , sugaroane, cotton z

■ Blaok (or Regur soil) Deccan Plateau, Valleys of Krishna and

and jute.
Rich in iron , lime, aluminium, magnesium, CoHon, sugarcane, jowar, tobacco, vlheat,
ir-
Godavari, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya calcium , but lacks in nitrogen, rice. m
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu phosphorus and humus.
C
G)
m
■ Red Easlern parts of Deccan Plateau , Tamil Rich in iron and polash, but dellclent in Wheat, rice, carton, sugarcane and l
Nadu, Goa, Odisha and Meghalaya lime, nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. pulses.
G)
CD
■ Laterite Summils of Easlern and Wes\ern Ghats, Rich in iron but poor in silica, lime, Tea , coHee, rubber, cashew and millels, 0
Assam hills, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, phosphorus, potash and humus. co
West Bengal and Odlsha ru
""O
::::r
■ Desert West and North-West India, Rajasthan, Rich in soluble salts, but deficient in Generally unsuilable for cultivation, but '<
North Gujarat and Soulhern Punjab , organic mat1er, wilh irrigation useful for cultivalion of
drought-resistant crops like lime, millels,
barley , carton, maize and pulses,

■ Mountain Hills of Jammu and Kashmir, Rich in iron and humus, but deficient in Wilh the use of fertilizers , tea, truits and
Ut1arakhand and Assam Hills lime , medicinal plants can be grown.

■ Saline and Alkaline Drier parts of Bihar, Jharkhand, Ut1ar Many salls such as sodium, magnesium Unlit for agriculture .
Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and calcium ,
and Maharashtra

■ Peaty and Marshy Kerala, coaslal regions of Odisha, Tamil Con lain large amount of soluble salts and Useful for rice and jute cultivallon,
Nadu and Sundarbans of West Bengal organic mat1er, but lacks in polash and
phosphates .

@
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

INDIA
SOILS

Red soil
: : : Alluvial soil
::::::::. Black (Regur) soil
Desert soil
Lalerile soil
Mountain soil
Grey and Brown soils
· Sub-mountain so~
Snowfields

AGRICULTURE IN Types of Farming

INDIA Shifting AgricultnTe
India is essentially an agricultural land. • It 1s practised by the tribal groups in the
Two-thirds of its population still lives on forest areas of Assam, MeghaJaya,
ag:dcuJture. AgricuJ tme is a primary activity NagaJand, Marripur, Tripma, Mtzorarn,
whkh includes farming, anirn aJ rearing and ArunachaJ Pradesh, Odisha~ Madhya
fishing. There are three crop seasons in Pradesh, ]hark.hand and And.hi-a
India Pradesh.
(i) Kharil Sown in June/July, harvested in Various Names of Shifting
September/October. e.g. rice, jowar, Agriculture
bajra, ragi, maize, cotton andjute.
(ii) Rabi Sown in October/December, States Names of Shifting
h arvested in Ap1iJ/May e.g. wheat, Cultivation
barley, peas, rapeseed, mustard, Assam Jhum
grains. Kerala Ponam
(iii) Zaid They are raised between April Andhra Pradesh and Podu
and J une e.g. melon, watermelon, Odisha
cuccurnber, toris, leafy and other Madhya Pradesh Bewar, Masha,
Penda and Bera
vege tables.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

• In thjs type of ag:r:icuJture, a piece of forest The components ofGreen Revol-ution are as
)an d is cleared mainly by tribal people by follows:
felling and burning of trees and crops are • l-ligh Yielcling Variety Seeds
grown. • Irrigation
• Dry paddy, buck wheat, maize, small millets, • Use of Fertilizers
tobacco and sugarcane are the main crops
• Use of Insecticides and Pesticides
grm'l'TI under tills type of agiicuJture.
• Command Area Development
Intensive Farming • Consolidation of Holdings
• This 1s a system of farming in which the • Land Reforms
cultivator uses large am ount of Jabour an d • Supply of Agricul tural Crernt
capital on a relatively small area. • Rural Elecliification
• In regions, where the size of popuJ ation is • Rural Roads an d Marketing
big, but )an d 1s less, tills type of farmmg is • Farm Mecharusation
done.
• Agric uJ tmal Universities
• AgiicuJture is done with the help of manu al
Jabom. Impact of Green Revolution
Extensive Farming Positive Impact
• This 1s a system of farming in which the • Increase in agricul tural production
cultivator uses a lim_j ted anrnunt of labour • Reduction of the import of
and capital on a relatively large area. foodgrains
• This type of agricuJture is practised in • Capitalist farming
regions, '"''here population size is sm all an d
• Industrial gi·o wth
)and is enough.
• AgiicuJtme 1s done with the help of • Rural employment
machmes. Negative Impact
• Inter-crop imbalance
Green Revolution
• Environmental inJpacts
It is a ph rase generally used to descdbe the
spectacular increase in the production an d • Increase in regional inJbalances
productivity of foo d gi·ains that took place • Unemployment due to
during 1970s. It was introduced by mecharusation
MS Swaminathan and he 1s also con sidered as • Negligence of other crops
Father of Green Revolu tion.

Major Crops and Producing States

Crop Type Crop Name Major Producers
Cereals Wheat Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh
Rice West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh
Gram Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu
Barley Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan
Bajra Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan
Cash Crops Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra
Tobacco Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh
Oil Seeds Coconut Kerala and Tamil Nadu
Unseed Maharashtra, Rajasthan , Madhya Pradesh and Haryana
Groundnut Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
Rape seed and Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana
Mustard
Sesame West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan
Sunflower Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Kamataka
0 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Crop Type Crop Name Major Produoers

Fibre Crops Cotton Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu
Jute West Bengal, Bihar and Assam
Silk Kamataka and Kerala
Plantations Coffee Kamataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu
Rubber Kerala and Kamataka
Tea Assam and West Bengal
Spices Pepper Kerala, Kamataka and Tamil Nadu
Cashe\1/nuts Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
Ginger Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala
Turmeric Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka

Growing Conditions of Some Important Crops

Crop Temperature Rainfall Soil
Rice Not above 25°C 150•300 cm Clay or Loamy, Alluvial
Wheat 10°-1 S°C (Winter), 75-100 om Well-drained loams and olay
21°-26°C (Summer) loam
Cotton 21°-30°C, but not 50-75 om Black soil (Regur), alluvial or
below 20°C, 200 frost laterite soils
free days
Sugarcane 32°-3soe 75-150 om Any type of soil that can retain
moisture
J0\1/aF Not below 16°C (Rabi) <1 00 cm Variety of soils including olayey
26°-33°C (KhariQ and sandy
Jute 24°-35°C Rainfall of 150 cm, Light sandy or olayey loams
with 90% humidity
Tea 13°-32oe 150•300 cm , grown Well drained, deep friable loams
on hill slopes or forest soils rich in organic
matter
Coffee 23°-28°C 150•200 cm Rich well-drained friable loams
oontaining good amounts of
humus and minerals like calcium
and iron
Bajra 25°-3ooe 40-50 om Sandy loams, red and black soils
Ragi 20°-3ooe 50-100 om Red, light blaok and sandy
loams
Pulses 20°-35oe 50-75 om Loamy light soil
Rubber 25°-35°C 150•200 cm Rich well-drained loamy soils
Tabacco 15°C- 35°C 50-100 om Well-drained loamy soil, alluvial
or black soils
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

MINERAL RESOURCES
Thrree tzJpes of min era ls found in India are as follows:
(i) MetalUc Iron-ore, copper, alu.n1lllum, tin , lead, gold and silver.
(ii) Non-MetalUc Coal, mica, m anganese , peb.-oleum and sulphur.
(iii) Radioactive Uranium and thorium.
Metallic Mineral Mines
Metallic Mineral Mines
Iron Kemmangundi , Sandur and Hospet(Karnataka)
Gorumahisani, Badampahar (Odisha) , Bailadila and Dalli-Rajhara
(Chhattisgarh) , North Goa
Manganese Found in Karnataka, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
Chromite Found in Odisha, Bihar, Kamataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
Copper Malanjkhand Belt (Balaghat ,Madhya Pradesh), Khetri-Singhana Belt
(JhLD1jhLJ1 ), Singhbhum (Jharkhand)
Bauxite Found in Odisha, Gujarat , Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Chhatiisgarh
Gold Kolar and Hutti ( Kamataka) , Aamgiri in Anantapur (Andhra Pradesh)

Non-Metallic Mineral Mines

Non-Metallic Mineral Mines
Umestone Found in Karna taka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan , Madhya Pradesh ,
Gujarat, Chhatiisgarh, Meghalaya
Dolomite About 90% of the dolomite is found in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Gujarat, Aajastha n and Maharashtra
Asbestos Rajasthan , Andhra Pradesh and Karna taka
Gypsum Found in Aajasthan and Jammu and Kash mir
Graphite Ooours in Kalahandi, Bolangir (Odisha) and Bhagalpur (Bihar)

Atomic Mineral Mines

Atomic Mineral Found in
Uranium Hazaribagh (Jharkhand ) , Gaya (Bihar) , Saharanpur (Uttar Pradesh) ,
Monazite sands of Kerala coast. Found as by-product in oopper mines of
Udaipur
Thorium Derived from Monaziie sand, iound in Kerala, Jharkhand , Bihar, Tamil Nadu
and Rajasthan
Uthium Found in Lepidolite and Spodumene. Lepidolite is found in Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan
Zirconium Found along Kerala coast and alluvial rocks of Aanohi and Hazaribagh
districts of Jharkhand
Beryllium Ooours in Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir
Antimony Ooours is Lahaul and Kangra distriots of Himachal Pradesh and some
districts of Madhya Pradesh
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Industries in India
Industries Details

Cotton Textile ■ The first modern Cotton textile mill was established in Bombay in 1854 by
Indu stry
CN Dewar wilh the name of Bombay spinning and weaving oompany.
■ Mumbai is called Cottonopolis of India
■ Ahmedabad is called Manchester of India_
■ Coimbatore is called Manchester of Sou th India
■ Kanpur is called Manchester of Uttar Pradesh_
■ Distribution Maharashtra (Mumbai, Solapur, Pune, Ko lhapur, Satara,
Ward ha, Aurangabad and Amravati) , Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Vadodra,
RaJkot, Surat, Bhavnagar, Porbandar, Morbi and Viramgam) , Tamil Nadu
(Chennai, Tirunelveli, Madurai, Tuticorin, Salem , Virudhnagar and
Tiruchripalli and Perambur), Karnataka (Bengaluru, Belgaum, Mangalore,
Chitradurga, Gulbaraga and Mysore),
Uttar Pradesh (Kanpur, Etawah, Modinagar, Moradabad, Bareilly, Agra,
Meerut and Varanasi), Madhya Pradesh (Indore, Gwalior, Ujjain, Bhopal),
Rajasthan (Kata, Jaipur, Sriganganagar, Bhilwara and Udaipur) .

Woollen ■ The first Woollen textiles mill was set-up in 1876 at Kanpur. Jammu and
Textile Punjab leads in the production of woollen textiles_ Kashmir is the large
Industry producer of handloom and powerloom product.
■ Distribution Punjab (DhariwaJ, Amritsar, Ludhiana, Ferozpur),
Maharashtra (MumbaQ, Uttar Pradesh (Kanpur, Mirzapur, Agra,
Tanakpur)_
Jute Textile ■ First modern Jute mill was set-up in 1856 at Rishra near Kolkata_ India is
Industry the second largest producer of raw jute and jute goods, whereas it is
second largest exporter of jute goods after Bangl adesh.
■ Distribution West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Odisha, Tripura
and Chhattisgarh _

Silk Textile ■ India is the second largest prouducer of natural silk, after China and is
Industry the only country producing all four varieties or natural silk viz Mulberry,
Tasar, Eri and Muga of which Golden yellow Muga silk is unique in India_
■ Distribution Kamataka is the leading producer followed by West Bengal,
Bihar and Jammu and Kashmir etc.
Rubber ■ The first factory of synthetic rubber was set-up at Bareilly_
Industry
■ Distribution Bareilly (Uttar Pradesh), Barod a (Gujarat) Synthetic Rubber
Units-Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Amritsar-Reclaimed Rubber Units_

Tea Industry ■ Tea cultivation in India was "irst started in the mid-19th century in
Darjeeling, Assam and Nilgiris_
■ Nearly 98% of the tea production comes from Assam, West Bengal , Tamil
Nadu and Kerala, while the rest of it oomes from Karnataka, Terai regions
of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and
Tripura
Sugar ■ Uttar Pradesh is the leading producer of sugar_
Ind ustry Distribution Uttar Pradesh (Gorakhpur, Deoria, Basti , Gonda, Meerut,
Saharanpur, Muzaffamagar, Bijnor and Moradabad) , Bihar (Darbhanga,
Saran , Champaran and Muzaffarpur), Punjab (Phagwara and Dhuri)
Haryana (Ambala, Rohtak and Panipat), Maharashtra (Nashik, Pune,
Satara, Sangli , Kolhapur and Sholapur) and Karnataka (Munirabad,
Shivamogga and Mandya).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Geography G
Industries Details
Paper ■ The first Paper mill in the country was set-up near Chennaj (1817) and
Ind ustry then at Serampore (Bengaf) in 1832, both of which faHed. In 1870, a
sucoessful venture was started at BaJlygunj near Calcutta. It was named
as the Royal Bengal Paper Mills.
■ Raw material : Bamboo (70%), Salai wood (12%), Sabai (9%), Bagasses
(4%) and Waste paper and Rags (5%).
■ Distribution Madhya Pradesh (Nepanagar) , Hindustan Paper
Corporation , Vellore, Mysore Paper mill, Bhadravati, Maharashtra,
(Mumbai, Pune, BaJlarpur and Kamptee produoe Paper and Vikhroli),
Andhra Pradesh (Rajahmundry and Sirpur), Madhya Pradesh (Indore,
Bhopal and Shahdol), Kamataka_

Iron and Steel ■ Distribution Bhadrawati (Karnataka), Jamshedpur (Jharkhand),

Durgapur, Burnpur (West Bengal) , Bokaro (Jharkhand) , Rourkela
(Odisha) , Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Salem (Tamil Nadu) and Visakhapatnam
(Andhra Pradesh).

Ship Building ■ Distribution Cochin Shipyard , Mumbaj (Mazgaon Dock) , Hindustan

Shipyard at Visakhapatnam and Kolkata (Hooghly □ oaks and Port
Engineer). Mazgaon dook at Mumbai builts Vessels for Indian Navy.

Aircraft ■ Distribution Hindustan Aeronautics India Limited was formed by merging

Industry two aricraft factories at Bengalu ru and Kanpur. Four other factories are at
Nashik, Lucknow, Koraput (Odisha) and Hyderabad.

Fertilizer ■ The Fertilizer Corporation of India (FCI) was set-up in 1961.

Industry
■ National Fertilizer Limited (NFL) was set-up in 1974.
■ Distribution Sindri (Bihar) , Nangal (Punjab) , Gorakhpur (Uttar Pradesh),
Du rgapur (West Bengal) , Namrup (Assam) , Cochin (Kerala) , Rourkela
(Chhallisgarh) , Neyveli (Tamil Nadu), Vadodra (Gujarat), Kanpur,
Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh), Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and Kota
(Rajasthan).

Machine Tool ■ It forms the basis for the manufacturing of industrial, defence
Industry equipments, automobiles, railway engines and electrical machinery.
■ Distribution Hyderabad, Bengaluru , Pinjore (Haryana) , Kalamassery
(Kerala) , Ajmer and Srinagar.
Heavy ■ Distribution Bengaluru, BhopaJ, Jammu, Tiruchirapalli,
Electrical Ramchandrapuram (Hyderabad) and Haridwar.
Equipments

Photo Films ■ The Hindustan Photo Films Manufacturing Company at Udagamandalam

Industry (Tamil Nadu) is the only factory in the public sector, producing photo
paper and films.

Glass ■ Distribution Uttar Pradesh (Firozabad, Balijoi , Hathras, Naini,

Industry Secunderabad, Maharashtra (Mumbaj, Telogaon (Pune), Kolhapur, Tamil
Nadu (Salem, Chennai and Coimbatore) and Karnataka (Belgaum,
Bengaluru) .
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

ENERGY Renewable Energy Plants

Types of Plants States
• India is a fast growing coWJtry and
Energy
therefore the demand for energy is
also continuously grmving. India is Wind Energy Muppandal Tamil Nadu
Perungudi Tamil Nadu
e>-.-ploiting almos t all the somces of
energy such as bydroelecbici ty, Kayahar Tamil Nadu
thermal energy, nuclear energy, Satara Maharashtra
solar energy and wind energy etc. Jogmalti Kamataka
Lamba Gujarat
• Power development commenced in
Tuppadahalli Kamataka
India with the commissioning of
Jaisalmer Rajasthan
Sidrapong hydel power station in
Dar~jeel.ing during 1897, followed by Geothermal Manikaran Himaohal Pradesh
a hydropower station at Energy Puga Valley Jammu and
Kashmir
Sivasamudram in Karnatalca during
Ta ttapan i Chhattisgarh
1902 .
Combay Gujarat
• llimacbal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Graben
Nagaland, Sikkim and Uttarakhand Surajkund Jharkhand
ar·e lar·gely dependent upon
Tidal Energy Gui; of Gujarat
bydroelecbicity. Khambat
• National Hydrn Power Corporation Guli of Gujarat
(NHPC) was set-up in 1975, under Kachohh
public sector for the generation of Sundarban West Bengal
bydropower in India. Wave Energy Vizhinjam Kerala
• National Thermal Power Solar Energy Pavagarh Kamataka
Corporation (NTPC) was set-up in Kurnool Andhra Pradesh
1975, for generation of thermal Kamuthi Tamil Nad u
energy. NTPC has 18 coal based
Charanka Gujarat
super thermal pov11er projects and 7
gas/liqwd based combined cycle
projects .
The Major Atomic Power Stations
• Atomic Energy Institu te at 'Irombay Power Station Location
was set-up in 1954 which was Tarapu r Maharashtra
renamed as Bhabha Atomic Rawalbhata Rajasthan
Resear·ch Cenb·e (BARC) in 1967. Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu
• Heavy Water Plants are at Bar·oda, Narora Uttar Pradesh
Tuticorin, Kota, Thal, Hazira and
Kakrapara Gujarat
Manuguru . The first heavy water
plant was set-up in Nangal in 1962. Kaiga Kamataka
• The Renewable Energy Prog:rarnme Kudankulam Tamil Nadu
star·ted with the establishment of Chennai Tamil Nadu
the Depar·tment of
Non-Conventional Energy Sources Ultra Mega Power Plants (UMPP)
in 1982. Indian Renewable Energy
Development Agency was set-up in Plants States Capaoity Awarded
1987 . In 1992; DNES was (MW) to
converted into Minisb-y of Sasan Madhya Pradesh 3960 Reliance
Non-conventional Energy Sotll·ces. Mundra Gujarat 4000 Tata
In 2006, it was again renamed as Krishna- Andhra Pradesh 3960 Reliance
Minfab-y of New and Renewable patnam
Energy (MNRE). Ti laiya Jharkhand 3960 Reliance
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Major Thermal Plants

States Names of the Plant States Names of the Plant
Haryana Faridabad, Panipat Andhra Vijayawada, Ramagundam,
Punjab Bhatinda, Ropar, Mansa Pradesh Nellore, Visakhapatnam
Delhi Badarpur, lndraprastha Telangana Kothagudim , Ramagundam,
Manuguru
Rajasthan Kola, Bikaner, Barmer
Tamil Nadu Ennore, Tuticorin, Neyveli
Ut1ar Son bhadra, Raebareli,
Bihar Barauni, Kanti, Barh
Pradesh Prayagraj, Etah, Kanpur, Jhansi
Jharkhand Bokaro
Gujarat Ukai, Sikka, Ahmedabad,
Sabarmali, Mundra Odisha Angul, Dhenkanal Talcher,
Rourkela
Madhya Satpura, Amarkantak, Pench
Pradesh West Bengal Kolkata, Titagarh, Durgapur,
Bankura, Purulia
Chhat1isgarh Korba, Bhilai
Assam Kamrup, Bongaigaon
Maharashtra Nagpur, Nashik, Uran ,
Chandrapur, Trombay, Jammu and Pampore
Dabhol, Jalgaon Kashmir
Tripura Rokhia, Baramura

Transport
RAILWAYS Railway Zones
• India has the second largest raihivay Zone Headquarter
net'1vork in Asia and the 3rd largest in Central Railway Mumbai
the World after the USA, Russia and Eastern Railway Kolkata
China. The Indian railway operate in Northern Railway New Delhi
three different gauges North-Eastern Railway Gorakhpur
North-East Frontier Railway Guwahati
Gauge Routes (km)
Southern Railway Chennai
Broad Gauges (I. 676 m) 61680 South Central Railway Seoundrabad
Meter Gauges (1. 000 m) 3479 South-Eastern Railway Kolkata
Narrow Gauges (0. 761 2209 Western Railway Mumbai (Church Gate)
and 0.610 m) East Central Railway Hajipur
East Coast Railway Bhubaneshwar
• It js the largest public sector
North Central Railway Allahabad
undertaldng of the country and it
North-Western Railway Jaipur
js the world's second largest r ailway
net\vork under single management. South-East Central Railway Bilaspur
• The first Indian railway line in India South-West Railway Hubbali
was opened for public traffic in 1853 West Central Railway Jabalpur
bet\veen Bombay and Thane over a Metro Railway Kolkata
distance of 34 Jan. South-Coast Railway Visakhapatnam
• Tbe second train ran between • Indian r ailways has the second biggest
Howrah and Hooghly in 1854. electrified system in the world after Russia.
• The first electric train in India was • The total route covered is approximately
introduced on 3rd February, 1925 67368 km.
bet\veen Vic toria Terminus and • The third longest train route is of 'Himsagar
Kmla. Express· from Jammu to KanyakunJad. It
• The headquarters of Indian railv,,ay covers a distance of 3787 lrnJ and passes
js in New Delm. thrnugh 12 states.
• The fastest train in India js 'Irain 18 • The first meb.·o r ail was ino.- oduced in
(also known as Vande Bharat Calcutta on 24th October, 1984. The two
Express) , 1vhose maxinJum speed is stations connected were Dumdum and
180 km/hr. Belgachhfa.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
• Delhi Meb.·o 1s busiest metro in the world. • It is 8th longest in the world.
• The oldest steam engine 'Fairy Queen' • It was started to comm emora te the 150th
was built by the Blitish in 1855. birth anmversary of Swami
• Uttar Pradesh has largest railway Vivekananda.
nehvork in India. • It is a weekly train with a total dis tance of
• Mwnba_j CST is busiest railway junction 4286 km .
of India. • Previously Himsagar Express was the
• Railway track elecliification was longest express .
introduced in early 1920s. The fu-s t hvo
sections from Victolia Termin us to Km la Konkan Railways
and fro m Vic toria Terminus to Bandra • It run s from Man galore to Rob a ( 40 km
were electrified. About 19.9% of the rail South of Mumba_j).
lines have been elecb.ified . • The net\1vork involves 3 sta tes such as
• The newest Meb.·o station in India 1s Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka.
opened in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh on • It has a total length of 738 km.
December 2021. • Almost 10% of the line passes thrnugh
Indian Railways Recog nised tunnels .
by UNESCO Railway Manufactwing Units
Railways Speoialities • Chi ttaranjan Locomotive Works (CL\i\!),
Darjeeling Narrow gauge railway from Cbi ttal'anjan : EJecb.jc locom otives.
Himalayan Siliguri to Darjeeling in the • Diesel Locomotive Works (DL\i\!),
RaJ/ways (1999) State of West Bengal Varanasi Diesel and E.lecbjc
Chha/Japati It wa s oompleted in 1887, locomotives.
Shivaji Termin us marking 50 yea rs of Queen • Wheel Axle Plant (\iVAP), Bengaluru :
(2004) Vio toria's ru le. Wheel Ax.le plant
Ni/girl Mo untain It oonnects the town of • Diesel Com ponent Works (DC\i\!),
Railways (2005) Mettupalayam with the hill Patiala : Diesel components and paiis.
station of Udagamandalam
in the Nilgiri hill s. • Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Kapurthala,
Punjab : Rail coaches.
Kalka-Shim/a Narrow Gauge ra ilway in
RaJ/ways (2008) North-We st India travelling • Integral Coach Factm)' (ICF), Chenn a_j :
along a most mountainous Rail coaches.
route from Kalka to Shim la. • Bharat Earth Movers Ltd. Bengaluru :
* The year in Bracket repre sents the year in Rail coaches for Dellii Metro Rail
whic h UNESCO has added th e ra ilway line to Corporation .
the World Heritage Site list. • Dmgapm and YeJahanka : Wheel Ax.le
Committees Constituted plant.
for Rail Security • JanJshedpm Meb·e gauge s team
locomotives.
Committe es Years • BhiJa_j : Rail and Sleeper cars.
Shahnawaz Committee 1964 • PeranJbm : Rail coaches.
Kunzrou Committee 1962
Wahchoo Committee 1968
Diamond Quadril ateral Project
Sikri Com mittee 1978 The nev,, government at cenb·e has
promised to build the Diamond
Khanna Committee 1998
Quadrilateral Project which ,,vou.ld connect
Anil Ka kodkar Comm ittee 201 2
via high-speed r ail the cities of Chenn a_j,
Rakesh Mohan Committee 201 2
Mumba_j, Kolkata an d Delhi .
Mon tek Singh Ahluwalia Committee 2014
Bibek Debray Com mittee 2015 Bullet Train in India
Arvind Panagariya Committee 2016 Railway Minisb.1' in its v,,hi te paper 'V1sion
2020' env1sages the implemen tation of
Vivek Express regional high speed rail projects to provide
• It h as the longest rr·ain route in India services at 250-350 km/h . Six corridors
connecting Dibrngarh in Assam and have been identi£ed for techmcal studies
Kanyakum ari in Tamil Na.du . • Delbi-Chandigarb-Annitsar
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• PWJe-Mwnbai-Ahmedabad National Highways

e
• Hyderabad-Vijayawada-Chennai Highway States through whioh it passes
• Howrah-Halma Number
• Nagur-Mumbai NH1 Jammu and Kashmir
• Delhi-Ahmedabad NH2 Assam , Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram
• Varanasi-Howrah NH3 Punjab, Himaohal Pradesh, Jammu
• Chennai-Bengaluru-Th.iruvanan- NH4 Andaman and Nioobar
thapuranJ NH5 Punjab, Chandigarh, Haryana,
• Delhj-Agra-Luclmow-Va.ranasi-Patna Himaohal Pradesh
• The first high speed con:idor between NH6 Meghalaya, Assam , Mizoram
Ahmedabad and Mwn bai started NH7 Punjab, Chandigarh, Haryana,
construct.ion in 2017. Himaohal Pradesh, Uttarakhand
NHS Assam
Metro Rail NH9 Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh
Oily Start Length (km) NH10 Sikkim , West Bengal
Calcutta 1984 27.2 NH11 Rajasthan
NH12 West Bengal
Delhi 2002 348
NH19 Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
BengaJuru (Namma) 2011 42.3 Jharkhand , West Bengal
Gurgaon 2013 11.7 NH20 Bihar, Jharkhand
Jaipur 2015 11.9 NH21 Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh
Chennai 2015 45.1 NH24 Gujarat, Raja sthan , Madhya Pradesh,
Utiar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam
Hyderabad 2015 69
NH44 Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Kochi 2017 27.8 (Longest Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar
Luoknow 2017 23.7 NH in Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
India) Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra
Ahmedabad 2019 6.5 Pradesh , Karna laka, Tamil Nadu
Nagpur 2019 13.5 NH48 Delhi, Haryana, Raja sthan , Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Karnalaka, Tamil Nadu
Naida 2019 29.7
NH53 Gujarat, Maharashtra, Chhatiisgarh,
Kanpur 2021 32 Odisha
Some of the important information regBiding the
Mono Rail National Highways:
The Mwnbai Mono Rail which started • NH44 is the longest National Highway in India.
its services in 2014 is the £int • The National Highway 548 (5 lrm) is the
operational Mono Rail in India. Apart shortest NH in the country.
from Mumbai, Chennai and Bengalmu
a.re also h aving plans for mono rail • NH4 is located in Andaman and Nicobar
islands . It is known as AndanJan Trunk Road.
• NH27 is an East-West National Highway starting
ROADWAYS at Porbandar and Teoninating at Silchar.
In 1943, Nagpur Plan classified the • NH85 is a National Highway running
roads imtofozm· categories: East-West in South India. It connects Kochi
(i) National Highways with Tandi point.
(ii) State Highways
(ill) District Roads
National Highway Development
(iv) Village Roads Programme (NHDP)
• Indian road network is the second National Highway Development Progrmnme
largest in the world. consists offollowing projects:
• India h as a road network of over I. The Golden Quadrilateral conn ects:
8 million knJ . • Delhj to Kolkata 1453 km
• National hjghways are constructed • Delhj to Mwn bai 1419 lrm
and maintained by Central Public • MunJbai to Chennai 1290 ]rm
Works Department (CP\i\/D). • Chenn ai to Kolkata 1684 km
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
Total length 5846 km, out of whkh • improve efficiency of existing corridors by
maximum length js in Andhra Pradesh developing muJtimodal logistic parks.
(1016 Ian) followed by Uttar Pradesh • improving the quality ofroads.
(753 Jan) and Rajasthan (725 lan). • constTucting 9000 lrnJ of economic
2. North-South and Eas t-West Corridors con1dors.
(i) NS con1dor connec ts Srinagar to • Improve port connectivity and coastal roads.
Kanyakumad. • Improving international connectivity.
(ti) EW corridor connects Porbandar AJRWAYS
(Gujarat) to Silcbar (Assam).
3. To upgrade 12109 km of National • JRD Tata was the first person to take a solo
llighway with 4 lanes on flight from Mumbai to Karachi in 1931.
Built-Operate-Transfer (BOT) basis. • In 1935, the 'Tata Air Llnes' started its
4. Converting existing single lane operation between Mumbai and
highways to two lane highways. Thiruvananthapuram and in 1937
5. Converting a number of four lane be tween Mumbai and Delhj_
highways to six lanes. • In 1953, all the plivate airline comparues
were nationalised and Indian Airlines and
6. Consb.·ucting 1000 km expressways Air India canJe into eXJstence.
that , 1vould connect major commercial
• Vayudoot Ll_mjted started in 198 1 as a
and industrial towns .
pdvate air carder and later on it merged
7. Improving city road network by addmg ·with Indian Airlines.
1ing roads to enable easier
• In ternational Airports Authority of lnclia
connectivity with National llighways. an d N a ti' on al Air·por t·s Au th on·ty were
With the launch of Bharatmala Project, merged on 1995 to form Airports Authority
NHDP will close by first half of 2018. of lnclia. The Authority manages the Chri.l
10,000 Ian of con s ttuction remaining Avfation Training College at Allahabad and
under NHDP will be merged with the National Institute of Aviation Management
Bharatmala Project. The Bharatmala and Research at Delhi.
Project was launched in 2015 by • On January 2022, GovernnJent of lnclia
Government of India to handed over Air Inclia (AI) to the Tata Group.
International Airports in India
International Airport City
1. Rajiv Gandhi lnternalional Airport Hyderabad (Telangana)
2. Caliout lnternalional Airport Kochil<ode (Kerala)
3. Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport Mumbai (Maharashtra)
4. Kempegowda Airport Bengaluru (Karnataka)
5. Goa (Dabolim) Airport in Dabolim City Goa
6. Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport Ko lle.ala (West Bengal)
7. Thiruvananthapuram International Airport Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala)
8. Lol<priya Goplnath Bordoloi International Airport Guwahali (Assam)
9. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport Ahmadabad (Gujarat)
10. Indira Gandhi International Airport Delhi
11. Chennai Internati onal Airport Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
12. Shri Guru Ram Das Jee International Airport Amritsar (Punjab)
13. Coohin Interna tional Airport Kochi (Kera la)
14. Coimbatore lnternaUonal Airport Coimbato re (Ta mil Nadu)
15. Lal Bahadur Shastri Airport Varanasi (Ullar Pradesh)
16. Chaudhary Charan Singh Airport Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh)
17. Ambedkar Airport Nagpur (Maharashtra)
18. Tlruchirapalli Airport nruohirapalli (Tamil Nadu)
19. Jalpur Airport Jaipur (Ra jast han)
20. Veer Savarl<ar International Airport Port Blair (Andaman and Nlcobar Islands)
21 . Srinagar lnternalional Airport Srinagar (Jam mu and Kashmir)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Waterways
Major Waterways of India
Numbers Stretches of the Water Way Specifications
NW1 Allahabad-Haldia (1620 km) Along Ganga River
NW2 Sadiya- Dhub ri (891 km) Along Brahmaputra River
NW3 Kottapuram-Kollam (206 km) Along Champakara and Udyogamandal
Canal.
NW4 Bhadraohalam to Rajahmundry and Along Godavari and Krishna River
Wazirabad to Vijaywada (1096 km)
NW5 Mangalgarhi to Paradeep and Along Mahanadi and Brahmini River System
Talcher to Dhamara (623 km)
NW6 Lakhipur to Bhanga (121 km) Along Barak River

Under National Waterway Act, 20 16, the Central Government has designated new 106
Inlan d , 111aterways. As of January 2023, there are 11 1 Nation al Waterways in lnclia.

Ports in India
• The Inland Waterways Au thmity in Inclia clivides Inclian ports into thrne categmies,
major, minor and in termecliate ports.
• Inclia has about 205 ports, with 13 major and the rest intermecliate and minor ports.
Eastern Coast Ports
Ports of Eastern Coast Important Fact
Kolkata (renamed as Shyama Oldest port, India's riverine port having two dock system _
Prasad Mukherjee Port
Paradip It handles iron-ore and some amounts of ooal and dry cargo.
Chennai All weather port having deep drafted berth, oil jetties, iron- ore
terminals etc.
Visakhapatnam Deepest port of India and deals with export of Iron ore to Japan.
Tuticorin Artificial deep sea harbour, all weather port otter direct weekly
container service to USA. Also known as VO Chidambranar port.
Ennore First oorporalised major port in India Mainly handles ooal imports.

Western Coast Ports

Ports of Western Coast Important Fact
Mumbai It handles maximum cargo_ It is a natural harbour, it handles mostly
petroleum and dry cargo.
Kandla (renamed as Tidal port and is the largest port of India in terms of Cargo handled.
Deendayal Port)
Marmagao It handles iron ore. It has a naval birth.
New Mangalore It is an all weather port. It is the deepest inner harbour on West coast.
Coohin Major natural port in Willingdon Island, Kerala_
Jawaharlal Nehru It is an all weather Tidal porl It is called as Nhava Sheva Port.

• Largest container port of lnclia is Jawahar]al Nehru (Nhava Sheva) port in Mumbai.
The largest natural port is in VisakhapalTianJ.
• Kandla in Gujarat is a tidal port. It has been converted into a free trade zone.
• The Government is consb.-ucting a greenfield major port at Vadh avan in Maharashtrn.
• Mumbai port is the busiest port of lnclia.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Miscellaneous
Important Lakes of India
Name of Lake State Important Fact
Chilika Lake Odisha It is a saline and lagoon lake. It is the large st ooastal
lagoon in India.
Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh It is a freshwater lake.
Loktak Lake Manipur It is a freshwater lake having floating vegelalion.
Lonar Lake Maharashtra It is a meteorite crater lake in Buldhana area of
Maharashtra_ The water is highly charged wi1h
Sodium carbonates and Sodium ohloride.
Pangong Lake Jammu and Kashmir It is a saline lake.
Pulicat Lake Ta mil Nadu and It is a saline and lagoon lake.
Andhra Pradesh border
Sambhar Lake Rajasthan It is a shallow lake, which is saline, localed near Jaipur.
Tsomarari Lake Jammu and Kashmir It is a saline lake.
Vembanad Lake Kerala It is a lagoon lake.
Wular and Dal Jammu and Kashmir Wular lake was oreated due to tectonic activitjes. Dal
Lakes lake is known as Sri nagar's Jewel.

Major Tribes of India

Tribal Found in Tribal Groups Found in
Groups
Abors Areas surrounding Assam Valley Kol Madhya Pradesh and
Uliar Pradesh
Angami Nagaland Kolam Telangana,
Chhattisgarh , Madhya
Pradesh
Badagas Tamil Nadu Kuki Manipur
Baigas Madhya Pradesh Lahaulas Himachal Pradesh
Bakarwals Jammu and Kash mir Lepohas Sikkim
Bhils Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan Lushai Tri12ura
Bhotias Uttarakhand Muria Chhattisgarh
Bharia Madhya Pradesh Meenas Rajas than
Birhors Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand Moplahs Kerala
Chang Nagaland Mundas Jharkhand
Chenohus Andhra Pradesh , Telangana and Odisha Mishimi North-East
Gaddis Himaohal Pradesh Nagas Nagaland
Galaong Nagaland Oraons Jharkhand and Odisha
Garos Assam and Meghalaya Onges Andaman and Nicobar
Gonds Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra Singpho North-East
Gujjars Jammu and Kashmir and Himaohal Santhals West Bengal, Odisha
Pradesh Jharkhand and Bihar
lrula Tamil Nadu Sangtam Nagaland
Jaintias Meghalaya Serna Nagaland
Jarawa Little Andaman Senti nelese Andaman and Nicobar
Kanikaran Tamil Nadu Shompens Andaman and Nicobar
Katkari Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh Todas Tamil Nadu
Kharia Jharkhand, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh Uralis Kerala
Khond Andhra Pradesh , Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Wancho North-East
Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal and
Madhya Pradesh
Kh as Himaohal Pradesh , Uttarakhand Warlis Maharashtra
Khasis Assam and Meghalaya
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Nicknames of Important Indian Places

Niokname Plaoe Hollywood of India Mumbai
Abode of ihe God Prayag (Allahabad) Manchester of India Ahmedabad
Blue Mountains Nilgiri Manchester of the North Kanpur
India
Boston of India Ahmedabad
Manchester of the South Coimbatore
City of Buildings Kolka ta India
City of Castles Kolkata Old Ganga Godavari
City of Festivals Madurai Pink City Jaipur
City of Lakes Srinagar Pittsburg of India Jamshedpur
City of Nawabs Lucknow Queen of Arabian Sea Kochi
City of Rallies New Delhi Queen of the Mountains Mu ssoorie
City of Seven Islands Mumbai (Uttarakhand)
City of Temples Varanasi Sacred River Ganga
City of Weavers Panipat Silicon Valley of India Bengaluru
Deccan Queen Pune Soya Region Madhya
Pradesh
Egg Bowl of Asia Andhra Pradesh
Space City Bengaluru
Electronic City of India Bengaluru
State of Five Rivers Punjab
Garden City of India Bengaluru
Steel City of India Jamshedpur
Garden of Spices of Kerala (called
India Tatanagar)
Gateway of India Mumbai Swi1zerland of India Kashmir
Golden City Amritsar Venioe of the East Allepy
Heaven of India Jammu and Kashmir

Famous Hill Stations

Hill Stations Height from Sea Level (m) States
Coonoor 1860 Tamil Nadu
Dalhousie 1970 Himachal Pradesh
Darjeeling 2042 West Bengal
Gangtok 1650 Sikkim
Gulmarg 2730 Jammu and Kashmir
Ka limpong 1250 West Bengal
Ka sauli 1896 Himachal Pradesh
Khandala 550 Maharash tra
Kodaikanal 2120 Tamil Nadu
Kullu 1278 Himachal Pradesh
Lansdowne 1780 Uttarakhand
Lonawala 620 Maharashtra
Mahabaleshwar 1353 Maharash tra
Manali 2050 Himachal Pradesh
Mandi 760 Himachal Pradesh
Munnar 1460 Kerala
Mount Abu 1220 Rajas than
Mukteshwar 2171 Uttarakhand
Mussoorie 1880 Uttarakhand
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Hill Stations Height from Sea Level (m) States

Nainital 2048 Uttarakhand
Ooty (Udagamandalam) 2240 Tamil Nadu
Pahalgam 2740 Jammu and Kashmir
Panohgani 1200 Maharashtra
Paohmarhi 1066 Madhya Pradesh
Periyar 915 Kerala
Ranikhet 1830 Uttarakhand
Shimla 2276 Himachal Pradesh

Indian Town Associated with Industries

Town State Industries
Ahmedabad Gujarat Cotton Textiles
Agra Utiar Pradesh Leather, Marble, Carpets
Aligarh Utiar Pradesh Looks, Cu11ery, Dairy
Ankleshwar Gujarat Oil Refining
Ambernath Maharashtra Machine Tools
Amritsar Punjab Woollen Textiles
Anand Gujarat Dairy Products
Aluva Kerala Fertilizer, Monazite Factory
Ambala Haryana Scientific Instruments
Bokaro Jharkhand Steel Plant
Bengaluru Kamataka Telephones , Airorafts, Machine Tools, Cotton
Textiles, Electronic and fT
Batanagar West Bengal Shoes
Bareilly Utiar Pradesh Resi n Industries, Matoh Factory
Bhilai Chhattisgarh Steel Plant
Barauni Bihar Chemical Fertilizer, Pe troleum Industry
Burnpur West Bengal Steel Plant
Bhurkunda Jharkhand Glass Industries
Bhagalpur Bihar Silk Industries
Bhandara Maharashtra Electronics, Silk
Bongaigaon Assam Petroleum
Bhadoi Utiar Pradesh Iron and Steel
Churk Utiar Pradesh Cement
Cyberabad Telangana Electronics, Computers, Information Technology
Chilaranjan West Bengal Locomotive
Cochin Kerala Ship Building , Coconu1 Oil, Rubber
Calicut Kerala Cofiee, Coconut
Coimbatore Tamil Nadu Colian Industries
Dhariwal Punjab Woollen Clothes
Du rgapur West Bengal Steel
Digboi Assam Petroleum Refinery
Delhi Delhi Textiles, Electronic, DDT
Dalmianagar Bihar Cement
Darjeeling West Bengal Tea
Dindigul Tamil Nadu Cigar, Tobacco
Firozabad Utiar Pradesh Bangle works
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
e
Town State Industries
Guntur Andhra Pradesh Cotton Industri es
Gwalior Madhya Pradesh Pottery, Tobaooo
Gomia Jharkhand Steel Plant
Haridwar Uttarakhand Heavy Electrioials
Hatia Jharkhand Heavy Engineering
Haldia West Bengal Chemical Fertilizer
Hazlra Gujarat Artilioial Rayon
Jamshedpur Jharkhand Iron and Steel, Looomotives, Railway Coaohes
Jalandhar Punjab Surgical Goods and Sports Articles
Jaipur Rajasthan Cloth , Prin ting, Brassware
Jharia Jharkhand Coal Mines
Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh Tobacco, IT, Garments
Zainakot Jammu and Kashmir HMT Watah
Hussainabad Jharkhand Cement
Kanpur Uttar Pradesh Cotton and Woollen Mills, Leather, Sugar
Katni Madhya Pradesh Cement
Korba Chhattisgarh Aluminium Factory, Thermal Plant
Koyna Maharashtra Aluminium Factory
Koyali Gujarat Petro-Chemical Industries
Kolar Kamataka Gold Mining Center
Kolkata West Bengal Jute, Leather, Electric goods
Kola Rajasthan Atomic Power Plant
Ka nohipuram Tamil Nadu Silk Clothes
Karnal Haryana Dairy Product
Kandla Gujarat Chemical Fertilizers, Fam ous Port
Khetri Rajasthan Copper Industries
Ludhiana Punjab Hosiery
Lucknow Uttar Pradesh Embroidery Work, Chicken Work
Chennai Tamil Nadu Leather, Cigarette, Integral Coach Factory
Madurai Tamil Nadu Automobile, Rubber, Chemical, Granite
Mirzapur Uttar Pradesh Carp et, Pottery, Brass Industries
Muradabad Uttar Pradesh Brassware, Cutlery
Mathura Uttar Pradesh Oil Refinery
Mysore Kamataka Sandalwood Oil , Silk Goods
Meerut Uttar Pradesh Publication Work, Sports Goods, Scissors Making
Mumbai Maharashtra Cinema Industries, Cotton TeKtiles
Modin agar Uttar Pradesh Nylon, Rayon, Silk
Moorie Jharkhand Aluminium
Majhagaon Maharashtra Ship Building
Nagpur Maharashtra Cotton Mills, Oranges
Nepanagar Madhya Pradesh Newsprint
Nashik Maharashtra Security Printing Press
Neyveli Tamil Nadu Lignite Industries
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

India
Adjacent Countries

Myanmar

ARABIAN
SEA

- - lnlomotional BaundllJ)I
- - - Stoic Boundmy

:o
And11m11n & Nicobar IBlonds
(lnlfla) ~J
\I

Q'O
l\laldTues •
ac::.
;o
0 400 800 km
0

States/UTs of India
Andhra Pradesh
Capital Visakhapatnam (Executive) • Visakhapatnam is the major port in
Amaravati (Legislative) the state.
Kurnool (Judidal) • Andhra Pradesh is Inclia's seventh
Data of Formation 1st November, 1956 largest state by area and 10th largest by
(Reorganised in June 2014 by creating popuJation.
Telangana as a separate state) • It is the first state formed on linguistic
State Symbols basis in lnclia .
Animal Blackbuck • It is called the Rice Bowl of India and
Bird Rose Ringed Parakeet egg bowl of Asia.
Tree Neem • Andhra Pradesh has the second-
Neighbouring States longest coastline of 972 km among all
the states of India.
Maharashb.'a, Odisha, Karnataka, Telangana,
TamjJ Nadu.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
e
Arunachal Pradesh Bihar
Capital Itanagar Capital Patna
Date of Formation 20th February, 1987 Date of Fbrmation 26th Januai~ 1950
State Symbols State Symbols
Animal Mithun Animal Gam
Bird Great Hornbill Bird SpaJ.TO\'I'
Tree Hollong Tree Peepal
Flower Lady Slipper Orchid Flower Kachnar
Neigbbom·ing States Neigbbom·iJJg States
Assam, Nagaland. Jharkhand , Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal
Neigbbom·ing Counti-ies
Neigbbom·iJJg Counti-y Nepal
Bhutan, Myanmar, China
• After the separation of Jharkhand from
• It js the Easternmost State of India. Bihar, Bihar h as become a mineral Jess
• Rajiv Gandhi Urnversity js the oldest state, as the mineral-rich belt h as gone to
university ill the state of Anmachal Jharkhand .
Pradesh.
• Bihar js the 12th largest state in terms of
• Agrkulture js the main occupation of the geographical size and 3rd largest by
People of Arunach al Pradesh and Jh um population.
(sbifting cultivation) js practised.
• According to Census 2011, Biha1.· has
• Arunachal Pradesh is also lmo\lvn as land lowest li teracy rate (63.82%).
of the rising Sun ill reference to its • Gautam Buddha attained
position as the Easternmost State of Enligh tenmen t at Bodh Gaya, a town
India. located in the modern day district of
Gaya in Biha1.·.
Assam • Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th and the
Capital rnspm last Tirthanka1.·a of J airrism, was born in
Date of Formation 26th J anua1.·y, 1950 Vaishali in Bihar around 6th century BC.
State Symbols
Animal Inman one-horned Cbhattisgarh
Rmno Capital Raipur
Bird White-wing Wood Data of Formation 1st November, 1956
Duck State Symbols
Tree Hollong Animal Wild Buffalo
Flowe r Fox-tail Orchid Bird Hill Myna
Neighbouring States Tree Sal
Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Neighbouring States
Nagaland, Manipur, llipura, Mizoran1, Madhya Pradesh, Ornsha, Telangana
West Bengal. Andh.ra Pradesh, Maha1.·ashtra, Uttar
Neigbbom·ing Countries Bhutan and Pradesh and Jha1.·khand.
Bangladesh. • 9th state in terms of aJ.'ea and 17th ill
• Assam contributes 52% of the total tea terms of population.
production of the country. • More than 80% of the population
• Assam js surrounded by six of the other depends on agricul tme. But, it is equally
seven sister states : Arunachal Pradesh, Iich in mineral deposits .
Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoran1, Tripma • It js an in1portant electrical power and
and Meghalaya. These states are steel producing state of India.
connected to the rest of India via a • Chbattisgarh is lmown for Kosa Silk and
na1.-row sbip in West Bengal called the Lost Wax Art.
Siligw·i Corridor or CWcken's Neck.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Goa Haryana
Capital Panaji Capital Chandigarh
Date of Formation 30th May, 1987 Date of Formation 1st November, 1966
State Symbols State Symbols
Ani111al Gam Animal Black Buck Antelope
Bird Black crested Bird Black Francolin
Tree PeepaJ
Bu]buJ
Flower Lotus
Tree Matti
Neigbbmuing States
Neigbbom·ing States Punjab, Himacb al Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar
Karnataka, Maharashtra Pradesh, Delhi, Rajasthan , Chandigarh.
• Goa js one of the favolliite • Panipat js called the Weaver' City for its
destination of tourists, \'lrith its handJoom produc ts . Haryana is a landJocked
famous beaches. Marmagao is the State in Northern India.
major port. • Haryana is self-sufficient in food production
• It is the India's smallest state by an d the second largest contJjbutor to lndia's
area and the fow-th smallest by central pool of foodgrains.
population. • Yamuna Nagar distiict is the largest industrial
• It also h as rich flora and fauna town wholly within Haryana. It has one of Asia's
owing to its location on the Jai·gest paper mill belt and one of Asia's largest
Western Ghats range, which is sugai· mill.
classified as a biodiversity hotspot. • Yamuna Nagai· h as a large timber industl-y, an
HFGC L thermal power plant, a hydro power
Gujarat plant and India's lai·gest railway worksh op.
Capital Gandhinagar Himachal Pradesh
Date of Formation 1st May, 1960 Capital Shirnla (swnmer),
State Symbols DharmsaJa (winter)
Animal Asiatic Llon Date of Formation 25th January, 1971
Bird Great Flan:iingo State Symbols
State Tree Banyan Animal Musk Deer
State Flower Madgold Bird MonaJ
Neighbouring States Tree Deodar
Flower Rhododendron
Rajasthan, Maharashti-a, Madhya
Pradesh, Daman an d Diu, Dacka Neigbbom·ing States
and Nagar Haveli Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana,
• Gujarat js the main producer of U ttarakhand and Lada.kb.
groundnut and cotton. Neighbotuing Country China
• KandJa port, on the coast of Gu]£ • Population is divided into five major groups, the
of Kachchh lies in Gujarat. Gaddis, Kinners, Gujjars, Pangvvals and Lahaulis.
• It has longest coastline of • llinJachal Pradesh is known to be abundant in
natw_·a] beauty.
1600 km.
• The economy of the HinJachal Pradesh is
• It is among one of the mos t
mainly dependent on services and IndustJ-y.
industJjalised states of India an d
• Apples are the important .En.tits produced.
h as per capita GDP above the
national average . • Excellent opportw:iities are available for
h orticultme and cash crnps.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Jharkhand Kerala
Capital Ranchi Capital Thirnvanan thapuram
Date of Formation 15th November, Date of Formation 1st November, 1956
2000 State Symbols
State Symbols Animal Elephant
Animal Elephant Bird Great Hornbill
Bird Koel
Tree Coconut
Tree Sal
Flower Palasb Flower Kanikonna

Neighbom·ing States Neighbouring States

Bihai~ Uttar Pradesh, Ch.hattisgarh, TamiJ Nadu, Kai·nataka and Lakshadweep
Oclisha and West Bengal. • Kerala h as highest literacy rate (93.9%)
• ]hark.hand is also known as the and highest sex ratio (l 084) in lnclia.
storehouse of minerals. Trus js because it • Kerala has the highes t Human
accounts for 29% of country's coal Development lndex in India, higher than
reserves, 26% of the iron ore, 18.5% of that of most developed countries.
its copper reserves. It also has Ill.lea and • Kerala is very rJch in cash crops
h uge deposHs of bauxjte, quai·tz and especially spices.
ceramics. • KozbiJrnde, Cochin are the important
• The nan1e ']hark.hand' means The Land ports.
of Forests.
• ]hark.hand has a concentration of some Madhya Pradesh
of the country's rughly industrialised Capital Bhopal
cities suc.h as Jamshedpur, Ranchi, Date of Formation 26th Januai-y, 1950
Bokaro Steel City and Dhanbad.
State Symbols
Karnataka Anim al Bai·asingha
Bird Paraclise Fly Catcher
Capital Bengal um
Tree Banyan
Date of Formation 1st November, 1956
Flower \i\fbjte Lily
State Symbols
Animal Elephant Neighbouring States
Bird Indian Roller Mahai·asbtrn, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttai·
Tree Sandal wood Pradesh and Cbhattisgarh.
• Madhya Pradesh , often called the heait
Flower Lotus
of India~ is a state in Central India.
Neighbom·ing States Kerala, Goa, • It is the second largest state by ai·ea and
Maharasbtrn, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh fifth ]ai·gest state by population. It is
and Tamil Nadu primaiily an agricultural state.
• Bengaluru is the most famous IT • Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve in
destination. Satpura range and Amar.kantak
• Kai·nataka js famous for its sandal soap Biosphere Reserves are two of the 18
and sandal ,,vood oil. biosphere reserves in India.
• It stands :fiTst in the production of
electrornc eqwpments and raw silk. Maharashtra
• New Mangalore js the major port. Capital Mumbai, Nagpur (winter)
• Many of India's prenner science and Date of Formation 1st May, 1960
te chnology research cenb.·es, such as State Symbols
ISRO, Central Power Research Institute, Animal Gjant Squirrel
BEL and the Cenb.·al Food Technological Bird Green Impedal Pigeon
Research Institute are headquaitered in Tree Mango
Karnataka. Flower Jarul
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Neighbom·ing States • The State of Meghalaya is also knmvn as

Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, the Meghalaya plateau. It mainly consist
Karnataka, Goa, Dadra and Na.gar Haveli of Archean rock formations. These rock
and Chbatdsgarb. formations con ta.in rich deposits of
• It is the second most populous after valuable minerals Wze coal, limestone,
Uttar Pradesh and t.Wrd largest state by urarnum and sillimanj te.
area. • More than 70% of the area js under forest.
• It is the industlial powerhouse of lndia. • The wettest place in the world,
• The ,,vorld famous film industry Mawsymam (in Cherrapunji disb.·ict) is in
Bollywood is in Maharashtra, located in Meghalaya.
the economic capital of India, Mumbai.
• Mumbai and Jawaharl al Nehru port are Mizoram
the major ports. Capital Aizwal
Date of Formation 20th February, 1987
Manipur State Symbols
Capital lmphal Animal Hillock Gibbon
Date of Formation 2 1st January, 1972 Bird Mrs Hume's Pheasant
State Symbols Tree Iron wood
Animal Sangai Flower Red Vanada
Bird Nongin Neighbmu-ing States
Tree Uningthou Tripura, Assam and Marnpur
Flower Shin.Li Lilly Neighbmu-ing Counfry Myanmar
Neighbouring States • It is one of the seven sister states in
Mizoram, Assam and Nagaland North-Eastern lnrua.
Neighbom·ing Country Myanmar • AgricuJtme js the major occupation.
• It js known for its Iicb biodiversity • Jhum or shifting cul tivation js still
h aving a number of rare plants, trees prevalent.
and wildlife. • The biggest river in Mizoram is
• Agriculture is the major source of Chhimtu:ipi, also )mown as Kaladan.
livelihood for the people. • Phawngpui tJang also known as the Blue
• The re are fozm· tzJpe of forests inz Mountain, situated in the South-Eastern
Manipwr: part of the state, is the mghest peak in
1. Tropical Semi-Evergreen Mizoram at 2157 m.
2. Dry Temperate Forest
3. Sub- Tropical Pine
Nagaland
Capital KobinJa
4. Tropical Moist Deciduous
Date of Formation 1st December, 1963
Meghalaya State Symbols
Capital Shillong Animal Mithun
Date of Formation 2 1st January, 1972 Bird Blyth's 'Iragopan
State Symbols Tree Alder
Animal Clouded Leopard Flower Rhododendron
Bird Hill Myna Neighbmu-ing States Marnpur, Arunachal
Tree Gamhar Pradesh and Assam.
Flowe r Lady Slipper Orchid
Neighbmu-ing Country Myanmar
Neighbouring State Assam • Agiiculture is the most important
Neighbmu-log Country Bangladesh economic activity in Nagaland, with more
• Meghalaya js one of the seven sister than 90% of the population employed in
states of India. agiiculture.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
e
• Nagaland js rich in flora and fauna. Rajasthan
About one-sixth of Nagaland is under the
cover of b:opical and sub-trnpical Capital J aipur
evergreen forests-in cluding palms, Date of Nmnation 30th March, 1949
banJboo and rattan as well as tinJber and State Symbols
mahagony forest. Animal Chinkara
Bird Godawan
Odisha Tree Kh~jari
Capital Bhubaneshwar Flower Robida
Date of Formation 1st April, 1936
Neighbom·ing States Gujarat, Madhya
State Symbols
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi , Haryana
Animal Elephant and Punjab.
Bird Indian Roller
Tree Sandahivood NeighbotuiJJg CoUJJtry Paldstan
Flower Lotus • It js the largest state of India in terms of
Neighbom·ing States area. Western Rajasthan is a desert
region (Thar) .
Andhra Pradesh, Cbhattisgarh, Jharkhan d
and West Bengal • Zinc, silver, lead, salt are found in
abundance.
• World's longest mainstream liver dam,
Hiralcud (on Mahanad.i) is in Odisha.
• Paradip js the major port in Odisha.
Sikkim
Capital Gangtok
• AgrkuJture based economy and rice is
the main crop. The Chilika )alee is a Date Formation 16th May, 1975
bracldsh water lagoon located in the State Symbols
Southern part of the Odisba coastal Animal Red Panda
plains. Bird Blood Pheasant
Tree Rhododendrnn
Punjab Flower Noble Dendrnbium
Capital Chandigarh
Neighbotu-i_ng State West Bengal
Date of Formation 1st November, 1966
State Symbols Neighbom·ing Countries China, Nepal
Animal Blackbuck an d Bhutan
Bird Baaz • It is the least populous state in India and
the second smallest in area after Goa .
Tree Sheesbam
Flower Lilium • It js a landlocked Indian state located in
the Himalayan mountains.
Neighbom·ing States JanJilJu an d • SikkinJ is the only state in India with an
Kashmir, llimachal Pradesh , Haryana and ethnic Nepali majority.
Rajasthan
Neighbom·ing Country Pakistan TamilNadu
• Agriculture is the largest occupation in Capital Chennai
Punjab; it is the largest single provider of Date of Formations 1st November, 1956
Wheat to India. State Symbols
• Per hectare yield is maximum in Punjab. Animals Nilgiri Tahr
• Bhala·a danJ (on Sutlej) is in Punjab. Bird Eme1·ald Dove
• Punjab is the only state in India with a Tree Palm
majority Sikh population. Flower Shen Kandhal
• Various small-scale industries ~ue
operational in Punjab such as bicycle NeighbmuiJJg States
parts, sewing machine, h and tools and Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and
machine tools e tc. Puduchen1'
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Neighbom·i.ng Cou.ntry Sri Lan ka • It js an ag:r.icuJture based state.

• TamjJ Nadu js home to many natural • Tripura is a landlocked state ill
resomces, Hindu temples of Dravidian North-Eastern India.
arch:itectme, hill stations, beach
resorts, multi-rehgious pilgrim sites Uttarakhand
and UNESCO world helitage sites. Its Capital Gainain (Summer)
economy depends largely on DehradWJ (Willter)
ag:ricultme. Date of Formation 9th November, 2000
• ChellJai, Tuticorin and Ennore are the State Symbols
major ports in the State of Tamil Nadu. Animals Musk Deer,
• Major industries in Tamil Nadu are Bird Himalayan Monal
cotton te).1:iles, chemical fertilizers,
Tree Buran
paper and its products, diesel engine,
iron and steel, railway wagons and Flower Brahma KanJal
coaches etc. Neighbouri.ng States U ttar Pradesh and
HinJachal Pradesh
Telangana Neighbouri.ng Cou.ntries Ch:ina and Nepal
Capital Hyderabad • It has tremendous potential for hydel
Dale of r'01mation 2nd June, 2014 power. The biggest project is the Teh1i
State Symbols DanJ Project on Bhagirath:i river.
Animal Spotted Deer • Uttarakhand is home to several important
Bird Indian Roller educational llJstitutions, including the
Tree Jammi Chettu oldest engineeling colleges in Asia, the
Flower Tbangedu Indian Institu te of Technology at Roorkee
Neighbouring States Maharashb.-a, and Govind BalJabh Pant University of
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka and AgricuJtme and Technology in Pantnagar.
Andhra Pradesh. • Rishikesh is widely considered as the yoga
• Two major Pelllllswar rivers; the capital of the world.
Godavari and the Krishna drains the
states. About two-third catchment area Uttar Pradesh
of both rivers lies in Telangana. Capital Lucknow
• Important hub of art and cuJture as Date of Fbrmation 24th Januai-y, 1950
many his torlcal places, forts, temples State Symbols
are situated. Animal Barasingha
• Most of the population is involved ill Bird Sarus Crane
ag:r.iculture as fertile land for Tree Ashok
ag:ricultme is available. Flower Palash
Tripura Neighbouri.ng States Uttarakhand,
Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi,
Capital Agartala
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Dale of Fbtmation 21st Januai~ 1972 Jharkhand and Bihar.
State Symbols Neighbouri.ng Cou.ntry Nepal
Animal Phayre's Leaf Monkey • Uttar Pradesh is the India's most populous
Bird Green lmpe1ial Pigeon state as well as the World's most populous
Tree Aganvood sub-national entity (only 5 nations have
Flower Indian Rose Chestnut more population than Uttar Pradesh).
Neighbouri.ng States AssanJ and About 78% of the population depends on
Mizoram agriculture.
Neighbom·i.ng Cou.nh-y Bangladesh • Uttar Pradesh js the largest producer of
foodgrains, sugarcane.
• It is the third smallest state of India
(area-wise). • Small Scale Cottage Industries are spread
through-out in Uttar Pradesh.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• Kanpur is the largest economic hub of State Symbols

Uttar Pradesh. Kanpur is also the A-r1;imal Dugong or Sea cow
economic capital of Uttar Pradesh. Bz'?·d Andaman wood Pigeon
west Bengal Tree Andaman Padauk
Capital Kolka ta • TouJ"ism and agricuJtme ai--e the mainstay
Date of Formation 26th Januaiy~ 1950 of economy.
• Andaman is a group of 325 islands, whj]e
State Symbols
Nicobar is a group of 22 islands. Out of
Animal Fishmg Cat these, only 37 islands in Andamans and
Bird Wmte-thrna ted King Fisher 12 islands in Nicobars ai·e inhabited.
Tree Chatim • Mangrove forests are found in abundance
Flower Night flowedng Jasmine in these :islands.
Neigbbom·ing States Odisha, ]hark.hand, • Inrua's Southern most point, Indira Point,
Bihai~ Sikkim and Assam is located, in Nicobai· Islands.
Neigbbom·ing Counti-ies Nepal, Bhutan Chandigarh
and Bangladesh .
Capital Chandigarh
• KoUcata, Haldia are the major ports in
West Bengal_. Agdcul tme is the Date of Formation 1st November, 1966
mainstay of economy. It :is the lai·gest State Symbols
producer of rice in the country. Animal Indian Grey
• Wes t Bengal is noted for its cul tural Mongoose
activities, with the state capital Kolkata Bird Inman Grey Hornbill
earning the Sobriquet cultural capital Flower Dhak
of lnrua. Tree Mango
Delhi Neigbborn·ing States Punjab and Haryana
Animal Nilgai • Chanrugarh is one of the most beautiful
Bi1·d House sparrow and ,,veil-planned places in Inrua. It was
designed by a French Architect, Le
Capital New Delhi
Corbusier. Chanrugarh serves as a joint
Date of Formation 1st February, 1992 capital of Hai}'ana and Punjab.
Neighbouring States Hai-yana and Uttar
Pradesh Dad.Ta and Nagar Haveli and
• Delhi is the largest melTopolis by ai--ea Daman and Diu
and the second largest metropolis by Capital DanJan
population in India .
Area 603 sq lrnJ
• It is the fifth largest metropolis in the
,,vorld by population . Neigbborn·iJJg States Gujarat,
Mahai·ashtra
• Delhi is the lai·gest commercial centre
• Until 2019, both Dadra and Nagar Havell
of Northern Inrua an d is the lai·gest
and DanJan and Diu were governed as
cenlTe of small industries.
different Union Territories. The
• Delhi has greater number of vebjcles Parliament passed the Dadar and Nagai·
than the total vemcles of Haveli an d DanJan and Diu (Merger of
Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai put Unfon Terdtolies) Bill 2019 in December,
together. 2019.
• The Merger Act came in to effect on 26th
Andaman and January, 2020. These two UTs have now
Nicobar Islands been merged with Daman as the capital_.
Capital Port Blair • Tomism and agricultw_·e besides small
Date of Fbtmation 1st November, 1966 scale manufac tw:ing is the mains tay of
economy.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• In 2018, Diu Sm art City became 1st in J ammu and Kashn,ir

India to run on 100% renewable energy.
Jamm u (winter),
Capital
Lakshadweep Srinagar (sunmrnr)
Date of Formation On 31st October, 2019
Capital Kavaratti
It was organised into an Urrion Tenitory by
Date of Formation 1st November, 1956
the Jammu and Kashrnir Reorgarrisation
State Symbols Ac~ 2019.
Animal Bu tterfly Fish Neighbouri.ng States Himachal Pradesh,
Bird Noddy Tern Punjab, Lada.kb
Tree Bread Fruit Neighbouring Cou.nti-ies Pakistan
Neigbbom·i.ng States Kerala~ Karnataka • People are engaged in handicrafts Wze
• It is the smallest Urrion Territory of carpet making, shawl ma.Icing, wood
India. carving etc.
• It is a group of 25 coral islands . • It is famous for it natural beauty and
• Lakshadweep mainly produces coconut. pictmesque locations .
• Jammu is fanJous for temples and
Puducheny Kashrnir is famous for Lakes and Gardens.
Capital Puducherry
Date of 1st November, 1954 Ladakh
Formation Capital Leh
State Symbols Date of Formation 31st October, 20 19
Animal Squirrel By the JanmJu and Kashrnir
Bird Asian Koel Reorganfaation Act, 20 19.
Flower Cannon Ball, Tree flower Neigbborn·i.ng States JanmJu and Kashmi.i~
Tree Bae] fruit 'free Himach al Pradesh
• In Septembe1~ 2006, the territory Neigbbom·i.ng Counti-ies Pakistan ,
changed its o.ffidal name from Afghanistan, China
Pondicherry to Puducherry, which • Ladalch consists of two district namely
means 'New Village' in the Tamil Leh and Kargil. It is famous for its
language. lt is a former French colony, remote moun tain beauty an d distinct
consisting of fom district Puducherry, culture.
Karaikal, Yanam an d Mahe .

RANK OF INDIAN STATES

AND UTs (CATEGORYWISE) CENSUS, 2011
Literacy Rate
Overall Uteraoy Male Uteraoy Female Uteracy
Ranks State/UT Percentage States Percentage State/UT Percentage
1- Kerala 93.9"1 Lakshadweep 96.ii Kerala 9"1 .98
2. Lakshadweep 92.28 Kerala 96.02 Mizoram 89.40
3. Mizoram 9"1 .58 Mizoram 93.72 Lakshadweep 88.25
4. Tripura 87.75 Goa 92 .8"1 Tripura 83."15
5. Goa 87.40 Tripura 92."18 Goa 8"1 .84
6. Daman 87.07 Puduoherry 92.12 Andaman and 8"1 .84
and Diu Nioobar Islands
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Overall Uteraoy Male Uteracy Female Uteracy

Ranks State/UT Percentage States Percentage State/UT Percentage
7_ Puduoherry 86.56 Daman and Diu 91.48 Chandigarh 81 .38
8. Chandigarh 86.43 NCT of Delhi 91.03 Puduoherry 81 .22
9. Delhi 86.34 Himaohal 90.83 NCT of Delhi 80.93
Pradesh
10. Andaman and 86.27 Chandigarh 90.54 Daman and Diu 79.59
Nicobar
Islands
11. Himaohal 83.78 Andaman and 90.1 1 Nagaland 76.69
Pradesh Nioobar Islands
12. Maharashtra 82.91 Maharashtra 89.82 Himaohal 76.60
Pradesh
13. Sikkim 82.20 Uttarakhand 88.33 Sikki m 76.43
14. Tamil Nadu 80.33 Sikki m 87.29 Maharash tra 75.48
15. Nagaland 80.11 Gujarat 87.23 Tamil Nadu 73 .86
16. Manipur 79.86 Tamil Nadu 86.81 Meghalaya 73.78
17. Uttarakhand 79.63 Manipur 86.49 Manipur 73.17
18. Gujarat 79.31 Dadra and 86.46 Punjab 71.34
Nagar Haveli
19. Dadra and 77.66 Haryana 86.38 West Bengal 71.34
Nagar Haveli
20. West Bengal 77.08 Nagaland 83.29 Gujarat 70.73
21. Punjab 76.68 Karnalaka 82.85 Uttarakhand 70.70
22. Haryana 76.64 West Bengal 82 .67 Kamalaka 68.13
23. Kamataka 75.60 Odisha 82.40 Assam 67.27
24. Meghalaya 75.48 Punjab 81.48 Haryana 66.77
25. Odisha 73.45 Chhattisgarh 81.45 Dadra and 65 .93
Nagar Haveli
26. Assam 73.18 Madhya Pradesh 80.53 Odisha 64.36
27. Chhat1isgarh 71.04 Rajasthan 80.51 Chhat1isgarh 60.59
28. Madhya 70.63 Uttar Pradesh 79.24 Madhya 60.02
Pradesh Pradesh
29. Uttar Pradesh 69.72 Assam 78.81 Andh ra Pradesh 59.74
30. Jammu and 68.74 Jharkhand 78.45 Arunaohal 59.57
Kashmir Pradesh
31. Andhra 67.66 Jammu and 78.26 Uttar Pradesh 59.26
Pradesh Kashmir
32. Jharkhand 67.63 Meghalaya 77.1 7 Jammu and 58.01
Kashmir
33. Rajas than 67.06 Andhra Pradesh 75.56 Jharkhand 56.21
34. Arunaohal 66.95 Aru naohal 78.69 Bihar 53.33
Pradesh Pradesh
35. Bihar 63.82 Bihar 73.39 Rajas than 52.66
National 74.04% 82.14% 65.46%
Average

(Aooording to 2011 Census) Andhra Pradesh inoludes stale of Telangana and Andh ra Pradesh.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Sex Ratio
Ranks Sex Rauo Child Sex Ratio
State/UT Ratio State/UT Ratio
1- Kerala 1084 Mizoram 970
2. Puduoherry 1037 Meghalaya 970
3. Tamil Nadu 996 Andaman and Nicobar Island 968
4. Andhra Pradesh 993 Puducherry 967
6. Chhattisgarh 991 Chhattisgarh 969
6. Manipur 992 Arunaohal Pradesh 972
7. Meghalaya 989 Kerala 964
8. Odisha 979 Assam 962
9. Mizoram 976 Tripura 967
10. Himachal Pradesh 972 West Bengal 966
11. Goa 973 Tamil Nadu 943
12. Karna taka 973 Nagaland 943
13. Uttarakhand 963 Jharkhand 948
14. Tripura 960 Sikkim 967
16. Assam 968 Andhra Pradesh 939
16. West Bengal 960 Karnalaka 948
17. Jharkhand 949 Odisha 941
18. Maharashtra 929 Manipur 936
19. Lakshadweep 947 Bihar 935
20. Nagaland 931 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 926
21. Madhya Pradesh 931 Goa 942
22. Rajas than 928 Madhya Pradesh 918
23 . Arunachal Pradesh 938 Daman and Diu 904
24. Gujarat 919 Lakshadweep 911
25. Bihar 918 Himaohal Pradesh 909
26. Uttar Pradesh 912 Uttar Pradesh 902
27. Punjab 896 Uttarakhand 890
28. Sikkim 890 Gujarat 890
29. Jammu and Kashmir 889 Rajas than 888
30. Andaman and Nicobar Islands 876 Maharashtra 894
31. Haryana 879 Chandigarh 880
32. Delhi 868 Delhi 871
33. Chandigarh 818 Jammu and Kashmir 862
34. Dadra and Nagar Haveli 774 Punjab 846
36. Daman and Diu 618 Haryana 834
National Average 940 919
 I ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT I
• Ecology is a science, in which study of
organism is undertaken in relation to
their environment. This science
developed in response to the increasing
awareness of inter- relationships
between plan ts, animals and their
physical h abitats.
• The term ecosystem was first used by
AG Tansley in 1935, who defined
ecosystem as a particuJar category of
physical system , consisting of organjsms
and inorganic components in a relatively
stable equilibctum wmch is open and of
valious sizes and ldnds.
Components of Ecosystem
• _,\biotic Components are the non-living
components, e.g. air, wate1~ soil,
suspended particulate matter etc.
• Biotic Components includes plants,
anjmals and mkro-organism.
• The living organism in an ecosystem
can be divided into three categories
Producers
• Producers are organisms that can malte
organic energy resoU1·ces from abiotic
components of the environment. They
produce their food themselves.
Consumers
• Consumers are those organisms that
gather energy by consuming organic
material from other organisms. Primary
consl1Il1ers are those organfams, who
consl1Il1e mainly producers . Primary
consumers are also knovl'Il as Herbivores.
• Secondary consumers are those • Succeeding levels in the pyramid
organisms, who consume mainly
primary consl1Il1ers. Tertiary consumers
are organisms that consl1Il1e secondary
consumers. Tertiary consun1ers are
carnjvores. Omnivores fee d on both
producers and other consumers.
• Detiitovores consume debitus
(dead material of plants and anjmals).
Decomposers
• Decomposers are organisms that break • lt is measw-ed in gran1s per meter or
dm'l'Il dead or decaying organisms.
Decomposers are heteroo·opmc which
means that they use organic substrates to
get their energy and carbon an d • Pyi·amid of Energy The pyramid of
nutiients for their growth an d
development e.g. bacte1ia and fungi.
Functions of Ecosystem
The main functions of an ecosystem arre as
follows:
(i) Matelials or nutrient cycle
(ii) Biological or ecological reguJation
• Foodcba.in The flow of energy from of
one organism to another in a sequence of
food transfer is lmm'l'Il as a foodchain. A
simple foodchain is like the following
Grass ➔ Insect ➔ Frogs ➔ Snake ➔ Hawk
• Food Web A net\11101:k of foodchains or
feeding relationships, by which energy and
nutrients are passed on from one specie of
living organism to another is called food
web.
• Trophlc Levels Trophk levels aTe the
feeding position in a foodchain such as
plimary producers, herbivore, primary
carnivore etc. Generally, green plants
form the fast o·ophic level, the
producers, h erbivores form the second
tropmc level, while carnivores and
ommvores form the third and even the
fourth trophic levels .
• Ecological Pyramid An ecological
pyra_rnjd is a graphical representation
designed to shm"i' the number of
organjsms, energy relationships and
biomass of an ecosystem. They aTe also
called Eltonian Pyramids after Charles
Elton, who developed the concept of
ecological pyramids. Producer organisms
(usually green plants) from the base of
the pyrannd, , 1vi th succeeding levels
above representing the different tropic
levels.
represent the dependence of the
organjsms at a given level on the
organisms at lower leveL
• Pyramid of Biomass Biomass is
renewable organic (living) matelial_. A
pyra_rnjd of biomass is a representation of
the amoun t of energy contained in
biomass at different o·opmc levels for a
particuJar time.
calories per meter. This demonstrates the
amount of matter lost between !J.·ophic
levels.
energy represents the total amount of
energy consumed at each o·opmc level.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• An energy pyramjd is always upright as the total amount of energy available for
utilisation in the layers above js less than the energy available m the lower levels.
• Biome Biome is a large natural ecosystem, wherein we study the total assemblage of
plant and animal communities. Biosphere is the ]a.l'gest ecosystem on the Earth,
divided mto biomes.
• Ecological Niche Organisms in ecosystem get evolved for particular task. Tbjs task or
role, which an organjsm plays in ecosystem is called as ecological rnche.
Important Physical Characteristics Plants Animals
Biomes
Tundra Two seasons, dry and frozen No trees, dominated Insects , large hooved
deserts by mosses and mammals (caribou,
Winter extreme cold and snowy lichens and gra sses musk, ox), bears,
Summer flooding , caused by snow and some small wolves , small rodents
melt in the permafrost layer shrubs. (lemmings) migrate
during the breeding
(permanently frozen about 3 m
below the ground . season
Location far North and far South
towards the polar ioe caps
Average Temperature 10°C
Rainfall 25 am/yr
Snow 10-20 cm/yr
Borsa/ Forest Long winter, short fall and sp ring , Trees 6-10 m high, Diverse array of
2-3 months of summer. wetter boreal forest. tree mig rants from the
seasons, heavy rain an·d snow. species include tropics with few
conifers pine, spruce, re sident species
bog plants (fems and (moose, bear, lynx,
Location ooniferous forests, far
mosses) iox., voles).
Norlhern and far Southern latitudes
Temperate Four seasons Complex levels of Diverse array of
Deciduous Rainfall 80-140 om/yr vegetation inoluding migrants tram the
Forest deciduous trees. tropics and re sident
s ecies.
Savannah Three seasons Grasses, shrubs, Large ungulates, large
short and 2m tall trees predators
Rainfall 90-150 om/yr olumped together (10
Location tropical to sub-tropical
m 1all)
Temperate Temperate and some subartic Grasses Large ungulates
Grassland grassland (extreme Northern
Prairies-steppes and some
e>ctreme Southern grasslands-
Pampas of Argentina) Rainfall
26-70 om/ r
Mediterranean Mild wet winter followed by hot, Short trees and Diversity of mammals,
dry, summer. Many plants shrubs bird s, insects etc that
dependent on re gular fires like dry habitats
associated with Chaparral
Location near ooastlines
(California. Chile, Mediterranean)
Desert Very dry Cactus, sagebrush, Small rodents, reptil es
Rainfall less than 25 cm/year creosote and shrubs
Location primarily equatorial but
some re ach into temperate regions
Tropical Very wet-heavy rainfall. Large trees-broad- Highest diversity of
Ram forest leaved evergreens, animals
Soil poor in nutrients epiphytes, not much
forest iloor vegetation
Temperature constant throughout (little sunlight) canopy
the year (wet and dry seasons) 30-40 m above
round
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

POLLUTION • ChJoroUuoroca.rbons (CFCs) were

generally used ill great quantities in
Environmental pollution js the effect of indusb:y, for re£dgeration and
WJdesirable changes in our sunoundings air-conditioning and in consumer
that have harmful effects on plants, animals products.
and human beings. • Ozone (03 ) gas occms naturally in the
Pollutants Pollutants are substances which upper atmosphere where it shields the
cause pollution. They could be ill any from Eai·th from the Sun's dangerous
solid, liquid or gaseous. ultraviolet rays. When found at groUJJd
• A primary pollutant is substance emitted level, it's a pollutant.
directly from a somce. • Nitrogen Oxide and SuJphw· Dioxide
• A secondary pollution is not directly ai·e major contributors to smog and acid
emitted as such, but forms, when other rain . These gases both react with
pollutants (primary pollutants) react in volatile organic compoUJJds to form
the arnrnsphere. smog, which can cause respiratot)'
problems in humans. Acid rain can
Primary pollutants harm vegetation, change the chemisb.1'
• Sulphur dioxide (S0 2 ), nitrogen oxides of liver and lake water by lowering the
(NO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), chloro- pH which is harmful to animal life and
fluoro carbons (CFCs), carbon dioxide react , 1vith the marble statues and
(CO 2 ), Suspended Particulate Matter buildings to decompose them.
(SPM) and Ammonia (NH3 ) volatile Controls/Meas1ues of Air
organic compoUJJds, toxic metals etc.
Pollution
Secondary pollutants • Suitable fuel selection
1. Particulate matter formed from • Modification in illdustrial processes
gaseous primary pollutants and • Correct selection of manufacturing sites
compoUJJds ill photochemical smog, • More efficient engines
such as nitrogen dioxide. • Awareness for using public rr·ansport so
2. Groun d level ozone (0 3 ) formed from that air pollution is minimised
N 2 and Volatile Organic Compounds Water Pollution
(VOCs).
3. Perm-..y'acety 1 Nitrate (PAN) siniilady • It is the contamination of water bodies
formed from NO 2 and VOCs. (e.g. lalces, rivers, oceans, aquifers and
groundwater). Water pollution occurs
An· Pollution when pollutants are dischai·ged directly
or indirectly into water bodies , 1vithout
It is the contamination of air by a vaiiety of adequate rr·eatment to remove hai·mfuJ
substances causing health problems and compoUJJds.
damaging our environment. • Biological Oxygen Demond (BOD) It
is a measurement of amoUJJt of
An· Pollutants dissolved O:\.y'gen that is used by aerobic
Some of the most common air pollutants arre micro-organisms when decomposing
as follows. organic matter in water. It is an
• Carbon Monoxide (CO) is produced from important wa ter quality pai·ameter and
illCOmplete combustion of fuel such as is an indicator of organic pollution.
natmal gas, coal and wood.
• It is also produced in tobacco smoke. lt Control/Meas1ues ofWater
slows our reflexes and makes us feel Pollution
sleepy. • Mass soci al awai'eness should be
• Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) js the principal generated.
greenhouse gas and js plimarily • GroUJJd water pollution can be
responsible for the greenhouse effect. l t eliminated by maintaining strict
can be formed from all types of common resb.ictions regai'ding waste disposal.
human activities, such as burning fuels • Industrial effluents should be effectively
and even breathing. recycled, before releasing in water.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
• Government Initiatives National Water
Policy, 2002, Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974,
establishment of pollu tion control boards,
oil spill response centre etc are some
government :imtiatives to control water
pollution .
• National River Conservation Plan,
Nan1ami Gange prog:ran1me have also
been started to cleanup the precious rivers
in India.
Noise Pollution
• Noise can be taken as a group of loud,
non-harmonious sounds or vibrations that
are unpleasant and ir1itating to ear.
Decibel is the standard for the
measw:ement of noise .
• Noise pollution creates many diseases
such as hypertension, hearing loss, sleep
disturbances etc. Continuous noise can
create panic situations or even increase
frustration levels . It also impacts the
h ealth ohvilcllife on land as well as oceans.
• Under the Environment Protection Act
1986, the Central Government has com~
up with rules to cw-b the noise pollution.
Land Pollution
• It refers to degradation or destruction of
Earth's surface and soil, directly or • It is the release of any radioactive
indirectly as a result of human activities. lt mateLial
e>...-plains any activity that lessens the
quality or productivity of the )and as an
ideal place for agricuJ tw-e, forestation,
construction, etc.
Causes of Land Pollution
• Deforestation and soil erosion.
• Ag1·icuJttu-al .Activities Use ofrughly toxic
fertilisers and pestiddes as well as mjnjng
activities .
• Overcrowded LandiiJJ s Garbage which
cannot be recycled become a part of the
JandfilJs.
• Industrialisation Creation of more waste
by industJ.·ies that needs to be disposed off.
• Nuclear Waste The left over radioactive
Biodiversity
material contains h armful and toxic • Biodiversity refers to the variety withm
chemicals that can affect hwnan health.
They are dumped beneath the Earth to
avoid any casuility.
• Sewage Treatment Large amount of solid •
was te is leftover once the sewage has been
treated. The leftover matelial is sent to
JandfilJ site which pollu tes the variation \i\rithm an area, biome or
environment.
Solutions for Land Pollution
• Make people aware about the concept
of reduce, :recycle and reuse.
• Practicing organic farming whkh uses
no chemical pesticides and fertilisers
in agricultural activities.
• Avoid buying packages items as they
·will lead to garbage.
• No littering on ground and proper
disposal of garbage.
• Using bio-deg:radable produc ts.
• Organic gardening and organic food.
e-Waste
It is a term used to cover almost all types
of Electrical and Electronic Equipment
(EEE) that could enter in to the was te
stream. Although e-waste is a genei-a)
term, it can be considered to cover TVs
computers, mobile phones, ,,.,hite good~
(e .g. fridges, washing machines, dryers
etc) home entertainment and stereo
systems, toys, toasters, kettles and almost
any households or business item with
circuitry or elecb.ical components with
power or battery supply which have been
discarded.
Radioactive Pollution
into the environment.
Radioactive pollu tion can be very
dangerous because :radiation mutates
DNA, causing abnormal growth and
possibly cancer and thjs :radiation
:remains in the environment for years,
slowly dinnmshing over time.
Radioactive pollution is mainly caused
by nu dear acddents, nuclear
explosion, acddent during production
or use of :radioactive mate1ials. There
al'e techmques used to manage tms
pollu tion, however, we al'e far from
keeping our planet clean of radioactive
pollution.
the living world. The term is commonly
used to describe the number, variety
and vaiiability of living orgarusms.
Often used as a synonym of Lile on the
Eru-th. lt means genetic variation,
species variation or ecosystem
planet.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• Biodiversity is often seen in the terms of Ex-Situ (Off Site)

three fundamental and hierarchically
Conservation of plants and animals outside
related levels of biologica.J organisation. their natural habitats. These include
• Genetic diversity represents the botarrical gal·dens, zoos, gene banks of seed,
heli table Valiation vvithin and between tissue cultme and Cl)'Opresel'vation.
population of organjsms.
• Species diversity refers to number of Threatened Species
species in a site or habitat. Tru·eatened species al'e any species
• Ecosystem diversity refers to diversity (including animals, plants, fungi, e tc.)
of different organjsms at the ecosys tem, whkh al'e vulnerable to endangering in the
habitat or con1JTiw:rity level. neal· futme . Species that are th1·eatened
al'e sometimes charactelised by the
Biodiversity Hotspots population dynamics measme of c1itical
• A biodiversity hotspot is a bio-geographic depensation, a mathematical measure of
region with a significant reservoir of biomass related to population grmivt:h rate.
biodiversity that is under threat from Trns quantitative meb.ic is one method of
humans. The concept of biodiversity evaluating the degTee of danger.
ho tspots was given by Norman Myers.
• To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot a
IUCN
region must meet two sb.ict clitelias. It The International Urnon for Conservation
must contain at least 0.5% or 1500 of Natme (IUCN) is the foremost authmity
species of vascular plants as endemics on tm·eatened species, and b.·eats
and it has to have lost at least 70% of its thTeatened species not as a single categm)',
primal)' vegetation . India has two but as a group of three categories,
biodiversity hotspots- Western Ghats depending on the degree to v,1Wch they are
and Eas tern Himalayas. lndo-Bmma thTeatened :
Region and Sundaland (including • Vulnerable species : A vulnerable species
Nicobal· group of Islands). is one v, Wch has been categoLised by the
1

In ternational Urnon for Conservation of

Biodiversity Conservation Nature as W<ely to become endangered
Conservation is planned management of unless the circumstances threating its
natural resources to retain the balance in smvival and reproduction improve.
nature and retain the diversity. It • Endangered species : An endangered
emphasises on the wise use of natural species is a species whkh has been
resomces by accepting the idea of categorised as indanger and is likely to
sustainable development. Conservation of become extinct.
biodiversity is carded out in the following • Clitically endangered species
ways. A cLitically endangered (CR) species is
one whkh has been categoLised by the
Method of Conservation In ternational Urnon for Conservation of
The method of conservation of biodiversity Nature (IUCN) as facing a very mgh risk
can be classified in to two groups. of extinction in the wild. nt is the highest
risk category assigned by the IUCN Red
In-Situ (On Site) List for wild species.
Conservation include protection of plants IUCN Red List
and animals , 1vithin their natural habitats
or in protected al--eas. Protected areas al'€ The IUCN Red Llst of TbTeatened Species
]and or sea dedica ted to protect and (also lmmvn as the IUCN Red List or Red
maintain biodiversity. Examples al'e Data List), founded in 1964, is the world's
Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, most comprehensive inventory of the global
Wildlife Sanctuaries, etc. conservation status of biological species.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Difference Between National Park, Sanctuary and Biosphere Reserve

National Park SanctuaI}' Biosphere Reserve
A reserved area for preservation of A reserved area for Mul1ipurpose protected area to
its natural vegetation , wildlife and preservation of preserve genetic diversity in
natural beauty_ endangered speoies. representative ecosystem.
Boundaries are fixed by Boundaries are not Boundaries are fixed by
legislation. fi>ced. legislation.

Endangered Species of India

Birds Great Indian Bustard, Forest Owlet, Bengal Florican, Himalayan Quail, Siberian
Crane, Indian Vul1ure , Satyr Tragopan , Nilgiri Flycatcher
Mammals Flying Squirrel, Red Panda, Pygmy Hog , Kondana Rat, Snow Leopard, Asiatic Lion ,
One-Horned Rhinoceros , Bengal Tiger, Lion Tailed Macaque, Sangai

Reptiles Gharial, Hawksbill Turtle, River Terrapin, Sispara Day Gecko

Amphibians Flying Frog , Tiger Toad , Toad Skimed Frog, Kaikatti Bushfrog, Amboli Toad,
Munnar Bush Frog.

Wildlife Conservation in India Name of Location

Sanctuary/Park
Project Year
Projeot Hangul 1970 Corbett National Park Uttarakhand
Project Gir 1972 Dachigam Sanctuary Jammu and Kashmir
Projeot Tiger 1973 Dandeli Sanctuary Kamataka
Project Turtles 1975 Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh
Crooodile Breeding Scheme 1975
Gandhi Sagar Madhya Pradesh
Project Manipur Thamin 1977 Sanctuary
Project Rhino 1987
Ghana Bird Sanctuary Rajasthan
Projeot Elephant 1992
Gir National Park Gujarat
Project Red Panda 1996
Project Vulture 2006 Gau1am Buddha Bihar and Jharkhand
Sanctuary
Project Snow Leopard 2009
Jaldapara Sanctuary West Bengal
Project Dolphin 2020
Project Asiatic Lion 2020 Kaziranga National Assam
Park
Important Sanctuaries and Khanchenzonga Sikkim
National Parks National Park
Nagarhole National Kamataka
Name of Location Park
Sanctuary/Park
Namdapha Sanotuary Arunachal Pradesh
Aohanakmar Chhattisgarh
Sanctuary Pachmarhi Sanctuary Madhya Pradesh
Bandhavgarh National Madhya Pradesh Ranganathittu Bird Kamataka
Park Sanctuary
Bandipur Sanctuary Karnataka Simlipal Sanctuary Odisha

Banerghatta National Karnataka Sundraban National West Bengal

Park Park

Bhadra Sanctuary Karnataka Sonai Rupai Sanctuary Assam

Chandraprabha Uttar Pradesh Tungabhadra Kamataka

Sanctuary Sanctuary
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Biosphere Reserves of India

Name State Type
Great Rann of Kachchh Gujara t Desert
Gulf of Mannar(U NESCO) Tamil Nadu Marine
Sundarbans (UNESCO) West Bengal Gangetic Delta
Cold Desert Himaohal Pra desh Western Himalayas
Nanda Devi (UNESCO) Uttarakhand West Himalays
Nilgiri (UNESCO) Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka Western Ghats
Dehang-Dibang Arunaohal Pradesh East Himalayas
Paohmarhi (UNESCO) Madhya Pradesh Semi-Arid
Seshachalam Hills Andhra Pradesh Eastern Gha ts
Simlipal (UNESCO) Odisha Deccan Peninsula
Achanakmar Amarkantak Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh Maikala Range
(UNESCO)
Manas Assam East Himalayas
Kh angohendzonga (UNESCO) Sikkim East Himalayas
Agasthyamalai (UNESCO) Kerala, Tamil Nadu Western Ghats
Great Nioobar (UNESCO) Andaman and Nicobar Islands Islands
Nokrek (UNESCO) Meghalaya East Himalayas
Dibru-Saikhowa Assam East Himalayas
Panna (UNESCO) Madhya Pradesh Catohment Area of Ken River

Climate Change :fighting global wai·ming. The UNFCCC

Climate change refers to long-term change
in the earth's climate, especially a change
due to an incl'ease in average atmospbe1ic
temperatme. ln the past, Eai·th 's climate bas
gone thrnugh warmer and cooler peLiods,
each ]a.sting thousands of yeai·s.
Greenhouse Effect and Global
Warming
• The greenhouse gases (sometimes
abbreviated as GHG) in the atrnospbere
absorbs and emits radiation within the
therma.1 infrared range. The process is the
fundamental cause of the greenhouse
effect. The plirnary greenhouse gases in
the Earth 's atmosphere ai--e water vapoul',
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide
and ozone. In the Solai· System, the
atmosphere of Venus, Mal's and THan also
contain gases that cause greenhouse effects.
• Global Warming is the increase of Eai·th 's
average sur face temperatue due to effect
of greenhouse gases, such as carbon
dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels
or from deforestation.
Kyoto Protocol
• The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the
United Nations Frame,,v ork Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC), aimed at
is an internation al environmental
treaty with the goal of achieving the
"stabilisation of greehouse gas
concentration in the atmosphere at a
level that would prevent dangerous
anthrnpogenic in terference \'lrith the
climate system" . The protocol was
initially adopted on 11th December,
1997 in Kyoto, Japan and entered in to
force on 16th Februai-y, 2005. Second
commi tment period of this protocol
stai·ted in 2013 and will end in 2020.
• The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (lPCC) has predicted
an average global rise in temperature of
1.4°C to 5.8°C between 1990 and 2100.
If successfully and completely imple-
mented, the Kyoto Protocol will reduce
that increase by somewhere between
0.02°C and 0.28°C by the yeai· 2050.
Mission Included in Prime
Minister's National Action Plan
for Climate Change (NAPCC)
• National solai· mission
• National mission for enhanced energy
effidency
• National mission on sustainable habitat
• National water mission
• National mission for sustain.ing the
1-limalayan ecosys tem
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• National mission for Green India Ozone Layer Depletion

• National m_jssion for sustainable
• The ozone layer js located within the
ag:dc uJ tu.re
Stratosphere, about 24 la:n above the Earth 's
• National rmss10n on strategic surface.
knowledge for climate change
• The layer consist of ozone gas molecules that
REDD++ are formed as the sl.lil.1.ight reacts with m.-ygen
.. .
• Reducing Emissions from • The ozone )ayer is very lillportant as it
Deforestation and Forest protects life on Earth by filtedng the Sun's
Degradation (RE DD) js an effort to dangerous ul traviolet radiation.
create a financi al value for the • Due to increased pollution on Earth, chemicals
carbon stored in fo rests, offering such as Chloro F]mo Carbons (CFCs) are
incentives to developing countries to desb.-oying thjs protective ozone ]ayer, whkh
reduce em.jssions fro m forested lands could lead to increased health risks and
and invest in low carbon paths to damage agiicultural an d acquatic ecosystem.
sustainable developm ent.
• 'REDD+ ' goes beyond deforestation
Montreal Protocol on Substances
and forest degradation and includes that Deplete the Ozone Layer
the role of conservation, sustainable • It js an international treaty designed to
managem ent of forests and protect the ozone ]ayer from Chloro F1uoro
enhancement of forest carbon stocks. Carbons (CFCs).
• The proper implementation of • The b:eaty was opened for signature on 16th
REDD+ viill contribute to protection September, 1987 and entered into force on
of biodiversity, resilience of forest 1st January, 1989, followed by a first meeting
ecosystems an d poverty reduction. in HelsinJd, May 1989.

Important Environmental Organisations

Organisation Head Office Year
IUCN Gland, Switzerland 1948
World wide Fund for nature (WWF) Swizerland 1961
Green Peace Amsterdam , Netherlands 1971
World conservation Monitoring centre Cambridge, UK 2000
Global Environmental Facility Washin gton, USA 1991
International Solar Alliance Gurugram, India 2015

Environment Related Important International Agreements/Conference

UN Oonference on the Human Environment Stockholm (1972)
Oonvention on Migratory Species Bonn (1979)
Oonvenlion ior ihe Protection of the Ozone Layer Vienna (1985)
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer Montreal (1987)
Oonvention on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes Basel (1989)
Earth Summii (UN Oonference on Environment and Development) Rio de-Janeiro (1992)
Oonvenlion on Prior Informed Oonsent Rotterdam (1998)
UN Oonlerence on Sustainable Development Rio de-Janeiro (2012)
Nagoya Protocol on Genetic Resources Nagoya (2010)
Oonvenlion on Biological Diversity (CBD-OoP-11) Hyderabad (2012)
UN Olimate Change Conference (OoP-20) Uma (20 14)
Paris Climate Change Conference (OoP-21) Paris (2015)
Marrakesh Climate Change Conference (CoP-22) Marrakesh (2016)
Bonn Olimate Conference (CoP-23) Bonn (2017)
Katowice Climate Conference (OoP-24) Katowice, Poland (2018)
UN Olimate Change Conference (CoP-25) Madrid, Spain (2019)
UN Olimate Change Conference (CoP-26) Glasgow, UK (2021) originally
due to be held in 2020
but postponed due
to COVID-Pandemic
UN Olimate Change Conference (CoP-27) Sha rm el-Sheikh Egypt (2022)
UN Olimate Change Conference (CoP-28) Dubai (Scheduled)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
Glossary
Bio Fuels are produced from dry organic
matter or combustible oils from plants such
as alcohol from fermented sugar, black
liquor from the paper manufacturing
process, wood and soya.bean oil .
Biogas Gas lich in methane, which is
produced by the fermentation of animal
dung, human sewage or crop residues in an
airtight container.
Biomass Organic matelial, both above ground
and below ground and living and dead, such
as b.'ees, crops, grasses and roots.
Carbon credit The concept of Carbon Credit
came into existence as a resuJt of increasing
awareness of the need for pollution control.
Carbon credits are certificates awarded to
countries that successfully reduce the
emissions that cause global warming.
Carbon Credits ,He measlll'ed in units of
Certified Emission Reductions (CERs).
Each CERis equivalent to one tonne ofC0 2
reduction.
Carbon Footprint The Carbon Footprint is a
measw·ement of all greenhouse gases in
terms of tonnes or kg of CO 2 equivalent.
Carbon Market The Kyoto Protocol allows
countries that have emissions units to spare
the emissions permitted but not 'used' to
sell this excess capacity to countries that
are over their targets. This is called the
carbon market, because carbon dioxide is
the most , 1videly produced greenhouse gas
and because of this other greenhouse gases
will be recorded and counted in terms of
their 'carbon dioxide equivalents'.
Green Tax It is a tax , 1vith a potenti ally positive
environmental impact. It includes energy
tax, rr·ansport taxes and taxes on pollution
and resolll'ces. They are also called
environmental taxes.
Biomes Biomes are regions of the world , ..ri th
similar climate (weather, temperatme),
animals and plants.
Examples of Aquatic biomes ai·e : Fresh
water, marine, Coral reef and Estuaries.
Examples of Terresb.ial biomes are :
Tundra, Rainforest, Savanna, Taiga, Alpine
and Desert etc.
EnviJ·onment The environment 1s the
biotic and abiot:ic smrounding of an
organism or population and includes
pai·ticuJarly the factor that have an
influence in their surv1val,
development and evolution.
Ecology It is the scientific study of the
relations that uving organisms have
·with respect to each other and their
natural envi.rnnment.
Ecosystem An ecosystem 1s a biological
system consiting of all the uving
organisms or biotic components in a
pai·ticuJai· ai·ea and the non-uving or
abiotic components with which the
organisms interact such as air,
minel'al soil, water and sUilllgbt.
Biosphere The biosphere 1s the portion
of Eai·th, in which all ]mown li.fe
forms exist. If includes a thin layer of
air (atmosphere), water
(hydrnspbere) and Eai-th
(lithosphere).
Geosphere The atmosphere,
hydrosphere, lithosphere and
biosphere ai·e together referred to as
the Geosphere.
Mitigation The sb.·uctural and non-
sb.7..lctural measures undertaken to
llIIllt the adverse impact of natw-al
hazai·ds, environmental degradation
and technological hazards.
Sustainable Development
Development that meet the needs of
the present generation \'l'l thou t
compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own
needs.
Ecological Pyra.mjd An Ecological
Pyramid is a graphical
representation designed to show the
biomass or biomass productivity at
each Trophic level in a given
ecosystem.
Trophlc Level Successive stages of
now1shment as represented by the
unks of the foodchain.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
FAQs (Geography)
1. A landmass surrounded by sea on three
sides is referred to as. ___ __
2. The highest peak in the Eastern Ghat is. __
3. How many states are there in India through
which the Tropic of Canoer passes?
4. Which group of island is located in the Bay
of Bengal?
5. Name the place in Uttar Pradesh through
which the Standard Meridian of India
passes_
6. Which latitude divides India into two parts?
7. How many plates are found in orust
(upper part of the Earth)?
8. Which State is known for Back waters?
9. In whioh state of India does the Sun rise
first?
1 O. Which plaoe does India has in the
geographical area of the world?
11. When was the route of Suez canal
oonstructed?
12. The m ountain rang es between the Indus
and the Su tlej rivers are known as. ___ _
13. Where is the Chilika lake situated?
14. Which is the biggest salt lake of India?
15. Which is the longest river flowing in the
Thar desert?
16. In which ooean do the Tapi and Narmada
rivers f aJI?
17. Which is the largest delta in the world?
18. Whioh landmass is known as the roof of
the world?
19. An area drained by a single river is called_._
20. Which is the biggest drainage basin of the
world?
21. Which river has the largest drajnage basin
of India?
22. Where the rivers Su tlej, Ravi , Chenab,
Beas, Jhelum join the Indus rivers?
23. Aocording to Indus Water Treaty (1960),
how muoh per cent of the total water can
be used by India, carried by Indus River
System?
24. Where does the Bhagirath i and
Alakananda join?
25. The majn tributary of the Ganga,
Bhagirathi originates from __ __
26. Where does the Yamuna meetthe Ganga?
27. What type of climate is there in India?
28. Which place has the maximum difference
in the temperature of day and night in
India?
29. El-Nino is ___ _
30. Where does the Arabian sea branch of
monsoon and the Bay of Bengal bran ch
m onsoon join to eaoh other?
31. The rainfall of winter season in the
Northen regi ons is locally known as .. _.
32. Which type of vegetation is found in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
Lakshadweep Island?
33. In which state is the Gir National Park
situated?
34. When did first oensus take place in India?
35. When did fi rst complete census take
p lace in India?
36. The red colourof the red soil is due to.-..
37. Most of the iron in India is found in ___ _
38. Which ocean currents is associated with
the El Nino phenomenon?
39. In which periods, the Appalachian
m ountains were formed?
40. The lapse rate of the atmosphere is .._.
41. What is the most common salt in the sea
water?
42. The cattle kept by the Masai are called
43. The timber of which tree is used for
making cricket bats?
44. Ozone layer is found in ___ _
45. 'Ring of Fire' refers to. ___
46. Willy-Willy is the tropical cyolone
occurring in .. _.
47. The atmospheric layer, whioh reilects
rad io-waves is known as. __ _
48. Which planet is nearest to the Earth?
49. In which layer of the atmosphere do most
weather phenomenon occur?
50. Clear night are colder than cloudy nights
because oL _
51. Where is the Hindustan Anti-biotics plant
located?
52. Where is the Indian raHways factory Diesel
Component Works (DCW) located?
53. Duncan Pass is located between ___ _
54. Where is Thattekad Bird Sanctuary
located?
55. In wh ioh state is the Hydel-Power Project
Nathpa Jhakri located?
56. Indian's most modern and well
p lanned city Chandigarh was designed
by
57. Sahyadri is the traditional name of the ....
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
58. India's permanent researoh station
Dakshin Gangotri is situated in ....
59. On which river, the Baglihar
Hydro-power Project is located?
60. Which state of India touches the
boundaries of the largest number of
other states?
61. The term Regur refers to ....
62. Which is the junction point of the
Eastern and Western Ghats?
63. The biosphere reserve Dehang
Debang is located in ....
64. The two volcanic islands in the
Indian territory are ....
65. The Eastern slopes of the Western
Ghats have low rainfall because of
66. In which of the following state is the
Simplipal bio-reserve located?
67. The wind blowing in the Northern
plajns in summers is known as ....
68. In which of the following states is the
Wular lake located?
69. Which is the longest river of the
Peninsular India?
70. Name the state of India, where the
Brahmaputra river enters first?
71. Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
West Bengal and Sikkim have
common frontiers with ....
72. Which two Peninsular rivers flow
through troughs?
73. When was Wild Life Protection Act
implemented?
7 4. In which state is the Corbett National
Park located?
75. The latitudinal extent of India is ....
76. How much area does India cover of
the total geographical area of the
world?
77. The length of the Indian coastline
is ....
78. Which state of India has the longest
coastal line?
79. In which state is the Ooty or
Udagamandalam located?
80. Which is the highest peak of the
Western Ghat?
81. Which p lateau lies between the Aravali and
Vindyachal hills?
82. The Easternmost longitude of India is ....
83. In which country does the Mt Everest lie?
84. In which country the peak of Kanchenjunga
located?
85. The part lying between Tista and Dihang rivers
is known as ....
Answers
1. Peninsula, 2. Mahendragiri,
3. Eight, 4. Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
5. Allahabad , 6. 23 ½0 N,
7. Major Seven and Small Nine, 8. Andaman and
Nicobar, 9. Arunachal Pradesh, 1 o. Seventh,
11 . AD 1869, 12. Punjab HimaJaya, 13. Odisha,
14. Sambhar Lake, 15. Luni, 16. The Arabian Sea,
17. The delta of Ganga- Brahmapu tra
(Sundraban), 18. Pamir Granthi, 19. Drainage
basin , 20. The Nile river of Egypt, 21 . The Ganga
river, 22. Mithankot, 23. 20%, 24. Deva Prayag,
25. Gangotri, 26. Allahabad ,
27. Monsoon 28. Thar desert,
29. A warm ocean current, 30. Over the Ganga
plains, 31 . Mahawat, 32. Rain forest, 33. Gujarat,
34. 1872, 35. 1881, 36. Iron,
37. Dharwar Rocks, 38. Humboldt or Peruvian,
39. Paleozoic, 40. 6. 5° C for every 1000 m,
41. Sodium Chloride, 42. Zebu, 43. Willow,
44. Stratosphere, 45. Ciroum- Pacific volcanic
belt, 46. Coast of North-West Australia,
47. Ionosphere, 48. Venus, 49. Troposphere,
50. Radiation , 51 . Rishikesh, 52. Patiala, 53. Sou th
and Little Andaman , 54. Ke rala, 55. HimachaJ
Pradesh, 56. Le Corbusier, 57. Western Ghats,
58. Antarctica, 59. Chenab, 60. Uttar Pradesh,
61. Black cotton soil, 62. Nilgiri Hills,
63. Arunachal Pradesh, 64. Naroondam and
Barren, 65. their leeward location, 66. Odisha,
67. Loo , 68. Jammu and Kashmir, 69. Godavari,
70. Arunachal Pradesh, 71 . Nepal, 72. Narmada
and Tapi, 73. 1972, 74. Uttarakhand , 75. 8°4' N to
37°6'N, 76. 2.42%, 77. 7516.6 km , 78. Gujarat,
79. Tamil Nadu, 80. Anaimudi, 81. The Plateau of
Malwa, 82. 97°25'E, 83. Nepal,
84. India, 85. Assam Himalayas

I CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
• The Constitution is a set of fundamental
principles according to , 1vhicb state
orgamsation is governed. The idea to have a
Constitution was given by MN Roy.
• The objective of the Constitution is to
evolve a certain type ofpoutical cuJtw:e that
1s based on the values enshrined in the
Constitution and guided by the institutions
established Ullder the Constitution.
• Certain featlll'eS of Indian Fouty or
Constitution can be understood better vvith
a brief review of the Constitutional set-up
in the preceding pe1iods. As modern
political institutions originated and
developed in India mainly during the
Blitish rule, the 01igin and growth of the
Indian Constitution h as its roots in the
Blitish peliod of Indian Wstory.
The Company Rule (1773-1857) Charter Act, 1793
There are certain events in the British rule
that laid do\i\rn the legal framework for the
orgamsation and administration in Bli tish
India. These events have greatly influenced
our Constitution and pohty.
They are e:t-plained below in the chronological
order
The Regulating Act, 1773
• To regulate and control the affairs of East
India Company by British Government.
• It designated the Governor of Bengal as the
'Governor-General of Bengal', who has the
authmity over the Presidencies of Madras,
Bombay and Calcutta. The fast such
Governor-General was Warren Hasti_ngs.
INDIAN
POLITY
I
• A Supreme Court was established in
Calcutta. Sir Elijah lmpey was the
fast Chief Justice.
• It prohibited the servants of the
company to engage in any p1ivate
trade and accept presents or bribes
from natives.
Pitt's IniliaAci 1784
• It provided for BoaTd of Control having
6 members (2 from Biitish Cabinet
and remaining from Privy Council).
• Board was set-up to guide and
supervise the affairs of the company
in India.
• Court of directors were confined to
manage the trade and commerce
related issues only.
• Salaiies for the staff and members of
the Board of Conb.-ol to be paid from
Indian revenue.
Charter Act, 1813
• Ended East India Company's
monopoly of trade with India and
provided { 1 la.kb grant for education
in India. The Company's monopoly in
trade with China and trade in tea , 111ere
remained intact.
Charter Act, 1833
• The centralisation of the power
bega_n: the Governor-General of
Bengal was to be the Governor-
General of lnclia. First such Governor
was Lord WllJjam Bentick.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
• All legislative, adm.irrisb.'ative and
financial powers were handed over to
Governor-General in council. It deprived
the governor of Bombay and Madras
presidencies of their legislative powers.
• A fourth member in the Governor-
General's Council was added as a Jaw
member.
• A Law Commission under Lord
Macaulay was constituted for
codification of la,1\,s.
• The company was now no more a trading
body but h ad become political and
admirrisn·ative body.
Charter Act, 1853
• A separate Governor for Bengal was to
be appointed.
• The Legislative and Executive functions
of the Governor-General 's Council were
separated for the first time.
• Open competition system of selection • Portfolio System, wWch was introduced
and recntitment of Civil Servants was
introduced and the covenanted Civil
Service was open to Inman also.
• The number of members of the Court of
Directors were reduced from 24 to 18 of
\'l1hich 6 were to be nominated by the
crown.
• It extended the Company's rule and
allowed it to retain the possession of
Inman territories for the British Crown
without specifying any particular period.
• It introduced for the first time, local
representation in the Inman (Cenn·al)
Legislative Council.
THE CROWN RULE
(1857-1947)
Government of India
Act, 1858
• The power was transferred from the
company to the British Crm'l'Il.
• Court of Directors and Board of Control
was abolished ending the system of
double government. The post of Secretary • Lord Mode)~ the then Secretary of State
of State was established. A 15 member
council was established to assist him .
Secretary of State was Member of Blitisb
Cabinet and was answerable to Blitisb
Parliament.
• The Govel'nor-General was made the
Viceroy of Inclia. Lord Canning became
the first Viceroy of lnclia.
• Unitary, Iigid and cenn·alised
admirrisb.·ative sn-uctme was created.
Indian Councils Act, 18 61
• A fifth member from legal background,
was added to the Viceroy's Executive
Council. A Sixth member was
subsequently added in 1784. The
Viceroy could now also nominate some
lnmans as non-offidal members in his
council_. In 1862, thrne lnmans were
nominated to the council.
• It made a beginning of representative
institutions by associating lnclians with
the la,,., making process.
• The Executive Council ·was now
e>..-panded by the admtion of 6 to 12
members for legislative purpose.
by Lord Canning in 1859, was given
recognition, so that work could be
msliibuted among the members. The
Viceroy was given the powers to issue
ordinances.
• Decentralisation process was started by
restoring the legislative powers to
Bombay and Madras presidencies.
Indian Councils Act, 1892
• Though it was insignificant, but it brought an
element of representation for the first time by
allowing discussion of budget This act also
introduced the element of election in India_
• Although, the majority of the official
members were retained in Central legislative
Councils, the non-official members were to
be nominated by the Bengal Chamber of
Commerce and Provincial Legislative
Councils_
Indian Councils Act, 1909
(Morley Minto Reforms)
of ln ma an d Lord Minto, the then
Viceroy of lnclia, announced some
reforms in the Bli tisb Parliament.
• The members of the Legislative Council
could ask supplementary questions,
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

discuss bills, move resolutions on

financial statements and so on. Simon Commission
• The Legislative Councils, both at the It was constituted in 1927 to inquire the
cen !Te (16 to 60) and in the provinces working of the Act of 1919, under the
(not uniform) was expanded. chairmanship of John Simon. It placed its
• It retained o.ffidal majodty in the report in 1930, which was examined by the
Central Legislative Council, but allowed Briiish Parliament
the Provincial Legislative Council to
h ave non-o.ffidal majmity. Government of IndiaAct, 1935
• Commnnal representation was • Dya.rchy was abolished in the prmrinces,
introduced as Muslims were given butit was inb.·oduced at the federal level.
separate electorates based on religious • The division of subjects was made in to
grounds. thrne lists: Federal (59 items), Provincial
• Satyend1·a Prasad Sinha became the (54 items) and Concurrent (36 items)
first Indian to join the Viceroy's and Residuary powers were given to the
Executive Council. Viceroy.
• It provided for the establishment of an
The Government of India AU lnctia Federation consisting of
Act, 1919 Bdtish provinces and Princely States as
WJ.it, but the federation did not come
(Montagu-Chelmsford into effect because the Indian Princely
Reforms) States had notjoined the federation.
• Sanrnel Montagu, the Secretat}' of State • It in b.'oduced bicameralism in 6 out of
for India and Lord Chelmsford, Viceroy 11 provinces.
of India prepared report to introduce • The Federal Legislature had two chambers:
self-govern.ing institutions in India. The Council of State and Federal
• It relaxed the cenrr·al control over the Assembly. The Council of State was to be
provinces by separating the central and a permanent body with one- th.ird of its
provincial subjects. members, retiring eveL1' 2 years .
• The pm1\1ers of the Secretat}' of State • The Governor was given powers to use
were drastically reduced. their discretion in certain matters. The
• It required that the thrne of the Six act provided for a federal comt.
members of Viceroy's executive council • It :
f urther extended the pr:inciple of
were to be Indian. communal representation by providing
• Direct elections were introduced for the separate electorates for depresse d
first time in the counb.)'. classes, women and labom·.
• The Cenrr·al Legislature was to h ave a • It provided for the establishment of a
Bicameral Legislature for the first time. Reserve Bank of India to control the
• Dyru·chy system was introduced in the
currency and credit of the country.
provinces. Where provincial subjects of • It provided for the establishment of a
admin.isb.·ation were to be divided in to Federal Public Service Comm.ission and
two categories: reserved and rr·ansferred. Joint Public Service Commission for two
Transferred subjects were administered or more provinces.
by the Governor with the help of
min.is ters responsible to the Legislative
Cripps Mission, 1942
Council. Reserved subjects were • Dominion status was proposed.
admin.istered by the Governor with h.is • Constitution of India to be made by an
Executive Council without any assembly, ,,.,hose members were to be
responsiblity towards the Legislative elected by prmrincial assemblies and
Council. nominated by piincely states.
• It provided separated electorates for • Any province of Indian states not
Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians prepai·ed to accept the Constitution
and Europeans. could negotiate separately with Bdtain.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

• From 15th August, 1947, India ceased to

Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946 be a dependency of the British Crown
• According to thjs plan, there was to be a over the Indian states. The Governor-
Union of India, consisting of both British General and Provincial Governors acted
India and the Inman states, with control as constitutional heads .
over foreign affairs, defence and • The Central Legislatme of India
communication. com prising of the Legislative Assembly
• Provinces were given the powers and the Council of States, ceased to exist
to legislate all suqjects except foreign on 14th August, 1947 and the
affairs, defence and commumcation. Constituent Assembly was to function
• India '"'as to be rnvided into thrne groups also as the Cenb.'al Legislature with
of provinces: Group A, Group B and complete sovereignty.
Group C.
• The plan provided that the Union
Interim Government 1946
Constitution was to be framed by a • The In terim Government of In rna,
Constituent Assembly, the members of formed on 2nd September, 1946, from
,,vWch were to be elected on a communal the newly elected Constituent Assembly
basis by the Provincial Legislative of India, had the task of assisting the
Assemblies and the representatives of the b.'ansfer of power from British rule to
states joining the unfon. Independent India.
Interim Cabinet
Mountbatten Plan Name of Members Portfolios Held
Lord Mountbatten, the Viceroy of India, put Jawaharlal Nehru External Affairs and
forth the partition plan, known as the Commonwealth
RelaLions
Mountbatten Plan_ The plan was accepted by
Sardar Vallabhbhai Home, Information
the Congress and the Muslim League. Patel and Broadcasting
Immediate effect was given to the plan by Dr Rajendra Prasad Food and Agrioulture
enacting the Indian Independence Act, 1947 _ Dr John Mathai Industries and
Su1212lies
The Indian Independence Jagjivan Ram Labour
Sardar Baldev Singh Defenoe
Act, 1947 CH Bhabha Works, Mines and
• It ended the Blitish Rule in India and Power
declared In rna as an independent and Liaguat Ali Khan Finanoe
sovereign state from 15th August, 194 7. Abdur Rab Nishlar Posts and Air
• The office of the Secretary of State was Asaf Ali Railways and
abolished. The crown no longer remained Transport
the somce of authority. C Rajagopalachari Education and Arts
• The act provided for the creation of two I I Chundrigar Commeroe
Ghaznafar Ali Khan Health
Constituent Assemblies for India and
Joginder Nath Mandal Law
Paldstan.

MAKING OF THE
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
• The Constituent Assembly was formed in
November 1946, under the scheme
formulated by Cabinet Mission Plan.
• The total strength of the assembly was
389, out of these, 296 were elected to
represent the Blitish India and 93 seats
were alloted to the princely states. Out of
296 members, 292 members were to be
elected by the provincial legislatmes
while 4 members were to represent the
four Chief Commissioner's provinces of
Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg and
0 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Blitish BaJucWstan. 93 seats were Committees of the Constituent

reserved for princely states remained
, 1vhich unfilled as they stayed away Assembly
from the Constituent Assembly. Constituent Assembly appointed nwnber of
• The Constituent Assembly, held its committees to deaJ ,,.rith different tasks of
fu·st meeting on 9th Decembe1; 1946 Constitution making.
and reassembled on 14th August, Some of them are
1947, as the sovereign Constituent
Assembly for the dominion of India. Committee Name Headed by
• It took 2 yea.rs, 11 months and Union Powers Committee Pandit Jawaharlal
18 days to finabse the Constitution. Nehru
• Objective resolu tion was moved in Union Constituiion Pandit Jawaharlal
the first session of the Constituent Committee, State Nehru
Committees (oommittee for
Assembly (on 13th December, 1946) negotiating with states)
by Pa.ndH Jawaharlal Nehm which Provincial Constitution Sardar Patel
was adopted after considerable Committee, Advisory
deliberation and debate in the Committee on
assembly on 22nd J anuary, 1947. Fundamental Rights
• Dr Sachlda.na.nd Sinha was the first minorities and Tribal and
Excluded Areas
President (temporary) of the
Constituent Assembly, when it met Drafting Committee Dr BR Ambedkar
on 9th December, 1946, ,,vmJe later Rules of Procedure Dr Rajendra Prasad
Dr Rajendra Prasad and HC Committee
Mukhe1jee , 1vere elected as the Committee on the GV Mavalankar
President and Vice-Presidents of the Functions of the
Constituent Assembly
assembly respectively.
Dr Rajendra Prasad
• Sil· BN Rau was appointed as the Steering Committee
constitutional advisor of the
Assembly. Drafting Committee
• Seats were allotted to each province The Constituent Assembly appointed
and each Princely states proportional a Drafting Comrrrittee on 29th August, 194 7.
to their respective popu.Jation roughly Dr BR Ambedkai·, , 1vho ,,vas the Chairman of
in the ratio of one to a miJUon. the Drafting Commjttee, sublllltted fu·st Draft
• The seats in each province was of Constitution of India to the President of the
distributed between Muslims, Sikhs Assembly on 21st February, 1948 and second
and General in proportion to their draft in October 1948.
respective popu.Jation.
• Members of each community in the Enactment of the Constitution
Constituent Assembly were elected by On 26th November, 194-9, Constitution , 1vas
members of that community in the adopted, contaimng a Prean1ble and
Provincial Assemblies by the method 395 Articles, 22 Parts and 8 Schedu.Jes. The
of proportional representation with Constitution has undergone 103 Amendments
single transferable vote. in the 70 yeal's since its enacbnent. The
• On 26th November, 1949 (third and Constitutions, in its current form, consists of a
final reading of draft completed) the Prean1ble, 25 Parts, 448 Articles and
Constitution was declarnd as passed. 12 Schedules.
The provisions relating to citizensrnp,
elections and provisional Parlian1ent Enforcement of the Constitution
etc were implemented with The Constitution came into force on 26th
inlmediate effect, i.e., from the 26th January, 1950, was specifically chosen as the
November, 1949. The rest of the "date of commencement" of the Constitution
provisions came into force on 26th because on thjs day in 1930, the Poorna
January, 1950. Swa.raj day was celebrated [Resolu tion was
passed in Lahore Session (1929) of INC].
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Sources of the Constitution of India

• The Govern ment of India Act, 1935 formed the basis or 'blue print' of the Constitution of India
with the features of Federal systems, Office of Governor etc. Besides, the Consti tution of India has
borrowed certain fea tures from foreign Constitutions as well.
• British Constitution First past the Post System, Parliamentary form of Government, the idea of
the ru le of law, law making procedure, office of the CAG, sing le citizenship, Bicameralism.
• United States Constitution Charter of Fundamental Rights, Power of Judicial Review and
Independence of Judiciary, Written Constitution, Preamble, post of Vice-President.
• Irish Constitution Directive Principles of State Policy 0rela nd borrowed it from Spain),
Methods of Election of the President, Nomination of Members in the Raj ya Sabha by the President
• Canadian Constitution A Quasi-Federal form of Government (a federal system with a strong
Central Government)_ The idea of residual powers, appointment of State Governors by centre and
Advisory Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
• Former USSR Fundamental Duties and Five Year Planning_
• Australian Constitution Concurrent List, Provision regarding Trade, Commerce and
Intercourse, Languages of the Preamble, Joint sitti ng in the Parliament
• Weimar Constitutions of Germany Suspension of Fundamental Rights during the emergency_
• South African Constitution Procedure of Constitutional Amendment
• Constitution of France idea of liberty, equal ity and fraternity_
• Japanese Constitution Procedure estasblished by law.

SALIENT FEATURES OF THE CONSTITUTION

The salientfeatzires of the Constitution: as it stands today: are following

Lengthiest Written Constitution

• The Indian Constitution js the lengthfost in the world. Origin ally the Constitution h ad
395 Articles, 8 Schedules and 22 Parts.

Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility

• The procedure of amendment of the Inman Constitution js partly ilexible an d partly
rigid.. Some provisions can be an1ended easily and some provisions can only be
anrnnded by passage in both Unfon Parliament and half of the State Legislatmes.
Parliamentary Government
• India has a parlfamentary system of government, both at the cenb:e and in the states.
The President js the head of the Union of lnrua and the Governors are head of the
states. But they ac t on the advice of the Council of Ministers. They h ave nominal
powers.
Independent Judiciary
• There is a single, integrated and independentjurucfa.ry in India.
• The Supreme Cowt js the rng}Jest cowt of the land. Both Supreme Court and lligh
Courts h ave been given extensive powers to interpret the Constitution and ]aw under
vai1ous provisions of the Constitution of India.
Federal Systen1 with U nitaiy F eatlues
• Ow- Constitution contains federal features of government W(e ruvjsion of pm1vers ,
, 1v1itten Constitution, independent juruciai-y and bicanrnralism but a lai·ge number of

lllJltai-y featlli'es like a strong centJ-e, single citizenship, flexibility of Constitution,

rntegratedjurudai-y, emergency provisions etc ai·e also present.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Secular State 21 years in 1989 by the 61st Consti-

• The Indian Constitution stands for a secuJar
state i.e. all rehgions in our country have the
same right and support from the state. It
does not uphold any particuJar rehgion as
the official rehgion of the Indian state.
Universal Adult Franchise
• Every Indian citizen (above 18 years) has a
light to vote in the elections w:ithout any
discdmination of caste, sex, rehgion etc.
The voting age was reduced to 18 years from
tutional Amendment Act of 1988.
Emergency Provisions
• Indian Constitution has special
provisions to meet any extraordi.na.1.1'
s:ituation or emergency. During
emergency the Central Government
becomes powerful an d state comes
under the total control of it.
• During emergency our federal system
becomes llllltaJ.)' without any
amendment of the Constitution .

I PARTS OF THE CONSTITUTION I

There are 25 parts in owr ConstitZLtion, which can be described as below
■ Part-I (Artioles 1-4)
■ Part-II (Artioles 5-11)
■ Part-Ill (Artioles 12-36)
■ Part-IV (Artioles 36-51)
■ Part-IV A (Artiole 51A)
■ Part-V (Artioles 52-151)
■ Part-VI (Artioles 152-237)
■ Part-VI I (Artiole 238)
■ Part-VI II (Artioles 239-241)
■ Part-IX (Arlioles 243-2430) and
■ Part-IX A (Arlioles 243P-243 ZG)
■ Part- IX B (243-ZH to 243-ZT)
■ Part-X (Art ioles 244, 244A)
■ Part-XI (Artioles 245-263)
■ Part-XII (Artioles 264-300A)
■ Part-XIII (Arlioles 301-307)
■ Part-XIV (Artioles 308-323)
■ Part-XIV A (Artioles 323A, 3238)
■ Part-XV (Artioles 324-329A)
■ Part-XVI (Artioles 330-342)
■ Part-XVII (Artioles 343-361)
Deals with territory of India, formation of new states,
alterations of names and areas of existing states.
Deals with various provisions related to oitizenship.
Deals with Fundamental Rights of Indian oitizens.
Deals with Direotive Prinolples of State Polioy.
Added by 42nd Amendment in 1976. Contains the
Fundamental Duties of the oitizens.
Deals with Government at the Union Level (Duties and
Functions of Prime Mini ster, Minister, President,
Vias-President, Attorney General, Parliament-Lok Sabha
and Rajya Sabha, Comptroller and Auditor-General).
Deals with Government at State Level (Duties and
Functions of Chief Minister and his Ministers, Governor,
State Legislature, High Court, Advocate General of the
State).
Deals with states in part B, was repealed in 1956 by the
7th Amendment.
Deals with Union Territories.
Part IX was added by 73rd Amendment in 1992. Contains a
new schedule 'Schedule Eleven '_ It oontains 29 subjects
related to Panchayati Raj.
Part IX A was added by 74th Amendment in 1992.
Contains a new schedule 'Schedule Twelve' _ It oontains
18 subjects related to munoipalities.
Deals with the Cooperative Sooielies.
Deals with Scheduled and Tribal Are as.
Deals with relation between Union and States.
Deals with distribution of Revenue between Union and
Stales, Appointment of Finance Commission (Article 280),
Contracts liabilities etc.
Relates to Trade, Commeroe and lnteroourse within the
Territory of India.
Deals with Civil Services and Public Service Commission.
Deals with tribunals.
Deals with Elections (including Election Commission).
Deals with special provisions for Scheduled Castes and
Soheduled Tribes and Anglo-Indian Representation .
Relates to Ottioial Language.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

■ Part-XVIII (Articles 352-360) Deals with Emergency Provisions.

■ Part-XIX (Articles 361-367)
■ Part-XX (Article 368)
■ Part-XXI (Articles 369-392)
■ Part-XXII (Articles 393-395)
Misoellaneous Provisions.
Deals with Amendment of Constitution _
Contains Temporary, Transi1ional and Speoial Provisions.
Conoems the short title, commencement, authorative text
in Hindi and repe als of the Constitution.

Schedules
The Constitution of India at the time of adoption had only 8 schedules to which 4 more
were added during the succeeding 66 years.
■ First Schedule State and UTs.
■ Second Schedule Salaries and Emoluments of President, Governor, Chief Judges,
Auditor General, Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha.
■ Third Schedule Forms of Oath and Affirmations of Members of Legislatures , Ministers
Judges and the Comptroller and Auditor General.
■ Fourth Schedule Allocation of Seats in the Rajya Sabha
■ Fifth Schedule Administration and control of Scheduled Areas and Soheduled Tribes.
■ Sixth Schedule Administration of Tribal Areas in the stale of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura
and Mizoram.
■ Seventh Schedule Dis tribution of Power between the Union and the State Government
(Union List, State List and Conourrent List) .
■ Eighth Schedule Languages.
■ Ninth Schedule Validation of certain Acts and Regulations.
■ Tenth Schedule Anti-Defection Law.
■ Eleventh Schedule Power, authority and responsibility of Panchayals. It has 29 matters_
■ Twelfth Schedule Powers, authority and re sponsibility of munioipalities. It has 18 matters.

EVOLlITION OF STATES AND

UNION TERRITORIES
Dhar Con1111ission
The Constituent Assembly appointed the SK Dhar Commission in ]WJe 1948, to study the
feasibility of the reorgan.isation of the states on linguistic basis. It was felt that such
reorganisation ,11,ouJd fuel regional sentiments and might tru·eaten national integration
·which was precaiious in the backgroWJd of Partition. Thus, the Dhar Comrn.ission
categorically r~jected the basis of linguistic formation of states.

NP Con1111ittee
• The Congress in its Jaipw.- Session in 1948, appointed a thrne member committee to
consider the recommendation of the Dhar Commission. Its members were Jawah arlal
Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitai·arnayya.
• The Committee rejected language as the basis for the reorgan.isation despite popuJai·
support for it.

First Linguistic State

• In October 1953, the Government of India was forced to create the First Linguistic State, known as
Andhra Pradesh, by separating the Telugu speaking area from Madras Presidency (after the death of
Sriramulu, a Congress person).
• Kurnool was the first capital of the Andhra State with High Court at Guntur.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Fazl Ali Con1111ission • In 1986, Mizoram and Arnnachal

Pradesh came into being.
After the creation of Andhra State, demand
• In 1987, Goa can1e into existence. In
for creation of states on lingwstic basis
2000, three more new states
intensified and Fazl Ali Commission was
Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and
constituted in December, 1953, (also
Jharkhand were created.
Jmown as States Reorganjsation
Commission) accepted language as the • On 2nd June, 2014, Telengana state
basis of reorganisations of state but rejected can1e into existence, after
the theory of 'one-language-one state'. By reorganisation of And.bra Pradesh.
the States Reorganisation Act (1956) and • On 31st Oct, 2019, J&K States was
the 7th Constitutional Amendment Act, the bifurcated in two Umon Tenitory, J&K
distinction between states was aboli shed. and Ladakh.
Some of them were merged ,,.rith adjacent • On 26 January, 2020 two UTs Dan1an
state and some other were designated as and Diu and Dadrn and NagaT Haveli
Union Territories. As a resuJt 14 States got merged in to single UT.
and 6 Unfon Terdtmies were created on
1st November, 1956. Union Territories
• J ammu & Kashmir, Lada.kb National
Reorganisation Capital Territory of Delm, Puducherry,
of States Andaman and Nicobar are headed by the
• In 1956, there were 14 states and 6 union Lieutenant Governor.
tenitmies. Andhra Pradesh was created • Dan1an and Diu, Dama and NagaT
in 1953 and Kerala in 1956. Haveli have a common adm@sb.-ator.
• In 1956, Kamataka was created. From 26th of January, both the UTs have
• In 1960, Bombay was bifurcated into been merged in to single UT named
Gujarat and Maharnshtra. 'DadTa and Nagar Haveli' and 'Dan1an
• In 1963, Nagaland was created as and Diu '. Lakshadweep, Chandigarh are
separate state. also governed by an admjnjsb.-ator.
• In 1966, Haryana was carved out of • J and K, Delhi and PuducheITy have
Punjab and Chandigarh becan1e a Union Legislative Assemblies. There are total
Te1·d tory. Nine Union Territories-Delhi, Puduchen~
• In 1970, the Umon Territory of llimachal Dan1an and Diu & Dadrn and Nagra
Pradesh was elevated to the status of a Haveli, Chandigarh, Lakshadweep,
state. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, J &K and
Lada.kb.
• In 1971, Manipm, Tripma and
Meghalaya were granted statehood. In • By the 69th Constitutional.Amendment
1974, Si.k.Jdm became an associate state Act 1991, Delm was given the status of
of the Indian Uruon. By the National Capital Terdtm)' of India. It
36th Constitutional An1endment Act could legislate in certain matters except
(1975), SikJdm became a full fledged land, Police and law and order.
State of the Indian Uruon.

I THE PREAMBLE I
• The Preamble means Introduction or Resolution drafted and moved by
Preface of the Constitution or essence of Pandi t Nehru and adopted by the
the Constitution. NA Palkivala, an Constituent Assembly.
eminentjUiist and Constitutional expert, • The idea of]ustice, Social, Economic and
called the Preamble as the identity card Political have been taken from the
of the Constitution. India followed the Russian Revolution (1 917).
USA to include Preamble in the • The idea of Liberty, Equality and
Constitution. The Prean1ble of the Indian Fraternity have been taken from the
Constitution is based on the Objectives French Revolu tion (1789-1799).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
Preamble of India
We, the People of India. having solemnly
resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign,
Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic
and secure to all its citizens.
• Justice, Social, Economic and Political;
• Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith
and worship;
• Equality of status and of opportunity; and to
promote among them all;
• Fraternity assuring the dignity of the
individual and the unity and integrity of the
Nation;
• In our Constituent Assembly on this
twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do hereby
Adopt, Enact and Give to Ourselves this
Constitution.
Significance of the Preamble
• The Preamble embodies the basic
philosophy and fundamental values like
political, moral and religious on v, bich the
1 SecuJar
Constitution js based.
I UNION AND ITS TERRITORY I
• A.rt.icles 1-4 under Part-I of the
Constitution deals with the Union and its
Tenitories.
• A.r ticle 1, describes lnrna, that is Bharat,
as a 'Uruon of States'. the Tenit011' of
India can be classified into three categ011es
1. Territories of the States.
2. Unfon Tenitmies.
3. Tenitories that may be acquired by the
Government of lnrna at any time.
• The names of the States and UTs and
their ter.rit01ial extent are mentioned in
the First Schedule of the Constitution.
• At present, there are 28 States and
9 Union Territories.
• The 'Tenit011' of India' 1s a wider
eA-pression than the 'Limon of India'
because the latter includes only states
v, hile the former includes not only states,
1 simple maj01ity in both Houses of the
but also UTs and tenitories that may be
acquired by the Government of India at
any future time.
• ~.\.rticle 2 empowers the Parliament to
admi t into the Urnon of India, or
establish, new states on such terms and
conrntions as it trunks fit.
• AI1icle 3 authodses the Parlianrnnt to
• It contains the grand and noble v1sion of
the Constituent Assembly.
• It reflects the dreams and aspirations of
the founding fathers of the
Constitution. lt provides a key to the
understanding and interpretation of the
Constitution.
Amendability of the Preamble
• Whether, the Preamble can be amended
under Article 368 or not, thjs question
arnse for the first time in
Keshavananda Bharati Case (1973).
In tbis case Supreme Court held that
Preamble is the part of the Constitution
and can be an1ended, subject to the
condition that no amendment 1s done to
the basic features of the Constitution .
• The Preamble has been amended only
once so far, in 1976, by
42nd Constitution al Amendment Act,
whkh added three new words Socialist,
and Integrity. This
amendment was held to be vilid.
(a) form a new state by separation from
any state or by uruting t\Jvo or more
states or par ts of states or by urnting
any territory to a part of any state;
(b) inCl'ease the area of any state;
(c) rnmirush the area of any state;
(d) alter the boundaries of any state;
(e) alter the nanJe of any state.
• A Bill seeldng to create a nev, state or
1
alter boundaiies of existing states can be
inb:oduced in ejther House of the
PatlianJent, only on the recommendation
of the President.
• President has to refer the State
Reorgarusation Bill to the State
Legislature concerned for expressing its
opinfon, within a specified peLiod.
• The State Reorgarusation Bill requires
Paruament.
• Paruament is not bound to accept or ac t
upon the views of the State Legislatw:e
on a State Reorgarusation Bill.
• Article 4 provides that Bills under
Articles 2 and 3 are not to be considered
as Constitutional Amendment Bills
under Article 368.
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
I CITIZENSHIP I
• The Indian Constitution deals with the
citizensrnp from Articles 5-11 under Part
II.
• Articles 5 to 8 deal that how a person
became citizen of India, after
Comencement of Constitution.
• A citizen is a person, ,,vho enjoys full
membership of the counb.yr in which he
lives. Indian Constitution prmrides a single
and uniform citizenship for the en tire
country.
Acquisition of Citizenship
The Citizensrnp Act of 1955 provides for 5
,,,.,ays of acquiring citizenship as descdbed
belm'I'
ByBiith
Every person born in India on or after
26th Januaiyr, 1950 bu t before 1st July,
1987 shall be a citizen of India by birth
irrespective of the nationality of his
pai·ents.
• The childrnn of fo reign diplomats pos ted
in India an d enemy aliens cannot
acquire Indian Citizenship.
By Descent
Persons born outside India on or after
26th Januai'Y, 1950, but before
l 0th December, 1992 ai·e citizens of India
by descent if their father was a citizen of
India at the time of their birth.
By Registration
The Central Government may, on an
application, register as a citizen of India
any person, if he belongs to any of the
following categmies
• A person of Indian odgin, residing in
India for 7 years.
• A person of Indian 01igin, ,,vho is
ordinarily resident in any country or
place outside undivided India.
• A person, who is married to citizens of
India and resident of India for 7 years.
• Minor children of persons, who are
citizen of India.
• A person of full age and capacity, whose
parents are registered as citizen of India.
By Naturalisation
It can be acquired by a foreigner, who has
resided in India for 12 years.
By Incorporation of Territory
(Foreign Territory)
If any new territory becomes a part of
India, the Government of India specifies
the people of that tenitmyr to be dtizens of
India. Such persons become the citizens
of India from the notified date.
Loss of Citizenship
The Citizenship Act, 1955, also provides thrree
modes of losing citizenship
1. By Renunciation
If a person gives up his Indian citizenship.
2. By Tennination
When an Indian citizen voluntaii1y
acquires the citizenship of another
counb.'y, his Indian citizenship
automatically terminates.
3. By Deprivation
Deprivation of citizenship by the
Government of India on the basis of
acquisition of citizensrnp by fraud,
helping an enemy during a wai· or being
disloyal to the Constitution.
Overseas Citizens of India (OCI)
• Citizenship Act h as been amended in
2003, by which people of Indian 01igin of
16 specified coun n·ies except Pakistan
and Bangladesh, v,ill become eligible to
be registered as the Overseas Citizens
of lndja (OCl).
• OCls are entitled to some beneBts like
multiple enb.-y, muJtipurpose life long
visas, they can live and work in India or
their counb.yr of naturalisation.
• They are not entitled to h old
constitutional posts and employment in
the government offices and they can't
vote.
• All Persons of Indian Oligin (PIO)
cardholders are deemed to be Overseas
Citizens of lndia(OCl) cardholders \i\rith
effect from 9th January, 20 15.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019
• It amends the Citizenship Act, 1955.
• The Amended Act provides that the Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis & Christians from
Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan, who entered India on or before 31st December, 2014 will
not be treated as illegal migrants and will be eligible for grant of citizenship .
• It also reduces the period of naturalisation for such group of persons from 11 years to 5 years .
I FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
• Rights al'e claims of sodal life and
they help individuals to develop their
personality. Some of the Fundamental
Rights provide protection only against
the state action and do not safeguard
against the action of private
individuals.
• The Fundamental Rights are gua-
ranteed and protected by the
Constitution to all persons ,vithou t
any discrimination .
• The Fundamental PJghts h ave been
described in Articles 12-35, Part ill
of Indian Constitution.
• Oliginally, FundanJental PJghts were
seven in number viz
■ Right to Equality.
■ Right to Freedom.
■ Right against ~-ploitation.
■ Right to Freedom of Religion.
■ Cul tural and Educational Rights.
■ Right to Property .
■ Right to Constitutional Remedies .
Right to Property
The Right to Property (Article 31) was
deleted tram the list of Fundamental
Rights by the 44th Amendment Act, 1978 .
It is made a legal right under Article-300A
in Part XII of the Constitution .
Right to Equality
(Article 14-18)
.Article 14 Equality before law and
equal protection of laws . It says that the
state shall not deny to any person
equality before the Jaw or equal
protection of the Jaws within the
teni tory of India. Thjs provision
confers rights to alJ persons whether
citizens or foreigners. The concept of
I
equality before lav,r is an elemen t of the
concept of 'Rule of ]aw'- propounded by AV
Dicey, the Blitish Jurist.
The rule of equality before la,\ is not absolute .
1
Some of the exceptions are
■ The President or the Governor is not
answerable to any court for the exercise and
performance of the powers and duties of Ws
office.
■ No crimm aJ proceedings shall be institu ted
or continued against the President or the
Governor in any court dming his term of
office.
■ No process for the arrest or imprisonmen t
of the President or the Governor shall be
issued from any court during Ws term of
office.
■ No civil proceedings against the Presiden t
or the Governor shall be institu ted during
hjs term of office in any court in respect of
any act done by Wm in his personal capacity,
until the eJ\..-pi.ration of 2 months next after
notice de.livered to bmJ.
A. rticle 15 Prohibition of discrim ination on
certain grounds . It says that the state shall no t
discriminate against any citizen on grounds of
religion, race, cas te , sex or place of birth. This
provision prohjbits disclimination both by state
and pdvate individuals.
There an--e thrree exceptions to this general rule
of non-discriminations
• Any special provision for women and
chilc:lrnn.
• Advancement of any socially, educationally
an d economically bachvarc:I classes of
citizens.
• Special prov1s1ons for any socially,
educationalJy and economically backward
classes, Scheduled Castes an d the
Scheduled Tribes regarding their admfasion
to educational institutions, including private
educational institutions.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Article 16 Equality of opportunity in office from or under any foreign state

pZLblic employment. It provides equality of \'l'lthou t the consent of the President.
opportwJ.jty for all citizens in matters of 5. Bharat Rama or Padma Vibhushan
employment or appointment to any office can't be used by the recipient as a title
under the state. and therefore doesn't come \'l'lthin the
• It does not bound state for presctibing the Constitutional Prohiliition.
necessary qualification and recruitment
tests for government services, certain Right to Freedom
pos ts may be reserved for the resident of a
particular state.
(Articles 19-22)
• It also provide for reservation of Article 19 It guarantees to alJ citizens the
appointment or posts :in favour of six rights. These are
backv,,ard classes along Vir:i.th reservation 1. Right to freedom of speech and
in promotion for Scs and Sts. expression .
2. Right to assemble peace.fully and
Mandal Commission \'l'lthou t arms.
• In 1979, the Morarji Desai Government 3. Right to form associations or union s
appointed the Backward Classes Commission or co-operatives.
under the Chairman ship of BP Mandal, a 4. Right to move freely throughout the
Member of Parliament, to investigate the tenitory of India.
cond itions of the socially and educationally 5. Right to reside and settle in any part
backward classes and suggest measures for of the teni tory of India.
their advancement The comm1ss1on 6. Right to practice any profession or to
submitted its report in 1980 and recommended can1' on any occupation, trade or
27% jobs reservation fo r Other Backward business.
Classes IOBCs). • OiiginalJy, Article 19 contained seven
• The advanced sections among the OBCs (the 1ights. But, the right to acquire, hold
Creamy Layer) should be excluded from the list and dispose of property was deleted by
of beneficiaries of reservation. the 44th Amendment Act of 1978.
• These 6 rights are protected against
Article 17 Abolition of untouchabilitzJ. It only state action and not p11vate
abohshes untouchability and forbids its :inm,rjduals.
practice in any form. A..rticle 20 Protection in respect of
• The term 'untouchability' has not been conviction for offences. lt grants
defined either in the Constitution or :in protection against arbib.-ary and excessive
the Act (Protection of Civil PJghts Act, pl.l.Il]shmen t to an accused person,
1955) whether citizen or foreigner or legaJ
Article 18 Abolition of titles. It abohshes person Wce a company or a corporation. Jt
titles and malces fow- provisions in that con ta ins three provisions in that direction.
regard. 1. No Ex-Post-Facto Law No person
1. It prohibits the state from conferring shall be (i) convicted of any offence
any title (except a military or academic except for violation of a law :in force at
distinction) on any body, whether a the time of the commission of the act,
citizen or a foreigner. (ii) nor be subjected to a penalty
2. It prohibits a citizen of Inma from greater than that presc11bed by the
accepting any title from any foreign la\Jv in force at the time of the
state. commfasion of the Act.
3. A foreigner holding any office of pro.fit 2. No Double Jeopardy No person shall
or trust under the state, cannot accept be prosecuted and punished for the
any title from any foreign state \'l'lthout same offence more than once.
the consent of the President. 3. No Sell'-Incrimination No person
4. No citizen or foreigner holding any accused of any offence sha.IJ be
office of profit or b.-ust under the state is compelled to be a wirness against
to accept any present, emolument or himself.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Article 21 Probection of life amd personal Article 22 Probection against mTest and
libertzJ. It declares that no person shall be detention
deprived of ms life or personal lilierty except • No person, who :is arrested shall be
according to procedure established by ]aw. detained in custody without being
TWs right is available to both citizens and informed of the grounds for such arrest
non-citizens. nor sh all h e be denied the light to
The Supreme Court has expanded the scope consul t, and to be defended by a legal
of Right to Llfe in its various judgments and practioner of his choice.
declared the following rights as part of • Every person, who is arrested and
ATticle 21. detained in custody is to be produced
(a) PJght to live with hwnan mgnity. before the nearest Magistrate v.dthin a
(b) Right to decent environment induding period of 24 homs of arrest excluding
pollution free water and air and the time necessary for the journey from
protection against hazardous industries. the place of arrest to the court of the
Magistrate and such person cann ot be
(c) PJght to livelihood.
detained in custody beyond that period
(d) PJght to privacy. v.dthout the a.uthmity of a Magistrate.
(e) Right to shelter. • There a.re some exception against these
(f) PJght to health. safeguards.
(g) Right to free education upto 14 years of • It is not available to an enemy a.lien an d
age. a person arrested or detained under a
(h) PJgh t to free legal aid. law providing for preventive detention
(i) PJght against solitary confinement. (detention of a person ,,.rithout trial).
(i) PJgh t to speedy tiiaJ. • The preventive detention of a person
cannot exceed three months unless
(k) PJgh t against h andcuffing.
there is sufficient ca.use for extension.
(l) PJght against inhuman treabnent.
(m) PJght against delayed execution. Right Against Exploitation
(n) PJght to travel abroad . (Al.tides 23-24)
(o) PJgh t against bonded labour Article 23 Prohibition of traffic in hmnam
(p) Right against custodial harassment. beiJngs and forced labozm: Rt prohibits traffic
( q) PJgh t to emergency medical aid in hunJan beings, 'Bega.r' (forced labour)
and other sinru ar forms of forced ]abom.
(r) Right to timely medical treabnent in
government hospital . .Article 24 Rt prohibits the employment of
children below the age of 14 yea.rs in any
(s) Right not to be driven out of a state. factory, mine or othei- hazardous activities
(t) PJght to fair tti al. like construction ' "'' ode or r ailway. But, it
(u) PJght of plisoner to have necessities of does not prohibit their employment in
life. any harmless or innocent work.
(v) PJght of women to be treated with • The Child Labours (Prohibition and
decency and mgnity. Regulation) Act, 1986, is the most
(v,1) PJght against public hanging. important law in this direction.
(x) PJgh t to hearing.
Right to Freedom
(y) Right to information.
(z) Right to reputation. of Religion (Articles 25-28)
Aliicle 25 Freedom of conscience and
Right to Education right to freely profess, pra ctice and
Article 21A. declares that the state shall propagate religion. It says that all persons
provide free and compulsory education to all ,ue equally entitled to freedom of
chj]dren of the age of 6 to 14 years in such a conscience and the light to freely profess,
manner as the state may determine. Thus, practice and propagate religion.
thfa provision makes only elementary The state :is empowered by law to regulate
education a Fundamental Right and not or resttict any economic, financial,
higher or professional education (86th political or other secular activity whkh
Amendment Act, 2002). may be associated v.dth religious practice.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
Article 26 Freedom to Manage Religious
Affairs Every religious denomination or
any of its section shall have the Jolla-wing
rights
(a) Right to establish and maintain
institutions for religious and
cha.ii table purposes;
(b) PJght to manage its own affairs in
matters of religion;
( c) PJgh t to acquire and own movable and
immovable property; and
(d) PJght to adm.injster such property in
accordance with law.
Article 27 Freedom from taxation for Right to Constitutional
promotion of a relig ion. It lays dm'l'Il that Remedies (Article 32)
no person shall be compelled to pay any
taxes for the promotion or ma.in tenance of • Dr BR Ambedkar said, Article 32 is the
any particular religion or religious
denomination.
Article 28, Freedom from attending
religious instruction. No religious
:instruction shall be provided in any
educational :institution ,,.,holly maintained
out of state funds. However, this provision
shall not apply to an educational institution
admirristered by the state but established • Habeas Corpus It is a Latin term which
under any endowment or trust.
Cultural and Educational Rights
(Articles 29-30)
Article 29 Protection of interests of
minorities. lt provides that any section of
the citizens resid:iJJg :iJJ any part of lnrna
having a distinct language, script or culture
of its m,vn, shall have the right to conserve
the same.
Further, no citizen shall be denied • Mandamus It li terally means 'we
admission in to any educational institution
maintained by the state or recejv:iJJg aid out
of state funds on grounds only of religion,
race, caste or language.
Article 30 Right of Minorities to Establish
and Administer Educational /nstitzLtions:
Grants the following rights to mrnodties,
whether religious or linguistic
(a) All minorities shall have the 1ight to
establish and admimster educational
:institutions of their choice.
(b) In granting aid, the state shall not
rnsc.rin:rina te against any educational
institution managed by a minority. The
compensation a.mount fixed by the
state for the compuls011' acqusition of
a minmity educational institution
shall not resb.ict or abroga te the Iigh t
guaranteed to them. Tbjs provision
was added by 44th Amendment Act of
1978 to protect the light of minodties
in this regard. The act deleted the
Right to Property as a Fundamental
Right (Article 3 1).
• Tbe right under Article 30 also includes
the 1igh t of a minority to impart
education to its children in its own
language.
heart and soul of the Constitution.
• Supreme Court ruled that Article 32 is a
basic feattue of the Constitution .
Hence, it cannot be abridged or taken
away even by way of an amendment to
the Constitution. Under Article 32,
Supreme Court and Article 226, lligh
Court can issue wiits of va...dous forms in
case of violation of Fundamental PJghts:
li terally means, 'to have the body of,'_ I Us
an order issued by the court to a person
who has detained another person, to
produce the body of the latter before it.
Tbe court then examines the cause and
legality of detention. l t would set the
detained person free, if the detention is
found to be illegal. This w1it may be
addressed to an official or a p11vate
person, who h as another person in ms
custody.
command' . lt is a command issued by
the cowt to a public official asldng him
to perform ms official duties that he bas
failed or refused to perform. It can also
be issued against any public body, a
corporation, an inferior cowt, a tribunal
or government for the same purpose.
• Quo-warranto In the literal sense, it
means "by what authmity or warrant". It
is issued to enquire into the legality of
claim of a person to a public office.
Hence, it prevents illegal usurpation of
public office by a person . The writ can be
issued only :iJJ case of a substantive
public office of a permanent character
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

created by a statute or by the Constitution. lt cannot be issued in cases of ministerial

office or plivate office.
• Prohibition Ll terally means 'to forbid' . lt is issued by a hjgher court to a lm1ver court or
t:I.ibWJal to prevent the latter from exceecling its jU1isrnction or usurping a jmisrnction
that, it does not possess.
Thus, unlike mandamus that directs activity, the prorubition directs inactivity. The w1it
of prorubition can be issued only against jurncial and Quasi- J urncial authmi ties . h is
not available against Administrative Authmities, Legislative Barnes and plivate
individuals or bodies.
• Certiorari 1n the literal sense, it means, 'to be certified' or 'to be informed'. lt is issued
by a hjgher court to a lower court or tribWJal either to transfer a case pending , 1vith the
latter to itself or to squash the order of the latter in a case. l t is issued on the groWJds of
excess of jurisrnction or lack of jU1iBrnction or error of lav1 Thus, unlike prohibition,
1
•

\"i 1ruch is only preventive, certiorari is both preventive as well as cU1·ative.

Limitations on the Enforcement of Fundamental Rights

• Parlian1ent h as the power to modify the application of the FWJdamentaJ llights to the
members of the A..rmed Forces, Police Forces or Intelligence Organisations so as to
ensure proper rnscharge of their duties and maintenance of rnscipline among them
(Article 33).
• Certain Fundamental llights guaranteed by the Constitution may remain suspended,
while a Proclamation of Emergency is made by the President w1der Article 352.
• A. rticle 34 Restriction on Rights conferred by tms Part while martial law is in force in
any area.
• Article 35 Legislation, to give effec t to the provisions of trus part.
Fundamental Rights to Citizens and Foreigners
Fundamental Rights available only to oWzens Fundamental Rights available to
and not to foreigners both citizens and foreigners
(exoept enemy aliens)
1. Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, Equality before law and equal
raoe , sex or plaoe of birth (Artiole 15) . protection of laws (Artiole 14) .
2.. Equality of opportunity in matters of public Proteotion in re spect of conviction for
employment (Art iole 16). off enoes (Artiole 20) .
3.. Protection of six rights regarding freedom of Protection of life and personal liberty
(i) speeoh and expression, (ii) assembly, (Artiole 21 ).
(iii) association ,
(iv) movement, (v) residenoe, and (vi) profession
(Artiole 19).
4. Protection of language, soript and oulture of Right to elementary education (Artiole
minorities (Artiole 29). 21 A)_
5. Right of minorities to establish and administer Protection against arrest and
educationa l institutions (Article 30). detention in certain cases (Article 22) ..
Prohibition of trattic of human beings
and forced labour (Article 23)
Prohibition of employment of ohildren
in iaotories etc. (Article 24)
Freedom of oonsoienoe and free
profession , practice and propagation
of religion (Article 25)
Freedom to manage religious affairs
(Art iole 26)
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Fundamental Rights available only to oiilzens Fundamental Rights available to

and not to foreigners both oiilzens and foreigners
(exoept enemy aliens)
Freedom from payment of taxes for
promotion of any religion (Artiole 27)
Freedom from attending religious
instruction or worship in certain
educational in stitutions (Article 28)

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES
OF STATE POLICY
• The Directive Principles of State Policy are Socialistic Principles
enumerated in Part IV of the Constitution These principles reflect the ideology of
from Al1icles 36 to 51 . socialism. They lay dmvn the frame-
• Dr BR Ambedkar, described these principles work of a democratic socialist state,
as novel featrn·e of the Constitution. aim at provicling social and economic
• The DPSP alongwith FWJdamental llights justice and set the path towards welfare
contain the philosophy of the Constitution state.
and is the souJ of the Constitution. • Al1icle 38 To promote the welfare of
the people by securing a social order
Features permeated by justice-social,
• These are constitutional insb.-uctions to the econom.ic and political and to
state in legislative, executive and minjmjse inequalities in income,
admirrisb.'ative matters. status, facilities and opportunities.
• It resembles the 'lns b.-ument of lnsb.-uctions' • Al1icle 39 To secure (a) the Light to
enumerated in the Government of lnrua Act adequate means of livelihood for all
ofl935. citizens ; (b) the equitable
• They constitutes the comprehensive rnsbibu tion of mate1ial resouTces of
economic, social and political programme for the community for the common
a modern state. good ; (c) prevention of concentration
• They promote social and economic of wealth and means of production ;
(d) equal pay for equal work for men
democracy. T hey embody the concept of a
and women; (e) preservation of the
wella.re state'.
health and strength of wodcers and
• These are fundanrnnt al in the governance of children against forcible abuse ; and
the counb.-y. (f) opportunities for healthy
• They are non-justiciable. development of childrnn.
• They apply to both Unfon and State • Al1icle 39 (A) To promote equal
Governments and all other authmities justice and to provide free legal ajd to
coming under the definjtion of 'State'. the poor.
• Al1icle 41 To secure the right to
Classification work, education and to public
• The Constitution does not contain any assistance in cases of
classification of clirective principles. unemployment, old age, siclmess
However, on the basis of their content and and rusablemen t.
direction, they can be classified in to three • Al1icle 42 To make provision for
broad categories, vi.z socialistic, Gandhian just an d hWJJane conditions for , 1vork
and liberal-intellectual. and maternity relief.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

• A. rticle 43 To secure a living wage, a decent Liberal-Intellectual

standard of life and social and cuJtural
opportunities for all , 1vorkers.
Principles
• A. rticle 43 (A.) To take steps to seclll'e the The principles in clZLded in this
participation of workers in the management category represent the ideology of
of indusb.~ies. liberalism .
• Article 47 To raise the level of nutrition and • Article 44 To secure for all
the standard of living of people and to citizens a unlt'orm civiJ code
improve public health. thrnughout the counb.y
• Article 45 To provide eady
Gandhian Principles childhood care and education for all
These principles are based on Gandhjan children until they complete the age
ideology. They represent the programme of of 6 years .
reconsb.·uction enunciated by Gandhi during • Article 48 To orgaruse agriculture
the Nation al Movement. In order to fuJfil the and animal husbandry on modern
dreanJs of Gandhi, some of hjs ideas were and scientific lines.
included as Directive Principles. • Article 48 (A.) To protect and
• Article 40 To orgarnse Village Panchayat to improve the environment and to
function as units of self government. safeguard forests and , 1vilcllife.
• Article 43 To promote cottage indusb.~ies on • Article 49 To pro tect objects,
an individual or co-operation basis in rural places and monuments of hjs todc
areas. interest and national importance.
• .Article 46 To promote the educational and • Article 50 To separate the
economk interests of SCs, STs and other judicfary from the executive in the
weaker sections of the society and to protect public services of the state.
them from social injustice and exploitation. • Article 51 To promote
• A. rticle 47 To prornbit the consumption of international peace and security
intoxicating drinks and drugs wrnch are and to main ta.in just and honolll'able
injwjous to health . relations between nations; to foster
• A. rticle 48 To prornbit the slaughter of cows, respect for international law and
calves and other milch and ell-aught cattle and treaty obligations and to encomage
to improve their breeds. settlement of in ternation al dispu tes
by arbitration.

Distinction between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles

Fundamental Rights
These are negative as they prohibit
the state from doing oertain ihings.
These are justiciable, i.e . ihey are
legally enforoeable by the oourts in
case of t heir violation .
They aim at establishing political
demooracy in the oountry.
These have legal sanctions .
They promote ihe welfare of 1he
individual. Henoe, they are
personal and individualistic.
The courts are bound to deolare a
law violative of any of the
Fundamental Rights as
unconstitutional and invalid .
Directive Principles
These are positive as they require ihe state to do oertain
things .
These are non-justiciable, i.e . ihey are not legally
enforceable by the oourts for their violation .
They aim at establishing social and economic demooracy
in ihe country.
These have moral and political sanctions .
They promote the welfare of the community . Henoe, they
are societarian and socialistic .
The courts cannot deal are a law violative of any of the
Direotive Prinoiples as unconsti tutional and invalid .
However, they can uphold the validity of a law on the
ground ihat it was enaoted to give ettect to a directive.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
New Directive Principles
• A.r ticle 39A To provide free legal aid to the
poor (42nd Amendment Act, 1976).
• Article 39(f) To secme opportunities for
healthy development of children ( 42nd
Amendment Act, 1976).
• A.rticle 43A To take steps to secure the
participation of wodcers in the management
ofindusb.ies. (42nd Amendment Act, 1976).
• A. rticle 43 B To promote professionally run
co-operative societies added by the 97th
Constitutional Amendment Act, 2011.
• Article 48 A To protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard forests and
,,.rjjd life. (42nd Amendment Act, 1976).
• ~ilrticle 38(2) It added one more Directive
Principle, which requires the state to
minimjse inequalities in income status,
facilities and opportunities under
Article 38. (44th Amendment Act, 1978)
• ~ilrticle 45 To provide early childhood care
and education for all children they complete
the age of 6 years (The 86th Amendment
Act, 2002)
I FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
• The FundanJental Duties in the
Constitution serve as a remmder to the
citizens that wbj}e enjoying their rights,
they should also be conscious of their
duties towards the country. V\/e have
bm-rm'lred FundanJental Duties from the
Constitution of former Soviet Urnon.
• Originally, Constitution did not contain
Fundamental Duties. ln 1976, the FDs of
citizens were added by 42nd
Constitutional Amendment Act (1976)
on the recommendations of Swaran
Singh Comnnttee. Originally, ten FDs
were added. In 2002, one more duty was
added. Thus, today there are 11
Fundamental Duties.
List of Fundamental Duties
According to A.r ticle 51 A, it shall be the
duty of eve11' citizen of lndia
(a) to abide by the Constitution and
respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National
Anthem;
Directives Outside Part IV
• Apart from the directives included in
part rv, there are some other
Directives contained in other parts of
the Constitution.
• ClainJs of members of Scheduled
Castes and Scheuled Tubes will be
taken into consideration, consistent
with the main tenance of efficiency in
admjnjsb.·ation, in the appointmen t
to Public Services. (Article 335).
• It is the duty of every state and local
authmity to provide adequate
facilities for instruction in the
mother tongue at the primary
stage of education to chj}dren
belonging to mmmity classes (Article
350 A).
• It shall be the duty of the Umon to
promote Hindi language amongst the
people of India, so that it may serve
as a mediunJ of e:\.-pression for all the
elements of the composite cuJtme of
India (Article 351 in part XVU).
I
(b) to chelish and follow the noble ideals
that inspired the national struggle for
freedom;
( c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty,
unity and integrity of India;
( cl.) to promote harmony and the spilit of
common brotherhood amongst all
the people of lndia transcending
religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities and to renounce
practices derogatm)' to the dignjty of
women;
( e) to defend the coun b.)' and render
national service, when called upon to
do so;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of
the counb.)''s composite cultlll:e;
(g) to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests, Jakes,
rivers and wildlife and to have
com passion for living creatures;
(h) to develop scientific temper,
humarnsm and the spirit of inquil)'
and reform;
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
(i) to safeguard public property and
to oqjme violence.
G) to strive towards excellence in all
spheres of individual and
collective activity so that the
nation constantly rises to higher
levels of endeavour and
achievenmen t.
(k) to provide opportunities for
education to his child or ward
between the age of six and 14
yea1_·s./ Trus duty was added by the
86th Constitutional Amendment
Act, 2002.
I UNION
Article 52 to 78 in Pa1_t V of the
Constitution deal with the Limon
Executive . The Union Executive
consists of the President, the Vice-
President, the Prime Minister, the
Council of Mirristers and the Attorney
General of Inrua.
PRESIDENT
Article 52 provides the office of the
President of Inrua. The President is the
head of the Inman State. He is the first
citizen of Inrua and acts as the symbol
of unity, integrity and solidadty of the
nation.
Qualification of the
President
Under Atiicle 58, a person to be eligible
for election as President should fulfil the
following qualifications
• He should be a citizen of Inrua. He
should have completed 35 yea1_·s of
age.
• He should be qualified for election as
a member of the Lok Sabha.
• He should not hold any office of profit
under the Union Gove1nment or any
State Government or any local
authority or any other public authority.
Justice Verma Committee and
Fnndamental Duties
• Justice Verma Commjttee report on teaching
Fundamental Duties to citizens was set-up in
1999 and the report was presented in 2000. It
recommended remienting approaches to
school curriculum and teacher's education
programmes and incorporating Fundan1ental
Duties in higher and professional education.
National Commission to Review the
Working of the Constitution (NCRWC)
report in 2002 recommended to implement
the Justice Verma Con]illjttee
recommendations.
EXECUTIVE I
Election of the President
(Aitic1e 54)
The President is elected not directly by the
people but by members of electoral college
consisting of
1. the elected members of both the Houses
of Parlianrnnt;
2. the elected Members of the Legislative
Assemblies of the states;
3. the elected Members of the Legislative
Assemblies of the Limon Terri tories of
Delhi, Puducherry & J am.mu and
Kashmfr.
• Thus, the nommated members do not
participate in the election of the President.
• When Assembly is russolved, the members
cease to be qualified to vote in the
presidential election.
• Value of the vote of an MLA
Total Population of State I
------------ X --
Total Nun1ber of Elected MLAs 1000
• Value of the vote of an MP
To tal Value of Votes of
all MLAs of All States
Total Number of Elected .MPs
The President's election is held in accordance
Virith the system of proportional represen tation
by means of the single transferable vote and
the voting is through secret ballot.
e
• The candidate who gets 50% of votes is
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Conditions of President's
considered elected.
Office
Quota Number of Votes Polled +l
Article 59 of the Constitution lays down
2 the follow i ng condition of the President's
In this method, each voter casts as many office
votes as there are candidates in the field by • He shouJd not be a member of either
giving his preference. In the first phase, House of Parliament or a House of the
fhst preference votes are counted. In case State Legislature. If any such person is
a candidate secures the required quota, he elected as President, he is deemed to
is declared elected, otherwise the process have vacated his seat in that House on
of b.'ansfer of votes is set in motion. the date on which he enters upon his
• This process continues till a candidate office as the President.
secures the required quota. Trns procedme • He shouJd not hold any other office of
shows the majority of the elected profit. He is entitled, without payment
President. All disputes regardmg election of rent, to the use of his official
of the President are adjudicated by the residence (the Rastrapati Bhavan).
Supreme Court.
• He is entitled to such emoluments,
• Nommation for election of President must allowances and privileges as may be
be supported by at least 50 electors as determined by Parhament.
proposers and 50 electors as seconders.
• I-I.is emoluments and allowances
• Security deposit for the nommation as cannot be dirnimshed during hjs term
President is { 15000 in RBI. of office.
At1icle 60 Oath and affirmation of the President
• The oath of the President is admmjstered by Chief Justice of India and in his absence,
the serrior most J udge of the Supreme Court.
• Any person acting as the President also undertake simjJar oath.
Presidents of India
Tenure Important Facts
Name
From To
Dr Rajendra Prasad 26.01 .1960 13.06.1962 ■ First President and also had the
longest tenure (i 2 years)
Dr S Radhakrishnan 13.06.1962 13.06.1967 ■ Was also 'irst Vioe-President of India
Dr Zakir Hussain 13.06.1967 03.06.1969 ■ Shortest tenure; First Muslim President;
First President to die in offioe
VV Giri 03.06.1969 20.07.1969 ■ First acting President of India
Justioe M Hidayat-ul-lah 20.07.1969 24.08.1969 ■ Was also the Chief Justioe of India
and second Acting President
VV Giri 24.08.1969 24.08.1974
F Ali Ahmed 24.08.1974 11 .02.1977 ■ Died in ottioe
BO Jatti 11 .02.1977 25.07.1977 ■ Acting President
N Sanjeeva Reddy 25 .07.1977 25.07.1982 ■ Youngest President (64 years)
Giani Zail Singh 25 .07.1982 25.07.1987 ■ First Sikh President
R Venkataraman 25 .07.1987 25.07.1992 ■ Oldest President (76 years)
Dr SD Sharma 25 .07.1992 25.07.1997
KR Narayanan 25 .07.1997 25.072002 ■ First Dalit President
Dr APJ Abdul Kalam 25 .07.2002 25.072007 ■ First soientist to beoome President
Mrs Pratibha Patil 25 .07.2007 25.07 2012 ■ First woman to become President
Pranab Mukherjee 25.07.2012 25.072017
Ramnalh Kovind 25.07.2017 25.072022
Droupadi Murmu 25 .07.2022 Till date ■ First Tribal President
* As on 1st JanuafY, 2023
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
Term of the President
Under Article 56, the President shall hold
office for a term of 5 years from the date
on which he enters upon his office.
• He may resign from his office by w1i ting
under his h and addressed to the
Vice-President.
Impeachment of the
President
Under Article 61, President can be
impeached from office for "violation of
the Constitution" .
• The impeachment can be initiated by
either House of the Pailiamen t.
• These charges should be signed by
one-fomth members of the House (that
framed the charges), and a 14 days'
advance notice should be given to the
President. After the impeachment
motion is passed by a majority of
two-thirds of the total membership of
that House, it is sent to the other House,
\"i hich should investigate the charges.
1
• The President has the 1ight to appear
and to be represented at such
investigation. If the other House also
sustains the charges and passes the
motion by a majmity of two-thirds of the
total membership, the President to be
removed from his office at that time
and date.
Vacancy in the President's
Office
• Under At1icle 62 a vacancy in the
President's office can occur in any of
the following ways
• On the e:\.-piry of his tenme of 5 years,
by his resignation.
• On his removal by the process of
impeachment, by his death.
• When he becomes disqualified to hold
office or when his election is declared
void.
• An election to fill the vacancy (due to • He can seek any information relating to
e:\.-piration of term) must be held before
the e:\.-piry of the term .
• If the office faJJ vacant by resignation,
removal, death or other\Jvise, then • He can appoint a con]Il]Jss10n to
election to fill the vacancy should be
completed within 6 months from the
e
date of the occurrence of such a vacancy.
The newly-elected President remains in
office for a full term of 5 years from the
date he assumes charge of bis office.
Quick Digest
• In Presidential Election, W Giri is the only
person, who won the election of the President
as an independent candidate in 1969.
■ In July 1977, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy was
elected unopposed as no one else filled
nomination for the post of the President
• Justice M Hidayat-ul-lah is the only person
to perform the function of the President two
tim es in two different capacities, the first time
in 1969, being the Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court and the second time being the
Vice-President of India in 1982.
Powers and Functions of the
President
Powers andftmctions of the President can be
categorised in to
• Executive powers • Legislative pm1vers
• Financial powers • Judicial powers
• Diplomatic powers • Military powers
• Emergency powers
Executive Powers
The Executive Powers and functions of the
President are
• All executive actions of the Government
of India are formally taken in the nanJe of
President.
• He can make rules specifying the manner
in whkh the orders and other
insb.·uments made and executed in
his/her name shall be authenticated.
• He appoin ts Prime Ministe1~ other
Ministers, Chief Justice and Judges of
Supreme Court, High Courts, the
Attorney-Genei-al of India, the Comptroller
and Auditor General, Chairman and
Members of UPSC, Chief Election
Commissioner and other Members of
Election Commission, Governors, Members
of Finance Commission etc.
the admirnstration of affairs of the unfon,
and proposals for legislation from the
Prime Minjster.
investiga te into the conditions of SCs, STs
and other baclmrard classes.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
• He can appoint an inter-state council to
promote cenb:e-state and inter-state
cooperation.
• He directly administers the Urnon
Terdtodes thrnugh administers appointed
by him.
• He can declare any area as scheduled area
and has powers with respect to the
adm.inisb:ation of scheduled areas and
tribal areas.
Legislative Powers
• Summon or prorogue the Parliament and
to dissolve the Lok Sabha.
• Summon a joint sitting of both the Houses
of Parliament, which is headed by the
Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
• Ad.chess the Parliament at the
commencement of the first session after
each general election and the first session
of each year.
• He can appoint any member of the Lok
Sabha to preside over its proceedings when
the offices of both the Speaker and the
Deputy Speaker fall vacant. Similarly, he
can also appoint any member of the Rajya
Sabha to preside over its proceedings when
the offices of both the Chairman an d the
Deputy Chairman fall vacant.
• Nominates 12 Members in Rajya Sabha
(from amongst person, '"''ho have special
knowledge in respect of Li terature,
Science, Art an d Social service) an d 2
Members of Anglo-Indian Community in
the Lok Sabha.
• He decides the questions on
disqualifications of Members of the Financial Powers
ParlianJent, with cons ul tation to the
Election Commission.
• llis prior recommendation or perrrrission is
needed to introduce certain types of bills in •
the Parliament, e.g. Money Bill,
creation/recreation of new States Bill.
When a bill is sent to the President after it • No demand for a grant can be made
h as been passed by the Parliament, he can
■ give his assent to the bill or
■ withhold his assent to the bill or
■ return the bill (if it is not a Money Bill) for
reconsideration of the Parliament. • He can male advance out of the
However, if the bill is passed again by the
Parliament, with or without amendments,
the President has to give his assent to the
bill.
• He can promuJgate ordinances, when
the ParlianJent is not in session. The
ordinances must be approved by the
ParlianJen t within 6 ,,veeks from its
reassembly. He can also withdraw an
ordinance at any time (Article 123) .
• He lays the reports of CAG, UPSC,
Finance Commission etc before the
Parliament.
Various Pardoning Powers
of the President (Article 72)
• Pardon It removes both the sentences
and the convictjons and completely
absolves the offender from all
punishments and disqualifications.
• Reprieve It means a stay of e><ecution
of sentence pending a proceeding for
pardon or commutation.
• Remission The power of remi ssion
reduces the amount of sentence without
changing its character e.g_ a sentence of
rigorou s imprisonment for 2 years may be
remitted to rigorous impri sonment for 1
year_
• Respite The power to grant respite
means awarding a lesser sentence instead
of the prescribed penalty in view of some
special facts e.g _ pregnancy of woman
offender_
• Com mutation It mere ly substitutes
one form of the punishment for another of
a lighter character_ e.g_ a death se ntence
may be commuted to rigorou s
imprisonment
The financial powers and functions of
the President are
Money Bills can be introduced in the
PailianJent only ·with ms prior
recommendation .
except on hjs recommendation.
• He cause to be lajd before the
PailianJent the annual financial
statement (i.e. Uruon Budget).
Contingency Fund of India to mee t any
unforeseen expenditrn·e.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
• He constitutes a Finance Commission
after every five years to recommend the
distribution ofrevenues between the Centre
and the States.
Judicial Powers
• He appoints the Chief Justice and the
Judges of Supreme Court and H.igh
Courts.
• He can seek advice irom the Supreme
Court on any question of ]a\Jv or fact.
However, the advice tendered by the
Supreme Court is not binding on the
President (Article 143).
Diplomatic Powers
• The international treaties and agreements
are negotiated and concluded on behalf of
the President.
• Sends and receives diplomats like
Ambassadors, lligh Commissioners, and
so on.
Military Powers
• Supreme Commander of the defence
forces of lndia. Appoints the Chiefs of the The Constitution of India has provided for
a Paruamentary form of Government, and
Army, the Navy and the Air Force.
the President h as been made only a
Declares war or concludes peace, subject
nomin al executive, the rea1 executive
to the approval of the Paruamen t.
be.ing the Council of Mifljsters headed by
the Pd.me Mifljster.
Emergency Powers
The President of lndia can proclaim
emergency in three conditions after getting
the wdtten recommendation of the Cabinet.
National Emergency (Article 352) ari_sing
out of ,,var, external aggression or armed
rebellion within the country.
Constitutional Emergency (Article 356)
arising out of the failure of the cons ti tu tiona1
machinery in the states. It .is a1so known as
President's RuJe.
Financial Emergency (Article 360)
arising out of a threat to :financial stability or
credit of India.
Declaration of National Emergency
■ First emergency was declared in 1962, due to
Chinese Aggression.
■ Second emergency was declared in 1971, due
to Inda-Pakistan War.
■ Third emergency was declared in 1975, on
grounds of internal disturbance.
Veto Power
• President of India .is vested , 1vith thrne
veto Absolute, Suspensive and Pocket
veto. There .is no qualified veto .in the
case of President of India.
Types of Veto
Absolute Veto Withholding of assent
to the bill passed by the Legislature
Qualified Veto Sending back of a bill,
which can be over-rided by the Legislature
with a higher majorty.
Suspensive Veto Sending back of a bill,
which can be over-sided by the Legislature
with an ordinary majority.
Pocket Veto Taking no action on the bill
passed by the Legislature.It was used in
1986 in the postal bil I by the President of that
time Giani Zail Singh.
POSITION OF INDIAN
PRESIDENT
VICE-PRESIDENT
• .Al1icle 63 There shall be a Vice-
President of India. He occupies the
second highest office in the country.
The manner of election for Vice-
President and President is same.
• E1ectora1 college of Vice-President
consists of elected and nominated
members of both the Houses of
Parliament.
• All disputes regard.ing election of
Vice-President is adjudicated by the
Su pre me Court.
Qualifications
• Vise-President should be a citizen of
India.
• He should have completed 35 years of
age.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

• He should be qualified for election as• Emoluments He draws his saJary in his
a Member of Rajya Sabha. capacity as the Ex-officio Chairman of
• He should not hold any office of profit.Rajya Sabha. llis present saJary is { 125000
per month.
Oath • He as Vice-President draws the saJary of
Under Article 69, the oath of office of { 4,00,000 per month.
the Vice-President is adminis tered by
the President or some person appointed POWERSAND
in that behalf by him.
FUNCTIONS
Conditions of Office • He acts as the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya
• He should not be a member of either Sabha. In trns capacity, hjs powers and
House of the Parlianrnnt or State functions are similar to those of the
Legislatme. Speaker of Lok Sabha.
• He should not hold any office of profit. • He acts as President ,,vhen a vacancy occurs
in the office of the President due to rus
Term of Office resignation, removaJ, death or otherwise .
• He can resign from hjs office at any • He can act as President only for a
tinJe by addressing the resignation ma.xinJWJJ pe1iod of 6 months.
letter to the President. • While acting as President or ruscharging
• He holds office for a term of 5 years the functions of President, the
from the date on which he enters Vice-President does not perform the duties
upon hjs office. of the office of Chairman of Rajya Sabha,
• He can be removed by a resolution of those duties are performed by the Deputy
the Rajya Sabha passed by an absolu te Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
majmity and agreed by the Lok Sabha. • If the offices of both the President and the
[Article 67(b)] Vice-President fall vacant by reason of
• He can be elected for any nwnber of death , resignation, removal etc., the Chief
terms. Justice of lnrua or in hjs absence the serum·
most judge of the Supreme Court acts as
Vacancy in Office President.
• A vacancy in the Vice-President's • For the first time in 1969, ,,vhen
office can occur in any of the the President Dr Zakir Hussain med and
following ways the Vice-President V V Giri resigned, the
• On the expiry of his tenure, by hfa Cmef J ustice M llidayat-ul-la.h acted as
resignation, on his removaJ,, by hfa President.
death .
• When the vacancy is going to be Quick Digest
caused by the e:\..-pi.ration of the term • Krishna Kant was the first Vice-President to
of the sitting Vice-Presiden t, an die in office.
election to fill the vacancy must be
• When two Presidents, Dr Zaki r Hussain and
held before the expiration of the term .
Fakruddin Ali Ahmed, died in office, the then
If the office falls vacant by
resignation, removal,, death or respective Vice-Presidents, VV Giri and BO Jatti
otherwise, then election to fill the acted as President
vacancy should be held as soon as • The Vice-President Dr 5 Radhakrishnan
possible after the occurrence of the discharged the functi ons of the President in June
vacancy. 1960, when the then President Dr Rajendra
• The newly elected Vice-President Prasad was on a 15 days tour to the USSR and
remains in office for a full term of agai n in July 1961, when Dr Rajendra Prasad
5 years from the date he assumes was very ill.
charge of his office.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

List of Vice-Presidents
Name Tenure Notes
■ Dr S Radhakrishnan 1962 to 1962 1st Vice-President; had the longest
tenure (10 years, elected twice)
■ Dr Zakir Hussain 1962 to 1967
■ VV Giri 1967 to 1969 Shortest tenure so far (2 years)
■ GS Pathak 1969 to 1974
■ BO JatLi 1974 to 1979
■ Justioe M Hidayat-ul-lah 1979 to 1984
■ R Venakataraman 1984 to 1987
■ Dr SD Sharma 1987 to 1992
■ KR Narayanan 1992 to 1997
■ Krishan Kant 1997 to 2002 Died in off ice
■ Bhairon Singh Shekhawat 2002 to 2007
■ Mohammad Hamid Ansari 2007 to 2017
■ Venkaiah Naidu 2017 to 2022
■ Jagdeep Dhankhar 2022 to ml date
* As on 1st Janumy, 2023

PRIME MINISTER Power and Functions

P1ime Minister has following powers and
• In the scheme of Parliamentary
functions
system of government, the President
1s the nominal executive authodty In Relation to Council
(dejure executive) and Prime
Miojster is the real executive
of Ministers (CoMs)
authmity (de facto executive). The Prime Minjs ter enjoys the following power
• Prime Mmister is the Head of the as Head of Council of MilJjs ters . He aliocates
and reshuffles various portfolios among the
Government while President 1s the
rnirus te rs.
Head of the State. Article 75 says
that the Prime Minister shall be He can ask a minis ter to resign or advise the
appointed by the President. President to rnsmfas him ill case of chfference ill
opinfon.
Oath, Tenn and Salary He presides over the meeting of Council of
Ministers and influences their decisions.
• President adminjs ters to him the
oaths of office and secrecy. • He gujdes, dfrects, controls, and
coordinates the activities of all the ministers.
• The term of the Prime Minjster is
not fixed and he holds office during • He can bring about the collapse of the
the pleasure of the President. Council of Ministers by resigning from office.
However, tms does not mean that When Prm1e Minfater resigns or dies, the
the Preside □ t can rnsmjss the Prime CoMs and other minis ters cannot function
Minjs ter at any time. because Prime Mirtis ter is the head of the
So, long as the Prime Mmister CoMs.
enjoys the majmity support ill the • llis resignation or death automatically
Lok Sabha, be cannot be dis □nssed mssolves the CoMs.

flse~eth!re;;:~t~□~t:~ve~errL~~ In Relation to the President

Sabha, he must resign or the • Under Article 78, it is the duty of the Prm1e
President can rnsmjss him . MilJjs ter :
• The salary and allowances of • To communkate to the Presiden t, for aU
the Prime MilJjs ter are determined decisions of the Council of MilJjs ters relating
by the Parliamen t from time to time. to the admmjs trntion of the affairs of the
Union and proposals for legislation;
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Prime Ministers of India

Name Tenure Note
From To
■ Pandit Jawaharlal 15.08.1947 27.05.1964 First Prim e Minister of India, died in ofti oe;
Nehru also had the longest tenu re (17 years)
■ Gulzari Lal Nanda 27.05.1964 09.06.1964 First aoting Prime Minister
■ Lal Bahadur Shastri 09.06.1964 11.01.1966 Only Prime Minister to die abroad during an
ottioial tour
■ Gulzari Lal Nanda 11.01.1966 24.01 .1966 First to beoome aoting Prime Minister twioe
■ Indira Gandhi 24.01.1966 24.03.1977 First woman Prime Minister of India; First
Prime Minister to lose an election, iirst Rajya
Sabha Member became PM
■ Morarji Desai 24.03.1977 28.07.1979 Oldest Prime Minister (81 years) and the fi rst
to resign fro m ottice, first CM to become PM
■ Charan Singh 28 .07.1979 14.01 .1980 Only Prime Minister, who did not face the
Parliament
■ Indira Gandhi 14.01.1980 31.10.1984 First Prime Minister to be assassinated
■ Rajiv Gandhi 31.10.1984 01.12.1989 Youngest Prime Minister (40 years)
■ VP Singh 21.12.1989 10.11.1990 First Prime Minister to step down after vote
of no-confidence
■ Chandra Shekhar 10.01 .1990 21 .06.1991
■ PV Narsimha Rao 21 .06.1991 16.05.1996 First Prime Minister from Sou1hern India
■ Atal Bihari Vajpayee 16.05.1996 01 .06.1996 Shortest tenure of a Prime Minister
■ HD □ eve Gowda 01.06.1996 21 .04.1997
■ I K Gujral 21.04.1997 19.03.1998
■ Atal Bihari Vajpayee 19.03.1998 13.10.1999
■ Atal Bihari Vajpayee 13.10.1999 22.05.2004
■ Dr Manmohan 22.05.2004 25.05.2014 First Sikh Prime Minister, Longest tenure after
Singh Jawahar Lal Nehru
■ Narendra Modi 26.5.2014 Till date First PM born after independence and also
served as CM.

• To fu.rrnsh such information

relating to the adminisb:ation of UNION COUNCIL OF
the affairs of the Union and MINISTERS
proposals for legislation as the
President may call for and
Appoinbnent of Ministers
• If the President requires, to
• Ministers are appointed by the President on the
subm.jt for the consideration of
advice of the Prime Minister. l t means only
the Council of Ministers any
those persons can be appointed who are
matter on v,1hich a decision has
recommended by Prime Minister.
been taken by a nnnister but
\'l 1hich has not been considered by
• The Prime Minister and other Ministers have to
the council be members of either House of Pa.rliament or
should become members \/\~thin 6 months of their
• He advices the President , 1vith
appointment, failing, which they ai-e removed.
respect to the appoinbnent of
officials like CAG, Attorney-
Gene1·al of India, Chairman
Oaths and Salary of Ministers
and members of UPSC, President administers the oath to the minister.
Election Commission, Finance Sala.ries and allowances of minis ters are
Commission etc. determined by the Parliament from time to tinJe.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Responsibility of Ministers UNION LEGISLATURE

• Collective Responsibility Undei- Article • The Constitution of India provides a
75, the CoMs is collectively responsible to ParuanJentary form of government, both
Lok Sabha. It means the Lok Sabha at the centre and rn the states.
remove the CowJcil of Ministers from • The Parliament of India consists of the
office by passing a No-confidence Motion. President, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya
• It is a team and its member sink and Sabha (Article 79).
swim together (Article 75). • Although President is not a member of
• No Legal Responsibility There is no either Hou se. He js an rntegral part of
provisions in the Constitution for a Paili anJ en t.
system of legal responsibility of a • Out of9 UTs, only tm·ee (J&K, Delhi and
minister in India. While in Britain, there Puducherry) have representation in the
js legal responsibility of a minjster. Rajya Sabha.
• The population of other five are too small
Types of Minister to have any representative in the Rajya
There are three types of Ministers Sabha.
• Cabinet Minjsters They are the real
policy makers. The Cabinet's consent is Rajya Sabha (Article 80)
necessary for all important matters. Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and not
• Ministers of State They can hold either subject to mssolution. Its maxinmm
rndependent charge or attached to a stJ:ength js 250 (out of wmch 238 are
Cabinet Mfujster. representatives of States and UTs and 12
• Deputy Ministers They do not hold are nominated by the President).
separate charge. There is another The total membersrnp of the Rajya Sabha
category of Mjrristers called at present is 245. Out of which 233
ParllanJentary Secretalies. However, no members represent the States and Union
ParllanJentary Secretary has been Territories and 12 members are nominated
appointed since 1967. by the President. However, one-third
members retire every second year. Their
seats are filled up by fresh elections and
DEPU1Y PRIME presidential nomination at the beginning of
MINISTER every third year.
• There are no seats reserved for SCs and
• The post of Deputy Prime Mjrrister is not STs in Rajya Sabha.
mentioned in the Constitution, lt is an
• Constitution has not fixed the term of
exb.-a constitutional body. Although
office of members of the Rajya Sabha
seven persons have occupied this post
and left it to the Parllanrnnt and hence
since the inauguration of the
Representation of People Act (195 1)
Constitution.
provided the term of office of a member
• The Deputy Prime Minister occupies of the Rajya Sabha shall be 6 years.
position ne"-1: to the Prime Mjrrister.
Name Tenure Lok Sabha
■ Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel 1947-1950 Lok Sabha js the lower house of the
Paruament. llts maximum strength is 552,
■ Morarji Desai 1967-1969
'"''mch includes 2 nominated members of
■ Charan Singh and 1977-1979 Anglo-Inman ConJJilWJjty, 530 members
Jagjivan Ram Uointly) from states and 20 from Umon Territories.
■ YB Chavan 1979-1980 Present stJ.-ength of Lok Sabha js 545. Of
■ Devi Lal 1989-1990 these, 530 members represent the States,
13 members represent the Union
■ Devi Lal 1990-1991 Terdtodes and 2 Anglo-Indian members
■ LK Advani 2002-2004 are nominated by the President.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

• Its normal term is 5 y ears from the Union Territories

date of its first meeting after the 1. J and K 4 6
general elections, after which it 2. Ladakh
automatically dissolves.
3. Andaman and
• The President is authorised to rnssolve Nicobar Island
Lok Sabha at any tinJe even before the 4. Chandigarh
completion of five ye,us and th.is 6. Dadra and 2
cannot be challenged in the Court of Nagar Haveli &
Law. Daman and
Diu
• Lok Sabha can be extended during the
National Emergency by a law of 6. Delhi (The 3 7
National Capi1al
ParlianJent for one year at a tinJe for Termory ot DelhQ
any length of tinJe. But th.is extension 7. Lakshadweep
cannot go beyond a pe1iod of 6 months
8. Puducherry
after the emergency has ceased to
Total 245 543
operate.
Allocation of Seats in Parliament Members of Parliament
S.N. States/UTs In Rajya In Lok Qualification (Article 84)
Sabha Sabha
1. Andhra 11 26
The Constitution lays down the following
Pradesh qualifications for a person to be chosen as a
2. Arunachal 2
Member of the Parliament.
Pradesh • He must be a citizen of lnrna.
3. Assam 7 14 • He must make and subscribe before the
4. Bihar 16 40 person authmised by the Election
5. Chhattisgarh 5 11 Commission an oath or affiIJnation
6. Goa 2 according, to the form presc1ibed in the
7. Gujarat 11 26 third Schedule. And must not be less than
8. Haryana 5 10 30 years of age in the case of Rajya Sabha
9. Himachal 3 4
and not less than 25 yeai·s of age in the case
Pradesh of the Lok Sabha
10. Jharkhand 6 14 • He must possess other qualifications as
11. Karnalaka 12 28 presc1ibed by Pailiament.
12. Ke rala 9 20
13. Madhya 11 29
D isqualification (Ar ticle 102)
Pradesh Under the Constitution, a person shall be
14. Maharashtra 19 48 disqualified for being elected as a Member of
15. Manipur 2 Parliament
16. Meghalaya 2 • If he/she holds any office of profit under
17. Mizoram the Union or State Government (except
18. Nagaland that of a minjster or any other office
19. Odisha 10 21
exempted by the Parliament).
20. Punjab 7 13 • If be/she is of unsound mmd and stands so
21. Rajasthan 10 25
declai·ed by court.
22_ Sikkim • If he/she is unrnscharged insolvent and
stands so declai·ed by court.
23. Tamil Nadu 18 39
24. Tripura 2 • If he/she is not a citizen of lnrna or has
25. Uttarakhand 3 6
voluntarily acqufred the citizenship of a
foreign state or is under any
26. Uttar Pradesh 31 80
acknowledgnJent of allegiance to a foreign
27. West Bengal 16 42
state; and if he is so, disqualified
28. Telangana 7 17 under any law made by the Parliament.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Under the following conditions, a member • If he/she is removed by a resolution

of Parliament vacates ms seat (Article
101)
■ Double Membership (both Rajya
Sabha and Lok Sahba).
■ Disqualification, resignation.
■ Absence (more than 60 days ·without
permission).
■ If his election is declared void by the
court.
■ If he/she is expelJed by the House.
■ If he/she is elected to the office of the
President or Vice-President.
■ If he/she js appointed as a Governor of a
State.
Oath and Salary (Article 99)
• Every member has to make and
subscribe to an oath or affirmation
before the President or some other
person appointed by him for this
purpose.
• Sala.des and allowances are determined
by Parlian1ent.
Speaker of Lok Sabha
(Article 93)
• He/she js elected by Lok Sabha from
amongst its members, as soon as, after • H e presides over a joint sitting of two
the first meeting.
• The date of election is fixed by the
President. Usually, the speaker remains • H e certifies a Bill as Money Bill and his
in his office during the life of the Lok
Sabha. He/she vacates office earlier in
any of the following cases
• If he/she ceases to be member of Lok
Sabha; if he/she resigns by w1.iting to the
Deputy Speaker; and
passed by a majority of all the members of
the Lok Sabha. Such a resolution can be
moved only after giving 14 days advance
notice.
• When Resolution of removal is under
consideration, the Speaker cannot
preside at the sitting of the House (he
may be present). (Article 96)
• Whenever the Lok Sabha is dissolved, the
Speaker does not vacate ms office and
continues till the newly elected Lok
Sabha meets.
Role, Powers and
Functions of Speaker
• He is the principal spokesman of the
House, and his dedsion in all
Parlian1entary matters js final.
• He maintains order and decorum in the
House for conducting its business.
• He adjow-ns the House to suspend the
meeting in the absence of quorum
(presence of only 1/10th of the total
strength of the House). He does not vote
in the first instance, but he can exercise
a casting vote in the case of a tie (dead
lock).
Houses of the Parlianrnnt.
• H e can allo\111 a 'secret' sitting of the House.
decision cannot be challenged.
• H e appoints the Chairman of all the
Parliamentary Committees of Lok Sabha.
The speaker acts as the ex-offico
Chairman of the Indian ParbamentaJ.)'
group of the lnter Pai·liamentary Union.

Speakers of Lok Sabha

Name Tenure
From To
GV Mavalankar 15.06.1952 27.02.1966
MA Ayyangar 08.03.1956 10.05.1957
MA Ayyangar 11.05.1967 16.04.1962
Hukam Singh 17.04.1962 16.03.1967
N Sanjeeva Reddy 17.03.1967 19.07.1969
Dr GS Dhillon 08.08.1969 19.03.1971
Dr GS Dhillon 22.03.1971 01.12.1975
Bali Ram Bhagat 06.01.1976 25 .03.1977
N Sanjeeva Reddy 26.03.1977 13.07.1977
KS Hegde 21.07.1977 21.01 .1980
Dr Bairam Jakhar 22.01.1980 15.01.1985
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Name Tenure
Dr Bairam Jakhar 16.01.1985 18.12.1989
Rabi Ray 19.1 2.1989 09.07.1991
Shiv Raj Patil 10.07.1991 22.05.1996
PA Sangma 23.05.1996 23.03.1998
GMC Balyogi 24.03.1998 19.10.1999
GMC Balyogi 22.10.1999 03 .03.2002
Manohar Joshi 10.05.2002 20.06.2004
Somnath Chatterjee 04.06.2004 31 .05.2009
Meira Kumar 04.06.2009 04.06.2014
Sumi1ra Mahajan 06.06.2014 17.06.2019
Om Birla 19.06.2019 Till dale

Deputy Speaker • Provision of join t sitting js applicable to

ordinary bills or financi al bills only and
• Deputy Speaker perform the duties of not to money bills or constitutional
speaker jf the post of speaker is vacant or amendment bills.
he js absent from the sitting of the house.
• M. A.nantbasayanam Ayyangar was the Sessions of Parliament
First Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha. • The ParlianJent generally meets m
thrne sessions m a year i.e.=
Chai11nan of Rajya Sabha Budget session (February-May) (longest
The Vice-President is the Ex-officio session), Monsoon session Quly-
Chairman of Rajya Sabha. (Article 89) September), Winter session
As a presiding officer, the powers and (November- December) (shortest
functions of the Chairman of Rajya Sabha are session).
similar to those of Speaker of Lok Sabha. • There should not be a gap of more than
6 months betvveen two sessions of
Deputy Chairman ParlianJen t.
• Elected by Rajya Sabha itself from
anrnngst its members. Deputy Chairman Dffference between Powers ofLok
js not subordinate to the Chairman. He 3s Sabha and the R.ajya Sabha
directly responsible to the Rajya Sabha. • A Money Bill can be mb:oduced only m
the Lok Sabha and not in the Rajya
Joint Session (Article 108) Sabha. The iinaJ power to decide
• Ja.int sessions take place on the order of whether a particular bill is a Money Bill
the President jf or not, is vested m the Speaker of the
(a) a Bill passed by one Hou se, js r~jected Lok Sabha. The Speaker of Lok Sabha
by another. presides over the joint sitting of both the
(b) the anJenclments made by the other Houses of Parliament.
House are not acceptable to the House • A resolution for the discontinuance of
where the Bill miginated. the National Emergency can be passed
(c) Other house do not take any action for only by the Lok Sabha and not by the
six months on the bill. Rajya Sabha.
• Ja.int session js presided over by the • The Rajya Sabha cannot remove the
Speaker of the Lok Sabha. The deadlock Council of Ministers by passing a
over a Bill is resolved by a majority of the no-con£dence motion.
total numbers of the members of both the • Trns js because the Council of Ministers
Houses present and voting. is collectively responsible only to the
• So far, joint-sittings have been held thrice Lok Sabha. But, the Rajya Sabha can
in the history of Indian Parliament ( 196 1, discuss and cliticise the policies and
1978 and 2002). acti,rities of the government.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

LEGISLATIVE Second Reading of the Bill

PROCEDURE • In the second reading principles of the
Bill are discussed in details and the
IN PARLIAMENT treasury and the opposition members
• The legislative procedme is identical in give their views either in support or
both the Houses of Parliament. Every bill opposition of the Bill.
h as to pass through the same stages in • The second reading is divided into two
each House. A Bill is a proposal for stages, (i) consists of a general
legislation and it becomes an Act or law discussion of the principles of the Bill
, 1vhen duly enacted.
and (ii) relates to discussion of clauses,
• Bills may be classified under folll· heads schedules and an1endments.
viz, Ordinary, Money, Financial and • If the Bill js referred to the Selected
Constitutional Amendment Bills. The Committee or Joint Committee, it is
Legislative procedme of government bills expected to give its report , 1vith.in a
and plivate members bill is same. specified date.
• Money Bills cannot be introduced in the • The Bill then undergoes long
Rajya Sabha. The other bills can be discussions clause by clause and may
introduced in either House. undergo substantial change.
• Every ordinary bill has to pass thrnugh
five stages in the Pa.rliament i.e. first Third Reading of the Bill
Reading, second Reading, third Reading, • The third reading is the fin al reading. It
Bill in the second House and Assent of js more or less a form al affair. The
the President. Finally, the Bill has to be debate is confined to the acceptance or
notified by the Government to enable its rejection of the Bill. The Bill is
implementation. submjtted to the vote of the House and
h as to be accepted or rejected
Stages of Bills altogether.
The different stages in the passage of Bills
other than the Money Bills are as follows Bill in the Second House
• After the Bill has been passed by one
Introduction of the Bill House. it is transmitted to the other
• It involves inb.·oduction of Bill lili.e House: , 1vhere it h as to pass thrnugh the
proV1s1ons of the proposed lav,
1,
same process. The other House has fom
accompamed by the 'Statement of alternatives before it.
Objects and Reasons'. Private member 1. It may pass the Bill as sent by the first
must give one month notice to inb.·oduce House.
the Bill.
2. It may pass the Bill wi th amendments
• After that it is published in the Gazette of and retui-n it to the first House.
India. The introduction of the Bill and its 3. It may reject the Bill altogether.
publication in the Gazette constitutes the
4. It may not take any action and thus
F.irst Reading of the Bill. keep the Bill pending.
• In case the Bill is also passed by the
Special Powers of Rajya Sabha second House or the firs t House agrees
Due to its federal character, the Rajya Sabha , 1vith the amendmendments made by the

has been given two exclusive or special powers
that are not enjoyed by the Lok Sabha.
• It can authorise the Parl iament to make a law
on a subject enumerated in the State List
(Article 249).
second house, the Bill js sen t to the
President for his assent.
• In case the Bill is ~jected by the second
House or it is kept by the second House
, 1vith it for six months without any action

• It can authorise the Parliament to create new or the first House disagrees , 1vith the
All-India Services Common for both the centre an1endments suggested by the second
and states (Article 312). House, a deadlock is deemed to have
taken place.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
• To resolve a deadlock, the President may
summon a joint-sitting of the two Houses
under Article 108. If the majmity of members
present and voting at the joint-sitting pass the
Bill, it is considered as passed by both Houses
of Parliament and is sent for President's assent.
Assent of the President
• After being passed by both Houses (either
Singles or at Joint Sitting), when the Bill is
presented to the President, he has three
options
1. He may assent to the Bill
2. He may w1thbold hjs assent
3. He may return the Bill for the
reconsideration of the Houses.
• If the Pres1dent gives assents to the Bill, it
becomes an Act.
• If the President withholds ms assent, the Bill
ends .
• If the President returns the Bill for Contingency Fund of India
reconsideration and 1t js passed again by both (Article 267)
the Houses, he has to give hjs assent after the • A.rticle 267 of the Constitution
second passage.
• Since, the Constitution provides no time limit
for the President to give ms assent, he may
keep the Bill in ms office without taking any
action and prevent it from becommg an act.
Budget in Parliament
■ The Constitution refers to the budget as the
'annual financial statement'_In other words,
the term 'budget' has nowhere been used in the
Constitution_ 'Annual Financial Statement' has
been dealt within Article 112 of the Constitution_
■ The budget is a statement of the estimated
receipts and expenditure of the Government of
India in a financial year, which begins on 1st April Public Account of India
and ends on 31st March of the following year_
■ After introduction of the Budget, the Lok Sabha
discusses the demands for grants of various
ministries and departments. All grants voted by
the Lok Sabha and expenditure, charged on the
consolidated fund of India, are then presented in
the fo rm of single Bill called the 'Appropriatjon
Bill'. Proposals for taxation (to raise revenue) are
presented in the fo rm of 'Finance Bill'_
■ The Government of India has two budgets,
namely, the Railway Budget and the General
Budget
■ From 2017, Railway Budget has been merged with
the General Budget on the recommendation of
Bibek Debray Committee.
Consolidated Fund
of India (Aiticle 266)
• It is a fund to wmch alJ receip ts are
credited and all payments are
debited. In other words,
■ all revenues received by the
Government of India.
■ all loans rafaed by the government
by the 1ssue of b:easury bills, loans
or ways and means of advances.
■ all money received by the govern-
ment in repayment of loans from
the Consolidated Fund of India.
• All the legally authmised payments
on behalf of the government are
made out of thjs fund. No money
out of thjs fund can be appropdated
(issued or dravl'Il) except in
accordance with a Parliamentary lav, 1
•
authorised the ParuanJent to
establish a 'Contingency Fund of
India', into wmch anJounts
deternJined by law are paid from time
to time. Accordingly, the Parliament
enacted the Contingency Fund of
India Act in 1950.
• Tbjs fund is placed at the disposaJ
of the President and h e can make
advances out of it to meet
unforeseen e:\.-penditme pending its
authorisation by the Parliament.
• The fund js held by the finance
secretary on behalf of President.
• Article 266 (2) provides that all
other public moneys (other than
those in the Consolidated Fund of
India) received by or on behalf of
the Government of India or the
Government of a State shall be
credited to the Public Account of
India or the Public Account of the
State, as the case may be. This
account is operated by executive
action and payments from it do not
need ParlianJen tary approval.
• Moneys in tms account include
provident fund deposits , savings
bank deposits , remittances etc.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
Committee System
• Comm..ittees have been created so that
members of Parliament can discuss and
debate on the ,,vorking of a certa..in
department of the government.
• Most of the comm..ittees function under
the direction of the Speaker and are
essentially committees of the Lok Sabha.
• Committees are classified WJder two
heads : Standing Committee and Adboc
Committees. Ad Hoc Committees are
created for a temporary peLiod.
• The Standlng Committees are broadly
classified into the follov,ring categories :
Committees of Enquires, Committees to
Scrutinise, Financial Committees,
Committees of Admin..istrative Character,
Committees dealing with provision of
facilities to members.
• The Financial Committees of Parliament
are Estimates Committee, Public
AccoWJts Committee, Committee on
Public Undertaking and 24 Deparb:nental
Related Committees.
• The Public Accounts Committee ,,vas
set-up first in 1921 WJder the provisions of
the Government of India Act of 1919. At
present, it consists of 22 members (1 5 from
the Lok Sabha and 7 from the Rajya Sabha).
Since, 1967, a convention has developed
'"''hereby the Chairman of the Committee is
selected invariably from the opposition.
• The origin of the Estimates Committee can
be traced to the Standing Financial
Committee set-up in 1921. The first
Estimates Comm..ittee was set-up in 1950.
It has thirty members, all from the Lok
Sabha only. The Rajya Sabha has no
presentation in tb..is committee.
• The Committee on Publ..ic Undertakings
was created in 1964 on the recommen-
dations of the Krishna Menon Committee. It
h as 22 members (15 from the Lok Sabha
and 7 from the Rajya Sabha).
• In 1993, 17 Deparb:nent Related Standing
Comm..ittees were set-up. In 2004, 7 more
conl]]]..ittees were set-up. Thus, total
24 committees exist as of today.
• Members of the Rajya Sabha are
associated \"irith all the committees except
the Estimates ConlJ]]jttee.
• The Cha..irman of all the conlJ]]jttees
(except the Joint Committee on
salaries and allowances of MPs) are
appointed by the Speaker from
an1ongst the members of the
comm..ittee.
• In case, Speaker is a member of a
committee, he becomes Ex-ol'ficio
ChaiJ·man of the committee.
SUPREME COURT
• Supreme Court stands at the apex of
the 'J ud..ici al System of India. It is the
ul timate in terpreter of the Consitution
and the Jaws of the ]and.
• Article 124 states the establishment
and constitution of Supreme Court.
• Supreme Court was ina ugurated on
28th January, 1950.
• At present, the Supreme Court consists
of 34 judges (one Ch..ief Justice of India
(CJI) and 33 judges).
Appointment of Judges
Only sen..ior mos t Judge of the Supreme
Court is appointed by the President as
en. Other Judges of the Supreme Court
are appointed by the President in
consultation \"irith the Ch..ief J ustice. He
may also consult other Judges of the
Supreme Court and 1£gh Court whlle
appointing a Judge of the Supreme Court.
Acting Chief Justice
Under Article 126, The President can
appoint a Judge of the Supreme Court as
an acting CJI, when
• office of CJI is vacant; or
• the CJI is temporaiiJy absent; or
• the CJ I js unable to perform the duties
of h..is office.
Qualifications
Under Article 124 (3) , a person to be
appointed as a J udge of the Supreme
Court should have the following
qualifications
• He should be a citizen of India.
• He should have been a Judge of a H.igh
Cowt (or 1£gh Cow-ts in succession)
for five years. Or
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

• He should have been an advocate of a • The second case of impeachment 1s that of

lligh Court ( or lligh Courts in Justice Saumitra Sen of the Calcutta
succession) for ten years. Or lligh Court (became the first judge in
• He should be a distinguished jlllist in Indian lliEtory, against ,,vhom an
the opinfon of the President. impeachment motion was passed in the
Rajya Sabha). The BSP was the only party
• The Constitution does not prescribe a
to oppose the motion to remove the judge.
minimum age for appointment as a
After tills, he resigned and there was no
Judge of the Supreme Court.
need for impeachment.
Under Article 124 (2) (a), a Judge of the
Oath or Affirmation Supreme Court "may by , 1v1iting under bis
Adm.injstered by the President or some hand addressed to the President, resign bis
person appointed by him for this purpose. office".
Tenure of Judges Salaries and Allowances
The Constitution bas not fixed the tenure Under Article 125, the salaries, allowances,
of a Judge of the Supreme Court. privileges, leave and pension of the Judges of
However it had ma.de the following the Supreme Court are determmed from
provisions tinJe to time by the ParlianJen t.
• Holds office u.ntU he attains the age of • Cmef Justice of India draws the monthly
65 years. salary of { 2.8 la.kb . Whereas the other
• Can resign bis office by ,niting to the Judges draws the { 2.50 la.kb monthly.
President. • The retired Chfof Justice and J udges are
• Can be removed from hjs office by the entitled to 50% of their last dra\Jvn salary as
President on the recommendation of monthly pension.
the Parliament.
Ad hoc Judges
Removal of Judges or Under A..rticle 127, jf at any tinJe there is not
Impeachment a quorum of the Judges of the Supreme
Court to hold or continue any session,
Under At1icle 124 (4), a Judge of the CJI can appoint a Judge of the lligh Cowt as
Supreme Court shall not be removed an Ad hoc Judge of the Supreme Cowt for a
from ms office except by an order of the temporary period.
President passed after an address by each
• He can do so only after consultation with the
House of the Parlianrnnt by special Chief Justice of the lligh Court concerned
majority. Judges can be removed only on and with pre,fous consent of the President.
the grounds of proved m.isbehaviour or
• The judge so appointed should be
incapacity.
qualified for appointment as the Judge of
Under Article 124 (5) ParlianJent may the Supreme Court.
by law regulate the procedure relating to
the removal of a J udge of the Supreme Retired Judges
Court. Under this Article PailianJent
Under .Article 128, at any tinJe, the Cmef
provides the procedure for removal by the
Judges Enquiry Act (1968). Justice of India can request a retired Judge of
the Supreme Court or a retired Judge of the
• No Judge of the Supreme Court h as lligh Cow·t (who is duly qualified for
been impeached so far. The fhst such appointment as a Judge of the Supreme
case of inJpeachment is that of J ustice Court) to act as a.Judge of the Supreme Court
V Ramaswann of the Supreme Court in for a temporary perfod. He can do so only with
Lok Sabha (199 1-93). But, finally he the previous consent of the President and
could not be impeached.
also of the person to be so appointed.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
Seat of Supreme Court
Under Article 130, the Constitution
declares Delhi as the seat of the
Supreme Court_But, it authorises the
CJI to appoint any other place or places
as seat of the Supreme Court. He can
take this decision only with the approval
of the President
Procedure of the Court
The Supreme Court can, with the
approval of the President, make rules
for regulating generally the practice
and procedure of the court.
Independence
of the Judges
Independence of judges is ensured by
following provisions
• Appointed by President in
cons ul tation of judiciary itself.
• Secrn·ity of tenrn·e (removed only
by the President) on grollllds
mentioned in the constitution.
• Fixed service conditions (salary
charged on Consolidated FUlld of (c) Appeals in criminal matters (Article 134).
India).
• Conduct of judges cannot be
discussed in Parliament or State
Legislatme.
• Ban on practice after retirement.
• Power to pLlllish its contempt.
• Freedom to appoint its staff.
• Its jrnisdiction cannot be crn·tailed.
• Difficult removal procedure.
• Separation from executive.
Jurisdiction and Powers
of Supreme Court
The jurisdictions powers of the
Supreme Cowt can be classified into
the following
• Odginal jurisdiction
• Writjurisdiction
• Appellate jrn1sdiction
• Advisory jw1sdiction
• A court of record
• Power ofjudical review
• Other pm1vers
Original Jurisdiction (Article 131)
The Supreme Cowt decides the dispute
behveen the cenb:e and one or more states; the
centre and any state or states on one side and
one or more states on the other; or beh1veen two
or more states.
• In the above disputes, the Supreme Court has
exclusive original jU11sdiction . They lie
directly and exclusively , 1vith the Supreme
Cowt.
Writ Jurisdiction (Article 32)
• Every individual has the right to move the
Supreme Court directly by appropdate
proceedings for the enforcement of his
Fundan1ental PJghts. Cowt issue wdts in this
regard.
Appellate Jurisdiction (Article 132)
• The Supreme Court js primarily a court of
appeal and hears appeals against the
judgements of the lower courts. It enjoys a
wide appellate jurisdiction, which can be
classified llllder four heads
(a) Appeals in constitutional matters.
(b) Appeals in civil matters (Article 133).
(d) Appeal by special leave (Article 136.)
Advisory Jurisdiction
• The Constitution (Article 143) authorises the
President to seek the opinion of the Supreme
Cowt. Its opinion, is not binding on President.
Court of Record
As a Corn-t of Record, Supreme Court h as two
powers
1. Judgments, proceedings and acts of
Supreme Cornt are recorded for perpetual
memory and testinrnny.
2. It can punish for contempt of court.
Power of Judical Review (Article 137)
• Judidal reviev,, is the power of the Supreme
Cowt to exanJ:ine the consti tutionality of
legislative enactments and executive order
of both Central and State Government.
• On exanJ:ination, if they are foUlld to be
violative of the Constitution, they can be
declared as illegal, unconstitutional and
:invalid and they cannot be enforced by any
authodty.

• J udical review js needed for the • Article 141 Law declared by Supreme
reasons:
■ To uphold the supremacy of the
Constitution
■ Maintain federal equilibrium
■ Protect the Fundamental PJghts of the
citizens
Some famous cases, in which the Swpreme
Court used the power ofjudical review are
■ Golakanath Case (1967)
■ Banlc Nationalisation Case (1970)
■ Privy Pmse Abolition Case (1971)
■ Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973)
■ Minerva Mills Case (1980)
I STATES EXECUTIVE
GOVERNOR
• The Governor is the Constitutional
Head of the state and the same
Governor can act as Governor of more
than one state (Artides 153 and 154).
• Under Article 155, the Governor js
appointed by the President. Article 156
states that the Governor holds office
during the pleasure of the President.
Qualification
Under Article 157, the Constitution lays
down the follm,ving conrutions for the
Governor's office
• Must be citizen of lnrua.
• Completed 35 years of age.
Condition of Office
(Article 158)
• ShouJdn't be a member of either House
of Pa..rlianJent or State Legislatures.
• Shall not hold any other office of profit.
Salary & Allowances
Use his official residence (Raj Bhawan)
·without payment of rent.
When same person is appointed as the
Governor of hvo or more states, the
emolumen ts and allowances payable to
him are shared by states as determined by
the President.
• Salary of the Governor js ~ 3.5 la.kb per
month.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
Comt to be binding on aU courts, within the
territory of lnrua.
• At1icle 144 All authmities, civil and
jurucial in the Tenitory of lnrua to act in
aid of the Supreme Court.
• PubHc Interest Litigation (PIL) Any
person can TIO\'I' initiate a proceeding on
behalf of the aggdeved person (if the
aggrieved persons cannot do so on their
own) in either the H.igh Court or the
Supreme Court for the protection of
greater public interest.
I
Oath (Article 159)
ms oath is administered by the Chief Justice
of the concerned State mgh Court and in his
absence, the senior, mostjudge of that court.
Tenure of Governor
(Article 156)
(a) the Governor shall hold office during
the pleasure of the President;
(b) may resign by wdting under hjs hand
addressed to the President;
( c) hold office for a period of 5 years.
Powers and Functions
of Governor
Executive Powers
The executive power of the state shall be
vested ,11rith the Governor and shall be
exercised by him either directly or thrnugh
officers subordinate to him in accordance
·with the Constitution. These powers are
• All executive actions of the Government of
a State are formally taken in his name. He
can make ruJes for more convenient
tTansaction of the business of a State
Government.
• Appoints the Advocate General of a State
(Article 165), State Election
Commissioners, Chairman and members
of the State Public Service Commission,
VCs of Universities.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

• He can seek any information relating to the CHIEF MINISTER

admirrisb.-ation of the affairs of the state
and proposals for legislation from the CWef Chief Minister :is the Real Executive
Mifljster. Head of the State Government. llis
• He acts as the Chancellor of Unjversities in position at the state level is analogous to
the State. He also appoints the Vice- the position of the Prime Mifljster at the
chancellors of Universities in the State. cenb.·e.

Legislative Powers Appointment

• Governor :is an integral part of the State Article 164, says that Cruef Minister shall
Legislature. He has the light of addressing be appointed by the Governor.
and sending messages and of summoning, Oath, Term, and Salary
proroguing and rnssolving the State
Assembly. • Oath of the office of Chfof Minister is
adminfatered by the Governor or
• He has the power to nominate one member person appointed by mm for tbjs
of Anglo-Indian Community to the purpose.
Legislative Assembly of the state.
• A person, ,,.,ho is not a member of
• He nominates I/6th members of Legislative
State Legislature can be appointed,
Council.
but he has to get mmself elected
·within 6 months otherwise he is
Financial Powers
removed.
• He enables the State budget to be laid
• The term of the CM is not fixed and
before the State Legislatme. He constitutes
he holds office during the pleasme of
a Finance Commfasion after every five
the Governor.
years to review the financi al position of the
Panchayats and the Municipalities. • He cannot be rnsm.issed by the
Governor as Jong as h e enjoys the
• Money bill could be introduced in State
majority support in the Legislative
Legislature only with hjs prior
Assembly.
recommendation.
• The salary and allowances of the
Judicial Powers Cmef Mjnister are determined by the
• Under Article 161, He can grant pardons, State Legislature.
repdves, respites and remJss10ns of
punishment or suspend, rennt and Powers and Functions
commute the sentence of any person in Relation to Council of
convicted of any offence against any law Ministers (CoMs)
relating to a matte1~ to which the executive The CM as a head of the CoMs, enjoys the
power of the state extends. following powers
• He cannot paJ·don a death sentence even if • The Governor appoints only those
a State Jaw provides for death sentence. persons as ministers, who are
recommended by the Cruef Miruster..
Emergency Powers
• He allocates and reshuffles the
• The Governor has no emergency pm1vers to portfolios among ministers .
counter external aggression or armed
• He can ask a rninjster to resign or
rebellion.
advise the Governor to dismiss him in
• He reports to the President, if the State case of difference of opinfon.
Government is not running constitutionally
• He presides over the meetings of the
and recommends the imposition of
Council of Ministers and influences
President's Rule (Article 356). When
its decisions.
President's rule comes into force in any
state, the Governor runs the state ,.vith the • He gu.ides, clli·ects, controls and
help of advisers on behalf of the President. coorclinates the activities of all the
ministers.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

In Relation of the Governor State Council efMinisters (CoMs)

He is the principle channel of • The CoMs headed by CM is the real
communication bet:v11een the Governor executive authmity in the
and the Council of Minjs ters. Political-adminfat:rative system of the
state.
In Rela-tion to State Legislature • At1icles 163 and 164 deal ,iv:ith Council of
• Advises the Governor with regard to Mirrister, in the states.
summoning and proroguing the
sessions of the State Legislature. Oath and Salary
• Recommend the dissolution of the • Oaths of office and secrecy is
Legislative Assembly to the Governor at admimstered by the Governor or person
any time. appointed by him for thjs purpose.
• He announces the government policies • Salary and aUowances are determined by
on the floor of the House . the State Legislature from time to time.

I STATES LEGISLATURE I
There is no uniformity in the creation Composition of Legislative
of State Legislatures. Most of the states Council
have unkameral system (single
house), only 6 States Andhra Pradesh, Of the total number of members of a Legislative
Council
Bihai~ Karnataka, Maharash b.'a, Uttar
Pradesh and Telengana are having • 1/3rd Elected from local bodies
Bicameral (Double House). (mumcipahties and rnstrict boards).
• 1/12th Elected by graduates of 3 years
Legislative Assembly standing and residmg in the state.
(Article 170) • 1/12th Elected by teachers of 3 years
• The Legislative Assembly (Vidban standing in the state, not lower in standard
than secondary school.
Sabha) consists of not more than
500 members and not less than • 1/3rd Elected by the members of the
60 members. However, the Legislative Assembly of the state from
Legislative Assembly of Sikkim, amongst person, v, ho ai·e not members of the
1

Goa, MJzoram Anmanchal Pradesh, assembly.

Nagaland and PuducheITy have less • Rest (I/6th) are nominated by the Governor
than 60 members. from persons of special knowledge or
practical e}.._"Perience of literature, science, art,
Legislative Council cooperative movement and social service.
(Article 171) • 5/6th of total number of members of
Legistative Council ai·e inmrectly elected,
• As per Article 169, if the Legislative and I /6th are nommated by Governor.
Assembly passes a resolution for
abobsbing or creating of the Membership of the State
Legislative Council by a majority of Legislature
the total membersWp of the
assembly and by a majmity of not less Qu alification
than two-thrrd of the members Under At1icle 173, they must fulfil the
present and voting, the Parliament following conditions
may approve the resolution by a (a) He must be a citizen of Inrna.
simple majmity to create or abolish (b) He must make and subscribe before the
th e Legislative Council. person authorised by the Election
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
Commission an oath or a:ffi.Imation
according to the form presCljbed in the
Third Schedule.
( c) He must be not less than 30 years of
age in the case of the Legislative
Council and not less than 25 years of
age in the case of the Legislative
Assembly.
(d) He must possess other qualifications
prescribed by Parliament, under
Representation of People Act (I 95 1).
Oath or Affirmation lt is admin.istered by
Governor or person appointed by him for
this purpose.
Vacation of Seats (in cases of)
• Double membership • Disqualification
• Resignation
• Abse~c~ (more than 60 days without
perrmss1on)
Other cases
■ if hjs election is declared void
by the
cowt,
■ if he is e>..-pelled by the House,
■ if he 1s elected for the office of the
President or office of Vice-President,
■ if he is appointed to the office of
Governor of a state.
The Chairman is elected by the council
Dm·ation of theTwo Houses itself
Chairman vacates ms office in any of the
Legislative Assembly Same as Lok Sabha. following three cases
Leglislative Council Same as Rajya Sabha.
Presiding Officers
of State LegislahITe
• Speaker/Deputy Speaker in Legislative
Assembly (Article 178).
• Chairman/Deputy Chairman in
Legislative Council (Article 182).
Speaker of Legislative Assembly
Speaker of Assembly is elected by the
Assembly itself from an1ongst its members.
He can vacate hjs office earlier in any of the
following three cases
1. If he ceases to be a member of the
Assembly;
2. If he resigns by wdting to the Deputy
Speaker; and
3. If he is removed by a resolution passed
by a majority of all the members of the
assembly. Such a resolution can be
moved only after giving 14 days
advance notice. (Article 179).
Powers and Duties of Speaker
• He maintains order and decorum in
the Assembly for conducting its
business and regulating its proceedings.
• He adjomns the Assembly or suspends
the meeting in the absence of a quorum.
• He does not vote in the fiTSt instance.
But, he can exercise a casting vote in
the case of a tie.
• He can allow a secret s itting of the
House at the request of the leader of the
House.
• He decides ,,vhether a bill is a Money
Bill or not and ms decision on tms
question is final.
• He decides the questions of
disqualification of a member of the
Assembly, adsing on the ground of
defection under the provisions of the
Tenth Schedule.
• He appoints the Chairman of all the
comID.lttees of the Assembly and
supervises their functions.
Chairman of Legislative
Council
from an1ongst 1ts members. The
l . If he ceases to be a member of the
council,
2. If he resigns by ,niting to the Deputy
Chairman; and
3. If he is removed by a resolution passed
by a majority of all the members of the
council. Such a resolution can be
moved only after giving 14 days
advance notice.
Legislative Procedure
• A Money Bill can be introduced only in
the Legislative Assembly. The Assembly
is not bound to accept any
recommendation by the council, the
council may at most withhold the bill for
14 days from the date of its receipt.
(Article 198).
• In case of an Ordinary Bill, the
Legislative Council can hold the bill for
a maxinlum of thrne months. There is
no provision for joint sitting in case of
difference between the two Houses.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Powers of the State Legislature

• It parti cipates in the election of the President.
• It can remove the Council of Mimsters by passing a No-Confidence Motion.
• It controls the executive by various financial comn1mees . It 1·atmes certain
Constitutional Amendments, in wWc h participation of h alf of the State Legislatures is
required.
Strength of Legislative Assembly

S.N. State/Union Number of S.N. State/Union Number of

Territory Seats Territory Seats
I. States 23. Sikkim 32
1. Andhra Pradesh 175 24. Tamil Nadu 235
2. ArunaohalPradesh 60 25. Telangana 119
3. Assam 126 26. Tripura 60
4. Bihar 243 27. Uttarakhand 70
5. Chhattisgarh 90 28. Uttar Pradesh 403
6. Goa 40
7. Gujarat 182 II. Union Territories
8. Haryana 90 1. Delhi 70
9. Himaohal Pradesh 68 2. Puducherry 33
10. Jharkhand 81 3. J&K 114
11. Karnataka 224
(Note 24 seats are designated for the
12. Kerala 140
Territorial Constituencies of the PoK).
13. Madhya Pradesh 230
Strength of Legislative Council
14. Maharash tra 288
15. Manipur 60 S.N. Name of State Number of
16. Seats
Meghalaya 60
17. Mizoram 40 1. Uttar Pradesh 100
18. Nagaland 60 2. Andhra Pradesh 58
19. Odisha 147 3. Kamataka 75
20. West Bengal 294 4. Bihar 75
21. Punjab 117 5. Maharashtra 78
22. Rajas than 200 6. Telangana 40

HIGH COURT
• Every lligh Court (v,,bether exclusive or comm on) consists of a Chief J ustice an d such
other judges as the Presiden t may fro m time to time deem necessary to appoin t. Th us ,
the Constitution does not specify the strength of a lligh Cow·t and leaves it to the
discretion of the President.
• Accordingly, the President determines the strength of a lligh Court from time to time
depending upon its workload.
• The Constitution of India provides a lligh Court for each state, but the 7th
Amendment Act of 1956, authorised the Parliam ent to establish a comm on lligh Court
for two or more sta tes or a state and a Lillian territory.
• The teni tmial j wisdiction of a High Court is co-termin us \'lrith the territory of a state.
• As of 2023, there are 25 High Courts in India. Telangana is the 25th High Court.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

Jurisdiction and Seats of High Courts

S.No. Name Established Territorial Jurisdiction Seat
in the Year
1. Madhya Pradesh 1966 Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur (Benches at
Gwalior and Indore )
2. Bombay 1862 Maharashtra, Dadra and Mumbai (Benoh at
Nagar Haveli, Goa, Daman Nagpur, Panaji and
and Diu Aurangabad)
3. Calcutta 1862 West Bengal and Andaman Kolkata (Circuit
and Nicobar islands Bench at Port Blair)
4. Madras 1862 Tamil Nadu and Puduoherry Chen nai
5. Allahabad 1866 Uttar Pradesh Allahabad (Bench at
Lucknow)
6. Karnataka 1884 Karnataka Bengaluru
7. Patna 1916 Bihar Patna
8. Orissa 1948 Odisha Cuttaok
9. Guwahati 1948 Assam , Nagaland , Mizoram Guwahati (Benches
and Arunachal Pradesh at Kohima and
Aizawl and itanagar)
10. Rajas than 1949 Rajas than Jodhpur (Bench at
Jaipur)
11 _ Kerala 1968 Kerala and Lakshadweep Ernakulam
12_ Jammu and 1928 Jammu and Kashmir Srinagar and Jammu
Kash mir
13. Gujarat 1960 Gujarat Ahmedabad
14. Delhi 1966 Delhi Delhi
15. Punjab and 1875 Punjab, Haryana and Chandigarh
Haryana Chandigarh
16. Himachal 1971 Himachal Pradesh Shimla
Pradesh
17_ Sikkim 1975 Sikkim Gangtok
18. Uttarakhand 2000 Uttarakhand Nainiial
19. Jharkhand 2000 Jharkhand Ranchi
20. Chhattisgarh 2000 Chhattisgarh Bilaspur
21 _ Manipur 2013 Manipu r Imphal
22_ Meghalaya 2013 Meghalaya Shillong
23. Tripura 2013 Tripura Agartala
24_ Andhra Pradesh 201 9 Andhra Pradesh Amaravati
25. Telangana 201 9 Telanga na Hyderabad
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
Appointment of Judges
• Under At1icle 217, The judges of the l-ligh
Court are appointed by the President.
• The Chief Justice of the lligb Court js
appointed by the President after
consuJtation with the Chief J ustice of
Supreme Court and Governor of the
concerned state.
• For the appointment of other Judges, the
Chief Justice of concerned lligh Court js
also consuJted.
Qualification of Judges
• He shouJd be a citizen of India .
• He shouJd have held ajudicfaJ office ill the
territory of India for I O years.
or
• He shouJd have been an advocate of a
l-ligb Court (or High Courts ill succession)
for IO years.
Oath
Oath is administered by Governor or person
appointed by him for this purpose.
Tenure
• The Constitution bas not fixed the tenure
of Judge of lligh Court. He holds office
until he attains the age of 62 years.
Removal
• He can resign hfa office by writing to the
President.
• He can be removed from his office by the
President on the recommendation of the
Parliament (same as Judge of SC).
• He vacates his office when be is appointed
as a Judge of the Supreme Court or when
h e is transferred to another High Court.
Salaries and Allowances
• DeteDJJined by Parliament from time to
time.
• Present salary of CbiefJustice of High Court
3s t 2,50,000 and that of J udge of lligb
Cowts is t 2,25,000
Independence of High Comt
The provision for judicial illdependence for
l-ligb Cowt is very much similar to
Supreme Court.
Jmisdiction and Powers
of High Comt
At present, a High Court enjoys the
following jwrisdictfon and powers
• Original jurisdktion
• Writ jurisdiction (Article 226)
• Appellate jwisdiction
• Supervisory jwisdiction
• Control over subordinate courts .
• A court of record_
• Power ofjudicfaJ review.
The Supreme Court can jssue w1it
jurisdiction, onJy whe re a Fundan1entaJ
light bas been infringed. lligh Cowt can
issue these writs Under Article 226 not onJy
in such cases, but also where an ordinary
legaJ right has been infringed.
l-ligb Court does not have advisory power as
in case of Supreme Court.
Subordinate Courts
At1icles 233 to 237 in Part VI of the
Contitution make the provisions to regulate
the organisation of subordrnate courts and
to ensure their illdependence from the
executive .
Appointment of Dishict Judges
The appointment, posting and promotion
of district judges in a state are made by
Governor of the State in consuJtation with
the l-ligb Court.
A person to be appointed as district judge
should have the following qualifications
• He shouJd not already be in the service of
the Central or the State Govern.men t.
• He shouJd have been an advocate or a
pleader for seven years .
• He shouJd be recommended by the lligh
Court for appointment.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
Appointment of 0th er Judges
Appointment of persons (other than district
judges) to the judiciaJ services of a state are
made by the Governor of the State after
consuJtation with the State Public Service
Commfasion and the J-ligh Court.
NYAYA PANCHAYAT
The Nyaya Panchayats are the judiciaJ
bodies :in village, wmch provide speedy and
:ine>..-pensive justice for all petty civil suits.
UsuaJJy, their domain of jurisdiction is
limited to four to five villages onJy. They can
impose onJy monetary fines at the most, as
punishments cll'e barred from the power to
award imprisonment sentences ( except
Bihar)_
UNION-STATE
RELATIONS
The federaJ system adopted in Indfa
:involves division of authority between the
union and the states. Relations between the
wnion and states can be studied under the
following parts_
A Legislative Relations (Art.
245-255)
• The Constitution divides the subjects in to
the Unfon Lls t (100 subjects), the State
Llst (61 subjects) and the Concurrent
Llst (52 subjects). Enumerated in the
Seventh ScheduJe under Article 246.
Parliament has exclusive power to
legislate on subjects mentioned :in the
Urn on Llst. This nst contains subjects W<e
defence, forejgn affairs, atomic energy etc.
• State Legislatures have exclusive power to
legislate on subjects mentioned in the
State Llst. The State Llst contains subjects
lil<e heaJth, sarntation, public order,
agriculture e tc. Both Parliament and State
Legislatures can legislate on subjects
mentioned in the Concmrent LlsL This
list contains subjects like criminaJ law,
forests, education, mar:d age and divorce
etc.
• Residual Powers (i.e. subjects not
included in any of the list) rest with
Unfon Government.
Lok Ada lat
• Lok Adalat (People's Courts), established by
the government, settles disputes through
conciliation and compromise_ The first Lok
Adalat was held in Gujraton 14th March, 1982_
• The Lok Ada lat is presided over by a sitting or
retired judicial officer as Chairman, with two
other member, usually a lawyer and a social
worker_ There is no court fee_ If the case is
already filed in a regular court, the fee paid is
refunded if the dispute is settled at the Lok
Adalat.
• Lok Adalat is very effective in settlement of
money claims_ Disputes, like partition suits,
damages and matrimonial cases, can also be
easily settled in Lok Adalat, as chances of
compromise through give and take approach
stand high in such cases_
• Lok Adalat is a boon to the litigant public,
where they can get their disputes settled fast
and free of cost
• Lok Adalats have been given the status of a
Civil Court and every award made by the Lok
Adalat is final and binding on all parties and
no appeals lies to any court against its
award_
B. Admi:nish·ative Relations
(Art. 256-263)
The states are eKpected to comply with the
Laws of the Parliament and not impede the
exercjse of the Executive Powers of the
Unfon (Articles 256, 257). In tills regard,
the Unfon Government can issue necessary
directives to the states. All disputes between
states regarding the use, distribution or
control of water are decided by the centre
(Article 262).
C. Financial Relations (Art. 268- 293)
• The states are greatly dependent on the
CentraJ Government for finance . The
State Governments have been provided
independent sources of revenue, but
these are inadequate.
• The Union Government has the power to
borrnw from within India or outside,
subject to the nm.its laid dovvn by the
Parliament, the borrowing power of the
states js subject to severaJ l.im.itations and
the cannot boffow from outside India.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
Inter-State Council (Article 263)
It is a non-permanent Constitutional body set
up by presidential order on the basis of
provisions in Article 263 of the Constitution. It
was established in 1990 on the
recommendations of Sarkada Commission to
discuss or investigate policies, subjects of •
common interest and dispute among states . It
comprises of Chief-Ministers of all states and
adminisb_- ators of Union Territories with
Prime Minister as Chainnan.
Zonal Council
• Established under States Reorganisation
Act, 1956, it is a statutory body with the
mandate to foster cooperative federalism
amongst state. The Union Home Minister
h as been nommated to be the common •
Chairman of all Zonal Councns. These
Councils are :
■ Northern Zonal Council Consist of
Punjab, Rajasthan, H aryana, Jammu and •
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh
and Delhi. Headquarters- New Delh.i.
■ Central Zonal Council Uttar Pradesh
Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarn and Madhy~
Pradesh. Headquarters- Allahabad
■ Eastern Zonal Council Bi.bar, Jbarkhand,
West Bengal and Odisha.
Headquarters-Kolkata
■ Westem Zonal Council Maharashtra, Goa,
Gujarat and UTs of Dadra and Nagar Haveli
and Daman Diu. Headquarters- MunJbaj
■ Southern Zonal Council Andhrn Pradesh
Tanill Nadu, Kamataka, Kerala and UT of
Puducherry. Headquarters- Chennaj
■ North Eastern Council was created in Status of J ammu and
1971 by a separate Act of Parliament for
Assam, Manipur, T1ipura, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh.
In 1994, Sikkim was included in it.
Puncbhi Con1n1ission
In April 2007, a new commission was set-up to
re-examine centre-state relations. The
commission was h eaded by former Ch.ief
Justice of India MM Punchhj_
The major recommendations of the Punchhi • The JanJilJu and Kashmir Legislative
Comm ission can be summed wp as follows
• There should be an amendment in Articles
355 and 356 to enable the centre to bring • The total srrength of newly constituted
specific trouble-tom areas under its rule for
a limited period.
• Inter-State Relation An Inter- State
Council can be established by the President
under Article 263 of the Constitution of
India. The function of the Inter-State
Council is to investigate and discuss
subjects in which states and union have a
common interest. lt also makes recom-
mendations for better co-ordination of
policy and action with respect to a subject.
Under Article 262, Parliament h as
constituted the In ter-State Water
Disputes Tribunal for adjudication of
disputes between states for the waters of
any inter-state 1iver or river valley.
• The commission h as proposed
'':localising emergency provision" under
A. rticles 355 and 356, con tending that
localised areas either a disbict or part of
a disbict be brought under govem-
men t rule instead of the whole state.
The comnnss1on supports the
Governor's 1ight to give sanction for the
prosecution of mi.njsters against the
advice of the State Government.
There should be changes in the role of
the Governor including fixed five year
tenme as well as their removal only
th.rough impeachment by the State
Assembly.
Sarkaria Commission
It was set-up in June, 1983, by the Central
Government of India to examine the
relationship and balance of power between
states and centre. It was headed by Justice
Rajinder Singh Sarkaria, a retired Judge of
the Supreme Court of India.
Revocation of the Special
Kasbn,ir
• On 5th August, 2019 the Government of
India revoked the Special States granted
under Article 370 of the Indian
Constitution to janJilJu and Kashmir.
• Thmugh the J &K Reorganjsation Act,
2019 the JanJmu and Kasbmjr has been
biflll'cated into two Un.ion Tenitories;
J arnmu and Kashmir and Ladakh on
3 1st October, 2019.
Council was formally abolished on
16th October, 2019 .
J ammu and Kashmir Legislative
Assembly has been increased fro m 107
to 114. Out of wh.ich 24 seats are
designated for the Territorial
Constituencies of the Paldstan occupied
Kashmir.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
IpANCHAYATI RAJ I
PANCHAYATS
• Panchayats constitute functional
institutions of grassroot governance in
villages. The Balwant Rai Mehta
Committee, J anuary 1957, recommended a
3-tier Panchayati Raj stTucture at the village,
intern1edfate and district levels.
• In 1977, the government appointed the
Ashok Mehta Committee to examine the
measures to strengthen PPJs.
• The LM Singhvi Committee (1986)
recommended Constitutional Status for
local bodies.
Three Tier System
• The three-tier system of Panchayat Raj was
fi.Tst adopted by Rajasthan (Nagaur district
on 2nd October, 1959) followed by Andhra
Pradesh.
( a) Village Panchaya±
• It consists of elected representatives of the
people, its membership varies from 5-3 1.
There is reservation for SC, ST and Women.
• Chairman , i.e. Sarpanch is elected in a
manner as the State Legislature may provide
dfrectly or indirectly.
• Villages Panchayat has to answer Gram
Sabha for all its actions.
• Gram Sabha comp1ises the residing adults of
the Panchayat and it supervises the working
of Panchayat.
(b) Bloclc and Panchaya± Samiti
• The Block consists 20-60 villages. It is
governed by the elected members of Village
Panchayat, whkb is called Pancbayat
Samiti.
• Pradhan is the head or Chairman of
Panchayat Sarni □ .
• States with population less than 20 la.kb
need not constitute a Block Pancbayat.
Chairperson is elected form amongst the • The Constitution of Munkipallties
members.
(c) Zila Parishad
• Members of the Zi.la Parisbad are elected
from the district by direct election on the
basis ofadult franchise for a term of 5 years. • Seats shall be reserved for Scheduled
• Chairman of Zi.la Parishad is elected from
amongst the members.
73rd AMENDMENT
ACT
• The Constitution 73rd Amendment
Act,1992 inserted a new part IX into
the Constitution.
The salient featwres of Parrt IX of the
Constitution are as follows
• The term of the Panchayats is five
yea.Ts unless dissolved earlier. Seats
shall be compulsorily reserved for
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes. Seats to be reserved for
back\1vard classes is left at the
discretion of the State Government.
• There is a provision of State Fm ance
Commission to review the finandal
position of Pancbayats and
recommend grant-in-aids.
• One-third of the seats cll'e rnserved for
women. A State Election Comm.1ssion
h eaded by the State Election
Commissioner shall conduct elections
for the Panchayats.
MUNICIPALITIES
(Articles 243P- 243ZG)
• The Constitution of In dia provides the
p rovision of local self government
uni.ts in urban area by inserting Part
IX-A through the 74th Amendment
Act, 1992.
• The Constitution provides for three
types of Municipalities. Nagar
Panchayat, for areas in transition from
rmal to urban.
• Munkipal CounciJ is for smaller
w·ban area.
• Munkipal Corporation is for larger
mban area. It is the bigger urban local
governn1ent.
shall be deternJined by a La,v of the
State Legislature. Wards Committees
shall be constituted in those
Munidpalities having a population of
tm·ee lakh or more.
Castes and Scheduled Tubes.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
• One-third of the seats shall be reserved for
women.
• Mumcipalities will have the power to
impose taxes, duties, tolls and fees in
accordance with law. The Constitution
provjdes for a State Finance Commjssion to
review the financial position of the
Munjcipalities and recommend measures
to augment their funds.
• Under Article 243 ZD, a District Planning
Committee shall be constituted to
consolidate the plans prepared by the
Pancbayats and Munkipalit:ies in the
rnstr:ict.
• Under Article 243 ZE, a Metropolitan
Planning Committee shall be constituted to
prepare a draft development plan for the
metropolltan area as a whole.
OFFICIAL LANGUAGE
• Part XVII of the Constitution deals with the
official language in A.t1icles 343 to 351.
• Hinrn written in Devanagari Script js to be
the official language of the Urnon.
• In 1955, the President appointed an official
Language Commfasion under the
Chairmanship of BG Kher.
I MISCELLANEOUS I
Comptroller and Auditor
General of India
• The Constitution of Indfa (Article 148)
provjdes for an in de pendent office of the
Comptroller and Aurntor GeneraJ of India
(CAG).
• He is the guardfan of the publlc pw-se and
audits the accounts of the government at
both the levels- the centre and the state.
• llis duty is to uphold the Constitution of
Indfa and laws of Parllament in the field of
financial adrninjstration.
• A.t·ticle 148 to 151 of the Constitution deals
with CAG's appointment, powers and aurnt • The term of off.ice of the Attorney
reports.
• The CAG of Inrna is appointed by the
President for six years or tiU sixty five
years, of age whkhever js earller.
• llis rnmoval process is similar to that of a
Judge of the Supreme Court.
• All proceeding m the Supreme Court
and in every l-ligh Court are to be in
English Language onJy.
• The authmitative teJ\.1:s of all bills, acts,
ordinances, orde1~ rules, reguJation and
by-laws at the central and state levels.
• Norma.Uy there were fmuteen
languages in Eighth Schedule, but
eight were added during amemlmenls,
now 22 languages are there 1. Assamese
2. Bengali 3. Gujarati 4. Hinrn 5.
Kannada 6. Kashrniri 7. Konkan.i
8. Malayalam 9. Marnpwi 10. Marathi
I 1. Nepali 12. Oriya 13. Punjabi 14.
Sanskrit 15. Sindm 16. Tamil 17.
Telugu 18. Urdu 19. Santhali 20. Bodo
21. Majthili 22. Dogri.
• Sindm was added by the 21st
Arnendmen t Act, 1967; Konkan.i,
Manipuri and Nepali were added by the
71st Amendment Act, 1992: and Bodo,
Dogii, Maithili and Santhali were added
by the 92nd Amendment Act, 2003.
• The Constitution imposes a duty upon
the centre to spread the development of
the Hinrn language so that lt may
become the 'lingua franca' of the
composite cuJture of lnrna.
• Sh1·i V Nru·a.hari Rao, was the first
Comptroller and Auditor GeneraJ of
Inrna (1948-1954).
Attorney General of India
• The Constitution (Article 76) h as
provided for the office of the Attorney
General of lnrna . He is the rughest law
officer in the country.
• The Attorney General of In dia must be
a person, who is qua.lilied to be
appointed as a Judge of the Supreme
Cow-t. He is appointed by the
President.
General is not fixed by the
Constitution. Fw-ther, the Constitution
does not contain the procedure and
grounds for ms removal. He holds
office during the pleasw-e of the
President.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

• The Attorney General's duty js to give • It also organ.ises the polling booths, coWJ ting
advice to the Government of India of votes, and declaration ofresults, to ensure
upon such legal matters, wmch are the orderly and fair manner of elections.
referred to mm by the President. • At present Election Commjssion consists of
Chief Election Commissioner and two
Advocate General of the State Election Commissioners.
• Article 165, has provided for the office of • The Constitution provides for an
the Advocate General for the states. He Independent Election Commission to
acts as highest Law officer in the state, ensure free and fair elections to the
Parliament, the State Legislature and the
corresponding to the Attorney General of
offices of the President and Vice-President.
India.
• The Chief Election Commjssionei- and
• He is appoi nted by the Governor to give
other Election Commissioners are appointed
advice to state government on legal
by the President for 6 yeru·s or till 65 years,
matters. And he also performs such other
wruchever js earl.ier. (Article 324) .
duties of a legal nature that are assigned
to him by the Governor. • The Ch.ief Election Commissioner ca□ be
removed on groWJd sim.ila.T to that of a Judge
• The Attorney General appears before of the Supreme Court. The other Election
the Supreme Court and various lligh Commjssioners may be removed by the
Courts in cases involving the President on the recommendation of the
Government of In dia. Cbfof Election Commissioner.
• The Attorney General of In d.ia is not a • The general election is held on the basis of
member of the Cabinet. Universal A.duJt Suffrage.
• He has the PJght to Speak in the either Chief Election Commissioners of India
House of Parliament, but he has no
Right to Vote. Name Tenure
From To
Election Con1n1ission Sukumar Sen 21 .03.1960 19.12.1958
• An independent Election Commission KVK Sundaram 20.1 2.1958 30.09.1967
h as been established under the
SP Sen Verma OU0.1967 30.09.1972
Constitution in order to carry out and
reguJate the holding of elections in Dr Nagendra Singh OU0.1972 06.02.1973
Indfa. The Election Commission was T Swam inalhan 07.02.1973 17.06.1977
established in accordance with the SL Shakdhar 18.06.1977 17.06.1982
Constitution on 25th J anuary, 1950. AK Trivedi 18.06.1982 31.12.1985
• The Election Comm.ission prepares, RVS Peri Sastri 01 _01 _1986 25.11.1990
maintains and period.ically updates the Smt VS Rama Devi 26.1 1.1990 11.12.1990
electoral roll, wmch shows who is TN Seshan 12.12.1990 11.12.1996
entitled to vo te , supervises the MS Gill 12.12.1996 13.06.2001
nominations of candidates, register JM Lyngdoh 14.06.2001 07.02.2004
political parties, monHors the election 08.02.2004 15.05.2005
TS Kri shnamurtht
campa.ign.
BB Tandon 16.05.2005 29.06.2006
Admi nistratjve Tribunals N Gopalaswamy 30.06.2006 20.04.2009
Navin Cha\1/la 21 _04.2009 29.07.2010
• The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 added a
SY Qureshi 30.07.2010 10.06.2012
new Part XIV-A to the Constitution. This
VS Sam12ath 11.06.2012 15.01.2016
part is entitled as 'Tribunals' and consist
HS Brahma 16.01.2016 18.04.2016
of only two Articles, Article 323A dealing
Dr Nasim Zaidi 19.04.2015 05.07.2017
with administrative tribunals and
Article 323B dealing with tribunals for Achal Kumar Joli 06.07.2017 22.01.2018
other matters. Om Prakash Aa\1/at 23.01 .2018 01 .12.2018
Sunil Arora 02.1 2.2018 12.04.2021
• The Central Administrative Tribunal !CAT)
Sush i! Chandra 13.04.2021 14.05.2022
was set-up in 1985, with the principal
bench at Delhi and addi ti onal benches in Aajiv Kumar 15.05.2022 Till Date
different states. * As on 1st January, 2023
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
Delimit ation C01nn1ission
• Delim.itation Commission or Boundary
Commission of India is a commission,
established by Government of India under the
provisions of the Delimitation C?~s_sion
Act. The main task of the comilllSsion 1s to
redraw the bounda1ies of the various
assemblies and Lok Sabha Constituencies
based on a recent census. The representation
from each state is not changed during this
exercise. Howeve1~ the number of SC and ST
seats in a state are changed :in accordance
with the census.
• The commission is a powed'ul body, whose
orders cannot be challenged in a court of
law. The orders are laid before the Lok
Sabha and the respective State Legislative
Assemblles. However, modifications are not
permitted .
• Delin:J.jtation Commissions have been
se t-up four times in the past, in 1952, 1963,
1973 and 2002, under Delin:J.jtation
Commission Acts of 1952, 1962, 1972 and
2002.
• The delimitation commission was se t-up on
12th J uly, 2002 after the 2001 Census with
Justice KuJdip Singh, a retired Judge of the
Supreme Court of India as its Chairperson.
The assembly elections in Karnataka, which
were conduc ted in three phases in May, 2008
was the fiTst one to use the new boundaries as
drawn by the 2002 Delimitation Commission.
NOTA
• The None Of The Above (NOTA) is an
option on the E lectronk Voting Mac~es
(EVMs), through th.is peoples ge t the nght
of votes to reject all candidates contesting
the elections. A 'NOTA' does not require the
:involvement of the presiding officer. The
NOTA option was first used in the assembly
election of five states in November 2013.
The NOTA option would not impac t the
result of elections.
• Election Commission removes NOTA
option from Rajya Sabha, Legislative
Council Election in August, 2019 .
Union Public Service
Commission (UPSC)
• With the promulgation of the new
Consitution for Independent India on 26th
January, 1950, the Federal Public Service
Commission was accorded a
consitutional status as an autonomous
entity and given the title Unfon Public
Service Commission.
• Article 315 to 323 in the Part XIV of the
Constitution contains elaborate
provisions regarding UPSC.
The SbuchlreofUP SC
• The Chail7Ilan and other members of
the UPSC a1·e appointed by the
President and they hold office for a
term of 6 yea.l's from the date of
appoinbnent or until they attain the age
of 65 yea.l's. They are independent of
the Executive and Legislatme in the
same manner as the Judges of the
Supreme Cow'L
• Aoe of retirement for a member of
b
Public Service Commission of a State or
Joint Public Service Commission is 62
years.
Removal of Members
• UPSC members can resign by
addressing their letter of resignation to
the President.
• President can remove them by issuing
orders under the circumstances
provided in the Constitution.
Functions
• To conduct exams for appoinbnent to
services under the union. Advise the
President (not obligatory on him) in
matters relating to appoinbnent,
promotions and transfers from one
service to another of civil servants.
• All disciplinary matters affecting
person in the service of union.
• Matters regarding award of pension and
awards in respect to injuries sustained
dilling service under the government.
Finance Con1n1ission of
I di ( A,, . } 280)
n a ..t-uTIC e
• The Finance Commission consists of
Chairman and four other members.
• The Chairman is selec ted from aJ.Tiong
the persons, who had e)cperience in
publlc affairs. While the memebers arre
selected from among persons who
(a) are or h ave been qualified to be
appointed judges of the H.igh Court.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

(b) have special knowledge of finance, and salaries of State and Central Information
accounts of government. Commissioners, which are statutorily
(c) wide EA'Pe1ie □ ce in financial matters protected under the RTI Act.
and in adminjstratio□. • The Act replaces the fixed 5 years tenure
(d) having special lmowledge on to as much prescribed by government.
economics.
• The President constitutes a Finance Plannin g Co1nn1ission
Commission every five yeru·s, to The Planning Commission was an
(a) recommend to the President institution in the Governmen t of Indfa,
clislTibution of net proceeds of the whkh formuJated Indfa's F3ve-Year Plans.
taxes which are clivisible between The Government has replaced Planning
unfon and states. Commission with a new institution nan1ed
NITI Aayog (National Institution for
(b) recommend the principles, which
Transforming Inclia).
should govern the grants of the
revenues of the states out of the NITIAayog
Consolidate Fun d of Inclia.
• The institution will serve as 'Think Tank'
• The Commission's recommendations are
of the Governme □ t, a directional and
of advisory nature and hence, not binding
policy dynamo.
on the government.
• Nm Aayog will provide governments and
the central and state levels with relevant
Central Info11nation strntegic and technical advice across the
Commission (CIC) spectrum of key elements of policy. This
• Right to Information became an act in indudes matters of national and
2005. The aim is to make the international inJportance. PM is the
governments more transparent in its ex-officio chairman of N1TI Aayog.
working. It came into operation on 12th
October, 2005.
FunctionsofNITIAayog
• Under the act, a Central Information • To foster cooperative federalism through
Commission and State Information structured support, initiatives and
mechamsms with the states on a
Commissions needs to be constituted.
continuous basis, recogmsing that sb.'ong
• The Central Information Commission states m ake a sb.'ong nation.
and State Information Comm.1ssion h ear • To develop mechan.1sms to form ula te
complain ts from any person, who has cred.1ble plans at the village leveJ and
been derued information by any aggregate these progressively at rugher
government auth01ity. levels of goveTnme □ t.
• The Cruef Information Commissioner • To ensw-e, on areas that are specifically
and other Information Commissioners referred to it, that the interes t of national
shall be appointed by the President on security are incorporated in economic
the recommendation of a committee strntegy and policy. To pay spedal
consisting of the P1ime Minister, the attention to the sections of ow- sodety
leader of opposition in Lok Sabha and a that m ay be at 1isk of not be □ efitting
Umo□ Cabinet Minfa ter to be nominated adequately from economic progress.
by the PM. • To provide advice and encourage
• The RTI Amendment Bill, 2013 removes partnersmps between key stal<eholders
political parties from the ambit of the and national and international like-
definition of public authorities and h ence minded Thmk Tanks, as well as
from pl.ll·view of the RTL educational and policy research
• The Draft Provision 2017 wrucb provides ins ti tu tio□ s.

for closer of case in case death of • To create a knowledge, innovation and

applicant can lead to more attack on the e □ trepre □ emial support system through a
lives of wmstle blowers. collaborative communjty of national and
• The RTI Amendment Act 2018 gave the international eA'Perts, practitioners and
Ce □ lTe the power to fix the te □ w-es and other partners.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

• To offer a pl atform for rnsolution of Recognised National

inter-sectoral and inter-departmental Political Parties
1ssues in order to accelerate the
implementation of the development Party Symbol YeaFof
agenda. Formation
• To actively monjtor and evaluate the ■ Bahujan Samaj Elephant 1984
implementation of programmes and Party (BSP}
injtiatives, indurnng the identification of ■ Bhartiya Janeta Lotus 1980
the needed resow.-ces so as to strengthen Party (BJP}
the probability of success and scope of ■ Communist Party Ears of 1925
delivery. of India (CPI) Com and
Sickle
Members of NITI Aayog ■ Communist Party Hammer, 1964
of India-Marxist Sickle
• Prime Minjster of Inrna as the and Star
(CPM}
Chairperson . ■ Indian National Hand 1886
• Governing Council compnsrng the Chief Con gress (INC}
MiJJjsters of all the States and Lt Governors ■ Nationalist Clock 1999
of Uruon Territories . Congress Party
• The Regional Counclls will be convened by (NCP}
the Prime Minjster and will comprise of the ■ All India Trinamool Flower 1998
Chief Minfaters of States and Lt Governors Congress (AITC) and
of Uruon Tenitories in the region. These Grass
will be chaired by the Chairperson of the ■ National People's Book 2019
NIT] Aayog or his nominee . Experts, Party
specialists and practitioners with relevant • To be recognised as a National Party, a
domain lmowledge as special invitees party needs to secme atleast 6% of the
nominated by the Prime Minjs ter.
valid votes polled in any fotJT or more
• The full-time organfaational framework (in states in a general election to the
adrntion to the Prime Minfa ter). Lok Sabha or State Assembly.
• Vice-Chairperson: To be appointed by the In adrntion to 3t, it has to win atleast fow.-
Prime Minjster. seats in the Lok Sabha from any state or
• Members: Full-time . states as well.
• Part-time Members: .Maximum of 2 from • For getting recognition as a State
learnng unjversities resea.l'ch organjsations Party, a polltical pai-ty h as to secure
and other relevant institutions in an atleast 6% of the valid votes in the state
ex-officio capadty. Part tin1e members will concerned during a general election,
be on a rotational basis. either to that of the Lok Sabha or the
State Assembly. Apart from this, the
• Ex Officio Members : Maximum of 4
p arty should also win nnrnmum two
members of the Unfon Council of
seats in the assembly of the state
Mirristers to be nominated by the Prime concerned.
MiJJjster.
• Chief Executive Officer: To be appointed Anti-Defection Law
by the Prin1e Minjster for a fixed ten me, in
• The 52nd Amendment Act of 1985
the rank of Secretai-y to the Governm ent of
provided for the rnsqualification of the
Inrna .
Members of Parliament and the State
• Secretaiiat as deemed necessary. concerned Legislatures on the ground of
defection from one Political Party to
Political Parties another.
• Poli tical pai-ties are voluntary associations • The 91st Amendment Act of2003 made
or organjsed groups of inrnviduals, who one change in the provisions of the
share the same political views and who try Tenth Schedule. It omitted an
to gain polltical power through exceptional prov1s10n i.e.,
constitutional means and who desire to rnsquali:fication on ground of defection
work for promoting the national interest. not to apply in case of split.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

• A member of a House belonging to any polltical Salient Features of Lokpal

party becom es disquali:fied for being a Member
of the House
and Lokayuktas Act
(a) If he volun tarily gives up his membership of • Lokpal bill consists of a chairperson
such political party; or and a max:imum of eight mem bers
of wmch 50% shall be judicfal
(b) If he votes or abstains from voting in such members. 50% of members of
House contrary to any direction 1ssued by ms
Lokpal shall be fro m SC/ ST/OBCs,
political party without obtaining prior
minmities and women.
perrnisSJon of such party and such act h as not
been condoned by the party ,,rithm 15 days. • The selection of chairperson and
members of Lokpal shall be through
• An independent member of a House (elected a selection coIIlJill ttee consist of
w1thout being set-up as a candidate by any 1. Prime Mmjster
political party) becomes disqualified to remain
a member of the House, if he joins any polltical 2. Speaker of Lok Sabha
party after such election. 3. Leader of opposition ill Lok
Sabha
• A nominated member of a House becomes
4. Chief J ustice of India or a sitting
disqualified for being a member of the House, if
J udge of Supreme Court
h e joins any Poli ti cal Party after the expiry of six
nominated by CJ I.
months from the date, on which he takes ms
5. Eminent jurist on the basis of
seat ill the House.
recommendations of the first
four members of the selection
E-governance commjttee . Prime Min_jster h as
■ E-governance simply means electronic governance. been brought under the purvjew
Governments are providing various information on their of the Lokpal.
website about their working, citizen's interaction with
government becomes easier. National Human Rights
• The National E-governance Plan was approved by the
cabinet in May 2005.
Con1n1ission
• The National Human Rights
■ Various E-govemanoe projects of central government
Commjssion 1s a statutory body,
are MCA21 (Corporate Ministry), Pensions, Income Tax,
constituted in 1993 under the
Central Excise, Passport Seva Project, Aadhar, E-courts,
E-procurement and e-offioe (Central secretariat). Protection of Human PJghts Act,
■ Besides, the Centra l Government, various State 1993.
• The commission acts a watchdog of
Governments are undertaking va rious projects for
E-governanoe under the National E-governanoe plan.human 1ights in the country.
■ E-governanoe has the poten tial to change the way
• The Chairperson of the NHRC shall
governments govern and its impact would be definetly
be former Chief Justice of the
felt by the citizens of India. Supreme Court or a fo[]]]er Judge of
■ Edislrict is a mission mode project under e-govemanoe. lls
the Supreme Court.
objective under National E-govemanoe Policy is
• Three persons h avmg knowledge of
computerisation of services. Under it, different human rights to be appointed as
programmes are conducted in following slates members of the NHRC of wmch at
• Gyandoot Project - Madhya Pradesh least one will be a woman .
■ Compact 2020 - Andhra Pradesh
• Chairpersons of va.r:ious
■ Bhoomi Project - Karnataka commjssfons such as the National
• Friend s - Kera la Commjssion for Scheduled Castes,
■ Bhulekh- Uttar Pradesh National Comm1 ssion for
Scheduled Tribes and National
Lokpal and Lokayuktas Commjssion for Women, National
Commjssion for Backward Classes,
The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013 was
the National Comm1 ssion for the
legislated by the Parl_jament to provide for the
establishment of body ofLokpal for the Union and Protection of Child PJgh ts and the
Lokayukta for state to inquire into allegations of Chief Commissioner for persons
corruptions against certain public functionaries \i\rith Disabilities ,ue ex-officio
and for matte rs connecting them. members of NHRC.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

National Con1n1ission for SCs Important Constitutional

andSTs Amendments
• The National Comrnission for SCs and STs • The First Amendment 1951, to
h ave been established under the Article 338 overcome certain practical
and 338-A respectively as a constitutional body. difficulties related to FundanJental
• They investigate all matter related to Rights. It made provision for spedal
constitutional and other legaJ safeguai·ds for treatment of educationally and
SCs and STs and report to the President on sodally backward classes and added
their working. And also advice on the planning Ninth Schedule to the Constitution.
process for socio-economic development of • The Thfrd Amendment 1954, it
SCs and STs. substituted entry 33 of Llst Ill
(Concurrent Llst) of the Seventh
CONSTITUTIONAL Schedule to mal(e it correspond to
AMENDMENTS Article 369.
• The Seventh Amendment 1956,
Under Article 368, of the Constitution,
was necessitated on account of
Pai·liament has the power of amending the
reorganjsation of states on a
Constitution.
linguistic basis and changed First
There are three methods and Fomth Schedules.
• Method of Simple Majorsty The Constitution • The Eighth Amendment 1960,
can be amended by simple majmity in matters extended special prov1s10n for
relating to citizenship, abolishing or creating reservation of seats for SCs, STs and
second chambers in the states creation of Anglo-Indians in Lok Sabha and
states or alteration of boundaries of existing Legislative Assemblies for a period
states etc. However these anJendments does of 10 yeai·s from 1960 to 1970.
not come under purview of Article 368. By
• The Ninth Amendment 1960,
Special Majorety Constitutional Amendments
transferred certain territories to
must be passed by each House by a majmity of
Pakistan following September, 1958,
the total membership of that H ouse and by a
Inda-Pak Agreement.
majmity of not less than two-thirds of the
members of that House present and voting. • The Tenth Amendment 1961,
incorporated the territories of Dadrn
• By Special Majority of ParUament and
Consent of States In thjs method, apait from and Nagar HaveU in Inman Unfon.
passing thrnugh a special majority in • The Twelfth Amendment 1962,
Parliamen t,it should also be passed by half the incorporated the tenit01ies of Goa,
the state legislatures. Daman and Diu in Indian Umon .
• The ThiJ1eenth Amendment 1962,
Basic Features created Nagaland as a State of the
Unfon of India.
• The present position is that the Parliament under
Article 368 can amend any part of the Constitution • The Fmu1eentb Amendment 1962,
including the Fundamental Rights, but without incorporated former French
affecting the 'basic features' of the Consti tution. Territory of Puducherry in Inman
Union.
• However, the Supreme Court is yet to define or
clarify as to what constitutes the 'basic feature' of • The Eighteenth Amendment 1966,
was made to facilita te reorganisation
the Consti tution.
of Punjab into Punjab and Haryana
• From the various judgements, the fol lowing have and also created the UT of
emerged as 'basic features' of the Constitution: Chandigarh.
Supremacy of the Constitution. secular character of
• The Twenty-First Amendment 1967,
the Constitution, separation of powers between the
included Sindru as the 15th regional
Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary, language in the Eighth Schedule.
federal character of the Constitution, judicial
review, ru le of law, parl iamentary system, free and • The Twenty-Second Amendment
fair elections, limited power of Parl iament to 1969, created a sub-state of
amend the Constitution. Meghalaya within Assam.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
• The Twenty-Thi1·d .Amendment 1970,
extended the reservation of seats for SC/ST
and nomination of Anglo-Indians for a
fmther pe1iod of 10 yeaTs (upto 1980)_
• The Twenty-Seventh .Amendment 1971,
provided for the establishment of the States of
Manipm and Topura, the formation of the • The Seventy-Ninth .Amendment 1999,
Union Territories of Mlloram and Anmacbal
Pradesh.
• The Thfrty-FiJ·st .Amendment 1973,
increased elective strength of Lok Sabha • The Eightieth .Amendment 2001,
from 525 to 545. Upper limH of
representatives of state became 525 from
500.
• The Thirty-Sixth .Amendment 1975, made
Sil<ldm a state of the Indian Unfon.
• The Fbrty-Second .Amendment 1976,
provided supremacy of Parliament and gave
primacy to Directive P1inciples over
Fundan1ental PJgbts and also added IO
Fundan1ental Duties. New words-socialist,
secular and integrity, were added in the
Preamble.
• The Forty-Fourth .Amendment 1978,
restored the normal duration of Lok Sabha
and Legislative Assemblies to 5 Years, PJgb t
to Property was deleted from Part I [L It
limHed the power of the government to
proclaim in ternal emergency.
• The Fifty-Second .Amendment 1985,
inserted the Tenth Schedule in the
Constitution regarding provisions as to
disqualification on the grounds of defection.
• The Fifty-Fom-th .Amendment 1986,
enhanced salaiies of J udges of Supreme
Court and lligb Court.
• The Fifty-Filth .Amendment 1986,
conferred statehood on Arunachal Pradesh.
• The Fifty-Sixth .Amendment 1987, Hindi
version of the Constitution of India was
accepted for all pmposes and statehood was
also conferred on the UT of Goa.
• The Sixty-First .Amendment 1989,
reduced voting age from 21 to 18 years for
Lok Sabha and Assemblies.
• The Seventy-Thfrd .Amendment 1992,
(Panchayati Raj Bill) provided Gram Sabha
in villages, direct elections to all seats in
Panchayats and rese rvation of seats for the
SC and ST, women and fixing of ten ure of 5
years for Panchayats.
• The Seventy-Forth .Amendment 1992,
(Nagar Palika Bill) provided for
Constitution of three types of
munkipalities, reservation of seats for
SC and ST, women and the backward
class.
extended reservation for the SC/ST for
further pe1iod of ten years, 1.e. up to
25th J anuary, 2010_
certain changes were made to tax
distribution provided under Articles
269, 270 and 272 of the Constitution.
• The Eighty-Fmuth .Amendment 2001,
the number of representatives in the
Lok Sabha and State Assemblies to
freeze to current levels for the neJ1..i:
25th years (till 2026).
• The Eighty-Filth .Amendment 2001,
provided for consequenti al senfo1ity in
case of promotion (with relTospective
effect from 17th J WJe, 1995) by virtue of
the rule of reservation for government
servants belonging to SCs/STs.
• The Eighty-Sixth .Amendment 2002,
the act deals with the insertion of a new
Article 21A after Article 21. The new
Article 21A deals with PJgbt to Education
"the slale shall provide free and
compulsory education to all clnlmen from
the age of 6 to 14 years in such a m anner
as the slate ma)~ by law deLelJlliile."
• The Eighty-Eighth .Amendment 2003,
provides for the insertion of a new
Article 268A. Service tax levied by
WJfon and collected and appropriated
by the WJfon and the states.
Amendment of Article 270,
Amendment of Seventh Schedule.
• The Eighty-Ninth .Amendment 2003,
provides for the Amendment of Article
338. There shall be a Nation al
Commission for the SCs/STs.
• The Ninety-FiJ·st A.mendmen t 2003,
am ended the anti-defection ]aws and
provided for Amendment of Article 75.
The tota1 number of Mirus ters,
induding the Prime Mims ter, and the
Council of Mirus ters shall not exceed
15% of the tota1 number of members of
the House of the People.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
• The Nmety-Second Amendment Act 2003,
provided for the Amendment of Elgth
Schedule by adding four new regional
languages (Bodo, Maithili, San tball and Dogri)
thus, extending the list to 22 ]anguages.
• The Ninety-Thl1·d Amendment Act 2005, •
(came into effect o □ 20th January, 2006)
provided for specja] provision, by ]av, for the
1
,
advancement of any socially and
educationally backward classes of citizens or
for the SCs/STs in so far as such special
provisions relate to their admission to •
educationa1 institutions including priva te
educational institutions.
• The Ninety-Forth Amendment Act 2006, to
provide for a Minis ter of Tubal Welfare in
newly created Jbarkhand and Chhattisgarh.
• The Ninety-Filth Amendment Act 2009,
exte nded reservation for the SC/ST for
further period of ten years, that ls upto 25th
January, 2020.
• The Ninety-Sixth Amendmant Act 2011
substituted 'Oma' for 'Oriya'.
• The Ninety-Seventh Amendment Act 2011, •
provided for the Co-operative societies in
Part IX B of the Constitution of India. It a1so
amended Article 19 (1) (c) and inserted
Article 43B.
• The Ninety-Eighth Amendment Act, 2012,
Pmvided for specja] provisions for the •
Hyde rabad-Kar □ a taka region of the state of
Kamataka.
• The Ninety-Ninth Amendment Act, 2014,
reguJates the procedme to be followed by the
N ational Jumcial Appointments Commission
I SOME p ARLIAMENTARY TERMS I
Quorum A Quorum is the minimum number Parliamentary Privileges Parliamentary
of members of a deliberative assembly
neoessary to oonduct the business of that
group_
Quorum for either House is 1/10th of the
total num ber of members of eaoh House
including the presiding offioer.
Penalty If a person sits or votes as a member
of either House of the Parliament before he
has oomplied with the requirements of
Article 99 (oath) or when he knows that he
is not qualified or that he is disqualified for
membership thereof, he shall be liable in
respect of each day on whi ch he so sits
o r votes to a penalty of { 500 to be
reoovered as a debt to the union_
(NJAC) for appointment and transfer of
chjef Justice and Judges of Supreme
Court and H.igh Courts. But Supreme
Court ded,ued fujs unconstitutional and
void.
The HundJ·edth Amendment Act, 2015,
deals with the acquiring of territories by
l□ ma and transfer of certain te.1·1'.itoctes to
Bang]adesb in pw:suance of the
agreements and its protocol between
l□ ma and Bang]adesh .
The Hundl"ed and One Amendment Act
2017 deals with the Goods and Services
Tax act. The GST is a comprehensive
indirec t tax levy o □ manufactw:e, sale
and consumption of goods as well as
services at the national level.
• The Hu.ndJ·ed and Two Amendment Act
2018 provides the constitutional status
to Nationa1 Commission for Backward
Classes.
• The Hun dJ·ed and ThJ·ee Amendment
Act 2018 provideds the 10% Reservation
for economically weaker sec □ o □ of society.
The Hund_red and Fourth Amendment
Act 2020 eJ\.1:ended the reservation for
ten years to SCs and STs in Lok Sabha
and State Assemblies besides doing
away with reservation for Anglo-Inman
CO Illill uni tie S.
105th Constitutional Amendment Act
2021, amends the Article 342A to state
that the power of the President to
specify the socially and educationally
back\l\,aTd classes in the Central List for
the purposes of the Central govt.
privileges are speciarrights, immunities
and exemptions enjoyed by the two
Houses of Parliament, their committees
and their members. Privileges are
provided in Artiole 106 (Union
Legislature) and Article 194 (State
Legislature) of the Constitution. Parliam-
entary privileges can be classified into
two broad categories: oollective
privileges and individual privileges.
Collective P1·ivileges The privileges
belonging to eaoh House of Parliament
oollecUvely are
• It can exclude strangers from its
proceedings and hold secret sittings
to discuss some important matters.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

• It can make rules to regulate its own Call-Attention Motion A member (after
procedure and the conduct of its permission from the speaker) calls the
business and to adjudicate upon such attention of the minister to any matter of
matters. 'urgent public importance'_ There is no
• The courts are prohibited to enquire call-attention motion in the Rajya Sabha .
into the proceedings of a House or its Instead , there exists a motion called
committees. 'motion for papers'.
Individual Privileges The privileges Censure Motion It can be moved only in
belonging to the members individually are the Lok Sabha an d only by the opposition _
• They cannot be arrested during th e It can be brought against the ruling
session of Parliament and 40 days government or against any minister for the
before the beginning and 40 days after failure of an act or seeking disapproval of
the end of a session . This privi lege is their policy_ A censure motion must specify
available only in civil cases and not in the charges against the government for
criminal cases. whioh it is moved.
• They have freedom of speech in No Confidence Motion It can be moved
Parliament No member is liable to any only in the Lok Sabha and only by the
proceedings in any court for anything opposition _ It needs the support of 50
said or any vote given by him in members to be admitted _It can be brought
Parliament only against the Council of Ministers and
Question Hour The first hour of every not against any ind ividua l minister. A
sitting in both Houses (11 am to 12 pm). No Coniidenoe Motion, need not to
In this, questions are asked by members specify the reasons , for which it has been
and answered by ministers. Question moved _If it is passed, the Government has
hour is an important mechanism through to resign_
whioh Executive's accou ntability is Privilege Motion A resolution introduoed by
brought about. There are three types of the opposition that a minister has mislead the
questions House by giving wrong information.
(i) A Starred Question It requires oral Cut Motions They are moved in the Lok
answers_ Supplementaries can be Sabha only_ They are related to the
asked _ budgetary process which seeks to reduce
(ii) An Unstarred Question requires a the amount for grants. The Cu t Motion can
written answer and hence, no be divided into three categories : policy
supplemen tary questions can be out, economy out and token cut
asked _
(iii) A Short Notice Questions These are Lame Duck Session This refers to the last
the ones which relates to matters of session of the existing Lok Sabha whioh is
urgent public importance and can be held after a new Lok Sabha has been
asked by members with notice shorter elected after the general election_
than ten days prescribed for an Whip A directive issued by any political
ordinary question_ It is answered party to ensure the support of its members
orally_ voting in favour or against a particular
Zero Hour the time gap between the issue on the floor of the House. A person
question hour and the agenda is known as may lose the membership of the party and
zero hour. This time is allotted everyday for the legislature if he votes against the whip
miscellaneous business, call-attention or abstains from voting_
notices, questions on official statements Ge.-ry Mandering It is the reorganisation of
and adjournment motions_ It has been in electoral districts attempted by the ruling
existence since 1962_ party to gain some electoral advantage in
Motion It is a proposal brought before the the forthcoming elections.
House for its opinion or decision_ The Guillotine When due to lack of time,
different types of motions are demand for grants are put to vote whether
Adjournment Motion It leads to setting they are discussed or not in the House on
aside th e normal business of th e Houses the last day of the allotted time, it is called
for discussing a definite matter of urgent Guillotine and it concludes the discussion
public importance_ on demands for grants_
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
I GLOSSARY I
■ Add1·ess of President The President of
India addresses to both Houses of
Parliament assem bled together at the
comme□ cem e□ t of the first session after
each general election to Lok Sabha a□ d at
the co mm e□ cem e□ t of the first session of
each year.
■ Adjournment of House The Speaker of
the Lok Sabha determ ines, whe □ the
sitting of the House js to be adjourned
since die or to a particular day or to a□
h our or part of the same day. In the Rajya
Sabha, ChairnJ a□ decides whe □ Rajya
Sabha needs to be adjourned.
■ Breach of PriviJeges If a person
disregards the privileges, rights a□ d
jmm unities of the Members of Parliam ent,
then h e commi ts breach of privileges.
■ Closw-e It js the Parlime □ lary procedUTe,
by ·which debate is closed a□ d the measme
un der discussion brought up for a□
jmmediate vote .
■ Contempt of Corn1: It is disobedience to
or disregard of the rules, orders, process or
rngnity of a court , \lvhich has power to
p unish such offence comm itted.
■ Caretaker Government It is the
government in the inten-egnum,
whkh com es into existence as soo □ as the
Council of Mirusters resigns or loses
confidence, or the Prime Minister dies. It
lasts till the ne1rt Council of Min.isters js
formed. It is a constitutional necessity
under Article 74.
■ Delegated Legislation The Parliament
gives the Executive the Power to make
rules a□ d regulations regarding a□ act of
the Parliament. Such rules are called
delegated legislation.
■ Dissolution Under Article 85, the
President of India dissolves the House of
the people as per the procedure fixed by
the Constitution . The dissolution ends the
very hle of the existing House a□ d fresh
election is essential to form a new House.
■ Electoral Roll It js comm only lmown as
voter's list. It gives the names of all those
p eople, \. \'ho are eligible to vote.
1
■ E:\.-tradmon It is the smre □ der by a
foreign state of a person accused of a
crime to the slate, where it ,vas
commi tted.
■ Floor Crossing It refers to the defection
of a Mem ber of ParJiament from the
party he was elected, to another political
party.
■ Hung Parliament When in a general
election, no pol.H:ical party or coalition of
the pol.H:ical parties is in a posil:ion to form
a majority government, such a Parliament
js called a Hung Parliament.
■ Locus Stancli It means on what grounds
ca□ a person file a case. Earlier a person,
who did not have locus sta□ di~ could not
file a case on behalf of aggrieved person on
his own . Later whe □ the concept of Public
Interest Litigation (PIL) started, locus
sta□ di was waived a□ d a□ y citizen couJd
file a P~ a□ d bring to court's notice,
violation of rights of people .
■ Point of Order It is an extraaordinary
process, whkh when raised , h as the effec t
of suspending the business before the
h ouse and the m ember, who is on his legs
gives way. This js m eant to assist the
Presiding Officer in enforcing the Rules,
Directions and Provisions of the
Cons ti tu tio □ for regulating the business of
the House.
■ Rule of Law The rule of law theory was
give □ by English jurist Dicey. It bas three
m eanings . (a) absolute suprem acy of law
(b) equality before law (c) Consitution js
the result of the ordinary law of the l a□ d.
■ Subordinate Legislation T he rules a□ d
regulations made by the governm ent
within the purview of the au thority
delegated by the Legislatme are called
Subordinate Legislation. It is the same as
Delegated Legislation.
■ UntouchabiHty It means social
disabili ties historically jmposed o □ certain
classes of p eople by reason of their birth m
cetiain castes.
■ Vote on Account It is a□ estim ate of a□
advance payment to enable governm ent
departme.□ ls to carry on their work fro m
the beginning of financi al year till the
passing of the Approp1iation Act.
■ Vote of Creclit The Lok Sabha ca□ grant
vote of credit to meet a□ e)l.'Penditure
whose amount or details ca□not be
precisely stated o□ account of magnitude
or the indefinite character of service.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity
I FAQs (INDIAN POLITY)
1. When was the last meeting of the Consti tuent
Assembly held?
2. Emergency provisions are enumerated in
which part of the Constitution?
3. Land Reforms have been exempted from
Judicial Scrutiny_Under which schedule have
they been placed?
4. Which Vice President of India died while in
office?
5. Department of official languages, comes
under which Ministry?
6. How many members of Rajya Sabha are there
in the Public Accounts Committee?
7. When was the First National Emergency
declared?
8. Who was the first Speaker of the Lok Sabha?
9. When was the 42nd Constitutional
Amendment Act enacted?
10. What is the minimum age required to be a
member of the Rajya Sabha?
11. When did the Constituent Assembly adopt the
National Flag?
12. What is the duration of the National Anthem
"Jana Gana Mana"?
13. Under whom are the powers of the Union
Execu tive as per the Constitu tion?
14. When was the Rajya Sabha first constituted?
15. Taxes on services, was enshrined in the
Constitution by which amendment?
16. By which Constitutional Amendment was
Delhi given the status of National Capital
Territory?
17. Under which part of the Constitution are
provisions of municipalities mentioned?
18. In which year, was the Constituent Assembly
of India constituted?
19. Out of 389 members in the Consti tuent
Assembly, how many were from the
Provinces?
20. When President of India resigns from office, to
whom does he address his resignation letter?
21. Who was Independent India's First Education
Minister?
22. Provisions regarding anti-defection are
mentioned in which Schedule of the
Constitution?
23. After Independence, which state was the first
to be established?
24. Freedom of Press is mentioned under which
Article of the Consti tution?
I
25. On which committee's recommen-
dations was Fundamental Duties
inserted in the Constitution?
26. Which Article of the Constitution has
been described as ''Heart and Soul of
the Constitution" byDrB RAmbedkar?
27. The Federation System in India has
been borrowed from which country's
Constitution?
28. In India, military and defence powers
have been given to which authority?
29. Under which Article of the
Constitution, has MGNREGA been
brought?
30. Under which Article of the
Constitution untouchability has been
regarded as an offence?
31. Who determines the salary and
emoluments of the Prime Minister?
32. Directive Principles of State Polioy
has been borrowed from which
country's Constitution?
33. At present how many members are
1
there in the Rajya Sabha?
34. How much is the term of the Chief
Election Commissioner of India?
35. Whioh committee of the Parliament
examines the audit reports of the
Comptroller and Auditor General of
India?
36. Which amendment gave Constitutional
Status to Panchayati Raj in India?
37. Disputes be tween centre and the
states or between states themselves
is decided by which court?
38. The election of the President of India
is done by which process?
39. Who was the Viceroy of India, when
the Shimla Con ference took place?
40. The High Court can stop the
proceedings of an inferior court on
grounds of exceeding its jurisdiction.
By which writ is this possible?
41. When was the FirstAmendmentto the
Constitution done?
42. Who is the head of the State
Government?
43. How many members of the Muslim
community were there in the
Constituent Assembly?
44. How are members of the Rajya Sabha
elected?
•- GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity

45. Under whioh Artiole of the Constitution, the

President's Pardoning Powers been enshrined? Answers
46. Who was the Chairman of the Flag Committee? 1. 24th January, 1960 2_ Part
47. Who was the Railway Minister in the Interim Cabinet XVIII 3. Ninth Sched ule
(1946)? 4. Krishna Kant 5. Home
48. Whioh party formed the government in Punjab Ministry 6. Seven 7. 26th
Provinoe in 1937? October, 1962 8. GV
49. Who was the Chairman of the Advisory Committee on Mavalankar 9. 1976 10. 30
Fundamental Righ ts, of the Constituent Assembly? years 11 . 22nd July, 1947
50. The provisions regarding Soheduled Areas and 12. 52 seconds 13. President
Scheduled Tribes has been mentioned in whioh of India 14. 3rd April , 1962
Schedule of the Constitution? 15. 88th Amendment 16. 69th
51. Underwhioh Artiole has "Rightto Freedom of Religion" Amendment 17. Part IX (A)
been mentioned? 18. 194619. 296
52. Finanoial Emergency has been mentioned in which · 2 0.Vioe-President 21 . Abul
Artiole of the Consti tution? Kalam Azad 22. Tenth
53. How many judges are there in the Supreme Court? Schedule 23. 1963, Andhra
Pradesh 24. Article 19_ 25.
54. When and where was the First High Court
established? Swaran Singh Committee 26.
Article 32
55. How many states of India have bicameral Legislature?
27. Canada 28. President of
56. When was the Sarkaria Commission appointed? India 29. Article 43 30. Article
57. Who is the Chairman of the 14th Finanoe 17 31 . Parliament 32. Ireland
Commission? 33. 245 34. Six years or till 66
58. Under Jawaharlal Nehru, when was the Interim years whiohever is earlier
Government established? 35. Public Accounts Committee
59. Who was the Chairman of the Union Constitution 36. 73rd Amendment
Committee of the Constituent Assembly? 37. Su preme Court 38. Single
60. The republican form of Government, has been Transferable Vote 39. Lord
borrowed from whioh oountry's Constitution? Wavell 40. Prohibition
61. Who is the only President of India elected, as an 41 . 1951 42. Governor 43. 31
independent candidate? 44. By the members of
62. Who was the First Chief Justioe of the Supreme Court Legislative Assemblies
of India? 45. Article 72 46. JB Krip lani
47. Asaf Ali 48. Unionist Party
63. Under whioh Constitutional Amendment, was the
rights and privileges of ru lers of Princely States taken 49. Jawaharlal Nehru 50. 5th
away? Schedule 51 . Article 25
52. Article 360 53. 34 54. 14th
64. By which Constitutional Amendment, was the voting
May, 1862, Kolkata 55. Six
age reduced from 21 years to 18 years?
56. 1983 57. Or_ YV Reddy
65. Who is the First Law Offioer of India?
58. 1946 59. Jawaharlal Nehru
66. By which Artiole of the Constitution, UPSC has been 60. France 61. v.v_ Girl 62. HL
oreated? Kania 63. 26th Amendment
67. When did the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir 64. 61 st Amendment
oome into forc e? 65. Attorney General
68. Who has the powers to deolare an area as soheduled 66. Article 315
area for the protection of Scheduled Tribes? 67. 26th January, 1967
69. Whioh words were added to the Preamble by the 42nd 68. President of India
Constitutional Amendment Act? 69. Socialist, Secular and
70. On what ground can the President be impeached? Integrity 70. Violating the
71. Whioh President of India, won in the second counting Constitution 71. V V Giri
of votes?
 INDIAN
ECONOMY
I INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMICS I

The term economics comes from the ancient It deals \1\dth formulation of models
Greek word oilwnomia mean management of explaining relationship between factors
a household. Economic js the social science such as consumption , inflation, savings ,
that studies economic activities to gain investment, nation al income and
an understanding of the processes that finance .
govern the production, diEb.ibution and
consumption of goods and services in an ECONOMY
economy. It representE production, dist11bution or
Economks includes the study of1abow:, )and trade and consumption of goods and
and investn1ents of capital, income and services in a given geographkal area by
production and taxes and government different agentE, 1, vhich can be
expenditw.-es. Adam Smith, regarded as the indi,dduals, businesses, orgarnsation or
Father of Economics, defines Economics as, governments.
"The science relating to the Jaws of The study of economy of any country
production, distribution and exchange." h elps us to find out the financi al
condition of the population as well as the
Branches of Economics different working sectors of the economy.
The two chief branches are as follow: The modern economy is a complex
machine. Its job is to allocate limjted
Micro Economics resom·ces and distJ.jbute output anrnng a
• It is concerned \1\dth how supply and Jai·ge nun1ber of agents mainly
demand interact in individual market and indi,dduals, firms and governments
hm"t' these interactions determine the allmving for the possibili ty that each
price level of goods and services. agent's action can directly (or indirectly)
• It examine the economic behaviow.· of affect other agent's actions. There are
individual actor/agent at the level of the two major type of economies.
economic entity- the individual firm, the
individual consumer and the individual Open Economy
worker. An economy sajd to be open , ifit has trade
, 111:ith other economies. In thjs economy,
It examine the behaviow.- of basic elements in
the economy, :including individual agentE market is mostly free from trade baniers
and ,,,here exports an d jmports from a
(such as households and firms or as buyers
Jai·ge percentage of the GDP.
and sellers) and market and their interaction.
Degree of openness of an economy
Macro Economics determines a government's freedom to
pmsue economic policies of its choice
It studies the economy as a whole and its and the susceptibility of the counb-y to
features like nation al income, unemployment, the international economic cycles.
poverty, balance of paymentE and :inflation.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Closed Economy Tertiaiy Sector

An economy in \"i 1 hich no activity js These sector provides services to the
conducted with outside economies. In general population and business. Business,
simple language, no imports are brought b:ansport, telecommunication, banJdng,
in and no exports are sent out in closed insurance, real estate, conmJillllty and
economy. personneJ services (also called service
The goal of such economy is to provide sector).
consumers with eve1ything that they need
from within the economy's borders and Nature of Indian Econo1ny
government act as the arbitrator, • Mixed Economy It js an economy,
articulator and facilitator. where both public and pdvate sector
In India, since independence, the co-exist. The nature of Indian economy js
government has played a major role in a mixed economy. The term Mixed
planning economic activities. economy was coined by JM Keynes. Mixed
economy are often under government
Present Status of Indian reguJation.
Economy • Developing Economy Follmving features
• Indian economy is world's 7th largest shows that Indian economy is a developing
economy on nominal GDP basis and the economy
3rd largest by Purchasing Power Party (PPP) (a) Low per capita income.
in 2020_ (b) Occupational pattern is primary
• According to CSO-the growth in GDP is sector domina ted.
estimated at 8.0%. (c) Heavy population pressure.
• From 1951 until 2013, India GDP Annual (d) Prevalence of chrnnlc unemployment
Growth rate averaged 5.8% reaching an all and wJderemploynJent.
time high of 10_2% in December of 1988 and
(e) Steadily improving rate of capital
a record low of -5.2% in December of 1979. formation.
• On a per capita income basis, India ranked
(f) Low capital per head.
141th by nominal GDP and 126th by GDP
IPPP) in 2017, according to the IMF. (g) Unequal disbibution of wealth/
assets.
• Purchasing Power Parity IPPP) is a theory,
• Ag1·arian Economy An agrarian economy
which states that exchanges rates between
is a type of economy that relies primadJy
currencies are balanced, when their
on agricultural industry including
purchasing power is the same in each of the
livestock farming or corp production. It is
two countries.
form of economy whose major factor of
production ill the agricultural land.
Broad Sectors of Indian
Economy NATIONAL INCOME
Primary Sector OF INDIA
The primary sector include production of • National Income (NI) js the net value of
raw material and includes agricultme, all the final goods and services produced
forestry, fishing, mining and quarrying . by its nationals dudng a financial year. It
is a flow concept. In India, the financial
Secondaiy Sector year js from 1st Ap1il to 31st March. The
The secondary sector of economy js national income is calculated annually.
involved ill the production of finished • According to National Income Committee
goods . Mining manufacturing, electricity, (1949). A national illCOme estinJate
0

gas and water supply, construction (also measures the volume of commodities and
called manufacturing sector). service turned out dw-ing a given period
counted ,vithout duplication."
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
• NI = C + G + I + (X - M) + (R - P)
- Depredation - Indirect tax +
Subsidies.
C = Total Consumption filJJenditure
I = Total Investment filJJenditure
G = Total Government filJJenditme
X = fil'J)Olt
M = In1port
(R-P)= Net Faction Income from abroad.
• When the National Income is measw-ed
at the base year plice, it is called
national income at constant price.
• When the national income is measw-ed
at the cunen t year price, it is called
national income at current year price.
• When NNP is ca.JcuJated at Factor Cost
(FC) it js called National Income. Thfa
measure is calcuJated by deducting
indirect taxes and adding subsidies in
NNP at Market Price (MP).
• NNPpc= NNP:1IP - Indirec t
Taxes + Subsidies + Government
stu-plus = National lncome.
• NI = NNP + Subsidies - Indirect taxes
• GNP - Depreciation - Indirect taxes +
Subsidies.
• The CSO released the 'Ne,,., series' of
national accounts with base year 2011-12
instead of the base year 2004-05. The
revisions happen every 5 years.
• In India, Central Statistical Organisation
(1949) renanrnd as CentJ·al Statistical
Office (CSO) has been formuJating
National Income.
• National Income is the measurement of
the production power of an economic system
in a given time period_
• National Wealth is the measurement of
the present assets available at a given time.
Methods of Measuring
National Income
Product Method
In tWs method, net value of :final goods and
services produced in a country during a
year is obtained, which js called total final
product. This represents Gross Domestic
Product (GDP). Net income earned in
foreign boundaries by nationals is added
and depreciation is subtracted from GDP.
Income Method
In this method, a total of net income earned
by working people in differnnt sectors and
commercial enterprises is obtained.
Incomes of both categories of people -
paying taxes and not paying taxes are added
to obtain national income. By income
method, national income is obtained by
adding receipts as total rent, total wages,
total interest and total profit.
Consumption Method
It is also called eAJJenditw-e method. Income
js eithei- spent on conswnption or saved.
Hence, national income is the addition of
total conswnption and total savings.
In Inclia, a combination of production
method and income method is used for
estimating national income.
Estimates ofNational
Income in India
• In 1868, the first attempt was made by
Dadabbai Naoroji in his book 'Poverty
and Un-British RuJe in lnclia' . He
estimated the per capita annual income
to be~ 20.
• The first scientific attempt to measure
national income in Inclia was made by
professor VKRV Rao in 1931-32. He
cliv:ided the Indian economy into
13 sectors.
• In 1949, National Income Comm_jttee
under the Chairmanship of professor PC
Mabalanobis was constituted. The other
members were professor VKRV Rao and
professor DR Gadgi.l.
• The Government of lnclia appointed a
National Income Committee under the
Chairmanship of Dr PC Mabalanobis.
Tbjs committee gave its fu-st report in
1951 and final report New Series in 1954.
NATIONAL INCOME
AGGREGATES
Gross Domestic Product
(GDP)
It is the tot al money value of all fin al goods
and services produced within the
geographical boundaiies of the count11'
during a given period of time.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

GDP=C+G+I
Where, C= Consumption expenditme
G = Government eA"Penditure
I = lnvesbnen t expenditw·e
But in closed economy, (R- P) = 0, then GDP = GNP where, (R- P) = Net factor income
from abroad.

GDP At Market Price

(GDP MP)
• It refers to the total value of all the goods and services at market plice produced dwing
a year within the geographical boundaries of the counb.-y.
• Market price refers to the actual transacted price and it includes indirect taxes such as
Excise Duty, VAT, Service Tax, Customs Duty etc but it excludes government subsidies.

GDP at Factor Cost (GDPpc)

• GDP can be calcuJated at factor cost. This measure more accurately reveals the
income paid to factors of production.
• The factor cost means the total cost of all factors of production consumed or used in
producing a good or service. lt includes government grants and subsidies, but it
excludes Indirect Taxes .
• The difference betv11een Market Price (MP) and Cost Plice (CP) is because of the
Indirect Taxes and Subsidies.
• GDP Pc= GDP MP - Indirect Taxes + Subsidies
• 1n terms of value addition, the Gross Domestic Product of the economy js the sum total
of the net value added and depreciation of all the firms of the economy.

Calculation of GDP
• GDP in a counb.'y is usually calcuJated by the National Statistical Agency, whkb
compiles the information from a large number of sources.
• 1n case of lndia, it is Central Statistics Office (CSO), which estimates GDP. However,
most counn~ies follow established international standards for calcuJating GDP of their
country.
• The international standards for measuring GDP are contained in the System of
National Accounts (SNA), 1993, compiled by the International Monetary Fund (IMF),
the Eurnpean Commission (EC), the Organjsation for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD), the UnHed Nations (UN) and the World Bank.
Source Central Statistics Oftioe
PE = Provisional Estimates (CSO)

Nominal GDP and Real GDP

Nominal GDP is evaluated at current market prices. Therefore, nominal GDP will
indude all of the changes in market plices that have occurred during the current year
due to inflation or deflation.
Real GDP is a better measmement of GDE since it reflects the increase in quantity of
goods and services by adjusting for any increase in plices. Real GDP js generally
measured by using base year prices of goods and services.
Gross Value Added (GVA)
• It is a measure of the value of goods and services produced in an area, indusb.-y or
sector of an economy. l t national accounts, GVA is output minus intermernate
consumption, it is a balancing item of the national accounts' production account.
• RBI dumps GVA model in August, 2018 and switches back to GDP to measure
economy.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
Gross National Product ( GNP)
GNP refers to the money value of total
output of production of final goods and
services produced by the national
residents of a counb:y durmg a given
peliod of time, generally a year.
Symbolically
GNP=GDP + (X - M)+(R - P)
GNP = C + G + I + (X - M) + (R - P)
X = EA-ports
M = ll.mports
(R- P) = Net factor income from abroad
Net National Product (NNP)
It js obtained by subtracting depreciation
value (i.e. capital stock consumption)
from GNP.
Symbolically,
NNP = GNP - Depreciation
National Income = NNP - Indirect taxes
+ Subsidies.
Personal Income (PI)
It is that income, which js actually economjst Mabbub ul Haq along with Indian
obtained by the individual or nationals. economist Amartya Sen.
Symbolically,
Personal Income = National Income +
Transfer Payments - Sodal Secwjty
Cont.libutions - Corportate Tax -
Undistiibuted Profits.
Personal Disposable
Income (PDI)
When personal direct taxes are
subb:acted from personal income, the
obtained value is called personal
disposable income.
Symbolically,
POI = Pl - Direct taxes
National Statistical Organisation (NSO)
,,,.,as set-up on 1st June, 2005, for
promoting statistical network in the
coun lly It was then headed by professor
SD Tendulkar. Gross Value Added (GVA)
is a measuTe in economics of the value of
goods and services produced in an area,
indusb:y or sector of an economy.
GVA =GDP+ Subsidies - (direct, sales)
taxes.
CSO and NSSO
• CSO (Central Statistical Organisation) was
set-up in 1950, constituted to publish national
income data_
• NSSO (National Sample Survey Organisation)
was set-up in 1950, for conducting large sca le
sample survey to meet the data needs of the
country for the estimation of national income
and other aggregates_
• In May 2019, Ministry of Statistics and
Programme Implementation has merged the
both CSO and NSSO in a single body named as
National Statistical Office.
Measurement of Growth
and Development
Human Development Repmt
The HunJan Development Report (HDR),
published by the UNDP since 1990, captures
the essence of bLllJJan development. HLllJJan
development report rank countries based on
their ranking on HunJan Development Index
(HDI). HD I was devised by Pakistani
In 2022 HDR Index, India bas been placed at
132nd position with a score of 0.633.
Switzerland, Norway and Ice]and occupies
first thrne positions.
Meaning of HD I Value
Very high Human = 0.800 and above
development
High Human
development
= 0. 700 and above
Medium Human
development
= 0.550 and above
Low Human
development
= 0.350 and above
Happy Planet Index (HPI)
HPI measures the ecological effidency with
wrucb bLllJJan well-being is delivered. It is
calcuJated by multiplying indices of life
satisfaction (estimated by compiling
responses to international sw-veys) and life
expectancy and dividing that product by
ecological footprint.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Gross Nation al Happiness (GNH)

The term Gross National Happiness ,,vas coined in 1972, by Bhutan's then King Jigme
Singye Wangch uck.
GNH was designed in on attempt to define an indicator that measmes quality of life or
sodal progTess in more holistic and psychological terms than the economic indicator
of GDP
Various Index of Human Development Report 2020
Index Variables Country's Rank
Human Ute expectancy at birth index. Education index • Norway
Development oomprises mean year of schooling and expected • Ireland
Index (HDI) year of schooling _GNI Per Capita (PPPUS $) Index • Switzerland
2020 for decent standard of living_
Inequality Introduced in HDR-201 o_Measures the average level • Norway
adjusted HDI of human development after adjusting for inequality_ lf • Iceland
(IHDI) 2020 perfect equality, HDI = IHDI If, inequality, HDI< IHDI • Switzerland
Greater the inequality in sooiety, greater the
divergence between HDI and IHDI.
Gender Inequity lntroduoed in HDR-201 0Gil exposes ditterences in • Switzerland
Index (GIi) the distribution. It measures gender inequality based • Denmark
2020 on three dimensions and five indicators. • Sweden
Indicators
• Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR);
• Adolescent Fertmty Rate (AFR) ;
• Educational attainment (seoondary level and
above) ;
• Pa rliamentary representation; and
• Labour foroe partioipation,
Multidimensi- • MPI launohed by Oxford Poverty and Human
onal Poverty Development Initiative (OPHI) and UNDP in July
Index (MPI) 2010.
• It is a measure of serious deprivation in the
dimesnsion of health, education and living
standards that oombines the number of deprived
and intensity of their deprivation.
Indicators Nutrition + Child Mortality (Health);
Years of Schooling + Children enrolled
(Education) ; Cooking fuel + Water + Toilet + Floor
+ Electrioity + Assets (Standard of living).

NITIAAYOG
NlTl Aayog or National Institution for TI.-ansforming India Aayog canJe in to existence on
1st January, 2015. lt is policy-maJdng think-tank of government that replaces Planning
Commission and ainJs to involve states in economic policy-making. It will provide
strntegic and technical advice to the Central and the State Governments.
Basic Structure of NITI Aayog
Chairperson Prime Minister
Governing Counoil Its members are Chief Minister and Administrators of the Union Territories
Special Invitees Experts, Specialists and Practitioners with domain knowledge (nominated
by Prime Minister)
Vias-President Appointed by the Prime Minister
Members Full time members and maximum two ex-offoio members and university
teaoher
Ex-ottioio Members Fou r Central Ministers
CEO Secretary level oftioer from oentre, who will be appointed for a fixed term.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
15 Years Vision Document
The 1st 15 year vision document come into
effect from 2017-18 after the end of the
12th five year plan. lt v,ill be formulated
·with centre objective of eradication of
poverty. These Virill be framed keeping in
mind the country's social goals and the
sustainable development agenda.
According to N ITI Aayog, the jssue was
discussed at length and a decision was
taken at the highest level 15 year Vision
Documents divided into two parts
• 7-years National Development
Agenda The first 15-year v1s10n
document will start from 2017-18,
along with a 7-year National
Development Agenda which wll lay
down the schemes, programmes and
sb.-ategies to achjeve the long-term
vision.
• 3-years National Development Agenda
The long v1s10n documents will
comprise of three year mass economic
framework. National Development
Agenda will be reviewed after a gap of
every three years to ensW'e that it was
aligned with financial needs and
requirements. For the first Nelnu-Mahalanobis Sh·ategy
Development Agenda the review would • Second Five Year Plan was based on this
be done in 2019-20, in line with the
termination year of the 14th Finance • Based on Russian e)..1Jedence, this strategy
Commjssion.
• 2017-18 to 2032-33 Vision Document
• 2017-18 to 2024-25 National Develop-
ment Agenda
• 2017-18 to 2019-20 Review of Develop-
ment Agenda (to be repeated after every
three years).
Planning Commission
• Planning commission was formed on 15th
March, 1950, under the Chairmanship of Pt.
Jawaharlal Nehru_It was to formulate plans
for the economic development of the country
on the basis of the available physical,
capital and human resources.
• Planning commission was dissolved on
17Ih August, 2014.
• On 1st January, 2015, Government of India
established NITI Aayog (National Institution
for Tran sforming India) to replace planning
commission.
National Development
Council (NDC)
NDC js neither a constitutional body nor
statutory body. The NDC was constituted on
6th August, 1952, with Prime Minister as
the Ex-officio Chairman and the Secretary of
the Plannmg Commission as the Ex-officio
Secretary of the NDC. Chief Minister of all
the states and the members of the Planmng
Commission, Lieu tenant Governors and
Adn:tinisb.-ator of Un.ion Territmies are the
members of the NDC.
STRATEGIES
OFPLANNING
Harrod-Damar Sh·ategy
• First Five Year Plan was based on th.is
strategy
• This strategy emphasised the role of
capital accumulation's du al character,
which on the one hand increases the
national income (demand side role) and
on the other h an d increases the
production capacity (supply side role).
strategy
is a two sector model, i.e. consumer good
sector and capital good sector.
• The strategy emphasised investment in
hea,ry industry to acrueve indusb.ialisation
for rap.id economic development.
Gandhian Sh·ategy
• It was en undated by Acharya SN Agarwal
in ms 'Gandhjan Plan' in 1944. The basic
objective of the Gandman Model is to
raise the material as well as cul tW'al level
of the masses so as to provide basic
standard of hle .
LPG Strategy
• Liberalisation, Pdvatisation and
Globalisation (LPG) strategy of plannmg
,,vas introduced by the Finance Minister
of that time, Dr Manmohan Singh under
Narsimha Rao Government. The strategy
ended the 'license permit raj' and opened
the hitherto areas reserved for the public
sector to pdvate sector.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

PURA Strategy
• PURA stands for providing Urban anrnrnties in rural areas and was the braincbj]d of
APJ Abdul KalanJ.
• This strntegy emphasises on tru:ee connectivities- physical, electrornc, lmowledge and
thereby leading to economic connectivity to enhance the prosperity of cluster of
villages in rural areas.

Five Year Plans (At a Glance)

Plan Objecuves
First Plan • Highest priority aooorded to
(1951-56) agricultu re in view of large import of
(Harrod foodgrains and inflation_
Damar • 31 % of total plan outlay on
Model) agriculture followed by transport and
communication , sooial services,
power and industry_
• Eoonomist KN Raj was the arohitecL
Second • Rapid industrialisation with particular
Plan emphasis on the development of
(1956-61) basic and heavy industry, also called
Nehru Mahalanobis Plan_
• To increase national income by 25%,
expansion of employment and
reduction of inequality.
• To increase the rate of investment
from 7% to 11 % of GOP_
Assessment
• Agriculture production increased
dramatically.
• National income went up by 18% and
per capiia income by 11 %.
• Target growth 2.1 % and achieved
3.6%.
• Moderately suocessful, targeted
growth rate was 4.5% but achieved
4.2%.
• Du rgapur (UK) , Bhillai (USSR) and
Rourkela 0N Germany) steel plants
set-up with foreign help. Atomic
Energy Commission came into being
in operation and TIFR was set-up.
• Inflation and low ag ricultural
production and Suez crisis.

Third Plan • Indian economy entered take off • Inda-China (1962) and Inda-Pakistan
(1961-66) stage 0MfV Rostow) . Seit-reliant and (1965) conflict diverted the resouroes
(Gadgil seli-generaling economy was the from development to defence.
Yojana) goal. • Targeted growth 5.6% achieved
• To increase the national income by growth 2. 72%.
30% and per capita income by 17%. • The situation mealed by Inda-Pakistan
Conflict (1965) , two sucoessive years
of severe drought, devaluation of
cu rre ncy by 57%, genera l rise in
prioes and erosion of resources for
plan delayed .
_-wnual • Due to the unfortunate iailure of the third plan , the production in various sectors
Plans of the economy became stagnant In 1966, the Government of India declared
the devaluation of rupee, with a view to increase the exports of the country _So,
the fourth plan was postponed and three annual plan were implemented. Some
of the economists called this period i.e. from 1966 to 1969 as Plan Holiday.
Fourth • Laid special emphasis on improving • First two years of the plan were
Plan the condition of under privileged and successful with record foodgrain
(1969-74) weaker sections. production on account of Green
Revolution_
• Targeted growth 6.7% however,
achieved growth 3.3%.
• The plan was failure on account of ru n
way inflation (due to 1972 oil crisis or
supply shock) huge influx of refugees
from Bangladesh post 1972 Inda-Pak
War.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Plan Objecuves Assessment

Fifth Plan • Original approach to plan prepared
(197~79) by C Subramaniam. However, final
draft prepared by DP Dhar with
objeotives of remova l of poverty
(Garibi Hatao) and attainment of
self-relianoe.
• Introduction of minimum needs
programme.
• Targeted growth 4.4% and achieved
growth 4.8%.
• Fifth Plan terminated one year before
the plan period in Maroh 1978.
• Brought to the core problem
associated with ooalition government
making a mookery of formulat ion of
Five Year Plan.

Plan Objecilves
Annual Plan • Annual Plan (Gunar Myrdal) was brought out by Janata Party Government
under Morarji Desai in 1978. The foous of the plan was enlargement of the
employment potential in agrioulture and allied activities to rai se the income of
the lowest income olasses through minimum needs programme. Annual Plan
period was 1979-80.
Sixth Plan • Removal of poverty through • Indian economy made an all round
(1 980-86) strengthening of infrastructure for progress and most of the targets
both agrioulture and industry.The fixed by the plan \I/as achieved.
emphasis wa s laid on greater • Targeted growth 5.2% and achieved
management, effioiency and growth 6.4%.
monitoring of various schemes.
• Involvement of people in formulating
schemes of development at local
level.
Seventh • To accelerate foodgrains production • Foodgrain production grew by
Plan • To inorease employment 3-23% as oompared to a long-term
(1 986-90) opportunities. growth rate of 2.68% between
• To raise productivity. 1967-68 and 1988-89.The Indian
eoonomy finally crossed the barrier
of the Hindu rate of growth
(profe ssor Raj Kri shna).
• Average annual growth rate was
6.0% as against the targeted 5.0%
and average of 3.6% in the previous
plans.
Annual Plan • The Eighth Plan oould not take oH due to fast changing political situations at
the centre. Therefore, from 1990-1992, Annual Plans were formulated .
Eighth Plan • Process of fiscal reforms and • Higher economic growth rate of
(1992-97) economic reform s ini1iated by 6.6% achieved as against the
Narsimhan Rao Government to targeted 5.6%.
prevent another major economic • Improvement in current account
orisis. deficit.
• To inorease the average industrial • Significant reduc tion in fi scal
growth rate to 7.5%. deficit.Agriculture growth and
• To provide a new dynamism to th e industrial gro\1/th increased.
economy and improve the quality of • Unshackled private seotor and
life of the common man. foreign investment control was the
• Also called as Rao-Manmohan Singh prime reason for high growth.
Model. First indicative plan. • Overall socio-economic
development indicators lo\1/.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Ninth Plan • Growth with sooial justice and
(1997-2002) equality.
• Emphasis on seven Basic Minimum
Services (BMSs) , which inoluded safe
drinking water, universalisation of
primary education, streamlining PDS
among others.
• Pursued the policy of fiscal
consolidation. Ensuring food and
nutri1ional seourity to alL
Empowerment of women,
SC/STs/OBCs.
Tenth Plan • The Tenth Plan aimed at achieving
(2002-2007) 8% GDP growth.
• Assuming that ICOR (Incremental
Capital Output Ratio will decline from
4.53% to 3.58%.
• It aimed at inoreasing domestic
saving rate from 23.52% to 29.4% of
GDP and gross capital iormation to
322% from 24.4% of GDP.
• To improve the overall framework of
governance. Ag riculture was the core
elemenL
11th Plan • Average GDP growth of 8.1 % per
(2007-2012) year.
• Ag riouttural GDP growth of 4% per
year. Generation of 58 million
employment opportuni1ies.
• Sex ratio for age group 0-6 years to
be raised to 935 by 2011-12 and to
950 by 2016-17.
12th Plan • Real GDP growth rate of 82%.
(2012-2017) • Ag ricutture growth rate of 4.0%.
• Manufacturing growth rate of 10%.
• Global economic slo\1/ down and
other factors led to revision of
targeted gro\1/th ra te from 7% to
6.5%, whioh too was not achieved.
The economy grew at 5.4% only.
Agriculture grew by 2.1% as against
the target of 4.2% per annum.
• lnorease in GDP growth to 7.5%
compared to 5.4% in the Ninth Plan.
The lowerthan targeted growth rate
of 8% was due to low growth of 3%
in the first year of Tenth Plan
lnorease in gross domestic saving
and investment.
• Reduotion in ICOR to 4.2% though
higher than targeted but less than
Ninth Plan's ICOR of 4.53%.
• lnorease in foreign exchange
reserves to USS 287 billion.
• The growth rate during the 11th plan
period was about 7.9%, which is
higher than the 7.5% growth rate
achieved in the 10th plan.
• As against the target of 4% growth
in the ag ricultural sector, the plan
could register a growth of only 3%
during 2007-12 period.
• The services sector continued to
register a growth rate of more than
10%. However, the industrial growth
rate showed at 7.9%.
• The plan period was e>etended by six
months. ~.e. September, 2017)
• First fou r years of the plan is
estimated 6.8%

I DEMOGRAPHY I

Demography js the study of bWJJan • 1981-2011 Peliod of declining rate

population. It studies a valiety of variables • The year 1921 is Jmown as the Yeai· of
related to population like size, growth, Great Divide.
distiibution, density, composition and
temporal vaiiation. CENSUS 2011
The Census 2011, was the 15th National
Population Trend in India Census of the country. The census has
• 1891-1921 Pedod of stagnant
covered 35 States and Union Territories,
population
640 Distdcts, 5767 TehsiJs. 77 42 Towns
• 1921-1951 Peliod of steady growth
and more than 6 la.kb villages .
• 1951-1981 Pedod of Wgh growth
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Sectorial Growth Rate in Different Five Year Plans

Plan Target Agrioulture Industry Servioes Actual Priority
Growth Growth Areas/Achievements
Rate Rate
First 2.1 2.71 5.54 4.17 3.6 Development of
Plan agricuttu re and Allied
sectors and Community
Development
Programme
Second 4.5 3.15 5.59 4.94 4.21 Basic industries, Health
Plan sector
Third Plan 5.6 -0.73 6.28 5.26 2.72 Food and Agricutture
Fourth 5.7 2.57 4.91 3.22 3.3% Agricutture and
Plan Irrigation , Self-relianoe
Fifth Plan 4.4 3.28 6.55 5.66 4.83 Public health and Social
welfare , Poverty
eli mination
Sheth Plan 5.2 2.25 5.32 5.41 5.4 Agricutture, Industry,
Energy, Poverty
Alleviation Programmes
Seventh 5 3.47 6.77 7.19 6 Energy and Food
Plan
Eighth 5.6 4.68 7.58 7.54 6.68 Human Resouroes
Plan Development
Ninth 6.5 2.06 4.51 7.78 5.4 Sooial Justice, Human
Plan Development
Tenth 8 2.34 8.9 9.4 7.6 Employment, Energy
Plan and Sooial
reconstruction
Eleventh 8.1 4 10.5 9.9 7.9 Rapid economic
Plan growth, Employment
generation,
Self-reliance and
Education
Twelfth 8 04 10.9 10 7 .1 Faster, sustainable and
Plan (approx) more inolusive growth

• Top 5 States in Sex Ratio (0-6 age group) India

- Mizoram > MeghaJaya > Andaman an d Total population 121,08,54,977
Nicobar Islands > Puduchen-y > Males 623. 7 million
(61.54%)
Chhattisgai:h.
Females 586.46 million
• Top 5 States of Population UP > (48.46%}
Maha..rashb.-a > Bihar > West Bengal > Population of 0-6 age 16,44, 78,150
Andhra Pradesh. group (13.58%)
• Bottom 3 States of minimum population Population density (per 382
- Sikldm < Mizoram < Anmach aJ sq km)
Pradesh. Literacy 73.0% (Male"B0.9%
and Female-64.6%)
• Top 5 States of literacy-KeraJa >
Decadal Growth Rate 18,14,56,986 (17.7%)
Mizoram > Goa > Tripura > HimacbaJ Population Increase 181 million
Pradesh. (2001-2011)
Sex Ratio 943 : 1000
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
National Population Policy
• Population policy refers to all those legal,
admirrisb.-ative programmes and other
government efforts, \"i1mch aim at
reducing birth rate and improving the
quality of life.
• After independence, the Government of
India adopted a national policy on
population with the oqjective to check
the increase in birth rate and improve
the standard of living of people.
• This policy has been revised from time to
tinJe an d its scope has been widened. It
h as been very effective in :imt::iating
measures for popuJation control.
New National Population
Policy(2000)
• The New National PopuJation Policy
(NPP) provides a policy framework to
meet the reproductive and child health
needs of the people of India for the ne).'i • State Comnnssions on population
I O years.
UIDAI
• The Unique Identification Authority of India is
a statutory authority under provisions of the
Aadhar (Targeted Delivery of Financial and
other subsidies, Benefits and Services) Act,
2016 under the Ministry of Electronics and
Information Technology. Earlier UIDAI was
functioning as an attached office of erstwhile
Planning Commission.
• It was created with the objective to issue
Unique ldentrfication numbers (UID), named
as 'Aadhaar' to all residents of India.
• The numbers will be linked to the basic
biometric information of the person,
including photograph, iris and fingerprints.
[POVERTY [
• Poverty is a social phenomenon
where few section of society is WJable
to fulfil even basic necessities of life.
• Planning Con]Il]jssion (Now, N ITI
Aayog) js the au thmity, wmcb publishes
the poverty estim ates based on various
rounds of National Sample Survey
Targets ofWorld Population
Prospects, 2000
• To achieve zero growth rate of
population by 2045.
• To reduce Infant Mortality Rate below 30
per thousand live births by 2010.
• To reduce Maternal Mortality Rate to
belov11 I per thousand live births.
• To reduce birth rate to 2. 1 per thousand
by 2010.
• To reduce total fertility rate to 2.1 by
2010. It is estimated that the population
of India will be 126.4 crores by 2016.
Main Features ofWPP, 2000
• Appoinrnrnnt of a National Commission
on population, presided over by the
Prime l\llinjster. The Cmef Mmjsters of
the States, Adminjstrators of Unfon
Tenit01ies an d other related mffijsters to
be its members.
h eaded by Cbfof l\llmjsters. The new
policy to be implemented by the
Panchayats, m unk ipalities and
Non-Government Orgarusations.
Organisation (NSSO) on monthly per
capita consumption expenditure. In
India, b.-aditionally the poverty line was
defined on the basis of calorie intake.
According to thjs, 2100 calories a day has
been fixed for urban areas and 2400
calories in rural areas.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
e
• However, t.Ws methodology was changed • It stipulated a benchmark daily per
considering other requirements of the capita e>...-penditure of {' 27 an d {' 33 in
poors such as housing, clothing and rmal and urban areas respectively to
education etc. The current estinJation of ardve at a poverty line.
poverty are based upon the
recommendation of Sw.-esb Tendulkar
Comm ittee (2005) that recommended
to shift away from the calorie based
model.

Statewise Population Statistics (2011)

State/UT Total Sex Ratio PopulaUon Deoadal Uteracy Proportion of
Territory Population (per 1000 Density Rate Rate State/UT Popu-
females) (per km 2 ) (growth rate) (in%) lailon (in%)
Total India 1210569673 943 382 17.7 73.00 100
Jammu and 12541302 889 56 23.6 67.2 1.04
Kashmir
Himaohal 6864602 972 123 12.9 82.8 0.57
Pradesh
Punjab 27743338 859 551 13.9 75.8 2.29
Chandigarh 1055450 818 9258 17.2 86 0.09
Uttarakhand 10086292 963 189 18.8 78.8 0.83
Haryana 26351462 879 573 19.9 75.6 2.09
Delhi 16787941 868 11320 21.2 86.2 1.39
Rajasthan 68648437 928 200 21 .3 66.1 5.66
Uttar Pradesh 199812341 912 829 20.2 67.7 16.51
Bihar 104099452 918 1106 25.4 61.8 8.60
Sikkim 610677 890 86 12.9 81.4 0.06
Arunaohal 1383727 938 17 26 66.4 0.11
Pradesh
Nagaland 1978502 931 119 -0.6 79.6 0.16
Manipur 2670390 992 115 18.6 79.2 0.21
Mizoram 1097206 976 52 23.5 91.3 0.09
Tripura 3673917 960 350 14.8 87.2 0.30
Meghalaya 2966889 989 132 27.9 74.4 0.25
Assam 31206676 958 398 17.1 72.2 2.58
West Bengal 91276115 950 1028 13.8 76.3 7.54
Jharkhand 32988134 948 414 22.4 66.4 2.73
Odisha 41974218 979 270 14 72.9 3.47
Chhattisgarh 25646198 991 189 22.6 70.3 2.11
Madhya 72626809 931 236 20.3 69.3 6.00
Pradesh
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

State/UT Total Sex Ratio Population Deoadal Uteraoy Proportion of

Territory Population (per 1000 Density Rate Rate State/UT Popu-
females) (per km 2) (growth rate) (in %) lauon (in %)
Gujarat 60439692 919 308 19.3 78 4.99

Daman and 243247 618 2172 53.8 87_1 0.02

Diu
Oadra and 343709 774 700 55.9 76.2 0.03
Nagar Haveli
Maharashtra 112374333 929 365 16 82.3 9.28

Andhra 84580777 993 308 11 67 6.99

Pradesh
Karnataka 61095297 973 319 15.6 75.4 5.05

Goa 1458645 973 394 8.2 88.7 0.12

Lakshadweep 64473 946 2049 6.3 91_8 0.01

Kera la 33406061 1084 860 4.9 94 2.76

Tamil Nadu 72147030 996 555 15.6 80.1 5.96

Puduoherry 1247953 1037 2605 28.1 85.8 0.10

Causes ofRm·al Poverty New Definition of Slums

• Rapid PopuJation grm,vth ■ As per the Pranab Sen
• Lack of capital Committee's new methodology,
• Lack of alternate employment opportunities there has been increase in the urban
other than agriculture slum population in 2011 to
• Excessive popuJation pressme on agdcuJtme 93.06 million from 75.26 million
• Illiteracy esti mated in 2001. This is an increase
• Regional dispadties of 26.31 %.
■ As per the new definition, any compact
• Joint family system
housing cluster or settlement of at least
• CmJd mardage
20 households with a collection of
• Lack of proper implementation of PDS poorly built tenements. which are
(Pubuc Distribution System) mostly, temporary in nature with
Causes of Urban Poverty inadequate sanitary, drinking water
faci lities and unhygienic conditions
• M_jgration from rmal areas will be termed as slums.
• Lack of skilled labom
• Lack of housing facilities
• LJmjted job opportunities in cities
Poverty and its Study
• Lack of vocational education/ training in India
Vanous economists and organisations
have studied the extent of poverty in
India. Some of them are as follows:

Dandekar and Rath's Study

of Poverty in India
Dr VM Dandekar and Mr Nilkantha
Rath estinJated the value of the diet
with 2250 calories as the desired
m.inimwn level of numtion .
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

They estimated that in 1968-69 about 40% report, 41.8% popuJation in rural areas and
of the rural popuJation and a h ttle more 25. 7% population in mban areas was living
than 50% of the urban popul ation lived below poverty line.
belov,, the poverty line.
Rangarajan Report on
Montek Singh Ahluwalia's Study
of Rural Poverty (1977)
Poverty
The expert group under the Chairmanship
MS Ahluwalia studied the trends in of Dr C Rangarajan to rev.ie\Jv the
incidence of rural poverty in lnrua for the Methodology for measurement of poverty
peliod 1956-57 to 1973-74. He used the in the country const.ituted by the Planning
concept of poverty line, i.e. an expenditw:e Comm.ission in June, 2012 has submitted
level oH 15 in 1960-61 for rural areas and its report on 30th J une, 20 14. The report
t 20 per person for mban areas. retained conswnption expenruture
estim ates of NSSO as the basis for
Estimate of Poverty by the determ.ining poverty. On the basis of this, it
Seventh Finance Commission pegged the total number of poor in Inrua at
(1978) 363 million or 29.6% of the population .
The Seventh Finance Commission made Th.is is h.igher than 269.8 mill.ion poor
an attempt to have a more inclusive people or 21.9% pegged by the Smesh
concept of poverty line. TenduJkar Committee.
Since, the NSS data cover only household
consumer e:\.-penruture, thus, to get a more Highlights of the Report
inclusive measure of ,,velfare or The highlights of the report are as follows:
deprivation, an estimate of the beneJit of
public e:\.-penruture was added to private (i) The daily per capita e:\.-penruture is
consun1er e:\.-penditw'e norm for pegged at { 32 for the rural poor and at
calcuJating the augmented poverty line. { 47 for the urban poor.
(i.i) Poverty hn e based on the average
Tendulkar Committee monthly per capita expenrutme is
Report pegged at { 972 for rural areas and
{ 1407 for urban areas.
This comm.i ttee moved away from j ust
calorie criterion defin.ition to a broader (iii) The percentage of people below the
defin.it.ion of poverty that also includes poverty hne in 2011-12 was 30.95 in
expenditme on heal th, educat.ion, clothing rmal areas and 26.4 in mban areas .
in addition to food. According to th.is
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Unemployment
Unemployment in India Involuntary Unemployment
Unemployment refers to a situation, \'l hen
1
It refers to a situation in which the persons
a person js able and \i\illing to work at the are illterested to work but the jobs are not
prevailing wage rate, but doesn't get the available. Such persons are included in the
opportu.mty to work Unemployment is categories of unemployed persons. It is also
often used as a measure of the health of called open employment.
the economy. The most frequently cHed
measure of unemployment is Cyclical Unemployment
unemployment rate. That is the number of This type of unemployment js due to the
unemployed persons divided by the recession ill the economy. During recession,
number of people in the Jabour force. there js less requirement of man-power on
account of the decrease in the level of
Estimation of economic activities and thus causes cyclical
Unemployment unemployment. This type ofwJemployment
is prevalent in the developed counb.ies.
• B Bhagwati CommUtee on unemploy- This is also known as Keynesian
ment estimates (1973) set-up by the Unemployment.
Planning Commission gave thrne
estimates of unemployment. Frictional Unemployment
These are as follows: This type of unemployment js caused by
• Usual Principal Status (UPS) people taking tinJe out of work, being
Persons who remained unemployed betvveen jobs or looldng for a job.
for a major part of the year. This is The one cause of its evolution js decline of
also called 'open unemployment'. one indusb.-y and rise of the other and
• Current WeekJy Status (CWS) labour take some tinJe before moving to the
A person is considered to be other indusn·y. This type of WJemployment
employed if he or she pursues any is short-term in nature.
one or more of the gainful activities
for at least one hour on any day of the Seasonal Unemployment
reference week. It is an account of the seasonal natw-e of the
• Cturent Daily Status (CDS) productive activities, i.e., some productive
Persons who did not find work on a activities are carried out only for certain
day or some days during the duration of a year. Therefore, the persons
survey week. This is the employed ill such activities are unemployed
comprehensive measure of during off-season. This, generally, occw-s ill
unemployment, including chrnnic as agro-based indusb:ies.
well as underemployment.
Disguised Unemployment
TYPES OF It is a situation, ill which more persons are
UNEMPLOYMENT employed to do a job which can be done
with equal efficiency by less number of
Generally, unemployment can be workers.
classified into two types
Sbuctural Unemployment
Voluntary Unemployment It refers to a mismatch of job vacancies with
This type of unemployment is on account the supply of labour available, caused by
of people not interested to take the shifts in the sb.·ucture of the economy.
employment i.e. jobs are available but the Sn·uctw-al joblessness results from things
persons are not interested ill being like skills mismatches and policy to address
employed. It is psychological in nature. such mismatches is inherently longer term
Therefore, such types of persons are not in scope, illVOlving education and
included in the category of unemployed. encow·aging innovation.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Technological Unemployment
Technology has always displaced some work and jobs. Thus, technological
unemployment js a term used to describe the lack or loss of jobs due to technological
changes or innovations. Tbjs type of unemployment typically comes from workers either
being replaced by macrunes or having theb.-jobs made easier and require fewer workers to
accomplish the san1e task. It js one of the reasons of jobless grmivt:h.
Employment, Poverty, Rural and Urban Development Programmes
Name of the Programmes Year of ObjecUves/Desoripuons
Beginning
Swarana Jayanti Shahari Rozgar 1997 To provide gainful employment to urban
Yojana (SJSRY), it has been unemployed and under empoloyed p oor
revamped with eHect from April through sel f-employment of wage employmenL
2009.
Swaranajayanti Gram Swarozgar 1st April, For elimination rural property and
Yojana (SSGSY) , it replaoe d 1999 unemployment and promoting selfsemployment
IRPD, DWCRA, Ganga Kalyan through establishing mioro enterprises in rural
Yojana (1997)_ Million Wells areas. Targets to cover 50% SCs/STs. 40%
Scheme (1989) and Supply women, 15% minorities and 3% disabled_
Improved Tolls kits to Rural
Artisans (1992)
Pradhan Mantri Gramodya 2000 Focus on village level development in 5 oritical
Yojana (PMGY) areas. Le. primary health, primary education,
housing, rural roads and drinking water and
nutriiion with the overall objective of improving
the quality of life of people in rural areas.
Annapurna Scheme 2000 To ensure food security for all, create a hunger
free India in the next five serve the poorest of
the poor in rural and urban areas.
Food For Work Programme 2001 To give food through wage employment in the
drought aHected areas in 8 states. Wages are
paid by the State Governments, partly in cash
and partly in foodgrains.
Jai Prakash Narayan Rozgar Proposed Employment guarantee is m ust poor distriots.
Guarantee Yojana (JPNRGY) in 2002-03
Budget
MGNREGS (Mahatma Gandhi 2nd It aims at enhanoing livelihood security of
National Rural Employment February, households in rural areas of the oountry by
Guarantee Scheme). The 2006 providing at least 100 days on guaranteed
scheme was notified throughout wage employment in a financial year to every
the oountry with ettect from 1st household, whose adult members volunteer to
April, 2008. Renamed as do unskilled manual work. It also mandates
MGNREGS from 2nd October. 33% participation for women_ The primary
2009. SGRY and Food for Work objective of the scheme is to augment wage
Programme merged into iL employmenL
Prime Minister's Employment 2008 To generate employment opportunities in rural as
Generation Programme (PMEGP) well as urban areas through settin g up of self-
employment ventures/projects/micro enterprises.
Nirmal Bharat Programme 2012 To eradicate praolioe of open delacalion by 2020.
Di rect Beneiit Tran sfer 2013 Anti-Poverty Programme, aimed to transfer
subsidies direcUy to the people living below
poverty line.
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen 2014 Aimed to tran sform Rural poor youth into an
Kaushalya Yojana economically independent and globally relevant
work force.
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and 2015 To improve the basic in frastructure in 500 oities/
Urban Transformation (AMRUT) towns which would be known as mission
ailies/tovms.
e
Ru ral Development Programmes
Name of the Programmes
Bharat Nirman Programme
Twenty Point Programme
Annapurna Scheme
National Rural Drin king Water
Program me (NRDWP) previously
called Accelerated Rural Water
Supply Programme
Nirm al Gram Puruskar (NGP)
Valmiki Ambedkar Aawas Yojana
(VASAY)
Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal
Mission (JNNURM) , it has two
co mponents. (a) Basic services to
urban poor; and (b) Integrated
Housing and Slum Development
Programme
Solar Charkha Mission
Affordable Housing in Partnership
(AHIP)
Kisan Samman Nidhi
Gram Ujala Scheme
Prad hanmantri Swaslh Bharat
Yojana
Yuktdhara
Women Empowerment Programmes
Name of the
Programmes
Support to Training and
Employment Programme for
Women (STEP)
Rajiv Gandhi Sche me for
EmpoVlerrnenl of Adolescent
Girls (RGSEAG)- 'SABLA'
Rashtriya Mahlla Kosh-
(Nallonal Credit Fund for
Women)
Indira Gandhi Matrltva Sahyog
Yojana (IGMSY)
Swayam Slddha
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
Year of Objecllves/Oesoripllons
Beginning
2006 Development of rural infraslructure including six
components : irrigalion, water supply, housing,
road, telephone and eleotriclty.
1975 Poverty eradicaUon and raising the standard of
living.
2000 To ensure food security for all, create a hunger
free India in the next 5 years and to reform and
improve the Public Distribution System, so as to
serve the poorest of the poor in rural and urban
areas.
1st April, Aims to move forward from achieving habitation
2009 level coverage towards household level drinking
water coverage through resorting to multiple
sources lil<e ground water, surface waler etc.
October, It is an incentive scheme to encourage PRls to
2003 take up sanitation p romotion.
December, Facilitates construction and upgradation of
2001 dwelling units for slum dwellers.
3rd December To assist allies and towns in taldng up housing
2005 and infrastructural facilities for the urban poor in
63 cities (now 66 cities) in the country.
27th June, The government will be providing a subsidy of z
2018 550 crore to the thousands of artisans and
generating employm ent in the rura l areas.
2009 Ai ms at oonslruoling one million houses for the
EWS/ LIG/MI G with at least 25% for EWS category
seeks to operaUonalise Nalional Habitat Policy,
2007.
2019 To Provide ~ 6000 per year financial assistance to
those farmer having Cultivable area upto 2
Hectare
2021 Under the scheme, LED bulbs are distributed at a
highly subsid1sed rate at
z ·10 across 2579 villages in five States of Bihar,
Ultar Pradesh , Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnatal{a_
2021 It aims to develop capacities of primary,
secondary and tertiary health care systems even in
the last miles of the nation.
2022 This portal wi ll faollilale planning of new
Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Gurantee
Aot (MGNREGA) assets using Remote Sensing
and GIS based information.
Year of Objectives/Desoriplions
Beginning
2003-04 To Increase the self-re liance and autonomy of wo men by
enhancing their productivity and enabling them to take up
Income generallon activities.
19th It alms at empoweri ng adolescent girls of 11 to 18 years by
November, improving their nulrillonal an d health status, upg radallon of
2010 home sl,llls an d vocallonal slulis.
1993 It extend s mlcro-nnance services through a client friendly
and hassle-free loaning mechanism for livelihood activities,
housing micro enterprises, family needs etc for uplillment of
poor women.
2010 To Improve the health and nutrillon status of pregnant,
lactallng women and infants.
2001 At organising women into Sell-Help Groups to fro m a slrong
institutional base.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
Ohan Laxmi
Ujjwals
National Mis sion lor
Empowerment of Women
(NMEW)
Nai Roshnl Scheme
Pradhan Manlri Ujjwafa
Yojana
Nallonal Nutrition Mission
She Box
Mission Shakli
Child Welfare Programmes
Name of the Programme Year of
Beginning
Rajiv Gandhi National
Creche Scheme for th e
Children of Wort<ing Mothers
Integrated Child Protection
Scheme (ICPS)
Education Oriented Programmes
Name of the Programme Year of
Beginning
Mid-Day Meal Scheme
(largest feeding School
prog ramm e in the world).
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
(SSA)
Kasturba Gandhi Balika
Vidyalayas, (KGBVs) (wilh
effect from) 1st April, 2007,
merged with SSA)
National Programme for
Education of Girls at
Elementary Level (NPEGEL)
important component of SSA
lnolusive Education for the
Disabled at Secondary
Stage (IEDSS) replaced
Integrated Education for
Disabled Children (IEDS)
Msroh 2008 Condillon cash transfer scheme lor lhe girl child to
encourage families to educate girl children and to prevent
child marri age.
4th, A comprehensive scheme lor prevenllon of lrafllol<.lng viilh
December, live speolflc components prevention, res cue, rehsbi lilslion,
2007 reinlegrallon and repatriation of vlolims.
2010 To achieve empowerment of women socially, economically
and educalionally by securing convergence of schemes.
2012 Aimed al developing leadership skl s among the mlnorlly
women_
1st May, 2016 To provide cooldng gas oonnecllons lo 5 mllllon
(Labour day) benellolsrles below lhe poverty li ne.
Blh March, 2018 To allaln prope r nutritional slalus among chi ldren from 0-6
(Women's Day) years, adolescent girls , pregnant vtomen and lsclaling
mothers ln a llmely manner ; reduce slunllng, under
nulrlllon and anaemia among young children , vtomen and
adolescent girls; and lowering low birth weight by at least
2% er annum.
2021 II ls an effort lo provide a single VJindow access lo woman
irrespective of her work Status, VJhether w orking in
organised or unorganlsed, pub lic or private sector lo
facililsle !he re gistration of compla in! related lo sexual
hsrr assmenl.
2022 II ls an lnlegraled women empowerment programme Is
launched as an umbrella scheme for the safely, seourily
and empowerment ol women lor lmplemenlslion.
Objectives/Descriptions
2006 Overall dev0lopm0nt of ohildren, childhood proteclion ,
complete im munisation, awareness generation among
parents of malnutrition , health and education.
2009-10 Providing a safe and seoure environment for oomprehensive
d0v0lopment of chfldren who are in n0ed of care and
proleclion as well as ohildren in conmct wiih law.
Objectives/Descriptions
1995 Improving of ihe nutritional status of Children in classess
I-VII in government, local body and government aided
schools and EGS and AIE cente res with !he end
objective of enabling disadvantaged and poor children to
attend school regularly.
2001 All Children (6-14) complete 5 years of primary schooling
by 2007; all children complete 8 years of elementary
schooling by 20·1O bridge all gender and social category
gaps al primary stage by 2007 and at elementary
education level by 2010; universal retention by 20·10.
2004 To set-up residential sohool at upper primary level for
girls belonging to SC/ST/OBC/Minority communities. The
sche e is being implemented in ruraJ areas and urban
areas \1/ilh fema le literacy below 30% and national
average re speotively
2003 Fooused inlervention to reach the 'Hardest to Reach'
girls and provides for 'Model School' in every cluster with
more intense community mobilisation and supervision of
girls enrollment in sohools.
2009-10 Provides 100% central assistanoe for inolusive education
of disabled children studying in class IX-XII in
government, local body and goverment aided schools.

Rashtriya Madyamik
Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) or
Scheme for Universalisation
ofAccessforSeoondary
Educalion (SUCCESS)
Saakshar Bharat
Samarga Siksha Soheme
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
Aims at ra ising the enroll ment rate at seoondary stage
March, irom 52.26% in 2005-06 to 75% in next 5 years by
2009 providing a secondary school wi1hin a reasonable
distance of 5 km of any habitation: ensure universal
aooess by 2017 and universal retention by 2020.
8th Nalional Literacy Mission has been recast as 'Saakshar
September, Bharat'_The aim is to cover all adults, is the age group
2009 of 15 and above, wlih ils primary focus on women.
24th May, To improve the quality of education at school level in
2018 (HAD) India

Health Oriented Programmes

Name of the Year of Objectives/Desoriptions
Programme Beginning
National Rural 12th April , To provide effective healthcare to rura l population with speoial
Health Mission 2005 fo cus on 18 States with weak health indices/infrastructure to
(NAHM) raise pub lic spending on health form 0.9% of GDP of 2.3% of
GDP reduction of IMA and MMR and universal assess to
health care with emphasis on women.
Janani Suraksha Apri l, 2005 Focus on demand promotion for institu1ional deliveries in
Yojana (JSY) states and regions and targets lowering of MMR, it is
conditional cash transfer programme to inorease births in
health facilities.
Pradhan Mantri 2010 To correct regional imbalance in tertiary healthcare and
Swasthya augmenting facilities for quality medical education in the
Suraksha Yojana count ry ; and setting up six AIIMS-like institution in phase-1
(PMSSY) and in phase-2 two more AIIMS like institutions.
Mission 25th To achieve full immunisation coverage for all ohildren by 2020.
lndradhanush December,
2014
Ayshman Bharat 2018 To provide ~ 5 lakh health Insurance to 10 orore poor familes.
Yojana (ABY) The scheme aims to aohieve the obejctive of universal health
coverage.

FLAGSHIP PROGRAMMES OF
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
The flagship programmes were launched la unched the 'SHRES HTA' Scheme on
by the Government of India, to bddge 3rd Jun e, 2022. SHRESHTA stands for
education, health, employmen t and Scheme for Residential Education for
infrasb:uctw:e divides. The ultimate Students in High Schools in Targeted
objective of the flagship programme is to Areas. SHRESHTA envisions high
achieve broad-based improvement in the quality free residential education from
living standards of our people. class 9th to class 12th to medtorious
students from SC commumties.
New Social We1fare Schemes • SMJLE Scheme U Ilion Minis ter
• Tele-MANAS Initiative The Dr Virencka KunJar launched the
Tele-MANAS (Mental Health Support Central Sector Scheme 'SMILE
and Networking) :initiative was Support for Marginalised Individu als for
launched in all states on l 0th October, Llveliliood and Enterprise' in New Delhi
2022, Under this, a network of on 12th February, 2022. The scheme has
23 excellent tele-mental h ealth cenb.'es been designed by D epartment of Social
h as been created . Justice and Empowerment for
• SHRESHTA Scheme Launched Union providing welfare measures to the
Minjs ter of Social J ustice an d Transgender community an d people
Empowerment Virencka Kumar h as engaged in begging.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
• PM Umeed Scheme It was launched in
April 2021. The main aim of the scheme
is to provide skill training to around three
lakh youths to become entreprenems till
2025-26. Under the ambit of the
scheme, loans and employment Virill be
provided to the youth of the counb.y
• Rail Kaushal Vlkas Yojana The scheme
aims to impart skill development training
to the youth of the country. The scheme
launched in August 2021. The main
objective of the scheme is to empower
the youth by offering enb.-y ]eve] training
in indusb.-y relevant skill through Indian
Railway Institutions.
• PM Daksh Yojana The scheme aims to
improve competency level of eligible
target groups induding SC and OBC
communities. The scheme started in
202 1-22 . The scheme is a National
action plan for skilling marginalised
sections of population induding OBC,
SC, DNT, EBC, sanHation workers,
plastic pickers.
• Public Wl-Fi Access Network Interface
(PM-WANI) It was launched on 9th
December, 2020. It aims to revolutionise
the tech sphere and v,ill substantially
improve the wireless connectivity of the
country. It v,ill boos t the 'Ease of Doing
Business' and 'Ease of Living.'
• Kisan S1uyodaya Yojana It was
launched on 24th October, 2020 to
provide day-time power supply for
irrigation to the farmers of Gujarat.
• Gha.r Tak Fibre Scheme It was
launched on 21st September 2020. The
scheme ainJs at connecting all 45,945
villages of Bihar with high-speed optical
fibre internet by March 31, 2021.
• Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sa.mpada
Yojana (PMMSY) It was launched on
I 0th September, 2020 to focus on the
sustainable development of the :fisheries
sector in India. It aims to enhance fish
production in India by an adrntional 70
lakh tons and increase :fisheries export
earnings to t 1,00,000 crore by FY
2024-25.
• PM SVANidhl Scheme It was launched
on 1st J une, 2020 by the Central
Government to help the street vendors
resume their livelihood activities , 1vho were
impacted by COVID-19. The tenure of the
scheme is up to March 2022. It aims at
facilitating working capital loan up to
{ 10,000 at a subsidized rate of interest,
incentivizing regu]ar repaymen t of the
loan and to reward digital a·a.nsactions.
• Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Rojgar
Abhlyaan This scheme was launched
on 20th June, 2020 to boost employment
and livelihood opportunities for migrant
, 1vorkers returning to villages, in the walce
of COVlD-19 outbreak. With the total
capital outlay of t 50,000 crore. This
project was implemented in a mission
mode canJpa.ign in 125 days in 116
rnsb.jcts of 6 states.
• One Nation, One Ration Card This
scheme is scheduled to implemented by
1st June, 2020. The scheme allows the
beneficia.des can avail of the benefits
across India, that is, poor migrant , 1vorkers
can buy subsirnsed rice and wheat from
any ration shop in the country.
• Atal Bhujal Yojana Ata.l Bhujal Yojana
(or Atal Jal) is groundwater management
scheme launched by PM Modi on
25th December, 2019. It improve
groundwater management scheme in
seven states i.e. Gujarat, Ha.ryana,
Karnata.ka, Madhya Pradesh,
Ma.ha..rasba·a, Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh under the Jal Jeevan Mission.
• Laghu Vyapari Mann Dhan Scheme
This scheme was launched on 19th
August, 2019. This pension scheme for
small a·aders functions under the
Minisb.-y of Labour and Employmen t.
Under the scheme , a·aders aged betvveen
18 to 40 who have an annual turnover of
less then 1.5 crore are eligible. Traders
should conb.jbute a monthly amount
than they turning 60, the subsc1jbers "'rill
get { 3000 monthly pension.
• Pradhan Mantri Kisan Ma.an Dhan
Yojana Launched in 2019, it is a pension
scheme for smalJ and marginal farmers.
Under this, a monthly pension of { 3000
,,.ill be provided to the farmers who
attains the age of 60 yea.rs. The farmers
,,.illhave to make a monthly conb.jbution
of { 55 to { 200, depending on their age
of entry.
• Pradhan Manti-i Sh.ram Yogi Maan
Dhan Yojana Sin:illar to PM Kisan Maan
Dhan Yoja.na, it is also a pension scheme
launched in 2019 for unorga.nised sector
workers with monthly income upto
{ 15000 per man th
• They will get assured pension of { 3000 per
month after attaining the age of 60 yea.rs.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee
Yojana (PMKSY) (se t-up in July, 2015)
The scheme js aimed to give assmed
irdgation to farmers.
• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (SBA) (Se t-up
in 2nd October, 2015) Total sanitation by
2019, was the slogan ofthis programme.
It is successfully ended in 2019. The
year 2019 also marks the 150th Birth
anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi.
• Soil Health Card Scheme for Every
Farmer (SHCS) (Se t-up in February,
2015) The government will initia te to
provide every farmer a soil health card in
a mfasion mode. A sum of { 100 crore is
alotted.
• Deendayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti
Yojana (DDUGJY) (set up in July, 2015)
Its long-term ainJ was to provide 24 x 7
uninterrup ted power supply to all
homes. It is successfully ended in 2018
, 1vith the electrification of Lei sang Village
in Manipw.-.
• Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana
(PMJDY) (Set-up in August, 2014)
Pradhan Mantii Jan Dhan Yojana js a
scheme for comprehensive financial
inclusion lawJched by the Prime Mifljgter
of India, Narenc:ha Modi in August, 2014.
• AccoWJt holders will be provided
zero-balance bank accoWJt with Rupay
debit card, in addition to accidental
insurance cover of { 2lakh .
• Be ti Bachao, Beti Padhao Yojana It was
introduced for generating awareness and
l]]]proving the efficiency of delivery of
, 111elfare services meant for women with
an initial corpus of { l 00 crore . The
government wou]d focus on campaigns
to sensitise people of this coWJtry
to wards the concerns of the gi.IJ child
and women. The process of sensitisation
must begin early and therefore the
school curriculum must have a separate
chapter on gender main strnaming.
• UST.AD Scheme Union Minis ter Najma
HeptuJJah laWJched a welfare scheme
Upg:radation of Skills and Training in
Ancestral Arts/Crafts for Development
(USTAD) in May, 2015 which aims at
upgrading and promoting the skills of
artisans from the minority commWJity.
• Deendayal Upadhyay Antyodaya,
Yojana This Yojana replaced the
National Rural Livelihood Mission
(Ajeevika) and National Urban
Livelihood Mission . It is an overeaching
scheme for uplift of urban and rmal poor
through enhancement of livelihood
opportWJities thrnugh skill development
and other means.
• Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vik.as Yojana
It js a demand-driven, reward-based skill
training scheme. PMKVY is formed to
provide skill training to class l O and 12
dropout youths across the countl-y.
• Under the scheme, besides assessing
and certifying l O )akh youth for the skills
they afready possess, around 24 )a.kb
youth will be skilled over the next year.
• Atal Pe nsion Yojana The Atal Pension
Yojana (A.PY) will focus on all citizen in
the unorganised sector ,,.,ho join the
National Pension Sys tem (NPS)
adminis tered by the Pension FWJd
Regu]atm-y and Development Authority
(PERDA) and who are not members of
any statu tory social security scheme. It is
available to people behveen 18 and 40
year of age with bank accounts. The
subscribers are required to opt for a
monthly pension from { 1000 to { 5000.
• Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima
Yojana The PMJJBY is available to
people in the age group of 18 to 50 and
having a bank accoWJt people who join
the scheme before completing 50 years
can, however, continue to have the risk
of life over upto the age of 55 years
subject to payment of premium Aadhar
would be the primary Know Your
Customers (KYC) for his bank accoWJt.
Life insmance of { 2 lalch with a
premium of { 330 per year.
• Pradhan Mant:ri Srn·aksha Bima
Yojana The scheme will be a one-year
covet~ renewable from year to year. It is
available to people behveen 18 and 70
year of age with bank accounts. It has an
annual premium of { 12 for { 2 )a.kb
accidental and { l )a.kb full disability.
• Startup Standup India Startup Inrua is
a revo)utiona.1-y scheme that has been
sta.1·ted on Augus t, 2015 to help the
people who wish to start their O\IVIl
business. Standup India Scheme
facilita tes bank Joan between { l O )a.kb
and { 1 crore to at )east one Scheduled
Caste (SC) or Scheduled Tobe (ST)
borrower and at leas t one woman
borrower per bank branch for setting up
a greenfield enterplise.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

• Pradhan Mantri KrisW Sinchai Yojana was organfaed by the T RIFED under the
The primary objectives of PMKSY are to Mifljsb.-y of Tribal Affairs. The
attract investments in inigation system at
progranmJe will help the tribal
field level, develop and eA-pand cultivable
population to become self-reliant and
land in the country. The primary objective
enb.·eprenew:s.
js to enhance rain water use in order to
Swa.rna Jayanti Shahari Rozgru· Yojana
rn.i:nimise wastage of water, enhance crnp
(SJSRY) (Set-up in 1997)
per drop by implementing water saving • To provide gainfu] employment to urban
technologies and predsion irrigation. unemployed and under employed poor
• Pradhan Mantri UJ.jwala Yojana Prime through self employment or wage
Mifljster Narendra Modi has launched employment.
Pradhan Manb.i Ujjwal Yojana on 1st
• It has been revamped with effect from
May, 2016 (Labour Day) at Ba.ilia (UP)
April, 2009.
by providing cooking gas connections to
10 women. Swa.rna Jayanti G1·am Swarozgar Yojana
(SJGSY) (Set-up in 1999)
• The objective of the scheme is to provide
• It replaced In tegrated Rural Development
cooldng gas connections to 5 ~J.illi~n
beneficiaiies below the poverty line rn Progi·an]Il]e (lRDP) , Development of
the next 3 yeai·s (till the yeai· 2019). Women and Children in Rural Areas
(DWCRA), Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY)
• Ojala Yojana lt was launched by Limon (1997) Million Well Scheme (MWS)
Milljster for State (IC) for Power, Coal and
(1989)' and Supply of Improved Tool-kits
Renewable Energy Piyush Goyal :in Bhopal,to Rural Artisans (SITRA), (1992).
Madhya Pradesh on 30th April, 2016.
• For ellnrinating rural poverty and
The main motive of tms pollcy is energy unemployment and promoting self
efficiency inthe counb.-y. Consumers can employment through establishing mkro
buy the bulbs from distributor by showing
enterprises in rw·al ai·eas.
any identification card.
Mahatma Gandhi Rw·al Employment
• Pradhan Mantri Fas al Blma Yojana It
Guarantee Act (M GNREGA, launched on
js the new crop danJage insurance
2nd February, 2006) The National Rural
scheme stai·ted on 18 Feb, 2016. It will
replace the existing two crop insuranceEmployment Guarantee Act (NH.EGA)
2005, envisages secw·ing the livelihood of
schemes National Agrlcultw_·al Insurance
Scheme (NAIS) and Modified NAIS. people in rural areas. The main provisions
of the act are
• Pradhan Mant:ri Sabaj Bijli Har Ghar
Yojana The scheme aims for electd:fying• Employment to be given \'lrithin 15 days
all the households in rural and urban of application for work.
• The scheme prov1des a legal guara- ntee
ai·eas '"''ruch ai·e still living without power.
• Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana To offer for 100 days of employment in eve1-y
free-living assertive devices to serum· financial year to adult members of ~y
rural household willing to do public
citizens belong to BPL families.
work-related unsldlled manual work at the
• DDAN Scheme U dey Desh ka Aarn statutory m.i.rnnJunJ wage of 120 per day.
Nagrik aims at regional air connectivity.
• lf employment is not provided \"irithin 15
• Kisan Samman Nidhi Scheme It was days, daily unemployment allowance in
launched in 2019 to provide { 6000 per cash has to be pa_jd_
year financial assistance to those farmers
• Employment within 5 Ian rarnus, else
have cultivable area upto 2 hectare. { 6000
exb.·a wages to be pa_jd_
per year will be pa_jd in three instalments.
• At least one-third beneBciades have to
Employment Generation be women.
Prime M.injster's Employment Generation
ProoTammes
b Programme (Se t-up in 2008)
Van Dhan InternsWp Programme To aenerate employment opportunities in
• Limon Minister of Tribal Affairs rur~ as well as urban ai·eas thrnugh setting
launched the Van Dhan In ternship up of new self-employment ventlll'es/
progran]Il]e on 16th October, 2019. It projec ts/ mjcro enterprises.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
Rural Development
Programmes
• National Broadband Mission The
government has launched the National
Broadband Mission on 17th December,
2019. The mission aim to provide
broadband access to all villages by 2022.
• Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC)
(Set-up in Ap1iJ , 1999) It follows a
commw:rity led and people-centred
approach and places emphasis on
Information, Communication and
Education (ICE) for demand generation
of samtation facilities.
• Indl!·a A.was Yojana (IAY, launched in
1999) Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) is a
social welfare programme to provide
housing for rmal poor in India.
• This scheme, operating since 1985,
provides subsirnes and cash assistance to
people in villages to consb.·uct their
houses themselves.
• Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana • National Heritage City Development
(PMGSY) (Set-up in 2000) To line all
villages with palcka road having
population of 500 and above in general
ai--eas and 250 and above in tribal and
2:eneral
~ areas.
• ~ilnnapurna Scheme (Set-up in 2000) To
ensme food secU1ity for all, create a
hunger free Inrna in the next five yeai·s
and to serve the poorest of the poor.
• Bharat Nirman Yojana lt was launched Pro b0 Tammes
on 16th December, 2005, with the aim of • lndl!·a Gandhi MatJ-itva Sanyog
developing rural infrastructure. The
duration of inJplementing tms scheme
has been fixed for 4 yeai·s.
• Rajiv Gandhi G1·ameen Vldyutikru·an • Ujjwala (Set-up in December, 2007) A
Yojana (RGGVY launched in 2005) AinJs
at provicling elecb.icity in all villages and
habitations and access to elecb.icity to all
rural households. Connections to BPL
families ai·e given free of cost. 90% cost • Ohan Lax:mi (Set-up in March, 2008)
of the scheme is released as grant where
as 10% as loan.
• Rajiv A.was Yojana (RAY) (Set-up in
2010) It ainJS at slum-free Inrna in ne:,..'i
five yeai·s.
• Sansad Adru·sh G1·am Yojana lt is a
rural development and cleanliness
programme broadly focusing upon the
development in the villages whkh
includes social developmentand
cultural development. It was launched in
October 2014.
Urban Development
Progranm1e
• Housing for AU by 2022 Government
has proposed to set up a Mission on Low
Cost Affordable Housing to be anchored
in the National Housing Bank with a
view to increase the flow of cheaper
crernt for affordable housing to thew-ban
poor/EWS/LlG segment.
• The Narencfra Modi Government has
renewed the lO years old Jawahadal
Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
(JNURM) and nanJed it after the first BJP
Plime Minister. The renewed scheme is
known as Atal Mission for R~juvenation
and Urban Transformation (AMRUT).
AMRUT for 500 Tier 2 and Tier 3 dties
viill also be launched along\'\rith smart city
project. The Minjsb.-y of Housing and
Urban Affairs has now extended the
mfasion by two years till March, 2022.
and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY)
(Set-up in Januai-y, 2015) The
progranime called HeLitage City
Development and Augmentation Yojana
(HRIDAY) is to be launched for
conserving and preserving the beLitage
characters of these dties.
Women Empowerment
Yojana (IGMSY) 2010 To improve the
health and nutritional status of
pregnant, lactating , 1vomen and infants.
comprehensive scheme for prevention of
tra:fficldng with five specific components-
prevention, rescue, rehabilitation,
reintegration and repatriation of victims.
Conrntional cash rr·ansfer scheme for the
girl child to encourage fanJilies to
educate gid cruldren and to prevent cruld
marriage.
• National Mission foi· Empowerment of
Women (NME\i\/) (Set-up in 2010) To
achieve empowerment of women
socially, economically and educationally
by securing convergence of schemes.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
• Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for
Empowerment of ~i\dolescent Girls
(RGSEAG)-'Sabla' (Set-up in
November, 2010) It ainJs at empowering
adolescent girls of 11 to 18 years by
improving their nutritional and health
status, upgradation of home skills, life
skills and vocational skills.
• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP)
Scheme (Se t-up in January, 2015) It is a
key scheme that aims to address the
dipping child sex ratio and empower the
girl child in Inrua.
• Sukanya Samriddhl Yojana (Set-up in
January, 20 15) This scheme
encompasses all the girls besides their
economic strata can open Sukanya
Sam.rid.hi Account in Post office and in
the banks. It is launched along BBBP
Yojana Campaign.
• Pradhan Mant:ri Matru Vandana Yojna
It is a maternity benefit programme
being implemented in all rustJjcts of the
country , 1vith effect from 1st January,
201 7. Cash incentive of ~ 5000 will be
provided in three installments to all
pregnant women and lactating mothers.
Education Oriented Programmes
• Atal Innovation Mission The
Government has set up the Atal
Innovation Mission at NlTI Aayog in
March, 2020. It encomages the school to
provide eA'J)OSW'e to science and
technology to student. The main
objective 1s to create scien !±fie character
and innovative thoughts among the
young minds of the country (students
between grade 6th to 10th).
• Mid Day Meal (MOM, launched in
1995) Under the scheme, hot cooked
meal of a minim um 300 calories and
8-12 gms of protein is being provided to
children studying in primary
schools/Education Guarantee Scheme
(EGS)/Alternative and Innovative
Education (AIE) cenb:es.
• Sai·va Shiksha Abhjyan (SSA, launched
in 2001) The main objective of this
programme was to provide educational
facility to all children of 6-14 age group
in the state, to complete the primary
education by 2007 and upper primary
education by 2010, of all enrnlled
children and to ensme universal stay of
all children up to the year 2010.
• Kastrn·ba Gandhi BalTha Vidyalayas
e
(KGBVs) (Set-up in 2004) To set-up
residential schools at upper primary level
for girls belonging to SC/ST/OBC/
Minority communities.
• The scheme is being implemented in
rural areas and urban areas with female
literacy below 30% and national average
respectively.
• Rasht:riya MadhyamTh ShTusha
Abhlyan (RMSA) or Scheme for
Universalisation of Access for
Secondai-y Education (SUCCESS) (Set
up in March, 2009) AinJs at raising the
enrnllment rate at secondary stage from
52.26% in 2005-06, to 75% in neA.1:
5 years by providmg a secondary school
,,.r:ithm, reasonable rustance of 5 Jan of
any habitation ; ensure universal access
by 2017 and universal re tention by 2020.
Health Oriented Programn1es
• SUMAN Scheme The government
launched the Surakshit Matritva
Aasbwasan (SUMAN) scheme on
10th October, 2019. Pregnant women,
mother upto 6th months after delivery
and all sick newborns will be able to free
healthcare benefi ts under this scheme.
• Bhai·at:iya Poshan Krishl Kosh The
Union Government has launched
Bharatiya Poshan K.risbi Kosh ,,.r:ith aim
of reducing malnutrition in Inrua on
18th November, 2019. It aims to reduce
malnutJjtion among women and
children acrnss the country, thrnugh a
multi-sectoral resutls-based framewod<,
includmg agriculture.
• Integrated Child Development Scheme
(I CDS, launched in 1975) The
Integrated Child Development Services
(I CDSs) Scheme ainJs at enhancing the
health, nutrition and learning
opportunities of infants, young children
(0-6 years) and their mothers.
• National Rtual Health Mission
(NRHM) (Set-up in ApiiJ, 2005) To
provide effective healthcare to rural
population with special focus on 18
states ,vith weak health indices/
infrastJ·uctme; to raise public spending
on health from 0.9% of GDP to 2.3% of
GDP; reduction of lMR and MMR and
universal access to healthcare \i\r:ith
emphasis on women.
0
• National Urban Health Mission
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
(NUHM 20 13) The Union Cabinet gave
its approval to launch a National Urban
Health Mission (NUHN[) as a new sub-
rmss1on on May, 20 13 under the
overarchmg National Health Mission
(NHN[).
• National A_yush Mission (NAM) (Set-up
in September, 2014) Ayurveda, Yoga,
Unani Siddha and Homeopathy (AYUSH).
• TWs mission is aimed at addressing the
gaps in health services particularly in
vulnerable and far-off areas of lndia.
I AGRICULTURE
IMPORTANCE OF
AGRICULTURE
• Agriculture js the primary industry in
India. The agricul tme sector of lndia has
occupied almost 43% of India's
geograpWcal area and 58% of the rmal
households depend on agricultme as
their principaJ means of livelihood.
• Its importance to the lnrnan economy
can be gauged from the following facts.
Contribution to GDP
• According to the new series of national
income released by CSO at 20 11-12
plices, the share of agiiculture in total
GDP is 14% (Approx) in 2021-22.
Conh-ibution to Employment
• Agriculture provides livelihood to more
than half of the population.
• In 2019, it contributed around 52% to
the totaJ employment in the country.
Conh-ibution to Trade
• Although, the share of agiicul-
tural produc ts in total trade of India
js declining due to 0..-port diversification.
• Agiicultme sector plays a cruciaJ role in
indusive gi·owth by directly attacking
poverty and containmg inflation. It is
also an important sow-ce of raw material
for a vas t seginent of industry.
Agriculture and Five Year Plans
• The Wghest outlay on agricuJ tme was
during the First Plan, it was 31 %.
• Mission lndradhanush Launched in
20 14, this m.ission js launched to achieve
full inJIDunjsation coverage for alJ
children by 2020.
• Ayushman Bharat Yojana It was
launched in 2018 to provide { 5 lakh
health insmance to 10 crnre poor families.
Food Security Programn1e
National Food Secw·ity Act (NFSA) 2013
It ainJs to provide food and nutritionaJ
secwity to the whole India. It provide
access to adequate quality food at affordable
prices to people and a life with dignity.
I
• The In tensive Agiicultmal Dlstiict
Progi·amme (IADP) followed by High
Yielding Variety Progi·amme (HYVP) was
intrnduced during the Third Plan . First
and Fifth Plan were the only plans,
\"i hich acWeved the set targets.
1
• Tenth Plan did not set any targets for
crop production.
• The gi·owth rate of agricul ture during the
Ninth and Tenth Plan were 2.44% and
2.02% respectively.
Agriculture in Eleventh Five
Year Plan
• Eleventh Plan (2007-12), recogmsing the
jmportance of agi·icultme in promoting
indusive gi·o\Jvth, fixed the agi·icultme
gi·owtb rate of 4%. Actual outlay in the
Eleventh Plan is estimated to be 18.5%
of the total plan outlay. Conb.-act farmmg
was encouraged in frujts, vege tables and
other crops.
• The average annual gi·mvtb rate of GDP
in agricultme and allied sectors during
11th plan was 3.7 per cent.
A • __ 1 • l:fth
gricwture ill Twe
Five Year Plan
• The approach paper ainJs at gi·owth rate
of 4% per annum in agiicultme sector,
w1th foodgi·ains growing at about 2% per
year and non-foodgrains gi·owing at 5.6%.
• The approach paper has emphasised on
tec hnology as the main veWcle for
jmproving productivity in agi~icul ture as
natw·aJ resow·ces are fixed.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
G
Severely indictin$ the public sector • It emphasises on greater road
research in agricwture the Tv,,elfth Plan connectivity, development of
encourages Public Private Partnel'Ship horticulture, dairying and other animal
(PPP) in agriculture so as to blidge the gap husbandry to further improve the
in dryland areas and rapidly diversify market acces to the farmers.
agriculture.
Average Achievement in Agriculture
in Five Year Plans (in percentage)
Five Year Plan Growth Rate
First Five Year Plan (1951-52 to 1955-56)
Second Five Year Plan (1956-57 to 1960-61)
Third Five Year Plan (1961 -62 to 1966-66) 0.73
Annual Plan (1966-67 to 1968-69)
Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-70 to 1973-74) 2.57
Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-75 to 1978-79) 3.28
Si>cth Five Year Plan (1980-81 to 1984-85) 2.52
Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-86 to 1989-90) 3.47
Annual Plan (1990-91 to 1991-92) 1.01
Eighth Five Year Plan(1992-93tol996-97)
Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-98 to 2001-02) 2.02
Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-03 to 2006-07) 2.3
Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-08 to 2011-12) 3.6
Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-13 to 2016-17) 8%

Green Revolution
• The Green Revolution :in India refers to a Farmer's Commission
pedod ,,vhen Indian agriculture was
■ A National Commission on farmers was
converted into an industrial system due to
appointed in 2004, under the Chairmanship
the adoption of modern methods and
technology such as the use of High Yielding of Dr MS Swaminathan, which interalia
Variety (HYV) seeds, tsactors, irrigation suggested an Agricultural Renewal
facilities, pesticides and fertilizers. Action Plan (ARAP).
■ The AAAP comprised of soil health
• It was launched in the year 1966 and was
enhancement, irrigation water supply
the brainchild of Norman Borlaug,
augmentation and demand management,
though in India~it was made successful by
credit and insurance, technological reforms
Dr MS Swaminathan. The term 'Green
Revolution' was coined by Dr William Gaud. and assured and remmunerative marketing_
• The achievement of Green Revolution
were rise in cereal production especially Second Green Revolution
,,vheat and rice, change in cropping pattern • The call for Second Green Revolution
in favour of ,,vheat and increase in was given by then Pdme Minister
employment opportunities. Manmohan Singh at the 93rd Science
Con£ernnce in 2006.
• The wealmesses of Green Revolution were
growth of capitalistic farming, side • The Second Green Revolution seeks to
tracked land reforms, , 1videned income build up on the achievements of first
Green Revolution and blidge the
and regional disparities and
regional and crop imbalance, whkh
envirnnmental degradation.
were not addressed by First Green
• The Green Revolution demanded high Revolution.
yielding seed, increasing ir1igation, • The Second Green Revolution seeks to
pesticides in fertilizer. cover dry land farming and concentrate
• It ,,,.,as introduced by MS Swan:Iinathan on the small and marginal farmers. It
,,vho is also known as Father of Green seeks to raise the foodg:rain production
Revolution. to 400 million tonnes by 2020.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Evergreen Revolution TricolouT Revolution

• Concept given by renowned agricultural
scientist Dr MS Swaminathan.
• The concept emphasises on 'organic
ag:ricultme' and 'green agricultme' with
the help of.integrated pest management,
integrated nutrient supply and integrated
natural resow·ce management.
• The core of the evergreen revolution is
'sustainability'.
White Revolution
• Wrnte revolution is relates to
phenomenal grov,rtb in milk production.
To increase the pace of Wrnte
Revolution, the operation flood was Food Security in India
started. The father of operation flood • The need for food self-sufficiency was
was Dr Verghese Kurlen . Operation
flood was started by National Dairy
Development Board in 1970.
• India ranks first in the world in milk • Food secl.llity implies access by all people
production, accounting for 20% of,,vorld
production. Milk production in India
h as been increasing steadily over the
years at an average annual g:rm"lrth rate
of 4.5%.
• It was introduced by Verghese Kurien.
Fisheries Sector
India is the third largest producer of :fish
and second largest producer of inland :fish
in the world.
The reference to a llicolow· Revolution was
made by Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
Thjs phi-ase has thi-ee components.
These are as follows
• Saffron Energy Revolution for
promotion and better utilisation of solar
energy.
• White Revolution to ensme cattle
welfare and further the goals of Wrnte
Revolution .
• Blue Revolution for fishermen's , 1velfare,
cleansing rivers and sea and conserving
water.
borne out on account of the expelience
gained from the PL-480 programme of
the USA in the year 1966.
at all times to sufficient quantities of food
to lead an active and healthy life.
Essentially! it involves
■ quantitative dimension in term of food
self-sufficiency;
■ qualitative dinrnnsion in form of
nu □itional requirement; and
■ purchasing power dimension so as to
ensure access to all
through employment generation
programmes.

Major Ag ricultural Revolutions

Revolution Production
Black Revolution Petroleum Production
Blue Revolution Fish Production
Brown Revolution Leather/Non-conventional (India)/ Coooa Produotion
Golden Fibre Revolution Jute Production
Golden Revolution Overall Horticulture Development/Honey Production
Green Revolution Foodgrain (Cereals, Wheat and Legu minous plant) Production
Grey Revolution Fertilizer Revolution
Pink Revolution Onion production/ Pharmaceutical (India)/ Prawn Production
Rainbow Revolution Holistic Development of Agriculture Sector
Red Revolution Meat and Tomato Production
Round Revolution Potato Revolu tion
Silver Fibre Revolution Cotton Revolu tion
Silver Revolution Egg/Poult ry Production
White Revolution Milk/Dairy Prod uction (In India-Operation Flood)
Yellow Revolution Oil Seeds Production
Evergreen Revolution Increase in Productivity and Prosperity without Ecological Harm
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
Public Distribution
System (PDS)
• PDS the food proclll'ed by the FCI is
disb.ibuted thrnugh government
regu]ated ration shops among the poorer
section of the society is called PDS.
• PDS was env1saged in 1967 to act as a
pdce support programme for the
consumer during the peLiods of food
shortage of the 1960's.
• The basic aim was to provide essential
commodities such as 1ice, wheat, sugar,
edible oil, soft coke and kerosene at
subsidised pLices. PDS is the largest
dismbution network of its ]dnd in the
vorld.
, 1
• Following the c1iticism of PDS, the
government in June, 1997 replaced the
PDS w1th Tai·geted Public Disb.ibution
System (TPDS). The system envisaged
issuing special cards to BPL families and
selling foodgrains to them at subsidised
prices.
• As of date, there are about 5.5 Jakh Fair
PLice Shops (FPS) across India.
National Food Security
Act, 2013
This act was notified with the objective to
provide food and nub.itional security in
hunJan life cycle approach, by ensuring
access to adequate quantity of quility food
at affordable plices to people. The act
provide for coverage of upto 75% of the
rural population and upto 50% of the urban
population for receiving subsidised
foodgrains under TPDS.
The eligible persons will be en titled to
receive 5 kgs of foodgrains per person per
month at subsidised plices of~ 3/2/1 per kg
for 1ice/wheat/coa1·se gi·ains. The existing
An tyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) households,
which constitute the poorest of the poor,
"'rill continue to receive 35 kgs of foodgrains
per household per month.
Agricultural Price
Policy (APP)
• APP of the government seeks to ensure
remunerative plices to the producers so
as to encourage higher interest and
production on the one hand, on the other,
it safeguai·ds the consumers interest by
making food available at reasonable prices.
• To achieve this government announces
Minimum Support Prices (MSPs) for 25
aglicultural crops taking into accounts
the recommendation of the Commission
for Agricultural Cost and Plices (CACP).
MSP is that price, at which government
js ready to pmchase the crop from the
fai·mers directly, if crop plice falls below
the MSP.
• Commission for Agricultural Costs and
PLices (CACPs) was set-up in 1965 with
the name Ag:I.icultural Price Commission
and was renamed as CACP in 1985.
• Market Intervention Scheme (MIS) is
implemented for horticultural and
agiicultural commodities, generally
pelishable in nature and not covered
under the Plice Support Scheme (PSS).
• Economic cost is composed of thrne
components; vjz MSP, procmement
incidentals and cost of distributino·
foodgrains. t,:,
Agriculture Credit
• Agricultlll'e credit is considered as one of
the most basic inpu ts for conducting all
agiicuJtural development progi·anJmes.
• There are two solli·ces of credit available
to fai·mers, viz institutional and pLivate.
• Institutional Credit covers cooperative
societies and banks, commercial banks,
RRB and NABARD.
• Non-InstitutionaJ/Private sources of
credit ai·e moneylenders, traders and
commission agents, relatives and
Jandlords.
• Lead Bank Scheme (LBS) based on ru·ea
approach was launched in 1969 on the
recommendation of Dr Gadgil Committee
and Nai·asimham Committee.
• Under the LBS, all the 14 nationilised
banks and a few pdvate sector banks
were allo ted specmc distLicts and were
asked to play the 'lead role ' in
coordinating credit deployment.
Agriculture InsuTance Company
of Irn:lia Limited (AI C)
• AIC ·was incorporated under the
Companies Act, 1956 on 20th
December, 2002 as a specialised inslll'er
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

with the capital participation from GIC, • RR.B's mobilise :financial resource from
four public sector General lnsmance rw:aJ/sem.i urban areas.
Companies and NABARD_ • It is jointly m,v ned by Gal, the
• The other speciabsed insmer is Export concerned State Government and
CredH Guarantee Corporation (ECGC)_ sponsor banks.
It was established in 1957.
NABARD
• National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development INABARD) was set up in July,
1982 as the Apex Bank with a paid-up capital
of t 1DD crore contributed equally by RBI and
Government of India. Its headquarter is in
Mumbai_
• The role of NABARD was to act as a refinance
institution for all kind of production and
investment credit to agricultural and village
sector_
• The paid-up capital of NABARD was raised to
t 10,580 crore as on 31st March, 2018
consequent to the revision in the composition
of share capital between GOI and RBI,
NABARD is fully owned by government of
India_
• Rural Infrastructure Development Fund
IRIDF) was set-up in 1995-96, under NABARD
for holistic rural development
NAFED
National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing
Federation of India Limited is the Apex
Co-operative Organisation at the national leveL It
deals in procurement, distribution, export and
import of selected agricultural commodities_
NCDC
National Co-operative Development
Corporation wa s set-up in 1963, under an Act of
Parliament The object of NCDC is planning and
promoting programmes for the production,
processing, storage and marketing of agricultural
produce and notified commodities through
co-operative societies_
Regional Rm·al Banks (RRBs)
• RRBs formally Jaunched in 2nd October,
1975 at Moradabad and Gorakbpur (Uttar
Pradesh), Bhiwani (Haryana), Jaipur
(Rajasthan) and MaJda (West Bengal)_
• The objective of the R..RB was to provide
credit and other facilities particularly to
small and marginal farmers, agricul tural
labomers etc so as to develop agricul tme.
Quick Digest
• Kisan Credit Cards (KCCs) was introduced in
1998-99 by NABARD_ The purpose of the
KCC scheme is to facilitate short-term credit
to farmers, Union-Budget 2012-13 has
proposed to make KCC as smart cards and
can be used at ATMs_
• Rehabilitation Package for Distressed
Farmers was introduced in 2006 for 31
suicide prone-districts in the states of
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and
Maharashtra.
Commodity Future Market
The commodity futw-e market facilitates
the pdce discovery process and
provides a platform for plice dsk
management in commodities. The market
comprises 21 commodity futures
exchanges, ,,vh.ich include 5 national and
16 (commodity- specific) regional
commodity exchanges.
Commodity Markets in India
• Commod ity Exchange, Mumbai
• National Commodity and Derivatives
Exchange, Mumbai
• Mulii Commodity Exchange, Mumbai
• ACE Derivatjves and Commodity Exchange
Limited, Ahmedabad
Food Processing Industry
• India is the third largest producer of
food in the world after CWna and the US.
• Food processing indusb.-y is the fifth
largest industry in India in terms of
production, consumption, eJ\..-ports and
eJ\..-pected grov,rth.
Mega Food Park Scheme
Mega Food Park Scheme was launched in
2008 that aims at providing a mechanism
to Jink ag:liculturaJ production to the
marke t by bringing together farmers,
processors and retailers so as to ensw:e
m axin:ii sing vaJ u e addition, minimjsing
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

was tage, increasing farmers' income and faimers to help them get a good harves t by
creating employment opportunities studying the quality of soil . The Soil Health
particularly in rmal sector. Government Cai·d sturues and reviews the health of soil
provide :financial assistance to set up or rather we can say a complete evaluation
modern infrasb.-uctme facilities for food of the quality of soil dght from its
processing. The 12th paln has targeted to functional chai·ac tedstics, to water and
set up 50 mega food parks during the plan nutrients content and other biological
peliod. properties. Under this scheme Centre
plans to target over 14 crore fai·mers in the
Important Portal and App next three years.
The -Participatory Guarantee System'
portal will help small and marginal farmers INDUSTRY
engaged in organic farming to secme • IndustTy refers to an economk activity
cerlificaton after checks for compliance to concerned with the processing of raw
standards are carded out. mateiials and manufacture of goods in
The 'Soil Health Card' portal has been factodes.
developed to register soil sample and • At present, industTy sector is the
record tests results along with fertiliser backbone of the Inman economy and
recommendations to create a national contributing around 54.3% of the Inman
database on soil health for futme use in GDP in 2018-19.
research. • The long-ternJ average annual g.rov,rth of
The FertiUser Quatity Control System industries during the post-reform period
portal , 1vill collate results of drav,, samples of between 1991-92 to 20 11-12, averaged
imported fertilisers helping both consumers 6.7%.
and importers with analysis reports.
Indusbial Policies
Mobile app "AgriMarket Mobile" • Indusbial Policies were launched in
Thjs app has been developed with an aim to 1948, 1956, 1977, 1980 and 1991.
keep them abreast with crop prices around
them. AgriMarket Mobile App can be used • The Indusbial Policy Resolution of 1948
to get the market price of crops in the marked the beginmng of the evolution of
markets wit.run 50 Jan of the de,rice's the Inman Industrial Policy.
location. • The lPR 1956 called the Economic
Constitution of India, gave the
Mobile app "Crop Insm·ance" public sector a sb.·ategic role in the
It v.ill help the farmers not onJy to find out economy.
complete details about insurance cover • The objective of the IPR 1956 was
available in thier area, but also to calculate establishment of socialistic pattern of
the insurance premjum for notified crops, the society in the country.
coverage anJount and loan amount in case
of a loaned farmer. New Industrial Policy, 1991
• Formed the basis for the economk
National Agricultm·e Market or reforms in Inrua, wruch proved to be a
eNAM watershed in the rustory of Jndjan
It is an onJine b.-ading platform for economy.
aglicuJtw_·al commoruties in lnrua. eNAJ\Jl • The main aim of the new industrial
provides inter-connectivity to e-manrus, in policy 199 l was to unshackle the Indian
order to enable farmers get better prices of industries from the cobweb of unnecessary
their produce. bureaucratic control; to introduce
liberalisation with a view to in teg:ra te
Soil Health Card Scheme Inman economy with the world
In February 2015, the Narenc:h-a Morn economy; to remove resmctions on FD[
government had launched the Soil Health and to abolish MRTP Act, 1969; and
Cud Scheme. Under this programme, the • To shed the load of the public
government plans to issue soil cai·d to
enterprises.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

independent directors and at least

Compulsory Licensing
appoinbnent of one female director.
• Distillation and brewing of alcoholic drinks_
• Cigars and cigarettes of tobacco and
manufactured tobacco substitutes_
MAHARATNA
• In 2009, the government established the
• Electronic, aerospace and defence
Maharatna status, whkh rajsed the PSEs
equipment all types_ Industrial explosives investment ceiling from { I 000 crore to
including match boxes_ { 5000 crore.
• Specific hazardous chemical viz, • The Maharatnas furn can now decide on
la) Hydrocyanic acid; lb) Phosgene; and in,resbnents of upto 15% of their net worth.
le) lsocyanates and diisocyanates of
hydrocarbon_ Criteria for Maharatna
The six criteria for eligibility of Maharatna
Disinvestment Policy are as follows:
• The Industrial Policy Statement of • Having Navratna status;
24th July, 1991 outlined the • Lis ted on Indian stock exchange;
disinvesbnent of selected PSEs.
• An average annual turnover of more than
Disinvestment is a process, through
11hicb privatisation could take place_
, 1
{ 25,000 crnre during the last three years;
• An average annual net ,•vorth of more than
• The objective of pmsuing disinvesbnent
{ 15,000 crore during the last tbi-ee years;
in India ,•vere unlocldng resoLffces
an average annual net profit after tax of
trapped in non-strategic PSEs; reducing
more than { 5000 crore during the last 3
public debt and transferring commercial
years and should have sign.meant global
Iisk to the p1ivate sector.
presence.
• First Disinvestment Commission was
set-up in 1996, under the List of Maharatna
Chairmanship of l\ilr EV in July, 2001, • Oil and Natmal Gas Corporation (ONGC)
under Dr RH Patil. Ramkrisbna, which
• Gas Authmity of lnrna Limited (GAIL)
was later reconstituted
• Steel Authority Inrna Limited (SAJ L)
Public Sector Enterprises • Inman Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL).
• As on 31st March, 2015, there were 300 • Bharat Petroleum Corporation LlmHed
Central Public Sector Enterplises (BPCL)
(CPSEs). Out of 300 CPSEs, 238 were • National Thermal Power Corporation
in operation and 60 ,•vere WJdei- (NTPC)
construction. • Rmal Electrification Corporation Llnnted
• To measme the perrormance of • Coal India Limited (CIL)
management of PSEs at the end of the
year in an objective and transparent • Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL)
manne1~ the concept of Memorandum of • Hindustan Petrolium Corporations
Understamling (MoU), on the Limited (HPCL)
recommendation of Ai~jun Sengupta • Power Grid Corporation of India (PO\iVER
Committee (1988), was started in 1991. GRID)
• Power Finance Corporation Ltd
New Company Bill, 2013
• Six Decades Old Company Act, 1956 NAVRATNA
, 1vill be replaced by th.is act. In thjs act, it • The company must obtain a score of 60
h as been made mandatory for the (of the total 100).
companies to include provisions for • The score is based on six parame ters,
sodal welfare. Till date, in the 54 years whkh included net profit to net worth,
Old Company Act, 1956 has been total manpower cost to total cost of
amended 25 tinJes. production, Profit Before Depreciation,
• For comparues having an annual turn In terest and Taxes (PBDIT) to capital
over above { I O lakh, it has been made employed, PBDIT to turnover, earning per
mandatory to appoint one third share and inter-sectoral performance.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
• The company must first be a Miniratna-1
and must have fow.- independent
directors on its board. The Na,ri·atna
status empowers a company to invest utpo
{ 1000 crore or 15% of their net worth
overseas v,iithout government approval.
• At present, there are 12 Navratnas.
List of N avratna
• Bharat Elecb.·onics Llmited
• Hindustan Aeronautics Llmited
• Mahanagar Telephone NiganJ Llmited
• National Alun:tinium Company Limi ted
• National Mineral Development
Corporation
• Nevyeu Lignite Corporation Limited
• Oil Imlia LlmHed
• Rashtriya lspat Nigam Limited.
• Shipping Corporation of India Llmjted
• Engineers l.nrua Llmited
• National Building Consb.·uct:ion
Corporation LlmHed
• Container Corporation of l.nrua Llmited
MINIRATNA
• Min.i1·atna Category I Public Sector
Enterprises (PSEs) that have made
profit continuously for the last thl'ee
years or earned a net profit of { 30 crnres
or more in one of three years. At present,
there are 62 Miniratna I.
• Minfratna Category II PSEs that have
made profit for the 1st tl:uee years and
should have a positive net worth.
At present, there are 12 Miniratna ll .
Sick Industries
• A sick unit is one, which is in existence for
atleast 5 years and 15% of its net worth has
eroded. To combat industrial sickness
particularly with regard to the crucial sectors
and timely detection of sick and potentially
sick industrial companies, Sick Industrial
Companies Act, (1986) was enacted.
• SICA provisions were extended to public
enterprises in 1993 so as to enable public sector
enterprises to be referred to a quasi-judicial
body Board of Industrial and Finance
Reconstruction (BIFR) to take appropriate
measures fo r revival and rehabilitation.
Small-Scale Industries
• A new thrust in favour of small scale
industries was given in the lndusb.ial
Policy Resolu tion of 1977.
• With effect from 2nd Octobe1~ 2006
government enacted the Mjcro, Small
and Meruum Enterprises Development
Act.
• The MSMED Act, 2006, clearly defines,
for the first time, not only the mernum
enterprises but also extends it to the
services sector too.
• According to the Fourth Census (2009) of
the MSME sector, 67% are manufacturing
and 33% services enterprises.
• MSME sector contributes around 30% to
the GDP, 34% to the manufactmed
output, 45% to the e>...-ports and provides
employment to 11 0 million people.
• SID BI (Small l.ndusb.·ies Development
Bank of l.nrua) is a independent financi al
institution to finance the growth of
MSME's.
• Abid Hussain Committee was set up to
look into the problems of small-scale
industries.
Micro, Small and
Mediwn Enterp rises
Policy, 2012
The poucy was notified in March, 2012.
The policy envisages that every Cenb.·al
l\liinjsb.-y/ PSU sh all set an annual goal for
procw-ement from the MSE sector with the
oqjective of achjeving minimum 20% of the
total annual purchase from M SEs in a
pedod of 3 years.
The Micro, Small and MernunJ Enterprises
Developmen t (Amendment) Bill, 2018
proposes to reclassify all MSMEs weather
they are manufacturing or service providing
enterplises on the basis of their annual turn
over.
New Classification ofMSME's
For Manufacturing and Services
Mioro Small Medium
Investment < ~ 1 or < ~ 10 er < ~ 50 or
Turnover < ~ 5 or < ~ 50 er < ~ 250 er
(As per 1st j{lf1rnmry, 2023)
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

LARGE SCALE Jute Industry

INDUSTRIES • l t was started in 1855 at llisbra and India is
the largest producer and second largest
Iron and Steel Industiy exporter of jute in the world. Ju te Technology
• First steel industry at KuJti, West M_jssion was launched 2nd June, 2006.
Bengal Iron Works Company was World's leading ju te producing counb.~ies are
India, Bangladesh, China and Thailand.
established in 1870.
• Government has enacted Ju te Packing
• First large 'scale steel plant-TISCO
Materials (compuls011' use in packing
at J amshedpur (1907) was followed
commodities) Act, 1987 to broaden the
by HSCO at Burnpur (1919). usage ofjute.
• The first public m,vned steel plant
was Row-kela Integrated Steel Plant Gems and Jewellery
set-up in 1954 with the help of • l t is an important emerging sector in the
German Kmpp-Demag. Indian economy. According to the data
• India is the 2nd largest producer of released by the World Gold Council (WGC),
crude steel in the world after China. India is the 2nd largest consumer of gold.
• India is the larges t producer of • India (especially, Surat and MunJbai) ranks
sponge iron since, 2002. among the 'big four' diamond cutting cen t:res
of the world, the other three being, Belgium
• Steel Authmity of India Llmited
(Antwerp), the USA (New York) and Israel
(SAIL) was established in 197 4 for
(Ra.mat Gan).
the development of the steel
industry. Silk Industry
Iron and Steel Plants in India • India is the second laTgest (after China) silk
manufacturer contributing to 18% of the
Looation Assistanoe tot al raw silk production.
Rourkela (Odisha) Germany • The majority of silk is produced mainly in
Bhilai (Chhattisgarh) Russia Bhoodan Pocbampally (also lmown as silk
Durgapur 0JVest Bengal) Britain city), Kancbipw.-anJ, Dbaramvaram and
Bokaro (Jharkhand) Russia Mysore.
Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Russia
Pradesh) Sugar Industry
• India is the largest producer of sugar in the
Textile Industry world with a 22% share.
• l t is the second largest agro-based indusb.-y in
• It is the largest indusb.--y in India
the counb.-y.
accounting for about 7% of
indusb.jal output, provides • BB Mahajan Committee was setup to study
employment to more than 35 million the sugar indusb.--y.
persons and contributes around 15% • The Sugar Development Fund was set-up in
to total export earnings . The first 1982, under the Sugar Cess Act.
Indian modernjsed cotton doth mill • Du al price mechanism vvith partial control is
was established in 1818 at fort applied to sugar industry. Under this, the
Gloster near Kolkata, but this was government fixes the ratio of and free sale
unsuccessful sugar quota in the ratio 28:72.
• The second mill was established in Cement Industry
1854 at Bombay by KGN Daber.
• The foundation of stable Indian cement
• The organised textile indusb.--y industry was laid in 1914, when the Indian
comprises of (i) spinning mills ; Cement Company Llmited manufactmed
(ii) coarse and mediwn composite cement at Porbandar in Gujarat.
mills and (iii) fine and superfine • India is the second laTgest producer of
composite mills . cement in the world .
• In Global Textiles Export.s, India now • The per capita consumption of cement in
stands at 2nd position. India is just 68 kg.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
Automotive Industry
• India js the largest manufacturer of
motorcycle and 4th largest manufactmer
of commercial verucles in the world. In
2009, India was the fourth largest
e>...-porter of passenger cars after Japan, • Enable
South Korea and Thailand.
• India js the largest manufacturer of • Create 100 million additionaljobs in the
tractors in the , 1vorld. India is the ninth
largest car manufactmer in the world.
Unorganised Sector and
Informal Economy
• U norgarrise informal workers refer to
,,vorkers, who are not covered under any
sodal secU1ity benefits irrespective of
,,vhether they work in organfaed or
unorganised sector. 94% of the total
,,vorkforce were in the unorganfaed
sector in 20 18.
• To look in to the problems of unorganfaed
sector, National Comm.ission for
Enterprises in the Unorgan.ised Sector
was set-up under the Chairmansh.ip of
Dr Arjun Sengupta.
• In accordance with the recommen-
dation of the NCEUS, the Government
of India enac ted the Unorganised
Workers Social Security Act, 2008.
• The act came into effect from 16th May,
2009. The act among other things
provides for constitution of a National
Social SecU1ity Board and State Social
Security Board to recommend Social
Security Schemes;
• Constitution of record keeping functions
by the district administration.
• Constitution of a workers facilitation
centre.
• A National Social Seclllity Fund (NSSF)
with initial allocation of { 1000 crore for
the unorgan.ised sector workers has been
set-up.
• A National Social Security Board
(NSSB) has been constituted in 2009.
National Manufacturing
Policy (NMP)
• The NMP ·was released by the
government on 4th November, 20 11 to
b1ing about a qualitative and quantitative
change with following objectives
• The policy is based on the principle of
industrial growth in partnership with
states.
• Increase manufacturing growth to
12-14% over the medium term ;
manufacturing to contribute
atleast 25% of GDP by 2022:
manufacturing sector by 2022;
• Provides for National Investment and
Manufacturing Zone (NlMZ) on )ands,
,11,Wch are degraded and uncultivable.
National Policy on
Electronics (NPE), 2011
• NPE was released on 3rd October, 20 11
providing for a roadmap for the
development of the electronics sector in
the country.
The main objectives are as follow :
• To acrueve a tmnover of about US $ 400
billion by 2020;
• To create employment opportunities of
around 28 million;
• To increase export from US$ 5.5 billion
to US$ 80 billion 2020.
Make in India
Indian Plime Minis ter Narencli-a Modi on
25th September, 2014 ]aunched the 'Make
in lndia' (MIN) campaign with a h.igh -pitch
event held at New Delhi's Vigyan Bhawan.
The campaign aims at reviving the
job-creating manufacturing sector, which
js being seen as the key to taking the Indian
economy on a sustainable high growth
path. 'Malce in India' ain1s to take
manufacturing sector, which is being seen
as the key to taking the Indian economy on
a sustainable high path. 'Make in India'
aims to take manufacturing growth to 10%
on a sustainable basis.
Digital India
Digital India is a major flagship programme
of the Government of lndia, launched in
August, 2014 aimed at transforming the
country into a digitally empowered social
and knowledge economy, as well as to
revive the state of governance in the
country. It is an 'Umbrella ProgranlJile'
weaving together many existing schemes
under multiple mirristlies and departments
to ensure that its services are available to
citizens electronically.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
I FOREIGN TRADE
Trade betv11een two or more nations is
called foreign trade or international trade.
With the liberalisation of the economy in
199 l and adoption of 'export promotion'
policy measures has led to substantial
growth in e:,qJOrts and diversilication of
oui- exports .
• As per the World Trade Organjsation
(WTO), India's share in global export
and imports increase from I.7% and
2.5% respectively in 20 13. 2 .1% and
2.6% respectively in 2017. Its ranking in
terms of leading exporters and
importers is 17 and 11 respectively in
2019.
Balan ce of Payments (BOP)
• The balance of payments in a statical
statement that systematically
summ arises, for a specific time period .
The economk b.-ansactions of an
economy with the rest of the world. BoP
comprises of current account, capital
account and omjssions and changes in
foreign exchange reserves.
Current Account
• Current account transactions are
classified into merchandise (e"--ports
and imports) and invisibles.
Invisibles lm1sible b.-ansactions are
classified into th!ree categories name"/Jy
l. Services b.-avel 2. Income 3.
Transfers
Capital Account
• Under capital account, capital inflows
can be classified by instrw:nent (debt/
eqrnt:y) and maturity (short/long-term).
• The main component of capital account
include foreign invesbnen t, loans and
banking capital.
Non-Debt Liabilities
Includes FDI and portfolio investJJ1ent
comprising of Flls, ADRs/GDRs.
Deb t Liabilities Includes External
assistance, External Commercial
Borrm'lfugs (ECBs), trade credit and
banking capital (NRls deposits).
I
Balance ofTrade (BoT)
1. Balanced BOT i.e. Exports= Imports
2. Adverse BOT i.e. Exports < lnJports
3. Favourable BOT, i.e. Exports> Imports
Foreign Exchange Reserves
in India
These are the main Foreign Exchange
Reserves in India
• Foreign Cmrency Assets (FCAs);
• Gold Stock of RBI;
• Special Drawing PJghts (SDRs); and
• Reserve Tranche Position (RTP) in the
IMF.
■ FERA (Foreign Exchange Reg1Jlation
Act), was enacted in 1973, to
consolidate and regu]a te dealings in
fo reign exchange, so as to conserve the
fo reign exchange and utilise it to
promo te economk development.
■ FEM.A (Foreign Exchange
Management Act) was enac ted in 1999
to replace existing FERA Tbjs act
seeks to make offences related to
fo reign exchange a civil offence.
S EZ Act, 2005
■ Duty free import/ domestic procurement of
goods for development, operation and
maintenance of SEZ units.
■ 100% Income Tax e><emption an export income
of SEZ units exemption from Central Sales Tax
and Sef\/ice Tax_ Single window clearance
mechanism for establishment of units.
Special Economic Zone
(SEZ)
• A Special Economk Zone (SEZ) is a
geographical region that has economjc
and other laws that are more free-mark.et
oriented than a counb.-y's typical national
laws. Asia's first Export Processing Zone
(EPZ) was set-up in KandJa, Inma in
1965. The fust SEZ policy was
announced in April, 2000, to make SEZ
an engine of growth supported by quality
infrastructure backed by attractive fiscal
package.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
• To overcome the short cmnings
expedenced on account of the
multiplicity of conb_-ols and clearances
and an unstable fiscal regime and with a
view to attract foreign investments in
India, SEZ Act, 2005 was enacted with
effect from 10th February, 2006.
• As per the provisions of the SEZ Act,
2005, 100% FDI is allowed in SEZ
through the automatic route.
Foreign Trade Policy (FfP),
(2015-20)
The Foreign Trade Policy, 2015-20 was
finally announced by the Hon'ble Min_jster
of Commerce and Indusb-y, Smt Nirmala
Sitharan1an on 1st April, 2015.
The Ff P has been announced in the
backdrop of several measures initiated by
the Government of India such as 'Make in
India', 'Digital India' and 'Skills India',
among others.
The focus of the new policy is to support
both the manufacturing and services
sectors, ,vith a special emphasis on
improving the 'ease of doing business'.
Features of FTP (2015-20)
FeatZLres of the foreign trade Policy are as
follows:
• India to be made a significant
participant in wodd trade by 2020.
• Merchandise Exports from India
Scheme (MEIS) to promote specific
services for specific markets Foreign
Trade Policy.
• Service E:\.-ports from India Scheme bas
been replaced ,11rith Service £:\.-ports
from India Scheme (SEIS).
FOi Limits in Various Sectors
Sector/Activity Per oent of Entry Route
FOi/Equity
Defense Sector 100%
Teleoom Services 100%
Tea Plantation, Animal Husbandry 100%
Asset Reconstruction Company 100%
Petroleum and Natural Gas 49%
Commodity Exchanges 49%
Power Exchanges 49%
• FTP ,,vouJd reduce export obligations by
25% and give boost to domestic
manufacturing. FTP benefits from both
MEIS and SEJS will be extended to units
located in SEZs.
• Indusbial products to be supported in
major markets at rates ranging from 2% to
3%.
FOREIGN DIRECT
INVESTMENT (FDI)
• FDI is a type of investment that involves
the injection of foreign funds into an
enterpdses that operates in a different
country of migin from the invester. FDI
play an extraordinary and growing role in
global business. It can provide a firm \l\dth
new markets and marketing channels,
cheaper production facilities, access to new
technology, products, skill and :financing.
• FDI occurs when a company invests in a
business that :is located in another
country and it is investing not less than
10% of shares belonging to the foreign
company. It is a non-debt capital flow. Fil
(Foreign Institutional Investment).
Foreign portfolio investment occurs, when
foreign investment in the form of shares,
equities and bonds, is made by a foreign
company.
• The three main institutions that handle
FDI related issues in India are the Foreign
Investment Promotion Board (FIPB), the
Foreign Investment In1plementation
Authority (FilA) and the Secretadat for
Indusbial Assistance (SIA) activities/
sectors not opened to plivate sector, viz
railways and atomic energy.
• Since, 20th May, 2011 FDI in Limited
Liability Partnership (LLP) has been
allowed.
Automatic route
Automatic up to 49% government route
beyond 49% and up to 100%
Automatic up to 49% government route
beyond 49% and up to 100%
Automatic up to 49% government
beyond 49% and up to 100%
Automatic Route
Automatic Route
Automatic Route
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Sector/Activity Per oent of Entry Route

FOi/Equity
Stook Exchanges/Clearing 48% Automatic Route
Corporations
Credit Information Companies, Pharma 74% Automatic Route
Courier Servioes, e,commeroe 100% Automatic Route
Single Brand Product Retail trading, 100% Automatic up to 48% government route
Multi Brand (food) beyond 48% and up to 100%
lnsuranoe Sector 74% FIPB route (The CCEA * on 24th
Deoember, 2014; 48% FOi in Insurance)_
Airlines 100% 100% FOi in scheduled airlines and upto
49% FOi airlines through automatic route.
Industrial Parks 100% Automatic
Private Security Agenoies 74% Automatic
* Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs - CCEA

THE INDIAN Quick Digest

CURRENCY SYSTEM
• The present monetary system of
India is based on inconvertible paper
cmrency and is managed by the RBI.
The present currency system is based
on mininJwn reserve system of note
:issue. It was adopted in 1957, under
the mininJwn reserve system,
rnlillJilum of gold and foreign
securities to the extent oH' 200 crore
of which gold should be of value {
1 15 crore and the balance :in rupee
secU1ities is maintained.
• RBI Working Group on Money
Supply headed by YV Reddy
recommended for dropping of pos t Dev n ation o Currency
office saving deposits. Accordingly, • l t means reducing the value of a cmrency by
there are nm'I' only thrne monetary
abgrega
o · M ,, NI 2 an d M3 .
· t es, vzz
The revised monetary measure are as
follow:
M 1 = Coins and Notes + Demand
Deposits +Other deposits , 1vith H..BL
M2 = M1 + Time liabilities portion of
saving deposits with banks +
Certificates of deposits issued by
banks + Term deposit maturing within
a year.
M 3 = ~ + terms deposit with banks
, 1vith rnatlliity over I year + calJ/term
borrnwing of the banldng system .
• Coins are minted at four places, viz
Mwmbai, Kollrnta, Hyderahad and
Naida.
• The symbol of Indian rupee came into vague on
15th July, 2010. ~
• The new symbol is an amalgamation of ~
Devanagri 'Ra' and the Roman 'R' ' -
without the stem.
• The new symbol designed by D Udaya Kumar, a
post-graduate of IIT Bombay was finally selected
by the Union Cabinet on 15th July, 2010.
• Though the symbol ·~· will not be printed or
embossed on currency notes or coins, it would be
included in the 'Unicode Standard' and major
scripts of the world to ensure that it is easily
displaced and printed in the electronic and print
media.
al · f
the :fiscal au thorities, so as to make e>...-ports
cheaper and imports costlier and overcome
balance of payments defidt. In India,
devaluation has been resorted to four times.
1. Fi.rst Devaluation 1n J une, 1949 (by
30.5%) (Finance M:inister Dr John Mathai).
2. Second Devaluation 1n June, 1966 (by
57%) (Finance Minis ter Sachindra
Chaudh;,·y).
3. Tblrd Devaluation On 1st July, 1991 (by
9%) (Finance Mirris ter Dr Mamnohan
Singh) .
4. Fmu·th Devaluation On 3rd July, 1991
(by ll %) (Finance Mirrister Dr
Mamnohan Singh).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Printing of Securities and Minting in India

Seourity Press Station Related to
India Security Press (1922) Nashik Poslal material, Postal stamps etc
Seourity Printing Press (Estd 1982) Hyderabad Union excise duty stamps
Currency Notes Press (1928) Nashik Bank notes from ~ 1 to ~ 100
Bank Notes Press (197 4) Dewas Bank nole of ~ 20, ~ 50, ~ 100, ~ 200,
~ 500, ~ 2000

Modernised Currency Notes Mysore (Kar) Salbani

Press (1995) (West Bengal)
Seourity Paper (Estd 1967-68) Hoshangabad Banks and currency notes paper

Demonetisation
Currency demonetisation is a radical financial step in which a particular currency's
status as a legal tender is declared invalid. On 9th December, 2016, Reserve Bank of India
\i\dthc:hew the old { 500 and { 1000 notes as official mode of payment. The reason for this
move given was that it will help to tackle black money, help to eliminate fake cunency and
to lower cash circulation in the coun b.y

INFLATION Wholesale P rice Index (WPI)

It means a persistent rise in the general It measlll'es the change in wholesale plices
price level of goods and services leading to on weekly basis. On the basis of weekly
a fall in the currency's purchasing power. indices, average annual WPlis worked out.
It could be monetary or price inflation. Average annual ,,vholesale plices of the
cunent year are related to average annual
Causes of Inflation ,,vholesale pdces of the base year (assunJed
as 100).
• Printing too much money. Inci·ease in
money supply in the economy. Consumer Price Index ( CPI)
• Increase in production cost.
It measmes the change in retail plices on
• Tax rises. Decline in exchange rates. monthly basis. On the basis of monthly
• War or other events causing instability. indices, avernge annual CPI is worked out.
Average annual retail pdces for the cunent
Effects of Inflation year are related to the average annual retail
It is economically disasb.·ous for lenders. prices of the base year (assumed as 100).
Balance of trade can become unfavolll'able. Like Wholesale Plice Index, different
Severely impacts the common man by goods are accorded weigh ts depending on
reducing their real income. Persistent h.igh their relative significance.
level of inflation leads to economic
stagnation. Deflation A general decline in prices, often
caused by a reduction in the supply of money
Measures to Conb·ol Inflation or credit. Deflation can be also caused by a
• Increasing the bank in terest rates. decrease in government, pesonal or
• Regu]ating fixed exchange rates of the investment spending_ The unemployment
domestic cunency. since there is a lower level of demand in the
economy, which can lead to an economic
• Controlling prices and wages.
depression_
• Providing cost of living allowances to
Stagflation When you have a slow economy
citizens. Regulating black and
speculative market. Supply side inflation with high inflation rates and unemployment,
can be controlled by increasing stagflation is usually resultant. When the
production of economy, specially economy does not grow and prices continue to
foodgrains and by imprmdng rise have a stagflation cycle in the economy_
iJJ.frasb.·ucture.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
Banking in India
• The first bank of limited liability
managed by an Indian was Oudh
Commercial Bank established in 1881.
Subsequently, PNB was established in
1894.
• The largest bank Imperial Bank of lnclia
was nationalised in 1955 and renamed as
State Bank of lnclia followed by
formation of its 7 associates in 1959.
• The step toward 'Social Banking' was
taken \"irith the nationalisation of
14 Commercial Banks on 19th JuJy, 1969.
Six more Commercial Banks were
nationalised on 15th August, 1980.
• The Banking Companies Act was passed
in Feburary, 1949, which was
subsequently amended to read as
Banking Reg1JJations Act, 1949.
Reserve Bank of Inclia (RED
• RBI is the Central Bank of the coUJJt:ry.
• RBI was set-up on the basis of Hil ton
Young Commission recommendation in
April, 1935 with the enactment of RBI
Act, 1934. Its first Governor was Sir
Osborne Smith.
• The main purpose of creating RB I was to
separate currency and credit from Gol.
• RBI was nationalised in 1949 and its first
Indian Governor was CD Deshmukh.
Administration
• The headquarter of the RBI is in
Mumbai.
• There are 14 Directors in Cenrr·al Board
of Directors besides the Governor, four
Deputy Governors and one Government
Official.
• Governor of RBI - Shaktikanta Das.
Functions
The main functions of the RBI includes
• Monetary authmity.
• Issue of currency. Banker and debt
manager to governnrnnt.
• BanJ(er of Banks.
• Regu]ator of banking system.
• Manager of foreign exchange.
• Maintaining financi al stability.
• Regu]ator and supervisor of the payment
and settlement system.
• Since 1952, Monetary Policy of the RBI
emphasise on twin goals.
These are as follows:
1. Economic growth
2. Inflation control
Credit Conb·ol lnsbuments
lnsb.·ument of credit control can be divided
into hvo namely Qualitative/ Selective credit
control and Quantitative credit control.
Quantitative/ General
Credit Conb·ol
Quanti tative credit control are used to
control the volume of credit and indirectly
to control the inflationary and deflationary
pressures caused by e>..."J)ansion and
contraction of credit.
The quantitative credit control consists of
• Bank Rate It is also called the
rediscount rate. It is the rate , at which
the RB I gives :finance to Commercial
Banks. It is cw-rently at 9%.
• Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) It specifies
the fraction of the total deposits of banks
that they are obliged to keep with the
RBI. Since 1962, the RBI has been
empowered to vary the CRR
requirement between 3% and 15% of the
total demand and tinJe deposits.
• Statutory Liqujclity Ratio (SLR) It is
the ratio of liquid asset, which a1I
Commercial Banks have to keep in the
form of cash, gold or government
approved secU11ties before providing
credit to its customers. SLR rate is
determined and maintained by RBI in
order to control the expansion of the
bank credit.
• Repo Rate It was introduced in
December 1992. It :is the rate, at which
RBI lends short-term money to the banks
against securities.
• Reverse Repo Rate It is the rate, at
which banks park short-term excess
liquidity with the RBI. Reverse Repo Rate
,,.rithch-aws liquidity from the marke t. This
is always 100 base point 1 % less than
Repo rate.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
• Open Market Operations Under
OM Os, when the RB I sells G-secs in
the market, it , 1vithcfraws money
liquidity from the market and th us,
reduces volume of credit leading to
con b.-ol of inflation.
Qualitative/ Selective/ Direct
Credit Conb·ol
Qualitative measures are used to make
sure that purpose, for whkh loan is
given is not nnsused. It is done
thrnugh
• credit rationing
• regu]ating loan to conswnption etc.
• moral suasion
Structure of Banking in India
Schedule Banks
Sohedule Commeroial
Banks
Public Sector Private Seolor
Banks Banks
Nationalised
Banks
SBI and iis
Assooiales (6)
IDBI
t Old Private
Banks
New Private
Banks
Bhartiya Mahila
Bank
State Bank of India
• State Bank of India (SBI) was
prevfously called Imperial Bank of
lnclia in 1921, which was created by
anJaJganJation of 3 presidency banks
viz Bank of Bengal~ Bank of
Bombay and Bank of Mad1·as.
• It was nationalised in 1955.
• In 2017, the five assocfates of SB I
and Bhartiya Mahj]a Bank were
merged in State Bank of India. With
this merger, SBI becomes one of the
top 50 global banks.
Bharatiya Mahila Bank
India's first all women bank, Bharatiya
Mahj]a Bank was inaugurated in
Mumbai on 19th November, 20 13.
Usha Anantha SubranJanjan was
SCHEDULED AND
NON-SCHEDULED
BANKS
• The scheduled banks are those, \'l hicb are
1
entered in the Second Schedule of the RBI
Act, 1934. These banks have a paid-up
capital and reserves of an aggregate value of
not less than ~ 5 lakh and satisfy the RB I that
their affairs are carried out in the interest of
their depositors.
• All Commerdal Banks (Indian and foreign),
Regional Rural Banks and State Cooperative
Banks are Scheduled Banks. Non-Scheduled
Banks are those, which are not included in
the Second Scheduled of the RBI Act, 1934.
I
Sohedule Cooperative
Banks
Foreign ARBs
Banks
Schedule Urban
Cooperative
Banks
Schedule Stale
Cooperative
Banks
appointed as the first Chairperson and
Managing Director of pubuc sector Bharatiya
Malrua Bank (BMB) . It has been the merged
with State Bank of India in 20 17.
PRIVATE SECTOR
BANKS IN INDIA
• All those banks, where greater parts of stake
or equity are held by the private shareholders
and not by the government are called private
sector banks.
• There are two categories of private sector
bank old and new.
• Ban]dng Regulation Act, 1949 was amended
in 1993 and once again in 2001 to permit the
enb.-y of new private sector banks in the
Indian banking sector; the objective was to
instill greater competition in the banking
system to incrnase producti,dty and effidency.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Top Five Private Sector Banks RBI Guidelines for

1_ ICICI Bank, 1994 Vadodara
2_ HDFC Bank, 1994 Mumbai
3_ Axis Bank, 1994 Ahmedabad
4_ Kotak Mahindra Bank, 1985
Mumbai
5_ Yes Bank, 2004 Mumbai
New Bank Licensing
While preparing guidelines, RBI recognises the
need for an explicit policy on banJdng sb_-ucture
in Inrua keeping in vie\"i' the recommendations of
the Narsimham Committee, Raghuram Rajan
Committee and others view points.

Banll Board B1ueau

New Bank
These new banks will be provided license under
The Bank Board Bureau (BBB) is the BanJdng Regu]ation Act, 1949 (Section
constituted on 28th February, 2016. 22(1)), onJy after the fulfilment of these two
BBB starts its work from 1st Apdl, conrutions.
2016. The Bureau is mandated to play
Bandhan Finance It is a micro.finance company,
a c1itical role in reforming the based in West Bengal. It is headed by Shri
b.·oubled public sector banks by
Chandra SbekhaT Ghosh and has a net worth of
recommending appointments to { 1100 crore.
leadership positions and boards in
those banks, and advise them on ways About 45 % of its branches in the rural areas.
to raise funds and how to go ahead Band.ban Bank received the in principle approval
·with mergers and acquisitions . Vinod of the RB I in April 2014, the banking regu]ator
Rai, former comptroller and Aurutor gave its final nod in June, 2015.
General of lnrua, was named the first IDFC The lnfrasrr·uctme Development and
Chairman of the Banks Board Bureau. Finance Corporation is based in Mumbai. It is
oliginally an investment finance company,
Indradhanush Scheme, 2015 beaded by Shii Rajiv Lal. IDFC has the net worth
The Public Sector Banks (PSBs) plays of{21000 crore, but with a lower rural presence_
a vital role in Indian financi al system. ID FC started operating banJdng services on 1st
The assets quality of PSBs have October, 2015 under RB I Banking licence_
deteliorated because of 1ising·
Non-Performing. Assets (NPA) Merger ._, ofNationalised Bank
Indradhanush Scheme is for the Vijaya Bank and Dena Bank merged with Bank of
banking reforms in lnrua. The seven Baroda (BoB) on 1st April, 2019.
Key reforms of Inch-adhanush mission In April, 2020, government has mergered of
include appointments, destressing, Inman Bank with Allahabad Bank, Oriental Bank
BBB, capitalisation, empowerment, of Commerce (OBC) and United Bank of lnrua
frame work of accountablity and was merged with Punjab National Bank;
governance reforms. Syndicate Bank with Canarn Bank and Andbra
Bank along with Corporation Bank will be
RBI Grants New merged in Union Bank of Inrua. Post merger
Banll Licence there will be 12 Public Sector Banks in lnrua.
The decade-long wait for new bank
licences finally ended on 3rd April, BaselN011ns
2014, with the Reserve Bank of lnrua • These are set by Bank of International
(RBI) deciding to issue perrnits to two Settlement (BHS) headquartered in Basel,
of the 25 applicants. The ones to make S\lvit:zerland. It prescribes for a set of
the cut were IDFC, a diversified minimum capital requirement for banks. 55
financial services firm V\Jith a special counb.1es Cenrr·al Banks are members of the
focus on infrasb.7..lcture financing and BIS_
Bandhan, the counb.-y's largest micro • In India Basel norms were inrr·oduced in 1988
lender based in KoUrata. by the RBI.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

• So far two Basel norms viz, Basel-I and MUDRABank

Basel-II have been implemented in India
and third 1.e., Basel-Ill norms Micro UnHs Development and
Refinance Agency Bank (or .MUDRA
becan1e operational from 1st January,
Bank) was launch ed on 8th ApLiJ, 20 15
2013.RBI 1ssued guidelines in 1992 to
maintain a capital adequacy ratio of 9% as ·with a corpus of { 20000 crore and a
credit guarantee corpus oH 3000crore.
mandatory for every Scheduled Commercial
Banks (SCBs). Capital adequacy ratio is that It 1s a public sector financial institution
ratio of the total capital of a bank to 1ts risk in lnrna. It provides loans at low rates to
, 111eighted assets, , 1vh.ich ensure's stTengtb small entTeprenems. MUDRA Bankv.ill
and stability of a bank to withstand be setup th.rough a statutory
enactment. It is a 100% subsirnary of
reasonable degree oflosses.
SID BI.

All India Financial Institutions At a Glance

Finanoial Institution and their
Headquarters
Industrial Finance Corporation of
India (IFCI) 1948, New Delhi
State Finance Corporations
(SFCs) 1951
Industrial Credit and Investment
Corporation of India (ICICI) 1955,
Mumbai
Industrial Development Bank of
India (IDBI) 1964 Mumbai
Industrial Investment Bank of India
(1181)1985
Small Industries Development
Bank of India (SIDBI), Lucknow
Unit Trust of India (1964) (UTI)
National Housing Bank (NHB)
1988, New Delhi
EXIM Bank (1982) , Mumbai
Tourism Finance Corporation of
India Umiied (TFCl)-1989,
New Delhi
Mutual Funds
Venture Capiial Funds
Purpose
• To grant loans advances to industrial concerns and
subsoribe to debentures iloated by them.
• To finance the needs of the small-scale and medium sized
industries in respective states. 28 SFCs are in operations
alongwith 28 State Industrial Development Corp (SIDC) .
• To stimulate the promotion of new industries and assist in
modernisation or e><isting industries.
• In 2002, ICICI merged with ICICI Bank no more a DFL
• To meet the iinancial needs of industrialisation and
oo-ordinate with all other agencies ooncerned with
industrial development finance.
• Wholly owned subsidiary of RBI ti ll 1976. Merged with
IDBI Bank in 2004.
• To assist the industrial units in Eastern region.
• To promote, iinance and development industry in small
scale sector.
• Setup as an investment institution to stimulate and pool
the savings of the middle and low inoome groups.
• UTI bifurcated into two parts
(i) UTI Mutual Fund
(ii) Specified Undertaking of UTI (SUUTI)
• It is the apex institu1ion of housing finance in India and is a
wholly owned subsidiary of the RBL
• Launched RESIDEX for tracking prices of residential
properties in India in 2007. At present, RESIDEX covers
15 ciUes in India. It is a refinance institution.
• To iinance, facilitate and prom ote foreign trade in India
• It is a specialised iinancial institution.
• Set up on the recommendation of Yunhs Committee on
Tourism . It is a specialised finance institu1ion providing
assisiance to tou ri sm related activiiies/projects.
• Mutual Funds are the most important among the newer
capital market institutions. MFs functions is to mobilise the
savings of the general public and invest them in stock
market securities.
• Ven ture Capiial Funds (VCFs) essentially give oommeroial
support to new ideas and i or the introduction and
adaptation of new technologies.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Insurance Sector
• Insurance industry includes two 4. United India General Insurance
sectors- Life lnsrn·ance and General Company Llmi ted, Chennai.
lnsrn·ance.
• On 3rd Novembe1~ 2000 GIC was renamed
• Llfe insurance in India was as GIC Re and approved as Indian
introduced by Britishers. A Blit.ish Reinsrn·ei- and the four subsiruaries of GIC
firm in 1818 established the Oriental were separ·ated from GIC and are
LUe lnsrn·ance Company at Calcutta functioning independently under Public
nm•v Kolkata. Sector General lnsurance Companies
• Since the opening up, the number of (GIPSA).
participants in the lnsurance • GIC Reinsurer (Re) has branch offices in
lndusb.-y has gone up from 7 insurers Dubai and London and a representative
(including LIC, four public sector office in Moscow.
general insurers, one specialised
insurer and the GIC as the national InsnTance Reglllatory and
re-insurer) in 2000 to 49 insurers as Development Authority of India
on 30th September, 2011. (IRDAI)
Life Ins11Tance • The Insurance Regulatory and
Development Authmity (IRDA) has
Corporation (LI C) changed its name to Insurance ReguJatm-y
• UC was established on 1st and Development Athority of India
September, 1956, which set the pace (J R.DAI). The change of name was effected
for nationalisation of life insurance in the lnsmance Laws (Amendment)
under the Stewardship of CD Ordinance, 2014 was promulgated by the
Desbmukh. It has head office at President of India on 26th Decembe1~ 2014.
Mumbai and eight zonal offices the • The ordinance contains certain
most recent being at Patna. amendments to the lnsurance ReguJation
and Development Act, 1999 and inserted
• UC is also operating internationally
the , 1vords 'of lnrua' after development
through branch offices in F~ji, authmity.Insurance Regulatory and
Malllitius and UK and through joint Development Authority of India (lRDA) is
venture companies in Bahrain, Nepal, an autonomous apex statutory body whkb
Sli Lanka, Kenya and Saudi Arabia. regulates and develops the insurance
In 2008, its wholly and subsidiar-y was indusb.-y in India.
opened in Singapore. • It was constituted by a Parliament of India
• As of 2019 Llfe lnsurance act called lnsurance ReguJatm-y and
Corporation of lnrua had total life Development Authority Act, 1999 and duJy
fund oft 28.3 b.illion. passed by the Government of India. The
agency operates from its headquar·ters at
General Ins11Tance Hyderabad, Telangana where it shifted from
Corporation (GIC) Delhi in 2001.
• GIC was established on 1st
J anuar-y, 1973, with its fozm· Pension Sector
subsidiaries, viz, • New Pension System launched on 1st
1. National Insurance Company January, 2004.
Ll_mjted, Kolle.a.ta; • The NPS covers alJ employees of the
Central Government and Central
2. The Nev,, India lnsmance
autonomous bodies, except armed forces
Company LlmHed, Mumbai;
27 States have notified andjoined the NPS.
3. The Oliental Fire and General • With effect from 1st November, 2009 the
lnsmance Company Lin:tited NPS was opened to all citizens.
New Delhi; and
• NPS-Lite is the lower cost ,,ersion of NPS.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

• SwavaJamban Scheme was annoWJced in the budget 2010. It 1s an incentive scheme

e
for the NPS.
• Under this, any citizen in the unorgamsed sector, who fairs NPS in 2010- 11 with a
minimal annual con □ibution of annual { l 000 and maximum of { 12000 will receive a
government contribution of { 1000 in his NPS account.
• The National Securities Depositories Lln:tited (NSDL) h as been appointed as the
Central Record Keeping Agency, for the NPS .
• The rev1sed guidelines for NPS has raised the age from 55 years to 60 years. The Pension
Fund Regulatory Development Authority was established on 23rd August, 2003.

Insurance Sector Schemes

Programme/ Main Provisions
Schemes
Ayushman • Universal Health Scheme launohed by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
Bharat Yojana • Launched to provide free healthcare services to more than 40% population of
the country.
• Scheme offers a health cover of ~ 5 Lakh.
• It covers medioine, diagnostic e>cpenses, medical treatment, pr&
hospilalisation aosL
Pradhan • Aims to provide acoident insurance cover to the people of India.
Mantri • People in the age group of 18 to 70 years who have a bank account can
Suraksh Sima avail the benefit from the school.
Yojana
Employment • Provides sooial seou rtty as well as sooio-economic proteotion to all workers
State in India.
Insurance • This insurance scheme commenses upon the first day of insurable
Scheme employment to each and every worker. They are provided with full medical
care insuranoe for themselves and their family.
• It also guarantees the protection to any woman who whould lose the
capacity to earn or dependants of person injured during oocupational
accidents, they are entitled to monthly pension commonly known as
dependents benefit.
Janashree • Launched on 10th August, 2000 by UC.
Sima Yojana • JBY replaced Sooial Security Group lnsuranoe Scheme (SSGIS) and Rural
(JBY) Group Ute Insurance Soheme (RGLIC).
• Provides for an insurance cover of ~ 30000 on natural death, ~ 75000 on
permanent disability to accident and ~ 37500 on partial disability.
• The premium is ~ 200 per member per annum.
• 45 occupational groups having 25 members.
• For both rural and urban people
• For BPL and marginally above BPL people.
• 50% of iinance is met out of social security fu nd.
Universal • Launched from the year 2003-04 ior improving the healthcare access to the
Health poor families.
Insurance • Launched by four public seotor general insuranoe company.
Scheme • Export Credit Guarantee Corporation (ECGC) and the Agrioulture Insurance
(UHIS) Company (AIC) are the speoialised insurers.
Rashtriya • Launched on 1st October, 2007.
Swasthya • Provides smart-card based health insurance cover ~ 30000 per iamily per
Sima Yojana annum to BPL families (a unit of five) in the unorganised seotor.
(ASBY) • The premium is shared in 75 : 25 between the centre and the states.
• For BPL families (a unit of iive).
• For unorganised sector.
• Its a smart card based cashless health insurance, cover~ 30000 per annum,
of insurance or a family floats basis.
• It also cover migrant workers.
• It was for 5 years from 2008 to 2013.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Programme/ Main Provisions

Schemes
• It oover all pre-existing diseases, maternity benefit, transport cosL
• It use IT application both private and public servioe providers for delivering
the insurance package_
• No age limit has been prescribed_
Aam Aadmi • Launohed on 2nd October, 2007 by UC for rural landless households at
Bima Yojana Shimla.
(AABY) • Premium fixed at ~ 200 per person per annum to be shared equally by centre
and the states_
• The age covered is 18 years to 69 years.
• Death/permanent disability ~ 75000, partial disability ~ 37500
• For rural landless household.
• Head of the family or one earring member in the iamily of rural landless.
• Free add-on benefrt for the ohildren of the members of Aam Aadmi Bima Yojana
• For BPL families
• Between 9th to 12th standard.
Universal • For BPL families.
Health • It gives reimbursement of medical expenses upto ~ 30000 towards
Insurance hospitalisation.
Scheme • lnolude pre-existing diseases, maternal benefit.
• Upto the age 70 years.

Indian Financial System

• Financial system refers to the hon-owing groups, ~ue valiable interest bills sold
and lending of funds for the demand and through fortmgbtly auctions.
supply of funds of all individuals • 364 Days T-biJJs in b.'o duced on the
institutions, companies and of the recommendation of Vaghul working
government. group are long-dated bills, whose yields
• The Indian Financial System consists of reflects the marke t conditions.
two parts, viz, Indian money market and • 14 Days T-biJJs introduced in April, 1997
the Indian capital market. by the RB I at a discount rate equivalent to
the rate of in terest on Ways and Means
MONEY MARKET Advance (W1\i[A) to the Government of
• This is a market for 'near money' or it is India.
the market for borrowing and lending of • Dated Government Secm·ities are also
short-term funds. type of b:easury bills recommended by
• The money market is a key component of Chala::avarty Comm.ittee on Monetary
the financial system, as it is the function System (1988). These are 5 years and 10
of monetary operations conducted by the years matlllity government secu1.ities
Central Bank in its pursuit of mone tary sold on an auction basis.
policy objectives. • Certll1cate of Deposits It is the
certificate issued by bank/financial
Instruments of Money Market institute to other banks or financial
T-BiJJ s or treasm-y biJJs are the institute , who give funds on short-term
government bonds, which are used to basis. Commercial Banks are a saving
raise funds from the money market. certificate entitling the bearer to receive
• 91 Days Tl'easm-y BiJJs (T-bills) used by in terest. The matuJjty of a CoD varies
the government to raise funds from the from 3 months to I year.
market for short pedods nothmg but • Commercial Papers It is an insb.-unJen t
short-term government bond. to raise short-term funds by the
• 182 Days T-biJJs in b.- oduced on the corporate sector.
recommendation of Vaghul working
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
• It can be issued by a lis ted company with
a working capital of almost 5 crore. The
CP is issued in multiples of { 25 Jakh
subject to a minimum issue of { I crore.
The maturity of CP is between
3 to 6 months.
• Money Market Index is an index, whkh
helps investors to decide hov,r much and
,,vhere to invest in money market
through providing information about
prevailing market ratio.
• Bankers Acceptance Rate is the rate, at
,,vh.ich the banker's acceptance is traded
in secondary market.
• LIBOR/ MIBOR London Inter-Bank
Offered Rate/Mumbai Inter-Bank Offered
Rate is the interest rate, at whkh bank
borrows fund from other banks.
CAPITAL MARKET
• Capital marke t is concerned \i\rith
provision of raising long-term funds.
• Capital market can be classified into debt
market and equity market.
• In debt market, a company can acquire • It is a stock exchange located on Dalal
funds only by incurring debt and lender
is t,ruaranted of a fixed repayment e.g.
bond.
• Eqnity Market Here, funds can be
raised without incmring debt those, who • Established in 1875, BSE Ltd (formedy
finance the enterplise by purchasing
equity insb.-ument like shares.
SEBI
SEBl (Secwities and Exchange Board of
• Over the past 137 years, BSE has
India) was set up in 1988 and made a
statutory body in 1992.
Main Functions of SEBJ are as follows
• To regulate the business of the stock
market and other secUiities marke t.
• To promote and reguJate the
self-regulatory organisations.
• To prorubit fraudulent and unfair b.-ade
practices in securities marke t.
• To promote awareness among inveS tors
and training of intermedialies about
safety of marke t.
• To prohibit insider trading in securities
marke t.
• To regulate huge acquisition of shares
and takeover of companies.
NewLawofSEBI
• In August 2014, the Securities Laws
(Amendment) Act, 2014, gave SEBI
additional powers, including to order the
arrest of violators and seek call data
records of individuals under
investigation.
• The new Jaw gave SEBl the powers to
search and obtain information, including
calJ records, about any suspected entity
from \i\rithin or outside the furn.
Stock Exchange in India
• Stock exchange or share market deals in
shares, debentw.-es and financial
secUiities.
• There are 22 stock exchanges in India.
Amono· them hvo are national level stock
exch~ge namely Bombay Stock
Exchange (BSE) and National Stock
Exchange (NSE) . The rest 20 are
Regional Stock Exchanges (RSE).
Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE)
Street, Mumbai, Maharashtra. l t is the
I 0th larges t stock exchange in the world
by market capitalisation of more than
$ 2.2 billion on as of Ap1iJ, 2018 .
known as Bombay Stock Exchange
Ltd.), is the India's oldest Stock
Exchange , one of Asia's oldest stock
exchange and one of India's leading
exchange groups.
facilitated the growth of the Indian
corporate sector by providing it
an efficient capital-raising platform.
Popularly known as BSE, the bomse was
established as 'The Native Share and
Stock Brokers' Association" in 1875 .
National Stock Exchange (NSE)
• It is the country's leading stock exchange
located in the financial capital of
Mumbai, India. National Stock
Exchange (NSE) was established in ~e
mid 1992s as a dem u tualised electroruc
exchange.
• The NSE was established in 1994 as the
first matelialised electronic exchange in
the country.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

• NSE provides a modern, fully automated • NSE-50 From 28th July, 1998, its nanJe
screen-based trading system, which js S and P CNX Nifty. National Stock
offered easy trading terminals, thrnugh Exchange launched a ne\'1' shaise Plice
v,1hich investors in every nook and corner Index, NSE-50 in place of NSE-100 in
of India can b.'ade. Ap1il, 1996. NSE-50 includes
• NSE has played a critical role in 50 companies shares. This stock
reforming the Indian securities market exchanges was founde d on Fenvani
and in bonging unparalleled Committees's recommendation in
transparency, efficiency and maiJcet 1994.
integrity. NSE has a maiJcet • The CNX Nifty covers 22 sectors of the
capitabsation of more than US$2.27 Indian economy and offers invesbnen t
trillion making it the world's 11th largest managers e>...-posme to the Indian mai·ket
stock exchange as of April 2018.
in one portfolio. The CNX Nifty index is
MCX SX Stock Exchange a free float mai·ket capitabsation
weighted index.
• It is a private stock exchange head-
quartered in Mumbai, which was • The CNX Nifty Index was developed by
founded in 2008. Now it js a MCX-SX Ajay Shah and Susan Thomas.
Full Fledged Stock Exchange. Global Indices
• Secillities and Exchange Board of India
Index Country
(SEBI) on 10th JuJy, 2012 granted
perm.ission to MCX Stock Exchange Hang Seng Hong Kong
(MCX-SX) to operate as full-fledged JCI Indonesia
stock exchange. Nikkei 225 Japan
• MCX-SX wouJd be able to offer addition al Kospi South Korea
asset classes, such as eqwty and equity Kualalumpur Composite Malaysia
F and O (Fu tmes and Options) interest TSEC Weighted Index Taiwan
rate futures and ,,vholesale debt SSE Composite Index China
seg1nents. SET Thailand
FTSE 100 UK
Important Share Price Indexes NASDAQ Composite Index us
of India STOXX Europe
• BSE SENSEX Trus is the most Dow Jones us
sensitive share index of the Mumbai
Stock Exchange. This is the Credit Rating Agencies
representative index of 30 main shai·es. • It is a company that assigns credit ratings
Its base year is 1978-79. BSE is the for issuers of certain type of debt
oldest stock exchange of India, founded obligation as well as the debt instTument,
in 1875. example of issuers aise companies, State
• The barometer of Indian capital maiJcet. and Central Government etc.
BSE sensitive index also referred to as • The credit rating represents the credit
BSE-30 is a free-float maiJcet rating agency's evaluation of quabtative
capitab-sations-weighted stock maiJcet and quantitative information for a
index of 30 well established and company or government; including
financially sound comparues listed on non-public information obtained by the
Bombay Stock Exchange. credit rating agencies analysts. The
• The free-float mai·ket capitabsation of a credit rating js used by individuals and
company is determined by muJtiplytng entities that purchase the bonds jssued
the pdce of its stocks by the nunJber of by companies and governments to
shares issued by a company which is determine the Wcelihood that the
readily available for trading on the stock government or company will pay its bond
exchange. The base year/ period of obligations.
SENSEX js 1978-79.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
G
• CRIS1L set-up in 1988, is a credit rating • In some cases, the services of the
agency. It undertakes the rating fixed underlying debt are also given ratings.
deposit programmes, convertible and
Credit Raung Established Head-
non-convertible debentures and also
Agency quarters
credit assessment of companies.
FITCH Group 1913 Paris
• CRIS1L 500 1s the net share Price Index
Sand P 1860 New York
introduced by Credit Rating Agency.
Group
The 'Credit Rating Information
Moody's 1909 New York
Services of India LlmHed' (CRISIL) on
Investor
18th J anuary, 1996. Services

I INDIAN FISCAL SYSTEM

It refers to the management of revenue Public Debt
and capital e"-J>enditure finances of the • Internal Debt It comprises loans raised
state. Hence, Fiscal system includes from the open market treasU1-y bills issued
budgetary activities of the government to the RBI, Commercial Banks etc.
that is revenue raising, bm-rm'lring and
• External Debt It consists of loans taken
spending activities.
from World Bank, IMF, ADB and
individual counb1es.
FISCAL POLICY
It is the means by whkh a govrnment Deficits
adjus ts its spending levels and tax rates to In a blldget statemen t, four types of deficits
monitor and influence a nations economy. are mentioned
It is the sister strategy to Monetary Poucy
(a) Revenue (b) Capital
thrnugh which a Central Bank influences
a nations money supply. (c) Fiscal (d) Primary
These lLses can affect the following macro
economic variables in an economy Revenue Deficit
• Aggregate demand and the level of There are various ways to represent and
economic activity; interpret a government's deficit. The
simplest is the revenue deficit which is just
• The distribution of income;
the difference between revenue receipts and
• The pattern of resource allocation revenue expenditures.
within the government sector and
relative to the plivate sector. Revenue deficit= Revenue expenrnture
- Revenue receipts
Sources of Revenue
Main sources of revenue are customs
Capital Deficit
duties, excise duties, service tax, taxes on An imbalance in a nation's balance of
property, corporate tax, income taxes. payments capital account in which payments
made by the counb-y for pw-chasing foreign
Sources of Expenditure assets exceed payments received by the
country for selling domestic assets.
Plan ExpendUUJ·e includes agricul ture,
rural development, irrigation and flood In other words, investment by the domestic
conb:ol, energy, indusb-y, minerals, economy in foreign asse ts is less than
transport and communications etc. foreign investment in domestic assets. This
is generally not a desirable situation for a
Non-Plan ExpenclitUJ·e It consists of
interest payments, defence, subsidies and domestic economy.
general services. Capital de.Eidt= Capital receipts
- Disbursement on capital account
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Fiscal Deficit Fiscal deficit = Revenue receipts (Net tax

This is the sum of revenue and capital
expenditw:e less all revenue and capital
re ceipts other than loans taken.
This gives a more holistic view of the
government's funding situation since it Primary Deficit
gives the difference between all receipts
and e>...-penditures other than loans taken
to meet such expenditw·es.
Flscal Deficit = Difference between
counb.--y's expenrnture and earnings
revenue + Non-tax revenue) + Capital
receipts (only recovedes ofloans and other
receipts) - Total expenditw·e (Plan and
non-plan).
Amount by which a government's total
e>...-penrnture exceeds its total revenue,
excluding interest payments on its debt.
Prima.1.--y deficit = Fiscal deficit - ln terest
payments.

I UNION BUDGET I
• The budget is an extensive account of Stages in Budget Enactment
the government's finances, in '"''hich The budget goes through the following six
revenues from all sources and expenses stages in the Parliament
of all activities undertaken a.1.·e • Presentation of the budge t on the floor of
aggregated. the house before the Lok Sabha.
• The Finance Minis ter presents the • General discussion on the budget.
Union Budget eve1--y year in the
Parliament that contains the • Scrutiny by depa.1.·bnentally related
Government of lnrna's revenue and standing commjttees.
e>...-penditme for one fisc al yea.1.·, which • Voting on demands for gran ts.
runs from 1st April to 31st Ma.1.·ch. • Passing of Appropliation Bill (Article 114 of
the Constitution of lndia).
Historical Preview • Passing of Finance Bill (under Rule 2 19
• The term 'Budget' is acutally derived of the Lok Sabha).
from a French word 'Bougette', which
means a sack or pouch. It was first used Vote on Account
in France in 1803. • Usually, the Appropdation Bill
• In the Constitution of lnrna the term (e>...-penrnture pa.1.t of budget) is passed by
Budget is nowhere used. It is rather end of Apij}, but government needs
mentioned as Annual Financial money from beginnmg of :financial yea.1.·,
Statement under Article 112 so government use vote-on-account to
comprising the revenue budget, capital remove money from consolida ted fund of
budget and also the estimates for the India.
ne:,.._i: fiscal yea.1.· called budgeted
estimates. Types of Budgeting
Preparation of Budget Line I te111 Budgeting
The budget is prepa.1.·ed by the budget If emphasises on the items (objec ts) of
division in the Ministery of Finance expenrnture without highlighting its
(MoF), after consu.1 ting with other purpose. It gives oqject-wise (Line-item)
minisb.jes and the Planning Commission . classification in budget. Under tms system,
The process majody includes following the amount granted by the legislature on a
steps which may be sequential or specific item should be spent on that item
overlapping too. only.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Quick Digest
• John Mathai proposed the first budget of
Republic of India in 1950 and also the
creation of Planning Commi ssion.
specific lin e items are increasing or
e
decreasing. Zero based budgeting also refers
to the ident::i.fication of a task or tasks and
the □ funding resources to complete the task
indepe □ de □ t of cune □ t renouncing.

• Finance Minister Morarii Desai has given

budget for the maximum number of times (10)
followed by PChidambaram, who has given 8
budgets.
• CD Deshmukh was the first Indian Governor
of RBI to have presented the Interim Budget
for the year 1951-52_
• Mrs Indira Gandhi is the only woman to
hold the post of the Finance Minister and to
have presented the budget in her capacity as
the Prime Minister of India in 1978.
■ The first such mini-budget was presented by
TT Krishnamachari on 30th November, 1956,
in form of fresh taxation proposals through
Finanoe Bills, demanded by the prevailing
domestic and international eoonomic situation.
• Since 2017, the Union Budget is presented on
1 February annually_
• From 2017, the Railway Budget has been
merged wirh the Central Budget on the
recommendation of Bibek Debray Committee.
Output Budgeting
It concentrate only on the quantitative
aspect of expenchtme.
Gender Budgeting
It came into being in 2004-05. To
co□ tiibute towards the ,,v omen
empowerment and removal of inequality
based on gender, role of budgeong has been
accepted thrnugh th.is step.
Programme Budgeting
It emphasis the planning aspect of
budgeong for selecting the best out of a
number of available programmes and for
opt:imjsing the choice. The Government
has decided on 18 November, 2016 to
merge Rail Budget with the Urno □ Budegt
from Budget year 20 17-18.
TAXSTRUCTURE
IN INDIA
Tax is a compulsory payment by the
citizens to the government to meet the
public e>..11enmtlll'e. It is legally imposed by
the govern.men t on the ta:\.1)ayer a□ d in no
case ta:\.1)ayer ca□ deny to pay taxes to the
government.

Pe1fo rn1ance Based Budgeting Direct Tax

Its attempt to solve decision making A direct tax is that tax, ,,.,hich is born by the
problems based on a programmes ability to person on whom it is levied. A direct tax
convert inputs to outputs a□ d use inputs to cannot be shifted to other person.
affect certain outcomes. Performance may The :important taxes levied on incomes are
be judged by a certain programmes ability Corportion Tax and Income tax. Taxies
to meet certain objective that contribute to levied a□ wealth are wealth tax and gift tax
more absti·act goal as calculated by that etc.
programmes ability to use resources
efficiently by linking input to outputs. Structure of Taxes
Outcome Budgeting Direct Tax Indirect Tax
This type of budgeting tries to ensure that Personal lnoome Tax Exoise Duty
budget outlays translate :into concrete Corporation Tax Custom Duty
outcomes. Wealth Tax Sales Tax

Zero-Based Budgeting Gitt Tax Service Tax

Land Revenue Value Added Tax
It is a method of budgeting, in wWch all
budge tary allocations are set to rnJ at the Profession Tax Passenger Tax
beginning of a financial year. Stamp Duty and Entertainment
Zero-based budgeting !'equires the budget Registration Charges Tax
request be re-evaluated thoroughly, starting Securities Transaotion Tax Eleotrioity Duty
from the zero-base. Thjs process is Banking Cash TransaoLion Motor Vehicles
independent of whether the total budget or Tax Tax
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Indirect Tax Although, the states have been assigned

certain taxes which are levied and
These are those taxes, , . .,Wch have their collected by them, they also have a share
plimary burden or impac t on one person. But in the revenue of certain union taxes and
that person succeeds in shifting ms burden there are certain other taxes which are
on to others. Indirect taxation js policy often levied are certain other taxes wrnch are
used to generate tax revenue. Indirect tax is levied and collected by the Cenn·al
so called as it js paid indirectly by the final Government but whole proceedings are
consumer of goods and services wWle paying n·ansferred to the states.
for purchase of goods or for enjoying services.

GST (Goods and Services Tax) FINANCE

The Goods and Service Tax (GST) has been COMMISSION
implemented from July 1, 2017. lt Finance Commission is constituted to
incorporates many of the indirect taxes levied define financial relations between the
by states and the Cenn·al Government. Some cenb.·e and the state. Under the provision
of the taxes GST replaced include Sales Tax, of Article 280 of the Constitution, the
Central Excise, Duty, Octroi, Service Tax etc. President appoint a Finance
GST has tru:ee components Commission for the specific purpose of
• CGST (Central Goods and Services act) devolution of non-plan revenue
• SGST (State Goods and Services ac t) resousces .
• IGST (Integra ted Goods and Services act) The functions of the commission are to
make recommendations to the President
Financial Relations Between in respect of the distribution of net
proceeds of taxes to be shared between
Centre and States the union and the states and the
India possesses a federal structw.·e in wWch a allocation of share of such proceeds
clear distinction js made between the Union among the states.
and the State functions and sources of The plinciples, wrnch should govern the
revenue. Article 264 and 293 explain the payment of g1:ants-in-aid by the cenn·e to
financial relations between the Union and the states. any other matter concerning
State Government. financial relations between the centre
and the states.

Finance Commission in India

Finance Established in Chairman Operauonal Year of Submitting
Commission Duration Report
1951 KC Niyogi 1952-57 1952
II 1956 K Santhanam 1957-62 1956
Ill 1960 AK Chanda 1962-66 1961
IV 1964 PV Rajamanar 1966-69 1965
V 1968 Mahaveer Tyagi 1969-74 1968
VI 1972 Brahma Nanci Reddy 1974-79 1973
VII 1977 JM Shellet 1979-84 1978
Vlll 1983 YB Chawan 1984-89 1983
IX 1987 NKP Salve 1989-95 1989
X 1992 KC Pant 1995-2000 1994
XI 1998 AM Kh usro 2000-2005 2000
XII 2003 C Rangarajan 2005-2010 2004
XIII 2007 Vijay L Kelkar 2010-2015 2009
XIV 2012 Y Venugopal Reddy 2015-2020 2015
xv 2017 NK Singh 2021-2026 2020
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC
ORGANISATIONS
INTERNATIONAL WORLD BANK (WB)
MONETARY FUND (IMF) • World Bankls the institution created at
• IJV[F was conceived on 22nd July, 1944 and
came into existence on 27th December,
1945, when 29 coWJ □1es signed the
agreement. It originally had 45 members.
India is the founding member.
• IMF at present has 190 members and
headquartered at Washington DC. On 16th
October, 2020 Andorra (a microstate in
Europe) became 190th member of this
organisation. The capital resources of the
IMF comprise Special Drawing Rights
(SDRs) and currencies that member pay
under quotas calculated for them when
they join the IMF.
• The quotas determine the amount of
foreign exchange, a member may borrow
from the IMF and jts voting power on IMF
policy matters. Quotas are denominated in
SDRs.
• The member with largest quotas js USA
followed by Japan and China. Tuvalu is the
member with smallest quota. India with a
quota share of 2.76% is now placed eighth
largest quota holding coWJtry at the IMF.
• Based on noting share, India (together
, 1vith Bangladesh) Bhutan and Sri Lanka
are ranked 22nd in the list of
24 constituencies.
• For India, Finance Minister js the
Ex-officio Governor of the Board of
Governors of the IMF Governor of the
RBI, js India's alternate Governor.
Special Drawing Rights
The SDRs were created in 1969 are
supplementary foreign exchange reserves assets
maintained by the IMF. SD Rs are not a currency.
Instead it represents a claim to currency held by
IMF member countries. SOR, value is determined
by weighted currency basket of five major
currencies : the Euro, the US dollar, the British
pound and Japanese Yen and Chinese Yuan. SDRs
are also called 'paper gold'.
0
the Bretton Woods Conference in
1944. Along with the IMF, it constitutes
'twin-sister' of Bretton Woods.
• World Bank has 190 members and js
headquartered in Washington DC.
• The World Bank provides loans to
developing countries for capital
programme and its official goal is
reduction of poverty.
• International Finance Corporation
(IFC) was established in 1956, to
provide loans to private indusb1es of
developing nations.
• International Development Association
(IDA), knmvn as the soft loan window
of the World Bank was established on
24th September, 1960.
• International Centre for Settlement of
Investment Disputes (ICSID) was
established in 1966, to provide facilities
for the conciliation and arbitration of
investment disputes behveen member
counbies . lt has 157 members.
• Multilateral Investment Guarantee
Agency (MIGA) was foWJded in 1988 to
promote foreign direct investment into
developing coWJtnes. It has 175
members.
WORLD TRADE
ORGANISATION
• It was constituted on 1st January, 1995,
under the Marrakesh Agl'eement and
took the place of GAIT (General
Agreement on Trade and Tariff) as an
effective formal organisation. GAIT
was an informal organisation, which
regulated world trade since, 1948.
• It is headquartered at Geneva. At
present, it h as 164 members .
(Afghanistan has become the 164th
WTO member) .
 GENERAL KNOW LEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Functions ofWTO ASIAN DEVELOPMENT

• To oversee, implementation and BANK(ADB)
ac:lnnnisb.-ation of WTO agreements . To
provide a forum for negotiations. • It was es tablished in December 1966
• To provide a dispute settlement with the aim to accelera te economic and
mechanism . To provide facilities for sodal development in Asia and Pacilic
implementation, adminjsrration and region. It is headquartered at Manj]a,
operation of m ul tilateral and bila teral Phillipines.
agreements of the world trade. • The ADB offers hard loans from ordmary
• The WTO is currently endeavouring to ca.pi tal resmll'ces on commerdal terms
persis t with a b.-ade negotiation called and the Asian Developmen t FwJd
Doha Development Agenda (DDA), affiliated with the ADB ex ten ds soft
,,vruch was launched in 2001. to enhance Joans fro m special fund resources with
equitable participation of po~r countlies, concessional condi tions .
\ 'l1rnch represent a maj mity of the world's • At the end of 20 16, J a.pan holds the
popu1ation. largest proportion of shares at 15.67%.
• Singapore Issues refer to ti·ansparency The Urnted States h ols 15.66%. China
in government procurement, rrade h olds 6.47%, ln ma holds 6.35% and
facilitation , rrade and investment and Austi·alia holds 5.81%. It h as 67 member
rrade and competition . countries.
• Swiss FormuJa rela tes to NAMA Asian Infrastructure
(Non-Agricultural Market Access).
Investment Bank (AIIB)
WTO Ministerial Conferences
It is a Mul tilateral Development Bank
Conferenoe Year Plaoe (M ~B) conceived for the 21st century.
First 1996 Singapore
Chinese President Xi Jinping an d Premier
Ll Keqiang announ ced the A1IB irutiative
Second 1998 Geneva
dwing their respective visits to South-East
Third 1999 Seattle (USA)
Asian countries in October 2013.
Fourth 2001 Doha (Qatar)
By the deadline of March 31st for
Fifth 2003 Cancun (Mexico)
sub□nssion of membership appllcations ,
Sheth 2006 Hong Kong the Prospective Foundmg Members h ad
Seventh 2009 Geneva increased to 57, and the 4th CNM was
Eight 2011 Geneva organised in Beijing in April 2015, after
Nine 2013 Bali , Indonesi a ratifications were received fro m I O
member s ta tes holdmg a total number of
Tenth 2015 Nairobi , Kenya
50% of the irntial subsciiptions of the
Eleventh 2017 Buenos Aires
Authodsed CapHal Stock.
Twelfth 2022 Geneva
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Committees on Various Sectors of Indian Economy

Committee Sector
AC Shah Committee Non-Banking Finanoial Company
Bimal Ja/an Committee Market Infrastructure Instruments
Ma/egam Committee Functioning of Mioro-Finance Institutions
Bir/a Committee Corporate Governanoe
Kirith Parikh Committee Rationalisation of Petroleum Product Prices
Chaturvedi Committee Improving National Highways
SR Hashim Committee Urban Poverty
Abhijit Sen Committee Wholesale Price Index
C Rangarajan Committee Servioes Prioes Index and Finanoial lnolusion
Abid Hussian Committee Development of Capi1al Markets
Damodaran Committee Customer Service in Banks
Khande/wal Committee Human Resource in Commercial Banks
Paul Committee Corporate Debt
VK Sharma Committee Credit to Marginal Farmers
Sarangi Committee Non-Periorming Assets
Khanna Committee Regional Rural Banks
Dantawa/a Committee Lead Bank Scheme
Gadgil Committee Financial Inclusion
Thorat Committee Deregulation of Small Saving Deposit Rates
Deepak Mohanty Committee Monetary System in India
Raghuram Rajan Committee Financial Seotor Reform
Naresh Chandra Committee Civil Aviation
Rakesh Mohan Committee Railways
Kakodkar Committee Rail Safety
Pitroda Committee Rail Modernisation
JJ Irani Committee Company Law Reforms
CB Bhave Committee Disolosure Standards
Karve Committee Small Scale Industry
Raja Mannar Committee Banking Laws
LC Gupta Committee Derivatives Trading
KR Chandralre Committee Delisting of Shares
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
Glossary
Absolute Advantage The ability to
produce more units of a good or service
than some other producer, using the
same quantity ofresotJTces.
Aggregate Demand (AD) A schedule
(or graph) that shows the value of
output (real GDP) that ,,vould be
demanded at different plice levels.
Aggregate Supply (AS) A schedule (or
graph) that shows the value of output
(real GDP) that would be produced at
different plice levels. In the long run,
the schedule shows a constant level of
real GDP at all price levels, determined
by the economy's productive capacity at
full employment. In the short run, the
aggregate supply schedule may show
different levels of real GDP as the plice
level changes.
Automated Teller Macbjne (ATM) A
machine that provides cash and
performs banking services (for deposits
and transfers of funds between
accounts,) automatically, when
accessed by customers using plastic
cards coded , 1vi th Personal
Indentification Numbers (PINs).
Balance of Payments Delicit An
imbalance in a nation's balance of
payments, where more cunency is
flowing out of the counb.}' than is
flowing in. Thjs unequal flow of
cunency is considered unfavourable
and can lead to a loss of foreign
cunency reserves.
Balance of Payments Sw·plus An
imbalance in a nation's balance of
payments, in which more cw-rency js
flowing in to the counb.}' than is flowing
out. T.Ws unequal flow of currency js
considered favomable and can lead to
an increase in foreign cunency
reserves.
Balance of Trade The part of a nation's
balance of payments accounts that deals
only with its in1ports and exports of
goods and services. The balance of rr·ade
is mvided into the balance on goods
(merchandise) and the balance on
sel'Vices. If the value of a counb.)''s
eA-ports of goods and services is greater
than its impmis, it has a balance of rr·ade
surplus. If the value of a counb.-y's impmis
of goods and services js greater than its
eA-ports, it has a balance of b:ade deficit.
Balanced Budget A financial plan, in
v, hich income is equal to expenses.
1
Blue Chip Stocks Stocks in large,
nationally known companfos that have
been profitable for a long time and are
well-known and trusted.
Command Economy An economy, in
v,1hich most economk issues of
production and rnstribution are
resolved through cenb.·al planning and
controlling.
Consumer Price Index (CPI) A price
index that measures the cost of a fixed
basket of consumer goods and services
and compares the cost of tms basket in
one time pe1iod ,11,jth its cost in some
base pedod. Changes in the CPI are
used to measure inflation.
Cost-Push InIJation Inflation caused by
Iising costs of production.
Crowding-Out Increased interest rates
and decreased plivate investn1ent
caused by government borrovving.
Currency Devaluation A government
adjusts the value of the nation's
cmrency so that it buys less of foreign
cunencies than before.
Ctu-rent Account Part of a nation's
balance of payments accounts; records
eA-ports and imports of goods and
services, net investn1ent income and
transfer payments with other counb.ies.
Ctu-rent Account Balance The inflow of
the goods, services, investn1ent income
and rr·ansfer accounts into the
domestic counb.}' from foreign
counb.ies netted against the outflow of
goods, services, investment income and
transfer accounts from the domestic
country to foreign countries.
Demand-Pull InIJation Inflation caused
by increasing demand for output or 'too
much money chasing too few goods.'
Depreciation A reduction in the value
of capital goods over time due to their
use in production.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
Depreciation of CuJ"J"ency A decline in
the pdce of one cw:-rency relative to
another.
Depression A severe, prolonged economic
con b.-action.
Fixed Exchange Rate An exchange rate
that is set and the1·efore, prevented from
11sing or falling with changes in supply
and demand for a nation's cunency.
Flexible Exchange Rate An exchange
rate that 1s determined by the
international demand for and supply of
a nation's money; a rate free to rise or
fall (to float).
HyperinDation A very rapid rise in the
overall plice level.
Imperfect Competition Any market
sb.-uctw:e, in which firms are not price
talcers, but instead must seek the price
and output levels that maximise their
profits.
Initial Public Oifering (IPO) A company's
first sale of stock to the public. When a
company 'goes public', it sells blocks of
stock shai-es to an investment firm that
speciilises in initial offerings of stock
and resells them to the public.
Market Failrn·es The systematic over
production or underproduction of some
goods and services that occurs, when
producers or consumers do not have to
bear the full costs of b.-ansactions they
undertake. Usually related to
exte1·nilities or the need for public
goods.
Monopolistic Competition A market
sb.-ucture, in which slightly
differentiated products ai·e sold by a
Jarge number of relatively small
producers and in which the barriers to
new firms entering the market are low.
Monopoly A market sb.·ucture in which
there is a single supplier of a good or
service. Also, a firm that is the single
supplier of a good or service, for which
there ai·e no close substitutes; also
known as a monopolist.
Monopsony A mai·ket situation, in which
there is only one buyer of a resource.
Also, a firm that is the only buyer of a
resow·ce; also Jmown as a monopsonist.
Natrn·a.l Monopoly An industry, in which
the advantages of large-scale production
make it possible for a single firm to
produce the ent:fre output of the
market at a lower average cost than a
number of.firms each producing a
small er quantity.
Non-Price Competition Competition by
firms b.-ying to atb.·act customers by
methods other than reducing pdces;
examples include advertiEing and
promotional gifts.
Oligopoly A market sb.1.Jcture, in which
a fev, relatively large firms account for
1
,
all or most of the production or sales
of a good or service in a particulai·
mai·ket and where barders to ne\'I'
firms entering the market are very
high. Some oligopolies produce
homogeneous products; others
produce heterogeneous products.
Open Market Operations The buying
and selling of government bonds and
secudties by the federal Reserves to
central bank reserve and the money
supply.
Pegged Exchange Rate An exchange
rate that is fixed ,vithin a certain ranoe
e:,
or against a major currency or basket
of currencies.
Perfect Competition A market
sb.·uctme, in which a lai·ge number of
relatively small firms produce and sell
identical products and in which there
are no significant barriers to entry into
or exit from the indusb.-y.
Prog1·essive Tax A tax that take a
lai·ger percentage of income from
people in higher-income groups than
from people in lower-income ones: the
US federal income tax is an example.
Recession A decline in the rate of
nation al economic activity, usually
meaEured by a decline in real GDP for
atleast two consecutive quaiters (i.e. 6
months).
Regressive Tax A tax that takes a
lai·ger percentage of income from
people in lower-income groups than
from higher-income ones. Sales taxes
and excise taxes are examples.
Velocity of Money Member The
average number of times each dollar is
spent on final goods and services in a
yeai·.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
FAQs (Indian Economy)
1. The Inman economy shouJd be
developed on the socialistic pattern of
society was enunciated, at ,,vhich
Sl.lJilill]t of the Jndjan National
Congress?
2. In which plan did the Inman economy
managed to cross the barrier of Hindu
ra te of growth of 3-3.5%?
3. Hov,' many Mmiratnas Ca tegory-I
companies are there at present?
4. \i\!hat is the punch line of the Twelfth
Five Year Plan?
5. \i\!ho headed the Committee on Rail
Safety?
6. The CSO released the New Selies of
National Accounts with base
year- instead of the baseyear2004-05.
7 . \i\/hich was the first insurance company
in Inma?
8. \i\/hich were the two Five Year Plans
when the set target for the foodgrain
production was achieved during the
overall plan period?
9. \i\/hich sector of the Inman economy js
the second largest provider of the
employment after aglicultw:e?
10. \i\/hich sta te accounts for 9/lOth of the
natural rubber production in the
counb:y?
11 . \i\!hat is the rank of Inma in the recently
released Human Development
Report-2019?
12. \i\!ho gave the first scientific estimates
of National Income in Inma?
13. \i\!hen was the National Statistical
Commfasion formed and ,,vho was the
Chairman?
14. \i\/hich country js the largest foreign
direct inves tor in India after in 2015?
15. \i\/hich country is the smallest holder of
the quotas ill the International
Monetary Fund at present?
16. \i\!hat js the present rank of India in
terms of voting share in the IMF?
17. \i\!hatis the presentnumber of member
nations of the World Trade
Organisation?
18. \i\!hat is the alterna te name of the
Bombay Plan prepared by some
industrialis ts in 1944?
19. When was the dual exchange rate
system adopted in India?
20. What js reverse repo rate and ,,.,hat is
the present rate of repo?
21 . Which are the four connectivities
enwJdated under the PURA model of
growth ill Inma?
22. Who js the present head of the Asian
Development Bank and from where
does he belong?
23. The Durgapur Steel Plant was se t-up
ill collaboration with which counb.-y?
24. What was the ra te of devaluation of
rupee in June, 1966?
25. Which plan did not set any targe t for
crop production?
26. The 'cafeteLia approach' js assocfa ted
with what?
27. Which state registered the maxinJum
growth rate ill population according to
the Census 201 1?
28. In Inma, for how many days ill a year a
worker shouJd work to be called as a
major worker or an employed person?
29. In which crop, Inma has the highest
productivity in the world?
30. What is the core element of 'evergreen
revolution' which has been envisaged for
the r~juvenation of agriculture in India?
31 . Who coined the term 'Green
Revolution'?
32. Which year of the Flve Year Plans ill
India is referred to as "Second Green
Revolution"?
33. Wjth which is the Colin Clark thesis
associa ted?
34. Rolling Plan was adopted in India, ill
which year?
35. What is the percentage of tax proceeds
which need to be shared v.rith the
States by the cenb.·e as per the
recommendation of the 13th Finance
Commission?
36. Is Good and Services Tax (GST) a sales
tax or Value Added Tax? (VAT)
37. What is the main goal of the World
Bank?
38. In order to arrive at Gross National
Product at factor cos t from Gross
National Product at market plices, what
needs to be deduc ted?
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
39. \iVhich concept among the various
concepts of National Income js referred
as Real National Income?
40. \iVhich lnclian Bank h as the maximum
number of branches outside lnclia?
41 . How many Zonal offices does Ll.fe
Insmance Corporation (UC) have at
present?
42. \i\!ho spearheaded the nationilisation of
insurance indusb.-yin Inclia and in whkh
year?
43. Hm'I' many associate banks does SB I have
at present?
44. \i\!ho headed the committee on micrn
finance institutions reforms?
45. \iVhich indusb.ial policy for the first time
recognised the role of small-scale
indusb.-y?
46. As per the M SME Act, 2006, what js the
investment l.inJjt of the meclium
enterprisesin themanufactw.:ingsector?
47. \i\!hat are the essential components of
inclusive grm,vth?
48. How money multiplier is arrived at?
49. \iVhich measure of money supply in lndia
is also called the narrow money?
50. \i\!ho was the first Governor of RBI?
51. Ag:iicuJt1..ll'e in lndia is assocfated, with
which type of unemployment?
52. \i\!hat js the present rate of saving and
investment in lnclia?
53. \i\!hen was Banking Ombudsman
Scheme implemented in lnclia?
54. \i\!ho gave the concept of Physical Quality
of Llfe lndex (PQLI)?
55. \i\!hat is the rank of Inclia in terms of
Green House Gases (GHGs) emissions in
absolute terms in the world?
56. The National Solar Mission has set the
target of generating 20000 MW
electricity through solar power, by whkh
year?
57. The National Manufacturing Policy,
2011 seeks to generate, how much
additional employment by 2022?
58. \i\!hat does NIMZ stands for?
59. \i\!hat is the decadal growth ra te of
population from 200 I to 2011?
60. \i\!hat is the present system, \'l'rnch is
adopted by the RBI in the management of
currency in lndia?
61. \i\!ho js the Vice-Chairman of newly form
NlTl Aayog?
Answers
1. Avadi Su.mm.it 2. Seventh Plan
3. 54 4. Fas ter, sustainable and
inclusive growth 5. Dr AniJ Kakodkai·
6. 2011-12. 7. Oriental Life
Insurance Company, in 1818 8. First
and Fifth Plan 9. Services sector
provides 29% employment followed
by Indusb.-y sector 10. 6.6%
11. Kera.la 12. 129th 13. Professor V
K R V Rao 14. 2005, Professor SD
Tendulkar 15. Mauritius 16. Tuvalu
17. 8th 18. 157 19. Plan of
Economic Development for Inclia
20. 1992 21 . Reverse Repo Rate is
the rate, at which RBI allmvs
Commercial Banks to park surplus
fund with the RBL It withdraws
liqu:iclity form the market. The
present Repo Rate is 7_75%.
22. Physical, electronk, knowledge
and economic 23. Takehiko Nakao,
Japan 24. The UK 25. 57_5%
26. Tenth Plan 27. Family Planning
28. Bihar 29. 273 30. Pulses
31 . Sustainability 32. Dr William
Gaced 33. 1983-84 34. Structural
change in the economy 35. 1978
36. 32.5% 37. Both 38. Reducing
poverty 39. Net indirect tax 40. Ne t
National Product at factor cos t
41 . State Bank of India 42. 8 43. CD
Deshm ukb, 1956 44. 5 45. Y H
Malegam 46. Industrial Policy, 1977
47. { 5 crore to { 10 crore
48. Poverty reduction, ag:iicu.ltme,
socjal sector development, reduction
in regional dispa.1ities and protecting
environment 49. Broad Money
(M3)/Reserve Money (M 0 ) 50. Ml
51 . Sir Osborne Smjtb 52. Disgui.sed
unemployment 53. 36.8% and 38. l %
54. 2006 55. Morris D Morris 56. 3rd
57. 2020 58. 100 million
59. National Investment and
Manufacturing Zone 60. 17.64%
61 _ Mminrnm Reserve System, 1957
62. Arvind Panagriya.
 GENERAL
SCIENCE
I PHYSICS I
Physics js the study of nature and its laws. The word physics has been dedved from a
Greek word physis which means nature. Physics js one of the academic disciplines,
perhaps the oldest thrnugh its inclusion of astronomy.

Units
Measurnment of any physical quantity Greatest Units
involves comparison , 1vith a certain basic 1 light year =9.46 x 1015 ID
arbitradly chosen and widely accepted
I parsec= 3.086 x 1016 ID= 3.26 ly
reference standard called unit.
1 AU= 1.5 x 101 1m
SI SYSTEM 1 meb.ic tonne = 103 kg
It is based on the following seven basic 1 quintal = I 0 2 kg
zmiits and two supplementary units
Name of Quantity Name of Un;t
Dimensions of Physical
Basic Units
Quantities
Djmensions of a physical quantity are the
■ Length metre
powers, to v, hich the fundamental
1

■ Mass kilogram quantities must be raised to represent that

■ Time second quantity completely. There fore, the
■ Eleotric ou rrent ampere dimen sional formuJ a of a quantity is
■ Thermodynamic kelvin e>...-pressed in terms of fundamental
temperature quantities, commonly mass M, length Land
■ Luminous intensity candela
time T. Any physical quantity is either a
scalar or a vector.
■ Amount of substance mole
Supplementary Units
e.g. Force= [MLr2 J, Density = IML-3]
■ Plane angle radian Scalar Quantities
■ Solid angle steradian Physical quantities which h ave magnitude
only and no direction are called scalar
Important Derived Units quantities. e.g. mass, speed, volume, wm-k,
PhysioaJ Quantity Definition SI Unit time, power, energy etc.
,,
Area Length rrr Vector Quantities
square
Physical quantities which have both
Velooity Displacement ms-1
magni tude an d direction an d also obey
per unit time
tri angle lav,1 of vector addition are called
Faroe Mass x kgms-2 vector quantities .
acceleration e.g. displacement, velocity, accelel'ation,
force, mom entum, torque etc.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• If the body covers first half distance with

KINEMATICS velocity v 1 and next h alf with velocity v 2 ,
It is the branch of mechanics, v,,Wch deals then
with the motion of oqject. . 2v1Vo
Average ve loc1ty = -
V1 +V2.
Distance • If a body travels with uniform velocity v 1
• The length of the actual path covered by a
for time t1 and with uniform velocity v 2
body in a particular time interval is called
for time t2 , then
distance. It is always positive.
Average velodty
• It 1s a scalar quantity.
• Its unit is metre. = V1t1 + V2,t2.
+ t2.
t1

Displacement • If a body is moving on a circuJar path,

• The difference between the final and the then after completing one complete
initial position of an oqject 1s called cycle, its average velocity is zero.
displacement. It may be positive,
negative or zero. U rriforn1 Velocity
• It 1s a vector quantity. Its unit 1s metre. An object is said to be mmring with uniform
velocity if it undergoes equal
• The magnitude of displacement may or
displacements in equal intervals of time.
may not be equal to the path length
traversed by an object. Non-Urriform Velocity
::;I
IDisplacement l Distance I An object 1s said to be moving with non-
uniform or vaifable velocity if it undergoes
Speed unequal displacements in equal intervals
• Speed is the distance covered by a of time.
moving body in per unit of time interval_.
• It is a scalar quantity. It 1s always equal to Relative Velocity
or greater than magnitude of the velocity. When two bodies are moving in the straight
• The average speed of a particle for a line, the speed (or velocity) of one with
given interval of time 1s defined as the respect to another is lmmm as its relative
ratio of total distance ti-avelled to the speed (or velocity).
total time taken. v _18 =velocity of A with respect to B
Average speed
=V.4. - V 8
Total distance b.-avelled
Total time tal{en Acceleration
• If the body covers first half distance with • It is the rate of change of velocity. Its SI
speed v 1 and next half with speed v 2 , unit ism/s2 . It is a vector quantity.
then • When the velocity of a body increases
2v1Vo , 1vith tinJe then its acceleration 1s positive
Average speed = -
V3 +V2. and if velocity decreases , 1vi th tinJe then
its acceleration is negative and is called
Velocity retardation or deceleration.
The rate of change of displacement of a • Acceleration of an object is zero, if
body 1s called velocity. it is at rest or moving \i\rith uniform
. Displacement velocity.
Ve lo □ ty = ---=-----
T1me Average acceleration,
• Velocity is a vector quantity. a=V2, - V1
• It may be positive or negative. 11t
• Average velocity 11V
Total displacement M
Total time
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

MOTION/REST Graphical Representation

If the position of a body or a system of ofMotion
bodies does not change with time, it is
said to be at rest.
Displacement-Time Graph
On the other hand, jf the position change If a body moves \l\rith a uniform velocity then
·with time, it is said to be in motion. displacement - time graph js a straight line.
The slope or gradient of the straight line is
A particle in rest does not have the speed
speed.
and acceleration, while a particle in the Displaoement
motion has its speed and also may have
some acceleration, jf the speed changes
\l\rith respect to time.
d
Equation of Motion e-;::::; \a\"\ a
a, s\o?
For motion on a straight line vi'ith o_ ___._____ Time
constant acceleration a
(1.) v = u + at c··)
n s = ut + -I at -o Velocity-Time Graph
2
1. Constant Acceleration If a body moves
(ill) v 2 =U
2
+2as
vith a constant velocity, velocity-time
, 1

Equation efMotion Under graph is a straight line .

Velooity
Gravity
(a) Downward Di1·ection
(1.) V = U + gt c·ll·) h = 'llt + -l gt-o A t---- - -... B
2
.. . ) o o 9 h
(m v-=u-+LfJ
where, s = displacement ti-a.veiled o ~ - - - - - Time
h = height, t = time 2. Uniformly Accelerated Motion The
u =initial velocity velocity-time graph is a straight line.
v =final velocity Velooity
a = acceleration,
g = acceleration due to gravity
for retardation av.ill be replaced by - a
(b)Upward Direction If velocity of a
body js decreasing instead of
increasing, then equation of motion
are
0
/ Time

V ='IL - gt Two Dimensional Motion

1 0
In this motion of a body is desctibed in a
h ='llt--gt- rectanguJar co-ordinate axis.
2
v
2 2
='ll -2gh Projectile Motion
(c)Distance travelled by a body in nth • When a particle is projected so that it
seconds "Lh makes certain angle , 1vith horizon tal then
a the motion of the particle is said to be
s 11 Lh = 'IL + (2n - I) - projectile. Path of a projectile is parabolic
2
in natme.
• If the body is tru:m'l'Il upwards, then it
• The initial velocity u of the projectile can
,,vilJ rise un til its vertical velocity
be resolved into two coniponen ts
becomes zero. Then, the maximum
0 (i) 'IL cos 0 (hodzontal direction)
height attained js h = 'IL - . (ti) ZL sin 0 (vertical direction)
2g
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

For the Projectile Motion

FORCE
Maximum Height It is the
maxinJum vertical dis tance Force is a push or pull ,,.,Wch can change the
position or cUrection of a body.
travelled by a body.
. . u 2 siJ/·0 Centripetal Force
It 1s given by (H) = - - -
2g A body performing circuJar motion is acted upon
Horizontal Range The dis tance by a force which is always directed towards the
bet:\veen projecting and landing centTe of the circle. Tbjs force is called centripetal
point. force. Any of the forces found in natw:e (such as
o frictional force, gravitational force, electJjcal
. given
It 1s . by (R" = -
1
u- sin20
-- £orce, magnetic. 1orce
£
etc) may act as a centripet al
g force.
Time of FLigbt Time taken in • CycHst bends hjs body towards the centJ·e on a
reacrnng the )anding point from turn while turnmg to obtain the required
projecting point. It is given by centripetal force.
(1) = 21.L sin0 • Generally, in rain the scooter slips at the
g turning of a road because the friction bet:\1veen
tyre and road is reduced. Due to thjs, necessa.1.1'
• For maxinJunJ range 0 =45°. centripetal force is not provided . Roads are
Therefore, a long junJper tal<es banked at turns to provide the required
jump at an angle of 45°. centripetal force for taldng a turn.
• For maxinJunJ height 0=90°.
• The hmizontal range is the same Centrifugal Force
when the body is projected at 0 or Pseudo Force When we in a non-inertial franJe of
(9Cf - 0). reference to apply Newton's laws, we have to apply
• When a body is dropped freely a force on the object equal to mass times in
from the top of the tower and opposite direction of acceleration or retardation of
another body is projected the frame. Cenrn:fugal force is such a Pseudo
hodzon tally from the same point, force. It is alv,,ays equal and opposite to centripetal
both will reach the ground at the force.
same tinJe. CreanJ separator, centrifugal chjer etc work on the
• When two balls of clifferent principle of centJjfugaJ force.
masses are projected hodzon tally
they will reach gi·ound at same
NEWTON'S LAWS
time. OFMOTION
Circular Motion First Law
• When an object moves along a • "Every body retains its state of rest or state of
circular path, then its motion is WJUorm motion, until an external force is
called circulai· motion e .g. motion applied on it." Trns law is also ]mown as law of
of top etc. If an object moves along inertia or law of Galileo.
a circulai· path with WJUorm • First law gives the definition of inertia. lne11ia
speed, its motion is called wJjform is the virtue of a body due to wWch it tries to
circular motion . It is accelerated retain its state.
even if the speed of the body is Inertia is of tluree types
constant. The motion of a satellite Inertia of rest
is an accelerated motion. Inertia of motion
• The acceleration is directed Inertia of cUrection
towards the centJ·e and is given by • A person sitting in a moving cai· falls forward,
v-0 when the cai· stops suddenly. TWs is because
a =-, where v is the speed and r
r the feet of the passenger comes to the rest along
is the racUus. Tbfa is called with the car, but the upper part of Ws body,
cen tripetal acceleration. tends to remain in motion due to inertia of
motion.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• The dust particle come out from a • lmpuJse = Change in momentum

carpet, when it js beaten with a stick
due to their inertia ofrest.
• Inertial Frame Whenever the frame of
reference js moving ,•vi th uniform
velocity or is at rest.
• Non-lne11ial Frame Whenever the
frame of reference is accelerating or
retarding or rotating js called non-
inertial frame of reference .
Second Law
• "The force applied on a body is equal
to the product of mass of the body
and the acceleration produced in it
e .g. F = ma."
• The second law of motion gives the
de£imtion of force .
• A force is any influence that causes an
object to Wldergo a certain change,
either concerning its movement,
direction and geometrical sb.-uctme.
• SI unjt of force js Newton (N) .
LinearMomentwn
• The produc t of the mass and the • On firing the bullet, the gunner is pushed
velocity of a body js called the linear
momentum of the body.
• It is a vec tor quantity. Its unit is kg-m/s.
:. Llnear momentum = Mass xVelocity • In a rocket, gases are e=:jec ted with a great
• A heavier body has a larger linear
momentum than a lighter body moving
,,.rith the same velocity.
• In the absence of external forces, the
total linear momentum of the system
remains conserved.
= F orce x Time interval
• Its SI unit is N-s or kg-m/s.
Concept of Im pulse
• A cricketer moves his hands backwards while
catching a ball.
• A person jumping from a height on a 'concrete'
floor receives more injury than when jumping
on a spongy floor_
• Vehicles like cars, bu ses and scooters are
provided with shockers _
• Bogies of the train s are provided with buffers to
avoid severe jerks during shunting of train s.
Buffers increase the time-duration of jerks
during shunting_ This reduces the force with
which bogies push or pull each other and thu s
severe jerks are avoided_
Thir d Law
• "Every action have equal and opposite
reaction ." Action and reaction a.Jways act
on the different bornes.
in backward direction.
• When the boa!J:nan is jumped from the
boat, the boat is pushed back.
speed from the rocket backwards and
rocket js pushed forwards .
• Whlle s\i\ri.n1IlJmg, a person pushes the
wa ter backwards (action). The wa ter
pushes the s,,rinJ.mer forward ·with the
same force (reaction) .

Application of Conservation of Equilibrium

Linear Momentum • If the resuJtant of all the forces acting on a
• When a man jumps from a boat to the body is zero, then the body is said to be in
shore, the boat slightly moves away equilibdum. If a body js in equilibiium, it
from the shore. Rocket works on the will be either at rest or in uniform motion .
principle of conservation of If it is at res t, the equilibd wn is called
momentum. s tatic, othen\rise dynamic.
• When a bullet js fired from a gun, the • Static equilibrium is of the following two
gun recoils or gives a sharp pull in tzJpes
backward direction. (i) Stable Equllibrium If on slight
ms placement from equilibrium
Impulse position a body has tendency to regain
• If a force acts on a body for a very short its original position, it js said to be in
time 11t, then the product of force and s table equilibrium.
time js called the impuJse .
GENERAL KN OWLEDGE ~ General Science

(ii) Unstable Equm brium If on a slight displacement from equilibrium position , a

body moves in the direction of displacement and does not regain its 01iginal
position, the equilibrium is said to be WJstable equilibrium. In tWs eq uilibriWJJ , the
centre of gravity of the body is at the highest position .

Neub·al Equilibrium
If on slight displacement from equilibiium position a body h as no tendency to come back
to its original position or to move in the direction of displacement, it is said to be in
neutral equilibliwn.
• In neutral equilibriWJJ, the centre of gravity always remains at the same height.
Condition.for Stable Equilibrium,
For stable equilibiium of a body, the following two conditions should be fulfilled
(i) The centre of gravity of the body should be at the minimWJJ height.
(ii) The vertical line passing through the centre of gravity of the body should pass through
the base of the body.
Centre of Mass Centre of mass of a body (system of particles) is a point '"''here the entire
mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated. We can define position of centre of mass
rby
X- 77Z-1F I + m2r 2 + .. .. .. ..+ m,, 1'11
m1 + m2_ + ........ + m11
whel'e, r 1,r 2 , •. •• • rri are position vec tors of constituent particles.

FRICTION
• If we slide or b.'y to slide a body over a surface, the motion is resis ted by a bonding
bet\l\ieen the body and the surface. This resistance is called mctional force .
• The opposite force that comes in to play when one body tends to move over the surface
of anothel' body but actually motion h as yet not started is called static friction.
• The maximWJJ value of the static fdction al force which comes into play when a body
j ust begins to slide over the surface of another body is called llmiti.ng [rictionaJ force.
• When two bodies actually roll on each other (as in case of ball bearing), the rolling
friction comes into play.
• When two bodies actually slide over each other, s liding friction comes into play.
• When a body moves over the other body, then the force of fdction acting behveen t\ivo
surfaces in contact in relative motion is called Kinetic Fiiction .
• µ 5 >µ" >µr, here µ 51 µ" and~ are called coefficient of static, ]dnetic and rolling fdction
respectively.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction

• Wallcing is possible due to fdction.
• The ti·ansfer of motion from one part of a machine to other part through belts is
possible by fdction.
• Brake works on the basis of friction .
• Friction causes wear and tear of the parts of machinery in contact. Thus, their lifetime
ge ts reduced.

Methods of Reducing Friction

• By polishing, by lubrication, by proper selection of matelial and by using ball bearing
fdction can be reduced to some extent.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Work, Energy and Power

WORK • When momentum is doubled, kinetic
When a body is displaced by applying a energy becomes four times.
force on it, then work is said to be done. If a • Kinetic energy of air is used to run ,,viJJd
body is displaced by a distance s on mills.
applying a force F on it, then work done • Kinetic energy of running water is used
W = F · s = Fs cos 0, where '0' is the angle to run the water mills .
bet'1veen the force and the direction of • A buJJet fired from a gun can pierce a
displacement. It is a scalar quantity. h s unH target due to its kinetic energy.
is jouJe 0).
• If a body is moving in h mizontal circle
Positive Work Done then its kinetic energy is san1e at all
points, but if it is moving in vertical
• Positive ,,vork means that force is appued
circle, then the kinetic energy is
along the direction of displacement. e.g. different at different points.
,,vhen a horse p ulls a cart on a level road,
,,vhen a body falls freely un der Potential Energy
gravitational p ull .
• It is the energy possessed by a body by
Negative Work Done virtue of its position .
Negative work means that force is opposite • Suppose a body is raised to a heJght h
to displacem ent. e .g. when a positive above the smface of the earth , then
charge is moved towards another positive potential energy of the body= mgh.
charge, when a body is made to sude over a • When a body is falling downwards , then
rough surface. its potenti al energy goes on changing to
kinetic energy.
Zero Work Done • The potential energy of the wound
If the force is perpendicuJar to the spring of a clock is used to drive the
displacement and if either the force or the h ands of the clock.
displacement is zero, ,,vork done is zero. e.g. • The potential energy of water in dams
when a body is moved along a circular path is used to run turbines in order to
·with the help of a string, when a cooue produce elecrnc energy using the
travels on a platform with a load on hfa generators .
head an d when a person does not move
from his position but he may be holding any Conservative and
amount of heavy load . Non-conservative Forces
ENERGY A non-dissipative force is Jmown as
conservative force e.g. gravitational force,
• It is defined as capacity of doing ,,vork.. Its elecb:ostatic force. Non-conservative
unit isjouJe in SI and erg in CGS system. forces are dissipative forces e.g. friction al
• Mechanical energy is in two forms ; forces , viscous force.
kinetic energy an d potential energy.
Law of Conservation of Energy
Kinetic Energy • According to the la\iv of conservation
of energy, " Energy can neither be
• It is the energy possessed by a body by created nor be destrnyed but it can only
virtue of its motion .
be transformed from one form to
• If a body of mass m is moving ·with another."
velocity v, then kinetic energy • The sum of all kinds of energies in an
2
1 2 p isolated system remains constant at all
KE= -mv = -
2 2m times.
,,.,here, pis the linear momentum.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Transforn1ation of Energy
• In a heat engine, heat energy changes
into mechanical energy.
• In the electric buJb, the elecllic energy
1s converted into light energy.
• In bu.ming coil, oil etc., the chemical
energy changes into heat energy.
• In solar cell, solar energy changes into
elect::dcal energy.
• In playing sitar, mechanical energy
changes into sound energy.
• In microphone, sound energy changes
into electrical energy.
• In loud spealcer, electrical energy
changes into sound energy.
• In battery, chemical energy changes
into mechanical energy.
• In elecrr·ic motor, elecllical energy
changes into mechanical energy.
• In candJe, cbem.ical energy changes
into l.ight and heat enel'gy.
POWER
• Rate of doing work by a body 1s called
power.
Work done
Le. Power = - - - -
Time taken
w
P =-
t • Th.is 1s called Newton's universal law of
• SI unit of power is watt (W) or joule per
second and it is a scalar quantity.
I W = 1 J/s
1 kW = l0 3 W
6 • It is the force by which the Earth at!Tac ts
l MW = 10 W
1 Horse Power (HP) = 7 4 6 W
1 watt/second (W-s) = lJ
1 watt/hour (W-h) = 3600 J
I kilowatt hour (kW-h) = 3.6 x 10 6 J
Torque
• The turning effect of a force on a body
1s ]mown as the moment of the force or
torque. Torque is a vec tor quantity.
Le. Torque, Z = F. d
Whel'e, F = force
d = perpend.icular d.istance of force from
the axis of rotation.
Simple Machines
• It is based on moment of force.
• Lever, incl ined plane, screw guage etc_ are
simple machine.
• Scissors, sea saw, brakes of cycle, hand pump,
plass are lever of first kind.
• Nut cracker and waste carrying machine are
lever of second kind.
• Tong, man's hand and tiller are lever of third
kind.
GRAVITATION
In 1686, Ne\lvton stated that .in the universe
each particle of matter attracts every other
particle. This universal attractive force is called
gravitation.
Gravitational Force
• It 1s always at!Tactive .in nahll·e.
• It 1s the weakest force bu t 1s a long range
force.
• Mathematically it is represented as
Fe = G~m
r-
\"i1here, Fe is gravitational force, G is
gravitational constant, Mis the mass of ::first
particle, m is the mass of second particle
and r is the d.istance between them.
gravitation.
• The value of G is 6.67 x 10- 11 N-m 2 /kg2
Gravity
a body towards its cenrr·e .
• The acceleration due to gravity is the rate of
.increase of velocity of a body falling freely
towards the Earth. It 1s represented by
GJ\{~
g = RQ.
C
where, Me is the mass of the Earth and Re is
the rad.ius of Earth.
• The value of g at the surface of Earth 1s
9.8m/s 2 .
• The Earth is surrounded by an
atmosphere of gases due to gravity. The
value of g on the Moon is I/6th of that on
the Earth surface.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Variation in the Value of g
• When we go above the surface of the
Earth, the acceleration due to gravity
goes on decreasing.
• When we go below the surface of the
Earth, the acceleration due to gravity
goes on decreasing and becomes zero
at the centTe of the Earth.
• Decreasing the rotational motion of
Earth, the value of g increases.
• When we go from the equator towards
the poles, the value of g goes on
:increasing.
• If Earth stops its rotation about its mm
axis, then at the equator the value of g
incl'eases and consequently the weigh t
of body lying there :increases.
• The value of g is maximum on the
surface of the Earth.
Cenb·e of Gravity
• The centTe of gravity of a body is that
point at , 1vhicb the whole weigh t of the • The speed of a satellite does not depend
body appears to act.
• It can be inside the material of the
body or outside it.
• For regularly shaped body, the cenb.·e
of gravity lies at its geomeb:ical • Every body inside the satellite is in a state of
centre.
Mass
• The mass of a body is the quantity of
matter contained in it.It is a scalar
quantity and its SI unit is kg.
• Mass is measmed by an ordinary
equal arm balance.
• Mass of body does not change from
place-to-place and remains constant.
Weight
• The weight of a body is the force with,
\"i hich it is attracted towards the
1 earth in polar orbits at a heigh t of
centre of the Earth. It is a vector
quantity and its SI unjt is Newton
(N).
• It is measured by a spring balance.
• It is not constant and it changes from
place to place.
Weight of a Body in a Lift
■ If lift is stationary or moving with uniform speed
(either upward or downward), the apparent
weight of a body is equal to its true weight
■ If lrft is going up with an acceleration, the
apparent weight of a body is more than the true
weight. If lift is going down with an acceleration,
the apparent weight of a body is less than the
true weight
■ If the cord of the Iift is broken, then it falls freely_
In this situation, the weight of a body in the lift
becomes zero_ This is the situation of
weightlessness.
■ While going down, if the acceleration of lift is
more than acceleration due to gravity, a body in
the lift goes in contact of the ceiling of lift.
SATELLITE
• The heavenly body whkh revolves around
the planets is called satelli te. Moon is a
natural satellite of Earth.
upon the mass of the satellite.
• A satelli te revolving very close to Earth's
surface has a period of revolution about 84
min and its speed is nearly 8 Jan/s .
weightlessness. Total energy of the satellite
is negative.
• Artificial satellites wre of two types
Geostationary and Polar satellites
(i) The satellite whose time period is 24 h, is
called geostationary satellite. Rt is used
to re.fleet TV signals and telecast TV
programs from one part of the world to
another. This satelli te revolves around
the Earth at a height of 36000 Jan.
INSAT-2B and IN SAT-2C are
geostationary satellites of Inrua.
(ii) Polai· satelUtes revolve around the
approximately 800 Jan. The time period
of these satellites is approximately 84
minu te. These satellites are used in
weather forecasting, in studying upper
region of the atmosphere, in mapping
etc. PSLV Series Satellites are Polar
Satellites of India.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Escape Velocity Kepler's Laws

• Tbe minimum velocity that should be
given to the body to enable it to
escape away from Earth's
gravitational field is called escape
velocity. It is given by
2 x acceleration
v e = due to gravitzJ x Radim of
\ theEarth
Its value on the Earth 's surface is
11.2 km/s.
• The value of the escape velocity of a
body does not depend on its mass. Its
value on the moon swface is
2.38 km/s. So, there is no
atmosphere around the moon.
• Escape velocity is ✓2 times the orbital
velocity.
• Satellites are launched vi'ith the
escape velocity as needed.
• All planets move around the Sun in elliptical
orbits having the Sun at one foci of the orbit.
• The areal speed of a planet around the Sun
is constant.
• Tbe square of the peliod of revolution (I) of
any planet around the Sun is directly
proportional to the cube of its mean clistance
from the Sun (a) i.e. T 2 oc a 3 .
Quick Digest
• The Earth rotates on its axis from West to East.
This rotation makes the Sun and the stars appear
to be moving across the sky from East to West
• The response of plants to gravity is called
geotropism_
• We are able to see a live telecast of cricket
matches or other programmes with the help of a
communication satellite, which is a
geostationary satellite.

General Properties of Matter

Matter It is the substance that occupies
definjte space and mass which is perceptible
to sense.
ELASTICITY
• It is that property of the material body by
virtue of , 1vhich the body opposes any
change in its shape or size when deforming
forces are apphed to it, and recovers its
odginal state as soon as the deforming
forces are removed.
• Steel is more elastic than rubber.
• Elastic Limit The maximum hmit of the
external force upto v, hich elasticity of the
1
body is main tained.
Plasticity
• The property of a body by virtue of which it
does not regain its original configuration
even after the removal of deforming force
is called plasticity.
• Putty, paraffin wax are nearly perfectly
plastic boclies.
Stress
The in ternal restoring force acting per unit
area of cross-section of the deformed body is
called stress. Its unH is N/m 2 or pascal.
Sh·ain
• The change in length, volume, shape
of the body per unit of the original
value under the application of the
deforming force is called sb.-ain. Strain
is unit less quantity.
• Hooke's law and ModuJus of
Elasticity The ratio of stress to strain
is a constant for the matedal and is
called modulus of elasticity.
E = Stress
Strain
• It is also called Hooke's law, which
states that within the nm.it of elasticity
the strain produced in a body is directly
proportional to the stress apphed to it.
• Young's ModuJus If sb.-ain is
longitudinal, then the mod ulus of
elasticity is called Young's modulus.
• Bulk ModuJus If un der the effect of
wmorm pressUl'e, the volume of the
body changes it is called the bulk
modulus of elasticity.
• Modulus of Rigidity Tbe ratio of
tangenti al sb.'ess to shearing strain is
called modulus of dgidity.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• Therefore, during swimming a person

MECHANICAL displaces the water with hands and
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS legs and thus total weight of displaced
water becomes equal to the weight of
PRESSURE the body.
• It is defined as force acting normally on WJ.it • If ice floating in water in a vessel
area of the surface. melts, the level of , 111ater in the vessel
Normal force does not change.
P ressure - - -- - - • The density of sea water js more than
Area
that of normal water. This explains
• Its WJ.it js N/m 2 also cal]ed pascal. It is a , 1vhy it is easier to swim in sea water.

scalar quantity.
• Pressure in a liquid js given by p = hpg Pascal's Law
where , h is the height, (p) js density of the • The pressure exerted anywhere at a
liquid and g js acceleration due to gravity. point of confined fluid is transmitted
• Abnospheric pressw-e of I abn equal]y and undinJ.inisbed in all
5 2 directions throughout the liquid .
= 1.01 x 10 N/m = 760 torr
• Atmospheric pressw-e decreases with • Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press,
altitude. This is , 1vhy (i) it is difficult to cook hydraulic bral<e work on the basis of
on the mountain, (ii) the fountain pen of a Pascal's law.
passenger lealcs in aeroplane at height.
• Atmospheric pressure is measw-ed by BUOYANCY
barometer. The slow rise in the barometric • The upward force exerted by a fluid on
reading is the indication of clear weather. the immersed body js called buoyant
• Sudden fall in barometric reading is the force or upthrust. The upthrust acts at
inrncation of storm. the centre of gravity of the liquid
• Slow fall in barometric reading js the displaced by the submerged part of the
inrncation of rain. body that is called the centre of
buoyancy.
DENSI1Y AND • Buoyant force depends on the density
of the fluid and not on the density of
RELATIVE DENS11Y body and acts on centre of gravity of
• The density of a substance (p) is defined as displaced fluid.
the ratio of its mass (M) to its volume (V).
.
1.e.
D .
e □stty
Mass Archimedes' Principle
Volume • When a solid body is immersed wholly
Its unit is kg/m 3 . or partially in a liquid, then there is
• Density of water is maximum at 4°C. some apparent loss in its weight. This
• The relative density js defined as the ratio loss in weight is equal to the weight of
of the density of the substance to the the liquid displaced by the body.
density of water at 4° C i.e. Law of Floatation
Relative density
_ Density of substance • Whenever a solid body js dipped in to a
fluid, the fluid exerts force of
Density of water at 4 ° C
buoyancy on it, if the force of
• Relative density has no unjt_ buoyancy equals to weight of the solid,
• Relative density is measw-ed by hydrome ter. the solid will remain in equilibrium.
• Ice floats on water surface as its density This is called floatation.
(0.92 g/cm 3) js lesser than the density of • If density of material of body js equal
3
, 111ater (1 g/cm ) . to density of liquid, the body floats
• The density of human body is less than the fully submerged in liquid in neutral
density of water but the density of head is equilibtium.
greater than the density of wa ter.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
• When body floats in neub.'al
equilibrium, the weight of the body is
equal to the weight of displaced
liquid. The centre of gravity of the
body and centre of gravity of the
displaced liquid should be on one
vertical line for the condition.
SURFACE
TENSION(T)
• It is the force (F) acting normally to
an unit length (l) of an inJaginary line
drawn on the surface of liquid.
F silver, 8° for ordiuaf/'y water a11d glass a11d
Le. T= -
l
• Its unit is N/m.
• Cohesive force lt is the
intermolecular force of attraction
acting between the molecules of the
same substance.
• Adhesive force It is the
intermolecular force of attraction
acting between the molecules of
different substance.
• The surface tension decreases with
1ise in temperature and becomes zero
at the cliticaJ temperature.
• Due to the surface tension, rain drops
are spbelicaJ in shape.
■ Warm soup is tasty because at
high temperature its surface
tension is lov,, and consequently
the soup spreads on all part of the
tongue.
■ When kerosene oil is sp1inkled on • It is the property of the liquid by virtue of
water, its swface tension
decreases.
Some Phenomena Based on
Surface Tension
• Small drops of merclll"Y are
spherical, while large ones are flat.
• Formation of lead shots.
• Floatation of needJe on water.
• Dancing of canJpbor on water.
• Bigger bubbles can be formed from
the soap solution easily than from • Viscosity of a fluid is measmed by
wa ter.
• Detergent helps in cleaning the
clothes.
CAPILLARTIY
• CapiJJary tube A long glass tube of very fine
(hair like) bore is called capillary tube.
• The phenomenon of rise or fall of liquids in a
capillai)' tube is called capillaiity.
• The liquids whkh wet glass and for which
the angle of contact is acute rise up in the
capillai-y tube, while those , 1vhich do not wet
glass, for whkh the angle of con tact is
obtuse ai·e fall down in the capillai-y tube.
Note The augle of conlacl is zero for pLtre water
aud clean glass. 1£ is 90° for water a'lld
135° for mercLtry a11d glass.
Some Practical Examples of
Capillarity
• The kerosene oil in a lantern and the melted
wax in a candle, rise in the capillaries formed in
the cotton wick and thus they are burnt
• Writing nib is spl it in the midd le so that a fine
capillary is formed in it When it is dipped in ink
the ink ri ses in the capillary.
• The water given to the fields rises in the
innumerable capillaries formed in the stems of
plants and trees and reaches the branches and
the leaves.
• The fa rm ers plough their fields a~er rain s so
that the capillaries formed in the soil are broken
and the water remains in the lower layers of the
soil.
VISCOSTIY
,,vWch it opposes the relative motion
behl\ieen its adjacent ]ayers.
• Viscosity of an ideal fluid is zero.
• Viscosity is the property of both liquids and
gases. With Iise in temperature, viscosity of
liquids decreases and that for gases
increases.
• Viscosity of gases is much ]ess than that of
liquids.
• Viscosity of liquid increases with increase in
pressme.
its coefficient of viscosity. Its SI unit is
(N sm - 2) or pascal-second (Pa-s).
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Terminal Velocity ■
no force acts on the pai-ticle.
■
velocity js maxinJum.
• When a body falls in a viscous medium, its
■ acceleration is zero.
velocity first increases and finally becomes
constant. Tbfa constant velocity js caJJed • kinetic ene1·gy is maximum.
terminal velocity. ■ potential energy js zero.
• Terminal velocity of a spherical body falling in When a particle executing SHM is
a viscous medium is proportional to the squai·e at the exb:eme end, then
of radius of the body. ■ velocity of pai·ticle is zero.
• When a Uqujd flow thrnugh a pipe, jts speed is acceleration of the pai·ticle is
maxinJum near axis and minimum neai· the maximum .
, 111alls of the pipe. ■ kinetic energy of pai·ticle is zero.
• According to the eq uation of continuity the ■ potential energy is maximum.
speed of fJui d Dow becomes faster in the ■ restoring force acting on the
na1-rm11r pipe. pai·ticle is maximum.
• Stream Line Flow or Steady Flow In tWs Note
flow velocity at every point in the fluid ,•vill • In case of spri11g bloch system the
remains constant. restori'llg force F=-la
• Tw·buJent Flow In tWs flow, the speed of where, .x is displace111e11t of the bloch
wa ter is quite high, then the flow becomes from 111ea11 posil'iou a11d h is spri11g
irreguJai-. constant.
• Critical Velocity The lirniting velocity of a • In case of spri'llg blocle system, time
liquid above whkh flow will become tmbuJent. period' oscillat'io1L is give1L by
• Principle of Contin uity For a tube of flow, T= 2rc '!!!:..
k , wit ere 111 is 111ass o,f the
bet\•veen t\vo points h aving area of
cross-section A1 and A 2 and velocities v 1 and bloch.
v 2 , bet\veen t\vo poin ts Av= Constant, ⇒
A1V1 =A2.V2 Periodic Motion
• Any motion which repeats itself
Bernoulli's Theorem after a reguJar in terval of time is
• When an incompressible and non-viscous called periodic or harmonic
liquid ( or gas) flows in streanliined motion motion and the pedod of repetition
from one place to another, then at every point js called time period_.
of its path the total energy per unit volume • Motion of hands of a clock, motion
(pressure energy + kinetic energy + potential of Eai·th ai·ound the Sun, motion of
energy) remains constant. the needle of a sewing machine are
l o the examples of peliodic motion.
i.e. p+pg h+-pv-=constant
2
where, p = press me, p = density of fluid, v = Oscillatory Motion
velocity of flow, h = height of the tube of flow • If a pai·ticle repeats its motion after
• Venturimete1~ Pitot tube, Bunsen's bmner, a reguJai· time intervals about a
atomjzer, fil ter pump and magnus effect ai·e fixed point, motion js said to be
based upon the Bernoulli's theorem. oscillatory or vibratory.
• Motion of piston in an automobile
SIMPLE HARMONIC engine, motion of balance wheel of
MOTION a watch ai·e the examples of
oscillatory motion.
• If a body moves to and fro on a straight line
about a fixed position, then its motion is called Simple Pendulum
simple hai·monic motion.
• It is a heavy point mass suspended
When a pai-ticle executing SHM passes thrnugh from a rigid support by means of an
the mean position, then
elastic inextensible string.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
• Time peliod of simple pendulwn
T = 2Jr ,_ _le_n_gth
__o_f p_ e_n_d_ul
_ um
__
acceleration due to gravity
where, l is the length of simple
pendulwn and gis the acceleration due
to gravity.
• The maximum time peLiod of a simple
pendulum js 84 .6 min.
• A pendulwn clock goes slow in
summer and fast in winter.
• If a simple penduJum js suspended in
a lift descending dmm with
acceleration, then time peLiod of
pendulum v,ill increase. If lift is
Wave Motion
WAVES
• A wave is a disturbance which • The wave which do not require mediunJ for
propagates energy from one place to
the other \"irithou t the b.'ansport of
matter.
• These are of two types
(i) Mechamcal waves
(ii) Elecb.'omagnetic waves
Mechanical Waves
• The waves which require mateLial
medium (solid, liquid or gas) for their
propagation are called mechamcal
waves or elastic waves.
• These are of two tzJpes
I . Longitudinal waves
2 . Transverse ,,,.,aves
Longitudinal Waves
• If the pa.rodes of the medium vibrate
in the direction of propagation of wave • Wavelength Wavelength js the distance
motion, the wave is called longitudinal
wave. Waves on springs or sound
waves in air are examples of • Frequency Frequency of vibraoon of a
longitudinal waves.
Transverse Waves
• If the parocles of the medium vibrates
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave, the wave is called
transverse wave. \i\faves on strings
under tension, waves on the surface of
water are examples of transverse wa,,es.
e
ascending, then time period of pendulum
'"'ill decrease.
• If a lift falling freely under gravity, then the
time period of the pendulum will be
infinHe. At Moon, the time period of simple
penduJunJ increases, because acceleration
due to gra,rity at Moon decreases.
Resonance
• It is a phenomenon that occurs when a vibrating
system or external force drive another system to
oscillate with greater amplitude at a specific
preferential frequency.
Electromagnetic Waves
their propagation i.e. which can propagate
even though the vacuum are called
electromagnetic wave. They propagate as
transverse wave.
• The wavelength range of elecb.'omagneoc
wave is 10-4 m to 104 m .
• Cathode rays, canal rays, a-rays, ~-rays are
not electromagneoc waves. Light and heat
waves are examples of elecb.'omagneoc
waves.
Impo1tant Te1ms
Related to Waves
• Amplitude Maximum displacement of a
vibrating pa.rode of medium from its mean
posioon is called amplitude.
• Phase The position of a point in tinJe
(instant) on wave form cycle.
beh veen any two nearest pa.rode of the
1
medium, vibrating in the sanJe phase .
pa.rode is defined as the nunJber of
vibrations completed by the particle in one
second.
1
Frequency (f) =
Time Period (1)
• Velocity of wave (v)
= Frequency (f) x Wavelength (A)
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• The speed of sound in air is very slower as

SOUND WAVE compared to the speed of light in air.
• It js longitudinal mechanical waves. Therefore, in rainy season, the flash of
• The longitudinal mecharucal waves lightning js seen first and the sound of
which he in the range 20 Hz to thunder is heard a httle la ter.
20,000 Hz are called auruble or sound
waves.
• These are sensitive to human ear.
. ::e::1r,::::. inEa :e::;u~ve:
• The longitudinal mecharucal waves elasticity of the medium, p= density
having frequendes less than 20 Hz,
cal]ed infrasonic .
• These are produced by earthquakes,
For gases, v = l
volcanic eruption, ocean waves and Where, p is pressme and y is ratio of
elephants and whales. specific heats.
• The longitudinal mecharucal waves Characteristics
having frequencies greater than
20000 Hz are called uJt:rasonic waves . of Sound W aves
• Human ear cannot detect the ultrasonic Int ensity
waves. But certain creatures W<e dog, • Intensity of sound at any point in space is
ca t, bat, mosquito can detect these defined as amount of energy passing
waves. Bat produce uJtransonic waves. normally per unit area held around that
• Ultrasonic waves are used for sending point per unit time. SI unit of intensity is
signals, measw=ing the depth of sea, W/m 2 .
cleaning clothes and machinery parts of • Intensity of sound at a point is inversely
clocks, removing lamp shoot from proportional to the square of the distance
chimney of fac tmies and in of point from the source and directly
ultrasonography. proportional to square of amphtude of
vibration, square of frequency and density
Sp eed of Sound of the medium.
• Speed of sound is maximum in solids • The loudness depends on intensity as well
and minimum in gases. as upon the sensitivity of the ear.
• Speed of sound in air is 332 m/s, in
water js 1483 m/s and in iron js 5 130 Pit ch
m/s. Speed of sound basically depends • It is that charactedstic of sound which
upon elasticity and density of medium. distinguishes a sharp sound from a grave
• When sound enters from one medium sound.
to another medium, its speed and • Pitch depends upon frequency of sound
wavelength changes but frequency waves.
remains unchanged.
• The pitch of female voice is higher than
• Speed of sound remains unchanged by the pitch of male voice.
the increase or decrease of pressure.
• The pitch of sound produced by roaring of
• The speed of sound increases with the lion js lowe1; whereas the pitch of sound
increase in temperature of the produced by mosqwto whisper js high.
medium. The speed of sound in air
increases by 0 .61 m /s ,,vhen the Quality
temperature is increased by 1 °C.
It is that charactelistic of sound which
• The speed of sound is more in humid air enables us to distinguish betv11een sounds
than in dry air because the density of produced by h'l'O source having the same
humid air js less than the density of intensity and pitch.
dry air.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Shock Waves
• A body moving with supersonic speed
in air leaves behind it a corneal region
of disturbance which spreads
continuously. Such a disturbance is
caJ]ed shock wave.
• These waves car11' huge energy and
may even make cracks in window
panes or even danJage a building.
• The speed of supersomc wave is
measured in mach number. One Mach
number is the ratio of speed of source
to the speed of sound.
Velocity of source
Mac h TIWJJ ber - - - - - - - -
Velocity of sound
• If Mach number > 1, body is called
supersomc.
• If Mach number > 5, body is called
hypersonic.
• If Mach number < L body is said to be
moving with subsomc speed.
Reflection
of Sound Wave
• When sound waves incidence on any
rigid surface, it returns to its miginal
medium, tWs is called reflection of
sound wave.
Echo
• The repetition of sound due to
reflection of sound waves, is called an
echo. To hear echo, the minimum
distance bet\'veen the observer and
reflector should be 17.2 m. Persistence of
ear is 1/10 s.
• At the Moon the echo is not heared due
to absence of ab:nosphere.
• A group of soldiers on a bridge are
advised not to walk in steps because
their movement causes the bridge to
vibrate. If they walk in step, the
frequency of vibration may match the
natural frequencey of the bridge
sb.-ucture and thus causing resonance.
This resonance of frequencey can
cause the bridge to collapse.
• When a gun is f.iJ"ed at a visible
distance, the sound heard a little after
the smoke is seen because the velocity
of ligh t is much higher than that of
sound.
Sonar
• It stands for sound navigation and
ranging. It is used to measure the depth of
a sea, to locate the enemy submadnes and
shipwrecks .
• The tJ·ansnJ.itter of a sonar produces pulses
of ultrasonic sound waves of frequency of
about 50000 Hz.
• T he reflec ted sound , 111aves are received by
the receiver.
DOPPLER'S EFFECT
• If there is a relative motion betvveen
smJTce of sound and observer, the
apparent frequency of sound heard by the
observer is different from the actual
frequency of sound emitted by the somce.
Trns phenomenon is called Doppler's
effect.
• When the distance between the somce
and observer decreases, the apparent
frequency increases and vice-versa.
Uses
(i) By police to check over speeding of
verncles.
(il)At airport to guide the aircraft.
(ili)To study heart beats and blood flow in
different parts of the body.
HEAT
• It is a form of energy which flows from
hotter to colder body by virtue of
temperature difference.
• It is due to the kinetic energy of the
molecules constituting the body.
• Its wJ.its are calorie (cal), kilocaJorie (kcal)
or joule O).
• 1 cal= 4.18 J, 1 kc al = 1000 cal
TEMPERATURE
• It is the measurement of h otness or
coldness of a body.
• An instJument used to measw·e the
temperature of a body is called a
thermometer.
• T he normal temperature of a human body
is 37° C or 98.4°F
• - 40° is the temperature at which Celsius
and Fahrenheit thermometers read same.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• The clinical thermometer reads from
96°F to 1 10°F
• Triple point is the state at wWch all the
three states of matter coexist. The
triple point of wateris 273.16 K.
• Scales of temperatw·e measw:ement
C F - 32 R K - 273
- = --- = - = ---
5 9 4 5
• The temperature at hich Celsius and
\"i1
Reaumtll" scale read the same is zero.
• Freezing point of mercw:y js - 39° C.
Hence, to measU1·e temperatw·e below
this temperature, alcohol thermometer
js used. Freezing poin t of alcohol is
ll5°C.
Pyrometer
• Pyrometer measures the temperatw:e
of a body by measuring the radiation
emitted by the body.
• It cannot measw:e temperatw·e below
800°C because at lm'I' temperatill·e
emission of radiation is very small and
cannot be detected .
SPECIFIC HEAT
• It is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperatill·e of a llillt mass of • First Law of Thermodynamics The
the substance by I °C. Its unit is J/kg-°C.
• It is given by S=_g__, where m is the
m!:10
mass Q is amount of heat given to the
substance and !10 is change in • i.e. dQ = dU (internal energy) + dW
temperatw·e.
• Specific heat of water is 4200 Jkg-10 C-1 • Second Law of Thermodynamics The
or lcalg-1 0 C-1 wWch js hjgh in
compa11son to most other substances.
Therefore, water is used as coolant in
radiator of vemcle.
• Kelvin-Planck's
• For most substances, the specific heat
increases with rise in temperatw·e and
assumes a constant value at hjgh
temperatw·e.
• The specific heat of water, however • Clausius Statement It is impossible to
decreases with rise in temperatill·e from
0°C to about 4°C after wWch it
increases with temperatU1·e.
• Mercury has low specific heat.
• Latent Heat of Vaporisation It js the • Change in enb.-opy at temperature T.
anrnunt of heat required to change the
phase of the substance at constant
temperatw·e.
• Hot water burns are less severe than that
of steam bmns because steam has Wgh
latent heat.
• Latent heat of fusion of ice js 80 cal/g.
• Latent heat ofvapoLisation of steam is 536
cal/g.
• Its SI unit is J/kg. Ice at 0°C appears
colder than that water at 0°C, because ice
takes more heat.
• Molar Heat Capacity at Constant
Pressw·e (Cp) lt is the anrnunt of
heat required to raise the temperatw:e of 1
mole of gas by 1 Kat constant p ressme.
• Molar Heat Capacity at Constant
Volume (Cv) It is the amount of heat
reqwred to raise the temperatill·e of
I mole of gas by 1 K at constant volume.
Cp - Cv =R (Mayer's relation)
where, R is gas constant= 2 cal mol- 1IC1
y = Cp = ratio is of specific heat capacities
Cv
Thermodynamics
• Zeroth law of Thermodynamics If two
bodies A and B are separately in thermal
equilibtium with the tWrd body C, then A
and B will be in thermal equilibtium with
each other.
an1ount of heat given to a system is used
up in hvo ways, first to increase the
in ternal energy and second to do the
external work.
(work done).
second law of thermodynamks is the
outcome of human e:\.-pe11ence under
wWch heat energy can be converted in to
mecharncal energy.
Statement lt is
impossible to consb.-uct a device whkh
operates in a cycle that will take heat from
a body and convert it completely into the
work without producing any other effect.
conslTuct a self acting device whkh
operates in a cycle that '"'ill
transfer heat
from a cold body to a h ot body without
e:\.-penditure of work.
When !iQ amount of heat exchanged is
!is= !iQ its SI unit is J/K.
T
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

The11nal Expan sion Transmission of Heat

• It is the increase in size of the body on
heating.
• A solid can undergo three types of thermal
expansions
I. Linear expansion (expansion in
length).
2. Superfidal expansion (expansion in
area).
3. Cubical expansion (expansion in
volume).
Note Almos£ every liquid e.-rpa11ds wilh lhe
in crease in tempemlwre. But whell
tempera bure of water is i ucreasedfrom 0°C
to 4°C, its volume decreases, aft.er this ils
vol'U111e increases.
Relation betweeu the coefficieuts ofli11ealJ',
superficial a11d cubical expa11sio11s:
(X:~:y = l: 2:3
TI.-ansfer of heat from one place to other
place is called transm.ission of heat.
There a.i--e three processes, by which
transm.ission of heat tal{es place.
• Conduction
• Convection
• Rad.iation
Conduction
• In th.is process heat is transferred
without actual movement of the
particles of mediunJ.
• In th.is process path of heat transfer is
irregu]a.i·. In solid, transm.ission of
heat tal{es place by conduction
process.
• Mercmy though a liq u.id is heated by
conduction and not by convection.

Convection
Practical Applications
• In th.is process, heat is tTansferred by
of Thermal Expansions
the actual movement of pa.i·ticles of
• Telephone wires are given enough gap to the mediunJ due to diffemnce in
allow the wires for contraction in winter_ densities of different pa.i·ts of the
• An ordinary pendulum clock runs faster in mediunJ.
winter but slower in summer, because in • In liq u.id and gases tTansm.ission of
summer the length of pendulu m increases, heat tal{es place by convection
while in winter it decreases. process. Th.is process is also slm"i'.
• In the construction of bridges, ends of steel • The chimney used in kitchen or in a
girders are not fixed but placed on rolls to allow factory is based on the convection.
free expansion and contraction in summer and In rooms ventilators a.i·e provided to
winter respectively to avoid any damage to the escape the hot air by the process of
bridge. convection.
• A gap is provided between the iron rails of the
railway track so that rails can easily expand Radiation
during summer and do not bend. lt is the qu.ickest way of transm.ission of
heat in which there is no need of
Humidity medium for transfer of heat. Heat from
• The anrnunt of water vapour in air is called the Sun maches the Earth by rad.iation .
In th.is process, heat is b.-ansferred at the
as hum.idity.
speed of light.
• The amount of water vapour present in 1 m 3
air is called its absolu te hum.idity. Kirchhoff's Law
• The ratio of a.mount of water vapow.· (m) • Kirchboff 's law signifies that good
actually present in a certain volume of air absorbers are good em.itter.
at a given temperatw.·e to the a.mount of
• If a shining metal ball with some black
wa ter vapour (M) required to satw.·ate it, is
spot on its surface is heated to a h.igh
called Relative HumjdHy (RH) .
temperatlll'e, the shining ball becomes
• Relative hum.idity is measured by dull but the black spots shines brilliantly
hygrometer. because black spot absorbs radiation
• Relative h umid.ity increases with the dwiog heating and emit in dark.
increase of temperatw.--e.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Pe1fectly Black Body summer outside temperatlll·e js higher

as compared to the temperatlll·e of wa ter
• A perfectly black body is one which
obtained from underground which
absorbs completely all the radiations
remains practically unchanged due to
falling on its surface, ,,vhatever be the
Earth being bad conductor of heat.
, 111avelength.

Note Since pe1fectly bla ch body is a pe1ject

absorber, lte11ce accordi11g lo KiTc/1/wffs
LIGHT
law, it will also be a pe1fect radiator. • It is the radiation which makes olll· eyes
able to see the object. Its speed is
Stefan's Law 3 X 10 8 m/s.
• The radiant energy emitted by unit area • It is the form of energy. It js a transverse
of perfectly black body per unit time js wave .
directly proportional to the fomth power • It takes 8 min 19 s to reach on the Earth
of its absolute temperature . from the Sun.
Eoc'r ⇒ E=ar4 • T he light reflected from Moon takes
where. cris Stefan's constant and its value 1. 28 s to reach Earth.
is 5.67. X 10- 3 wm-2 K-4 • It represents the phenomenon of
reflection , refraction, interference,
Newton's Law of Cooling differaction, scattering and polarisation.
• The rate of loss of heat by a body js
directly proportional to the difference in Reflection of Light
temperatme between the body and its • The retmn of light into the sanJe
S lllTO llil ding. mernum after sbildng a surface is called
• Cooking utensiJs are made of reflection .
aluminium, brass and steel because
these substances have low specific heat
Laws of Reflection
and high conductivity. There arre two laws of reflection
• In deserts day temperatme are very high (i) The angle of incidence js always
and night temperatme are extremely low equal to angle of reflection .
because the specific heat of sand is very (ii) The incident ray, normal and
low. T herefore it absorbs the heat readily reflected ray all lie in the sanJe
and its temperatme raises by a large plane at point of incidence.
degree during the day. At mght sand
radiates the heat equally readily making Reflection fro1n
the temperature loss. Plane Mirror
• Human breath is visible in ·winter but not • Size of inJage is always equal to size of
in summer because in winter air js cold oqject.
and so water vapolll·s p resent in the • T he image in a plane mirror appeai·s as
h uman breath condense, making it far behind the mirror as the object is
v1sible. infron t of it.
• ~i\. thfok glass tumbler often cracks when • If the oqject js displaced by a distance a
very hot liq uid is poured in to it because towai·ds or away from the mirror, then its
the inner surface of the thick glass inJage will be displaced by a distance a
tumbler coming in con tact with the hot towai·ds or a\Jvay from the mirror.
liquid expands more in comparison with
• T he :mininJu□J size of the mirror
the outer stll·face which has relatively
required to see the full inJage of an
lower temperatlll·e. Tms unequal
observer is half the height of the
e>..."Pansion of inner and outer surfaces
observer.
causes the tumbler to crack.
• If the plane mirror is rotated in the
• Water from a hand pump js warm in
plane of incidence by an angle 0, then
,,.rin ter and cold in summer because in
the reflected ray rotates by an angle 20.
,,.rinter outside temperatU1·e js low and in
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• Focal length of plane mirror is infinity. Le. Uses of Mirrors

power of the plane mirror is zero.
• Llnear magnification produced by plane
mirror is 1.
• When two plane mirrors are kept facing
each other at an angle 0 and an object js
placed between them, then
(a) Nwnber ofimages,
1. Plane mirrors are used as looking
glass.
2. Concave mirror is used as shaving
minors, used by doctors, shades of
table lamp, for search bghts.
3. Convex mirror is used as back view

n=( 3:D -1}

0 mirrors in vehicles, in street lamps etc.

Refraction of Light
if - - 1s even or th e ob.uect Ii es
3500 .
• When a ray of lig}Jt passes from
0 one medium to other, it bends from
symmemcaliy. its path. This phenomenon of
(b) Nwnber ofinJage, bending of lig}Jt ray is called as

~- e- 1
3600 3600 refraction of lig}Jt.
n-
- (
)' if - e- 1·s odd or· the
• When a ray of lig}Jt travels from one
object bes asymmemcally. medium to another the wavelength and
velocity of lig}Jt changes, but the
Reflection at Spherical frequency does not change.
Surface Laws of Refraction
• Sphelical mirrors are the mirrors in There are two laws of refraction
\ 'l1hich reflecting surface side js spbelical.
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray
There are two types of spherical mirrors and the norm al at the point of
(i) Convex mirror incidence ali lie on the same plane.
(ii) Concave mirror (ii) The ratio of the sine of the angle of
1vli1TOr
\\ " ~- ·
.1orm
£ uJ a 1s
. given
. b y -I +-1 =-1 incidence to the sine of the angle of
. di V ZL f refraction is a constant for a given
u = obuect stance,
medium
v = inJage distance
sin i µ.,
f = foc al length of the mirror - .- =] µ2, =--=-
sm r µn
Magnification (m)
where, 1µ 2 is caJJed refractive index of
Length (height) of inJage - v
second medium with respect to first
Length (height) of object u medium.

Image Formati on by Concave Mirror

Position of Object
At infinity
Between infinity and C
AtC
Between F and C
AtF
Between F and P
Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Image
AtF Highly diminished Real and inverted
Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted
AtC Same size Real and inverted
Between infinity and C Enlarged Real and inverted
At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

where, C is centre of curvature, Pis pole of the mirror and Fis focus.
Image Formati on by Convex Mirror
Position of Object Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Image
At infinity At F Highly diminished Erect and virtual
Between infinity and pole Between F and P Diminished Erect and virtual

where, Fis focus, P is pole and C is centre of curvature.

 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• Twinkling of stars is based upon This phenomenon is called scattering

refraction.
• Due to refraction, rivers appear shallow,
coin in a beaker filled , 1vith water appears
raised, pencil in the beaker appear
broken.
• At sWJset and swnise, due to refraction,
Sun appears above horizon, while it js
actually helm,, hmizon.
• The duration of day appears to be
increased by nearly 4 min due to
atmospheric refraction.
• Writing on a paper appears lilted when a
glass slab is placed over the paper.
• The refractive index of a medium js
maximum for violet colour of light and
minimum for red colom of light.
• Refractive index decreases ,,.rith rise in the
temperatw·e .
Total Inte111al Reflection
ofLight
• When a light ray goes to rarer medium
from denser medium , then as we inCl'ease
the angle of incidence, angle of refraction
also increases. The angle of incidence for
which the angle of refraction becomes 90°
is called critical angle.
• If the angle of incidence in denser
medium is greater than clitical angle (C),
then the ray is reflected back into the
denser medium, this phenomenon js
called total internal reflection. It js
necessary for the total in ternal reflection
of light to occur that the light ray should
go to rar·er medium from denser mec:lium.
• Angle of incidence in denser medium
should be greater than critical angle.
• In desert, the phenomena of mfrage
occms due to total internal reflection.
• The air bubbles in glass paper weight
appear silvery white due to total internal
reflection. Sparkling of ruamond js due to
multiple total internal reflection taking
place inside the diamond.
of light.
• Red colour of light is scattered least an d
,riolet colour of light is scattered mos t.
Therefore, danger signals ar'e of red
colour.
• Blue colour of sky is due to scattering of
light. The brillant red colour of rising
and setting Sun is due to scattering of
light.
• Clouds appear· wWte due to scattering
of light.
Optical Fibre
It is a devke based on total in tern al
reflection by wWch a light signal can be
b.'ansferred from one place to the other
with a negligible loss of energy.
It is used in testing the in ternal organs of
human body i.e. endoscopy.
Lenses
• Lens is a transparent medium bounded
by two cw-ved surfaces. Lenses are of
two tzJpes
(i) Concave or divergent lens.
(ii) Convex or convergent lens .
0
Convex lens
where, 0 = optical cen b.'e
F1 = first focus
F2 = second focus
£ ul a 1s
. given
. b y -I --1 =-
1
L ens 1orm
v 1L f

Scattering of Light Concave len s

• When light ray passes through a mernum
Magnification (m)
in wWch par·ticles are suspended, whose
sizes are of the order of wavelength of Length (height) of jmage v
light, then light on striking these Length (height) of object u
particles, deviated in different c:lirections.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Image Formation by a Convex Lens Dispersion of Light

Position of Position of Size of Nature • When a narrow beam of light is
Object Image Image of Image incident on a prism, the emergent
At infinity At F2 Highly Real and
beam is not only deviated, but at the
diminished inverted same tin1e splits up into a cololll'ed
Beyond 2 F1 Between F2 Diminished Real and band of seven cololll's. This
and 2F2 inverted phenomenon is called dispersion of
At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and
light.
inverted • The seven coloms of band are violet,
Between Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and
2F1 and F1 inverted red.
AtF1 At infinity Highly Real and • Violet colour deviates through maximum
enlarged inverted angle and red colour deviates through
Between F1 Behind ihe Enlarged Virtual the minimwn angle.
and lens object, on and • Red, green and blue are called primary
the same erect coloms or basic colmus.
side of the
object
Mixing of Colours
Image Formation • Red + Green + Blue = White
by a Concave Lens • Red + Blue = Magenta
• Blue + Green = Peacock blue
Position of Position Size of Nature of (or Cyan)
Object of Image Image Image • Red + Green = Yellow
At infinity At F2 Diminished Erect and • If all the cololll'S of \"i1hite light are
virtual reflected back from the object, then it
Between Between Diminished Erect and appeai·s whHe.
infinity Fa and virtual • And if all the cololll's of whi te light :is
and lens lens
absorbed by an object, then it appeai·s
black.
• If the lens is immersed in a medium having • Polarisation is the only phenomenon
refractive index more than that of lens, then the which proves that light is a transverse
nature of the lens changes i.e. convex lens wave.
behaves as convave lens and vice-versa. • The Jayer of kerosene oil over water
• If the lens is immersed in a medium having surface appear cololll'ed in the
refractive index equal to that of the lens, the presence of sunlight due to proper
lens behaves as a plane glass plate. interference of light.
• An air bubble in water behaves as a concave
lens. HUMAN EYE
• lt js an optical instTwnent just like a
Power of Lens photographic camera. It forms the real
• It :is the reciprocal of focal length oflens . It inlage of the object on retina of the
js measured in me tre. eye.
1 • For the normal eye, the range of vision
P= - -
f(m) is from 25 cm to infinity.
• Its unit is dioptre (D).
Defects ofVision Myopia
Prism • In this case, the person cannot see the
distant object clearly.
• It js a unnorm transparent refracting
mediwn bounded by hvo plane surfaces • Image is formed before the retina.
rnclined at certain angle. Concave lens is used for correcting
myopia.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Hypern1eb·opia
• In tms case, the person cannot see near • It consists of two convex lenses.
object clearly.
• Image is formed behind the retina.
• Convex lens is used for correcting
hypermetropia.
Astigmatism
• In tWs case, the cuTvatw:-e of cornea becomes
irregu]ar an d image is not clear. Cylindiical
lens is used for correcting astigmatism.
Presbyopia
• In old age the power of accommodation of
the eye lens decrease, therefore, neither near
nor distant objects are cleady seen.
Presbyopia can be removed by using bifocal Telescope
lenses.
Cataract
• In this defect, an opaque, white membrane is
developed on cornea due to \'l1hich a person
loses power of vision partially or completely.
• This defect can be removed by removing tms • In an asb.-onomical telescope, the
membrane through sw:-gery.
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
• It consists of a convex lens of short focal
length.
• It is used to see the magnified images of very
small objects.
Magnifying power = l + ~
Electricity
Electric Charge
• It is something that a body attains when it
loses or gains the electrons.
• The positive and negative labels and sign for
electric char·ges were chosen arbitrarj]y by
Ben jam in Franklin.
• Similar· char·ges repel each other while
opposite charges attract each other.
• Char·ge is a scalar· quantity and its SI WJ.it is
coulomb C.
• Electricity is associated with the char·ge.
• The proton possesses positive char·ge ( +e)
and electron possesses an equal negative
charge (-e) ,
Compound Microscope
• In a compound microscope the focal
length of the objective lens is short
and that of the eyepiece is slightly
greater than it. The fin al image
formed by the compound micrnscope
is inverted, magnified and virtual.
Magnifying power = Vo (1 +_Q_)
Zlo fe
where,
v 0 = distance ofimage from the
objective
zL 0 = distance of oqject from the
objective
• It is used to see the magnified
images of the distant objects.
• There are two types of telescopes
(i) Astronomkal telescope
(ii) Galilean telescope
oqjective lens is a convex lens of
large foc al length, but eye-piece is a
convex lens of short focal length.
Magnifying power =Jo +fe \)
fe
(1
D
• In Galilean telescope, the objective
lens is a convex lens of large foc al
length, but the eye-piece is a
concave lens of short foc al length.
where, e = ± 1.6 X 10- 19 C
• Conductors ar-e those substances
which allow passage of elecb1cal
charge to flow thrnugh them and
have very low electrical 1-esistance.
• Me tals like silver, iron , copper are
conductors.
• Human body and Earth act Wee a
conductor. Silver is the best
conductor.
• lnsuJators ar-e those substance
which do not allow passage of charge
through themselves. Rubber, wood,
m_jca, glass, ebonite are insulators.
GENERAL KN OWLEDGE ~ General Science
Coulomb's Law
The force of attraction or the force of
repulsion acting between the two point
cha rges is proportional to the product of the
magnitudes of the two charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them_
i_e_ F= - 1_q,q z
4 TiiEo r 2
Electric Field
• The region aroun d an electric charge
in '"''rnch the electric effect can be
e>...]Jedenced js called the electric field _ • Potentiometer is used to measw-e the
Electric Field Int ensity (E)
The electric :field in tensity at any point js
the force e>...]Jerienced by a Wlit positive
charge placed at that poin t.
Le_ Electric fiel d intensity (E) =!._
qo
where, q0 js positive test charge
• Electric :field intensity inside a charged
h ollow conductor is zero.
• Electric Field Lines of Force Electric • It states that the physical conditions
fiel d at a place is pic todally represented
by these lines . These originate at
positive charge and termin ate at
negative charge.
Electric Potential
• Electric potential at any point of the
electric :field can be measured by the
amount of wodc done in b1inging a Wlit
positive charge from infinity to that
point.
• Its unit is volt and it js a scalar quantity.
• The electric potential inside a
spheLica.1 surface is sanJe at each point
and is equal to the potential on the
sur face.
• Electrical potential on Earth js
considered to be zero.
• Work done in biinging a Wlit positive
charge from one point to other point is
the potential dlflerence between the
hvo points.
• The wodc done in moving charge on
equipotential swface js zero, because
potential remains same throughout the
surface.
ELECTRICAL CAPACI1Y
• \i\lhen a conduc tor is given a charge, its
potential dses ill proportion to the charge
given, the constant of proportionality is
called capacitance (C) i.e. C= Q
V
• Its SI Wli t is coulomb (C)/volt (V) called
Farad (F) For capacitances q, C2., C3 • . . . are
in parallel, equivalent capacitance js given
by C= Ci + C2. + ... ... + C,1
For capacitances ill sedes
1 1 I 1
-=-+-+ ..... + -
c q C2. C,1
exact potential difference between two
points of an electric circuit or to measme
the elecb·omotive force (emf) of a cell.
Elech~ic Current
• It is amount of charge that flows per second
thi-ough a crnss~sections of conduc tor.
Cmrent is scalar quantity. Its unit is
ampere (A).
Ohm's Law
(temperature, mechanical str·ain etc)
remaining wJchanged, the current (I)
flowing thrnugh a conduc tor js always
directly proportional to the potential
difference . (V) across its hvo ends.
i.e . I oc V
⇒ V = IR
where, R is a cons tant called resis tance of
circuit.
V
-= R
I
• SI unit is ohm (Q) .
Resist ance
• The ability of ma teri al to oppose the
electric current through it, is lrnown as its
electrical resistance .
• The r esis tance of a conduc tor is directly
proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its crnss~sectional area (A),
i.e . R oc !:_ ⇒ R = p !:_
A A
where, pis the resistivity of matelial .
• On increasing the tem peratme of the
metal., its resistance illCl"eases.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
• On increasing the temperature of
semi- conductor, its resistance
decreases.
• On increasing the temperature of
electrolytes, their resistance
dec reases.
• For resistances in series
R=R1 +R 2 +......+R,,
• For resistances in parallel
1 1 1 1
- =- +- +...... +-
R R1 R2 R 11
Resistivity
• Specific resistance or resistivity Elech~ic Power
depends only on the mate1ial of • lt js the electric , 1vork done by the elecbic
conductor and jts temperature.
Resistivity increases , 1vith tempel'ature.
• Resistivity of a conductor change
, 1vith implliity.
• Resistivity of an alloy js greater than the • lt js the unit of energy and is equal to the
resistivity of its constituents.
• If a wire js stretched or doubled on
jtself, Hs resistance will change, but its • 1 kilowatt hom = 3.6 x 10 6 joule.
specific resistance vi'ill remain
unaffec ted.
Galvanomet er
• It js a device used to detect and
measUl·e electric current in a circuit.
It can measw-e current up to 10-5 A.
• A galvanometer can be converted into
a voltme ter by connecting a very high
resistance in its se1ies.
Note Shunt is a low resistor connected in
parallel with a circuit or device that
redu ces ihe amount of electric
current flowing through it
Ammeter
• It is a device whkh js used to
measure electric current in a circwt.
• It is connected in sedes in the circuit.
• The resistance of an ideal anJil1eter js
zero.
Voltmet er
• It is a device used to measw-e the
potential difference bet\Jveen two
points in a circuit.
• It is connected in pal'allel in the
circuit.
• The resistance of an ideal voltme ter js
infinHe.
Important Points
■ A lightning conductor is fixed to tall building to
protect them from the distructive effect of the
lightning_
■ The filament of an electric bulb is made of
tungston because it has a high melting point and
can be heated to a high temperature to emit light
■ An electric bulb makes a bang when it is broken
because there is a vacuum inside the electric
bulb, when the bulb is broken air rushes in at
great speed from all sides to fill the vacuum. The
ru shing of air produces a noise generally referred
to as the bang.
insb·wnents per uni t tin1e, j_e.P = W. Its
t
unit js , 1vatt.
Kilowatt Hmll" (kWH)
energy conswned in the rate of 1 kilowatt
(1 000 J/s) for 1 hour.
Elech~ic Fuse
• lt is a sm all conducting ,,vfre of aJJoy of
copper, tin and lead having low melting
point and hjgh resistance.
• l t is a protective device used in series to
prevent the damage due to excess flow of
current.
• All electt:ic appliances like bulbs, fans etc
al'e connected in parallel across the live
wires and the neutral wirns.
Elechic Cell
• Elecrrical ceU is a device whkh converts
chemical energy into elecbical energy.
• Electrical Cells are basically of two types
(i) PrinJaJ)' cell (ii) Secondary cell
P1imary Cell
• 1n p1ima11' cell electt:ical energy is obtained
from the irreversible chemical reaction
taking place inside the cell.. After complete
discharge, primal)' cell becomes
WJserv:iceable.
• e.g. Voltaic cell, Leclanche cell, Daniel
cell, Dr)' cell etc.
Secondary Cell
• Seconda11' cells can be charged again and
again. Acid and alkali accwnul ators are the
types of seconda1-y cells.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

on it is called magnetic iield_. The urut of

TRANSFORMER magnetic field is newton/ampe1-e- meb·e or
• Transformer is a device \'l Wch converts
1
weber/ metre2 or tesla.
low voltage AC into high voltage AC and
• Magnetic lines of force are inJaginal)'
rngh voltage AC into low voltage AC. It is
lines in the magnetic field, wWch shows
based on elecb:omagnetic induction.
the rnrnction of magnetic :field
• Microphone converts sound energy continuously.
into elecrncal energy an d works on the
principle of electromagnetic induction. • The magnetic lines of force outside the
magnet always travel from North pole to
• DC motor is a device which converLs South pole and inside the magnet from
elecb:ical energy into mechanical energy. South pole to North pole.
Step-up b:ansformer converts a low voltage
of high current into a high voltage of low Characteristics of Substance
current. Step-down transfomer converts Diamagnetic Bismuth, zinc, copper, silver,
a hjgh voltage of low current into a low Substance gold, diamond, mercury, etc_
voltage of rngh current.
Paramagnetic Aluminium , platinum,
Substance manganese, sodium, oxygen
AC Dynamo (or generator) is a device used etc.
to convert mechanical energy into electrical Ferromagnetic Iron, cobalt, nickel, ferric
energy_ It works on the principle of Substance chloride etc.
electro-magnetic induction_
Permanent Magnet
MAGNETS They ai·e made of steel and temporal)'
• The mate1ial wWch can atb:act the magnet or electromagnets al--e made of soft
magnetic substances (such as cobal t, iron.
iron an d mckel) is called a magnet and The soft iron can be magnetised or
the property of atb:acting the magnetic demagnetised easily.
substance by a magnet is called
magnetism. Curie Temperature
• The magnets wWch do not lose their • As temperature increases, the magnetic
magnetism with normal treatment are property of ferromagnetic substance
called permanent magnets. dec1--eases and above a certain
• The materials which retain their tem perature the substance changes into
magnetism for a long time are called pai·amagnetic substances. This
h ard magnetic materials. When a tem perature is called Cude temperature.
magnet is freely suspended, it aligns • For soft iron, Cwie temperature is
itself in the geographkal North-South 1000 K.
direction. • Magnetic Flux (<!>,,, ) The nwnber of
• The permanent magnets al'e made of magnetic lines of force crossing a surface
certain alloys of mckel, cobalt an d alloys normally
of iron \"i'lth some carbon. They al'e made <j> 111 =BA
in vaiious shapes such as bar, rod, ruse,
where, Bis magnetic field strength and A
1i.ng etc.
is al--ea normal to the field lines. Its SI
• When poles of h'l' O magnets ai--e brought umt is weber.
close together, they exert force on each • Electromagnetic Induction The rate of
other. change of magnetic fl ux thrnugh a coil is
• S:imilai- poles repel each other and called induced emf.
rnssimjJar poles attract each other. • The dfrection of induced emf will be
• The area surrounding the magnet in such that it opposes the cause.
which, another magnet a-pedence a force
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Cathode Rays
• Cathode rays are the stream of high speed
negatively cha.l'ged particles moving from
cathode to anode in a discharge tube.
• Cathode rays are used in cathode ray
oscilloscope and in production of X-rays.
Properties of Cathode Rays
I. Cathode rays travel in sb.-aight lines.
2. Cathode rays can ioruse the gases.
3. Cathode rays can produce X-rays.
4. Cathode rays can produce :fluorescence.
5. Cathode rays can peneb.-ate through thin
metal foils
6. Cathode rays are deflected in magnetic
field.
7. Cathode rays are deflected in electric :field.
Anode Rays or Positive
Rays or Canal Rays
• Positive rays are moving positive ions of the photoelectric current, are called
gas :filied in the discharge tube. The mass of photoelectrons.
these particles is nearly equal to the mass of Applications of
the atoms of gas.
Properties of Positive Rays
• These rays b.-avels in straight line.
• These consists of fast moving positively
charged particle.
• These rays are deflected in magnetic field
and electric field.
• Speed of positive rays is less than that of
cathode rays. These rays can affect the
photographic plate.
• These rays penetrate through the thin
alwnini wn foil.
• These rays can produce :fluorescence and
phosphorescence.
X-Rays
These rays , 1vere discovered by Roentgen.
These rays are electromagnetic in natw-e.
Properties of X-Rays
• X-rays b.-avels in sb.·aight line.
• Speed of X-rays is equal to speed of light.
These are not deflected by elecb.ic and
magnetic fields .
• X-rays produce illumination on
falling on fluorscent substances.
• X-rays ionise the gas thrnugh which
they pass.
• X-rays penetrate through different
depth into different substances.
• X-rays shows photoelecbic effect.
• X-rays are used in sw.-gery, radio-
therapy, engineedng department and
searching.
• The in tensity and the penetrating
power of X-rays can be controlled
independently.
Photoelectric Effect
The phenomenon of emission of
elecb.·ons from a metal swface , 1vhen
light of approp1iate frequency is
incident on it, is called photoelectric
effect. The elecb.·ons emitted during
Photoelechic Cells
• In reproduction of sound in cinema,
telev1sion and photo telegraphy.
• To conb.·ol the temperatw.-e in
furnace and in chentical processes.
• In automatic doors .
• In photoelectric counters.
• In automatic S\'lritches for street
lights.
• In photoelectric sorters.
Photoelech~ic Cell
• lt is a device based on phenomena of
photoelecliic effect which comrerLs
ligh t energy directly into elecliic ene1·gy.
• Photoelecb.ic effect is based on the
law of conservation of energy.
Fluorescence and
Phosphorescence
• Fluorescence is the phenomena of
entission of light of low frequency
from a substance when some light
from a sow·ce is incident on it.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• While in phosphorescence the substance can • Nuclear Fission The process of

emjt bght for some time even after the source is the splitting of a heavy nucleus
removed. into hvo or more lighter nucleus
• Zinc sulphide exmbit the phenomena of is called nuclear Fission.
phosphorescence. • Nuclear· Fusion The process of
combining of hvo lighter nucleus
RADIOACTIVTIY to form one heavy nucleus, is
called nuclear fusion. Hydrogen
• Henry Becquerel, Madame Cw·ie and Pierre bomb is based on nuclear fusion
Curie discovered the phenomenon of and it is more desb.·uctive than an
radioactivity in 1896 and for this they jointly atom bomb.
,,von Noble prize.The rays eillltted by
radioactivity were first recognized by Mass-Energy Relation
Rutherford.
• Albert Eins tein establised a
• Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. It is relation between mass and
spontaneous emission of radiation from the energy on the basis of speciaJ
nucleus. theory of relativity in 1905.
• The nucleus having protons 83 or more are According to this mass can be
unstable. They emit a, ~ particles and y rays to converted in to energy and
become stable. The elements of such nucleus vice-versa.
2
are called radioactive elements and the :i.e. E = mc
phenomenon of emjssion of a, ~ particles and y where, c is the velocity of light
rays is called radioactivity and Eis the energy equivalent of
• The penetrating power for a-particle is mass m.
minimum and for y-rays is maximum.
SEMICONDUCTOR
Important Points
• The substance in which electric
• The effect on the mass number and atomic number with conduction is not possible at a low
the emission of a, ~ and y rays is decided by temperature but on increasing the
Soddy-Fajan law. Radioactivity is detected by G M temperature, electric conduction
counter. becomes possible are called the
• When a radioactive atom emits one a-particle then semiconduc tor.
atomic number of resultant atom decreases by 2 unit • At absolute zero kelvin ,
and mass number decreases by 4 unit semiconduc tor behaves Wee a
• When a radioactive atom emits one [3-particle then perfect insuJator.
atomic number of resultant atom increases by 1 unit • The elect:ricaJ conductivity of a
and mass number remains same. semiconduc tor increases \i\rith
• When a radi oactive atom emits y-rays the mass the increase in temperat:w·e.
number and atomic number remain unchanged. • Germanjum and silicon are two
• Half-life of a radi oactive material cannot be changed important senticonduc tors.
by physical or chemical processes. The percentage of • A pure semjconduc tor is called
atoms left after one mean life time is equal to 37%. intrinsic semkonductor and to
• Radioactive carbon-14 is used to measure the age increase its conductivity a
of fossils and plants. In radio carbon dating age is chemical process is performed
decided by measuring the rati o of 6 C12 and 6 Cltl _ on it which is called doping.
• In pure semjconduc tors,
• Madame C1u ie and her husband Pierre Cw·ie imfurity must be less than 1 in
discovered a new radioactive element radium l O parts of semiconduc tor.
and found that an ore of w·an.ium :is much more
• An impure semiconduc tor is
radioactive than the pure Uran.ium. The end
called extrinsic semiconductor.
product of alJ natmaJ radioactive element after
These are of two tzJpes
emjssion of radioactive rays is lead.
1. 1z..t:ype 2. p-t:ype
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

n-type Semiconductor TRANSISTOR

• If pentavalent impUiity a tom (such as It is a combination of hvo p-njunctionsjoined
antimony, arsenic, phosphorus e tc.) is in series. Transistors are of two types : 11rp-n
added to the pure germanium or silicon junction transistor and p-11r-p junction
crystal, the crystal so obtained is called transistor
the 11rtype semiconductor. • lliode valve can be used as amplifier,
• Pentavalent impwities are called donor. oscilla tor, transmitter and de tec tor.
p-type Semiconductor • Air bubble ri ses up in water because of
• If trivalent impwity atom (such as upthrust and its potential energy decreases.
alwninium, boron, gallium etc.) is • When two protons are brought towards
added to the pure germani um or silicon each other they repe l each other being similar
crystal, the Cl}'Stal so obtained is called charges, thu s work is done by us in bringing
p-type semiconductor. them close. So, potential energy increases.
• Trivalent impw:ities are called accepter. • When the energy of the satellite is
negative, it moves in either a ci rcular or an
p-n Junction elliptical orbit. When the energy of satelli te
• An arrangement consisting a p- type is zern, it escapes away from its orbit and its
semiconductor brought into a close path becomes parabolic.
contact with 11r-type semiconduc tor, is • When the energy of a satellite is positive,
called a p-njunction. it escapes from the orbit following a
• Rectifier is a device \'l1Wch converts hyperbolic path. When the height of the
alternating vollage into direct voltage or satellite is increased, its potential energy
current. Diode valve acts a rectmer. increases and kinetic energy decreases.
• LEDs are specially designed diode
made of GaAsP, Ga.P and are used in
elecb.-orric gadge ts as indicator bght. NANOTECHNOLOGY
• Zener diode is a high]y doped p-n • Nanote chnology is the study of
junction diode which is not damaged by manipulating matter on an a tomic and
high reverse current. molecular scale. Generally nanotechnology
deals Virith strcutmes sized bet:vveen I to
Noble Prize 100 nanomeb·e in at least one din1ension,
• 2016 The Noble P1ize in Physics 2016 and involves developing materials or
was awarded to David J. ThouJess, F devices within that size.
Duncan, M. Haldane and J. Michael • The term nano technology was defined by
Kosterlitz for "theoretical discovedes Tokyo Unjversity of Science Professor
of topological phase transitions and Norio Taniguchi in a 1974 paper as
topological phases of matter." follows: "Nanotechnology mainJy consis ts
These theoretical discovedes revealed of the processing, sepai-ation,
the possibility of a bizarre world where consobdation, and deformation of
matter can talce on different and strange matelials by one atom or by one
stages.
molecule."
• 2015 The Nobel prize is Physics 20 15
• Mole cu.lar nanotechnology sometimes
was jointly awarded to Takaald Kajita
called molecular manufacturing,
and Arthm B. MC.Donald "for the
desclibes engineered nanosys tems
discove11' of neutrino oscillations,
(nanoscale machines) operating on the
wWcb shows that neutrinos have mass". molecular scale. Molecular
• 2014 The Noble plize in Physics 20 14 nanotechnology is especially associated
was awarded jointly to Isa.mu Akasald, ,vitb the molecular assembler, a machine
Hiroshi Amano and Shiji Nakamma, that can produce a desired structure or
for inventing a new energy efficient device atom-by-a tom using the principles
and environment fiiendJy bght somce- of mecbnosynthesis.
the blue Llght Emitting Diode (LED).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• Spintronics a technology that exploits the inb.insic spin of the electron and it
assocfated , 1vith magnetic with moment, in addition to its fundan1ental elecb.·onic
charge, in solid-state devices.
• Diamondoids Non-scale molecules "'~th
charactelistic diamond sb.·ucture isolated from
peb.·oleum.
• Grey Goo is hypothetical end-of-the-,"i1orld scenario involving molecular
nanotechnology in whkh out of control self- replicating robots consume all matter on
earth, while building more of themselves.
• Carbon nanotubes and nanofibers are molecular-scale tubes of graphitic carbon with
outstanding properties.
• Nano computing is the technique of computing by using the various nano
components.
Units of Measurement
Quantity Unit (SI) Quantity Unit (SI)
■ Volume Cubic metre ■ Heat Joule
2
■ Aooeleration Metre/seoond ■ Absolute temperature Kelvin
■ Density Kilogram/metre 3 ■ Resisiance Ohm
■ Momentum Kilogram metre/second ■ Electromotive force Volt
■ Work Joule ■ Electrical oonductivity Mho/metre
■ Energy Joule ■ Electric energy Kilo \1/att hour
■ Pressure 2 ■ Electric po\1/er
Pascal or Newton/metre Kilo \1/att or \1/att
■ Frequency Her1z ■ Magnetic intensity Orsted
■ Power Watt ■ Charge Coulomb
■ Weight Ne\1/ton or Kilogram ■ Magnetic induction Gauss
■ Impulse Ne\1/ton-second ■ Intensity of sound Decibel
■ Angular velocity Radian /second ■ Power of lens Dioptre
■ Viscosity Poise ■ Depth of sea Fathom
■ Surface tension Ne\1/ton/metre

Important Laws/Theories and their Scientist

Laws/Theories Soientist
■ Gravitational Law, La\1/S of Motion Ne\1/ton
■ Theory of Relativity A Einstein
■ Discovery of X-ray WC Rontgen
■ Principle of Lever, Relative Density Archimedes
■ Kinetic Theory of Temperature Kelvin
■ Theory of an Atom Dalton
■ La\1/s of Electrolysis M Faraday

Important Scientific Instruments

Instrument Use
■ Altimeter It measures altitudes and is used in airoratts.
■ Ammeter It measures strength of electri c ourrent On ampere)_
■ Audiometer It measures intensity of sound.
■ Barometer It measures atmospheric pressure.
■ Binocular It is used to view distant objects.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Instrument Use
■ Calorimeter It measu res quantity of heal
■ Cardiogram It traoes movements of the heart, reoorde d on a cardiograph.
■ Chronometer It determines longitude of a plaoe kept on boa rd ship.
■ Cinematography It is an instrument used in oinema making.
■ Dynamo It converts meohanical energy into electrical energy.
■ Dynamometer It measu res electrical power.
■ Eleotrometer It measu res electrioity _
■ Eleotroscope It detects presence of an electric charge.
■ Endosoope It e>camines internal parts of the body.
■ Fathometer It measu res the depth of the ooean _
■ Galvanometer It measu res the eleotric ou rrent of low magnitude.
■ Hydrometer It measu res the speoific gravity of liquids.
■ Hygrometer It measu res humidity in air.
■ Hydrophone It measu res sound under water.
■ Laotometer It determines the purity of milk.
■ Manometer It measu res the pressure of gases.
■ Mariner's compass It is an instrument used by the sailors to determine the direotion .
■ Miorophone It converts the sound wave s into electrical vibrat ions.
■ Mioroscope It is used to obtain magniiied view of small objects.
■ Odometer It is an instrument by which the distanoe covered by wheeled vehioles
is measu re d.
■ Phonograph It is an instrument for produoing sound.
■ Photometer This instrument oompares the luminous intensity of t he source of lighL
■ Periscope It is used to view objects above sea level (used in sub-marines).
■ Radar It is used for detecting the direction and range of an approaohing
plane by means of radio microwave s.
■ Radiometer It measu res the emission of radian t energy.
■ Seismograph It measu res the intensity of earthquake shocks.
■ Salinometer It determines salinity of solution.
■ Spectrometer It is an instrument for measuring the energy distribution of a particular
type of radiation.
■ Speedometer It is an instrument placed in a vehiole to reoord its speed.
■ Sphygmomanometer It measu res blood pressure.
■ Spherometer It measu res the ourvatures of surfaces.
■ Stereoscope It is used to view two dimensional pictures.
■ Stethosoope An instrument which is used by the doctors to hear and analyse heart
and lung sounds.
■ Stroboscope It is used to view rapidly moving objects.
■ Tachometer An instrument used in measuring speeds of aeroplanes and motor
boats.
■ Telesoope It views distant objects in space.
■ Thermometer This instrument is used for the measurement of temperatures.
■ Thermostat It regulates the temperatu re at a partioular poinl
■ Voltmeter It measu res the electric potential difierenoe between two points.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
e
Inventions and Discoveries
Invention Year Inventor Count.ry
■ Adding machine 1642 Pascal France
■ Aeroplane 1903 Orville & Wilbur Wright USA
■ Air conditioning 1902 Carrier USA
■ Airplane (Jet engine) 1939 Ohain Germany
■ Airship (Non-rigid) 1852 Henri Ginard France
■ Atomic bomb 1945 J Robert Oppenheimer USA
■ Ball-point pen 1888 John J Loud USA
■ Barometer 1644 Evangelista Torricelli Italy
■ Battery (Electric) 1800 Alessandro Volta Italy
■ Bicycle 1839-40 Kirkpatrick Macmillan Briiain
■ Bicycle tyres (Pneumatic) 1888 John Boyd Dunlop Briiain
■ Bifocal lens 1780 Benjamin Franklin USA
■ Bleaching powder 1798 Tennant Britain
■ Bunsen burner 1855 R Willhelm van Bunsen Germany
■ Burglar alarm 1858 Edwin T Holmes USA
■ Camera (Kodak) 1888 Walker Eastman USA
■ Car (Steam) 1769 Nicolas Cugnot France
■ Car (Petrol) 1888 Karl Benz Germany
■ Carbu retor 1876 Gottlieb Daimler Germany
■ Cassette (Videotape) 1969 Sony Japan
■ Cement (Portland) 1824 Joseph Aspdin Britain
■ Cinema 1895 Nicolas & Jean Lu miere France
■ Clock (Mechanical) 1725 I-Hsing & Liang Ling-Tsan China
■ Cloak (Pendulum) 1656 Christian Huygens Netherlands
■ Compact disc 1972 RCA USA

■ Compact disc player 1979 Sony, Phnips Japan,

Netherlands
■ Computer (Laptop) 1987 Sinclair Britain
■ Computer (Mini) 1960 Digital Corp USA
■ Diesel engine 1895 Rudoli Diesel Germany
■ Dynamo 1832 Hypolite Pixii France
■ Electric flat iron 1882 H W Seeley USA
■ Electric lamp 1879 Thomas Alva Edison USA
■ Electric motor (DC) 1873 Zenobe Gramme Belgium
■ Electric motor (AC) 1888 Nikola Tesl a USA
■ Electric iron 1882 Henry W Seely USA
■ Electric washing machine 1906 Alva J Fisher USA
■ Electro-magnet 1824 William Sturgeon Britain
■ Electron 1897 Thomson J Britain
■ Electroplating 1805 Luigi Brugnatelli Italy
■ Electronic computer 1824 Dr Alan M Turing Britain
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Invention Year Inventor CountJY

■ Facsimile maohine 1843 Alexander Bain Britain
■ Fibre optics 1955 Kepany Britain
■ Film (Moving ou tlines) 1885 Louis Prinoe France
■ Film (Talking) 1922 J Engl , J Mussolle & H Vogt Germany
■ Galvanometer 1834 Andre-Marie Ampere France
■ Gramophone 1878 Thomas Alva Edison USA
■ Helicopter 1924 Etienne Oehmiohen France
■ Hydrogen bomb 1952 Edward Tell er USA
■ lntelligenoe testing 1905 Simon Binet France
■ Jet engine 1937 Sir Frank Whittle Britain
■ Laser 1960 Theodore Maiman USA
■ Launderette 1934 J F Cantrell USA
■ Litt (Mechanical) 1852 Elisha G Otis USA
■ Lighting conduotor 1752 Benjamin Franklin USA
■ Loudspeaker 1900 Horace Short Britain
■ Machine gun 1918 Richard Gatling Britain
■ Magnetic recording tape 1928 Fritz Pfleumer Germany
■ Microphone 1876 Alei<ander Graham Bell USA
■ Mioroscope (Comp_) 1590 Z Janssen Netherlands
■ Mioroscope (Elect) 1931 Ruska Knoll Germany
■ Miorowave oven 1947 Percy LeBaron Spencer USA
■ Motor cycle 1885 G Daimler Germany
■ Movie projector 1893 Thomas Edison USA
■ Neon lamp 1910 Georges Claude France
■ Neutron bomb 1958 Samuel Cohen USA
■ Optical fi bre 1955 Narinder Kapany Germany
■ Pacemaker 1952 Zoll USA
■ Photoelectri c cell 1893 Julius Eisler, Hans F Geitel Germany
■ Photography (On metal) 1826 J N Niepce France
■ Photography (On paper) 1835 WH Fox Talbot Britain
■ Photography (On film) 1888 John Carbutt USA
■ Piano 1709 Cristofori Italy
■ Pistol, revolver 1836 Colt USA
■ Radar 1922 AH Taylor & Leo C Young USA
■ Radiocarbon dating 1947 Libby USA
■ Radio telegraphy 1864 Dr Mohlon Loomis USA
■ Radio telegraphy (Trans 1901 G Marconi Italy
Atlantic)
■ Rayon 1883 Sir Joseph Swan Britain
■ Razor (Electric) 1931 Col Jacob Sohiok USA
■ Razor (Safety) 1895 King C Gillette USA
■ Refrigerator 1850 James Harrison , Alexander USA
catlin
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
e
Invention Year Inventor Country
■ Rubber (Latex foam) 1928 Dunlop Rubber Co Britain
■ Rubber (Tyres) 1846 Thomas Hancock Britain
■ Rubber (Vulcanised) 1841 Charles Goodyear USA
■ Rubber (Waterproof) 1823 Charles Maointosh Britain
■ Safety pin 1849 Walter Hunt USA

■ Ship (Steam) 1775 I C Perier France

■ Ship (Turbine) 1894 Hon Si r C Parsons Britain
■ Steam engine 1698 Thomas Savery Britain
■ Steam engine (Piston) 1712 Thomas Newoomen Britain
■ Steam engine (Condenser) 1765 James Watt Britain
■ Steel (Stainless) 1913 Harry Brearley Britain
■ Stethosoope 1819 Laennec France
■ Submarine 1776 David Bushnell USA
■ Super computer 1976 JH Van Tassel USA
■ Tank 1914 Sir Ernest D Swington Britain
■ Tape recorde r 1899 Fessenden Poulsen Denmark
■ Telegraph 1787 M Lam mond France
■ Telegraph code 1837 Samuel F B Morse USA
■ Telephone (Cellular) 1947 Bell Labs USA
■ Telephone (Imperfect) 1849 Antonio Meuooi lialy
■ Telephone (Perfected) 1876 Alei<ander Graham Bell USA
■ Telescope 1608 Hans Uppershey Ne therlands
■ Television (MechanicaQ 1926 John Logie Baird Britain
■ Television (Electronic) 1927 PT Farnsworth USA
■ Television (Colour) 1928 John Logie Baird Britain
■ Tran sforme r 1831 Michael Faraday Britain
■ Tran sistor 1948 Bardeen, Shockley & Brattain USA
■ Tran sistor radio 1955 Sony Japan
■ Uranium Fission (Atomic 1942 Szilard Fermi USA
reactor)
■ Vaouum cleaner (Elec.) 1907 Spangler USA
■ Video tape 1956 Charles Ginsberg USA
■ Washing machine (Elec.) 1907 Hurley Machine Co USA
■ Watch 1462 Bartholomew Manfredi lialy
■ Wi reless (Telegraphy) 1896 G Marconi Italy
 I CHEMISTRY
MATTER AND
ITS STATES
MATTER
• Matter is anything which has mass and
occupies space.
• It exists in five states, viz, solid, liquid,
gas, plasma and Bose-Einstein
condensate. Out of which the former
three are commonly seen .
States of Matter
The.five states ofmatter are discZ£ssed below
Solids
• They have definite volwne and definite
shape.
• They ,ue incompressible and have
sb_-ongest intermolecuJar interactions.
• They are very dense as compared to liquid
and gas. e.g., wood, stone, iron, etc.
Melting Point
• It is a temperature at which a substance
converts from its solid state to hquid
state. Melting point of ice is 0° C.
• Melting point decreases in the presence
of in1pwity.
Sublimation
• It is the process of conversion of a
substance from the solid state to the gas
state without passing through an
intermediate liquid phase.
• It is used to separate a sublimate
(substance undergoing sublimation W(e
camphor, naphthalene, anlll1oniwn
chJmide, etc) from non-sublimate.
Liquids
• They have definite volwne but no definite
shape. They take the shape of the vessel
in which they are kept.
• They can flow, hence, considered as
fluids e.g., m.ilk, water, mercury, etc.
I
Boiling Point
• It is a temperature at which vapour
pressure of a liquid becomes equal to
arn1ospheric pressw-e and at which a
substance converts from its liquid state
to gaseous state .
• lt is different at different places.
• Boiling point of water at normal
conditions is 100° C.
• lt usually decreases at high altitudes,
that's why, at high altitudes, the boiling
point of water is less than l 00°C and
more time is required to cook a food.
• Boiling point of water in pressure cooker
is high due to high pressure and hence,
less time is required to cook the food .
• Boiling point increases in the presence
ofimpwity.
Evaporation
• lt is the process of conversion of a liquid
into vapow·s at any temperatw·e below
its boiling point. It increases with
increase in sw-face area and
temperatw'e.
• lt produces cooling. T hat's why we feel
cool when some nail polish remover or
spirit is kept on om palm.
Gases
• They have neither definjte volume nor
definite shape. T hey take the shape and
volwne of the container in ,,.,Wch they
are filled.
• They are highly compressible.
• They can flow so considered as fluids,
e.g., air, mq1gen and nitrogen.
Condensation
• lt is the process of conversion of gas in to
liquid or liquid into solid
• Solids, liqwds and gases are inter
convertible by changing the conditions
of temperature and pressure .
heat heat
Solid~Llqu:id ~ I Gas
cool coo
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Plasma
• The fourth state of matter 1s called
plasma. Trus state contains ionised gas
, 1vith super energetic and super excited
particles.
• Fluorescent tube contains helium (He)
gas and neon (Ne) gas. Sign buJb
contains neon (Ne) gas.
Bose-Einstein Condensate
• In 1924-25, Satyenc:lra Nath Bose and
Albert Einstein gave the information
about Bose-Einstein condensate. It 1s a
state of matter of a dilute gas of boson
cooled up to temperature , vruch is very
1 abundance in hunJan body : OA'y'gen >
close to absolute zero or -273.l 5°C. In
fact, it 1s a fifth state of matter.
Particles of Matter
Atoms
• It is the smallest particle of matter that
takes part in chemical reactions.
(by Dalton's atomic theory).
• It can neither be created nor desb.-oyed
0aw of conservation of mass given by Impure Substances
Lavoisier).
• It does not exist in free state and has a constituent particles of that substance are
fixed atomic mass e.g., iron (Fe), gold not same in their chemical nature.
(Au), silver (Ag), etc.
Molecules
• These are the smallest part of the
matter that exist in free state.
• They are formed by the joining of two or
more atoms in fixed ratio 0aw of
multiple proportions given by Dalton).
• They have fixed molecular mass which
1s obtained by adding the atomic masses
of all the atoms present in a molecule,
e.g., water (H 20), ammonfa (NH 3 ),
carbon dioxide (CO:J, etc.
Pure Substan ces
A substance is said to be pure jf all the
constituent particles of that substance are
the same in their chemical nature. e.g.,
all the elements and compounds are pure
substances.
Elements
• They contain only single type of atoms.
Elements combine to give molecules.
• Examples of elements are sulphur,
phosphorus , oxygen etc.
• Elements knmvn at present are 118. Out
of wruch 94 are natural. £lements which
are liquid at room temperature are
mercury (Hg) and bromine (Br).
• Elements which become liquid at a
temperature slightly above the room
temperature (303 K) are gallium (Ga) and
caesium (Cs).
• Elements have the follm"iring order of
abwJdance in earth crust : OA'y'gen >
silicon > aluminium > iron > calcium.
• Elements have the following order of
carbon > hydrogen > nitrngen.
Compounds
• These contain more than one kind of
atoms. These cannot be separated into
constituent atoms by simple physical
methods.
• Their examples are silica (Si0 2 ), wa ter
(H20), sugar (C12H 220 1J, salt (NaCl), etc.
A substance 1s said to be impure, jf all the
Mixuues
• These are obtained by mixing t\1110 or more
substances in any proportion.
• Mixhll·es can be homogeneous, i.e., have
wnform composition thrnughout (e.g., salt
solution, sugar solution, ail~ b.-ue
solutions, etc) or he terogeneous, i.e.,have
non-uniform composition (e.g., mixture of
salt and sugar, colloidal solutions, etc).
Solutions or True Solutions
• These are homogeneous mixtures of two
or more substances.
• A solution contain two components :
solute (in less quantity) and solvent (in
more quantity). Examples of solutions are
sugar solution, tincture of iodine
(solution of iodine in alcohol), aerated
drinks like soda wa ter, air, alloys, etc.
• Concentration of solution may be
e>...-pressed by percentage, mole fraction,
par ts per million, gram per litre, molaiity
molality, normality, etc.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Colloidal Solutions Separation of Mixhlres

• These are heterogeneous mbctures. A number of physical and chemical
• These contain two ph ases, i.e., dispersed methods are used to separa te the n umber
phase an d dispersion m edium . of mixtures. Some important methods are
• These can scatter light because of the discussed below
presence of large solu te particles, i.e., Cenb--ifugation
they show TyndaJJ effect and B rownian
movement. • It is based upon the principle that the
denser particles ai·e force d to the bottom
• B lue cololll· of sky is also due to
and the lighter pai·ticles stay at the top
scattedng of light by dust particles
\ "i hen spun rapidly.
1
suspended in air.
• It :is used in diagnostic labora tories for
• They are separated by special technique
blood and urin e tes ts, in dairies and
like centrifugation.
h ome to separate butter fro m cream , in
• Colloidal solu tions ai·e coaguJa ted by washing machine to squeeze out wa ter
adding an elecb:olyte. fro m we t clothes, e tc .
• Colloidal solutions are purified by
dialysis, which is also used in the Distillation
p w±fication of blood with the h elp of • It is a method of separating mbctures
ai·ti:ficial lddney machine. based on differences in volatilities
• CoaguJation found its use in of components in a boiling liquid
p w±fication of water by alum , stop nili'ture.
bleeding by FeCl 3, formatio n of delta at • It is used to separa te mixtures of ether
the junction of sea an d river. and toluene, benzene an d aniline, e tc.
• They ai'e of following types on the basis
of dispersed ph ase and dispersion Fractjonal Distillation
medium. • It is used to separate liquids h aving very
Dispersed Dispersion Type of Examples less difference in their boiling points.
phase medium colloid • It is used to obtain pure diesel, petrol,
Uquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds,
kerosene oil, coal tar, e tc fro m crude oil or
mist mineral oil .
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, • It is used to separa te a mbcture of
automobile acetone (329 K) and methyl alcohol
exhaust (338 K).
Gas Uquid Foam Shaving
cream Vacuum Distillatjon
Uquid Uquid Emulsion Milk, • It is also known as distillation under
faoe-cream . reduced pressure.
Solid Uquid Sol Milk of • It is used for the substances whkb
magnesia, decomposes below their boiling point.
mud • It is used to obtain glycerol an d Hp 2 and
Gas Solid Foam Foam, to concen b:ate sugai·cane juice in sugai·
rubber, industry.
sponge,
pumice
stone
St eam Distillatjon
Uquid Solid Gel Jelly,
• It is used to sepai·a te a steam volatile
cheese, compound fro m non-volatile or
butter non-steam volatile compounds.
Solid Solid Solid Coloured • It is used to pur ify sandalwood oil,
sol gemstone, terpentine oil, aniline, nitrobenzene, e tc .
milky glass
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Crystallisation
• It is used to separate a lIIDl..'t1JJ:"e of
inorganic solids with the help of suitable
solvent.
• Their examples indude separation of a
mixture of sugar and salt by using
ethyl alcohol.
Chrom atography
• It js the modern technique used for
separation and pwification of organk
compounds. It was discovered by Tswett.
• It js used for the separation of coloured
pigments from a plant.
Reverse Osmosis
• It js a technjque in wmch solvent
molecules move from the solution of
higher concentration to the solution of
lower concentration when these are
separated by semipermeable membrane
and excess pressure is applied to the
solution of mgher concentration .
• It js used for desalination of sea water.
Physical Change
• It is the change wmch only affect the
physical properties like colour, hardness,
density, melting point, etc., of matter.
• It does not affec t the composition and
chemical properties of matter.
• Exan1ples of physical changes are
crystallisation, sublimation, boiling,
vapmisation, cutting of trees, dissolving
common sugar in wa ter, etc.
Chemical Change
• These affect the composition as well as
chemical properties of matter and result
in the formation of a new substance.
• Their examples are burning of fuel,
burrring of candle, electrnlysis of wa ter,
burrring of paper, photosynthesis,
Iipemng of fruHs, etc.
Mole Concept
It states that the number of molecules
present in 12 g of C-12 js called one mole,
i.e., l mo] = 6. 023 x 10 23
= Avogadro's number (NA)
e.g., l mole of atom =
= gram atollllc weight
= 6. 023 x 10 23 atoms
Number of moles
Mass (in gram)
=---------
Atomic weight
(or molecular weight)
GAS LAWS
Mass (m), Volume (V), pressure (p) and
temperature (T) of a gas are the
measurable properties. The laws which
inter-relate these properties are called gas
laws.
Boyle's Law
• At constant temperature, the pressure
of a fixed anrnunt of gas (number of
moles) is inversely proportional to its
volume.
• The mathematical equation is
I
p oc - or p V = h or p 1V.1 = Po Vo
V - -
p = Pressme of the gas,
V = Volume of the gas,
h =Constant
Charles' Law
• At constant pressure, volun1e of a fixed
mass of a gas is directly proportional to
its absolute temperature.
• This law can be written as V oc T
where, Vis the volume of the gas,
Tis the absolute temperatme.
Gay Lussac's law
At constant volume, pressure of a fixed
amount of a gas varies directly ·wi.th
temperature, i.e. p x Tor l!.... =Kor Pi = P2
T Ii T2
(K = constant).
Combined Gas Law
or Ideal Gas Equation
• It is a gas law which combines
Charles' law, Boyle's law and
Gay-Lussac's lav,,_
• This la\Jv can be stated mathematically
as,
pV =R - pV=RT
T ,
where, R = Universal gas constant
For n moles of the gas, p V = nRT
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Avogadro's Law
• It states that equal volwnes of all gases at
the same temperature and pressure
con tams the equal number of molecules.
• It js stated mathematicaJJy as,
V =nor V = kn
V = Volume of the gas,
n = Number of moles of the gas,
h = Proportionahty constant
Graham's Law of Diffusion
According to thjs law, "the rate of diffusion
of a gas is inversely proportional to the
square root of its density_"
:~ =f =I;(a=~J
where, 7i js the rate of diffusion for the
first gas (volume or nwnber of moles per
unjt time).
12 js the rate of diffusion for the second
gas.
d1 is the density of gas 1.
d2 is the density of gas 2.
M 1 is the molar mass of gas 1.
M2 is the molar mass of gas 2.
Dalton's Law of Partial
Pressures
It states that the total pressure exerted by a
gaseous mixture of two or more • Proton was discovered by Rutherford.
non-reacting gases is equal to the sum of • It js positively charged_
the partial pressures of each inmvidual • It js present in the nucleus.
component in the gas m.ixture.
Ptolal = Pl + P2 + --- + Pu
Ideal and Real Gases
• Ideal gases follow gas Jaws in aJJ
conmtions of temperature and pressure_
• Real gases follov,r gas laws onJy at high
temperature and lm11r pressure.
Critical Temperature
• It js the temperature above wWch a gas • It is present inside the nucleus . Its
cannot be liq uefied_
At STP,
p = 1 atm =760mm Hg
T= 273 K=0°C
• Volume of one mole of all the gases
= 22 .40 L = 22400mL
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Modern Atomic Theory
According to thjs theory, 'atom is made up
of three fundamental particles called
elecb:ons, protons and neutrons.'
Discovery of Cathode Rays and
Elecb·ons (_1 e 0 )
• These rays , 111ere discovered by Sir Juli us
Plucker.
• These odginate from cathode and travels
in a sb:ajght line tm111ards anode.
• Cathode rays cause mechamcal motion,
i_e., they consists of material particles.
• These rays can)' negative charge and
generate X-rays.
• Electron was discovered by JJ Thomson.
[It's antiparticle is posib_-on C+1 e 0 ) ]_
• It has mass 91 x 10- 31 kg or 0_00054 u.
• It has charge - 1.6 xI0- 19 C (by
Millikan's oil drop experiment)_
Discovery of Anode Rays
and Protons ( 1 H 1 or P)
• These rays were discovered by Goldstein
(also caJJed positive rays).
• These do not odginate from anode.
• These are positively charged and have
velocity less than cathode rays.
• It has charge + 1.6 x 10- 19 C and mass
1.672 X 10-27 kg or 1.00727 U .
• It h as mass 1836 times than that of the
elecb:on.
Discovery of Neutr on ( 0 n 1 )
• It was discovered by Chadwick.
• It has zero charge and 1.674x 10- 27 kg
or 1.00867u mass.
antiparticle is antineutri.no.
• Hydrogen is the onJy atom in whkb
neutrons are not present.
• Electromagnetic forces bind elecb:ons
with the nucleus.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• Atoms having same number of electrons Isobars

and protons are neutral. If elecb.·ons are
less than proton, the atom carries positive • These have the same mass number, but
charge and if electrons are more than different atomk number.
40 40 40
proton, the atom cai-ries negative charge. • 18 Ar , 19 K , 20 Ca ai·e jsobars.

Discovery of Nucleus Isotones

• The model known as Rutherford's
Model, was based upon a-particle
scattedng e:\.11eriment and suggests that
most of the part of an atom is empty.
• It also suggests that the entire mass of
an atom is concenb.'ated on its cenb.·e at
the nucleus. The nucleus is surrounded
by elecb.·ons that move ai·ound the
nucleus with a vet)' high speed in
circuJar paths called orbits.
• It contains protons and neurr·ons whkh
are collectively called nucleons.
Characteristics of Atom
Atomic Number (Z)
• It js equal to the number of protons.
• It js equal to the number of elecb.·ons in
neub.'al atom.
• It is , 1vritten as a subscript to the left of
the symbol of the atom, e.g., 6 C here 6
js the atomic number of carbon (C).
Mass Number [A)
• It is equal to the sum of number of
protons and number of neub.·ons.
• It js Wiitten as a supersc1ipt to the light
of the symbol of the atom, e.g., c1z here nature, i.e., has wave nature as well as
12 is the mass number of cai·bon (C).
Mass number = Number of protons +
Number of neutrons = Atomic number +
Number of neutrons= Number of electrons +
Number of neutrons (in case of neutral atom)
Different Atomic Species
These have same number of neutrons, e .g.,
3 4
1H and 2 He as both have hvo neub.·ons.
Various Models and Theories
Niels Born· Model
This mode] suggests that the electrons are
confined into cleaiJy defined, quantised
orbits and could jump between these, but
could not freely spiral inward or outwai·d in
mtermecliate states.
Planck's Quantum Theory
According to this the01·y
1. Atoms and molecules could emit or
absorb energy only in the form of
clisci-ete packets of energy called quanta.
2. The energy of quantum(E) is
proportional to its frequency ( v ),
e.g., E = hv
where, h = Planck's constant
(6. 626 X 10- 3 '1 Js)
3. The energy is quantised (multi.pie of
nhv)
de-Broglie Concept
It suggests that matter possesses dual
particle nature . It also suggests that
wavelength (A) of electron is inversely
proportional to its momentum (p) i.e.,
A=!!_=_!!:__
p mv
,,vhere, m = mass of elecb.·on
and v = velocity of elecb.·on

Isotopes Heisenberg's Uncertainty

• These have same atomk number but
different mass number_ e .g., jsotoRes of
hydrngen e .g., 1 H1, P (protium), 1 H 2 or D
(deuterium) and 1 H 3 or T (tritium) . Tis
raclioacti.ve.
• Isotopes of polonjum al'e maximum.
• Hydrogen (H-1) js the ligh test isotope
and lead-208 is the heaviest isotope
(with mass 207.974) .
Principle
This p1inciple states that it js impossible to
determine simultaneously the exact position
and exact momentum (velocity) of an
elecb.·on. It js given as
h
L1X· f1p ~ -
4rl:
where, !ix is the uncertainty in position
and !ip is the uncertainty m momentum.
A
•
Orbits and Subshell
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Elements Configura tion

• According to quantum mechanical *Chromium 2, 8, 13, 1 1s 2 , 25 2 , 2p 6 , 3s 2 ,
model, the orbits contain subshell whkh (£¼ Cr) ~6, 3d6, 4s1
in tuTn contain orbitals. 2, 8, 14,2 1s 2 , 25 2 , 2p 6 , 3s 2 ,
• Fom subshells are defined in different ~6 3 ds, 4s2
1

atoms, i.e., s, p, d andf

*Copper 2, 8, 18, 1 1s 2 , 25 2 , 2p 6 , 3s 2 ,
• s-subshell contains one orbital, ( 29 Cu) 3ps, 3d,o, 4s 1
p-subshell contains 3-orbitals, d-subsheU
contains 5-orbitals and f-subshell
contains 7- orbitals. Anfbau Principle
• An orbital can accommodate only (building up, construction)
maxirnum of 2-electrnns. • It is used to determine the elecb.·onic
The distribution of subshells in different con£gw.-ation of an atom.
orbits is as follows • According to it, orbitals are filled in order
Orbits Subshe/1 of their increasing energies, starling with
the orbital of lm vest energy. Increasing
1

1 s
order of energies of various orbitals is,
2 s, p ~ < 2s < 2p < 26 < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p
3 s, p, d < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s
4 s, p,d, f < 5f < 6d <7p
5 s, p, d, f
6 s, p, d
Hund's Rule ofMaximum
7 s, p
Multiplicity
It states that if two or more orbitals of equal
The names of these subshells are taken as energy are available, elecb.·ons , 1vill occupy
induding the orbital name with the them singly before filling them in pairs.
subshell name, e.g., the s-subshell of 5th
orbital is termed as 5s, 6d, etc. Quantwn Nmnbers
These show the position and energy of
Electronic Corrfig11Tation electrons in an atom. These are four in
• It is the arrangement of elecb.·ons in nmnbers
vaiious shells, subshells and orbitals in
an atom. Principal Quantum Number, n
• It is wiitten as 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32 • It desc1ibes the energy of elecb.·on and is
or always a positive integer (elecb.-on shell).
• It is ,..v1itten as nf (v,1here , n indicates • It is represented by K,L, M, N, ... or l , 2,
the pdncipal quantum number, l 3, 4, . ...
indicates the azimuthal quantum • It shows the distance of outer elecb.·on
number or subshell and xis the number from the nucleus.
of elecb.·ons).
• Number of electTons inn she ll = 2n 2 Azimuthal Quantum Number, /
e.g., in second shell the number of • It describes the subshells and orbital
electrons = 2 x2 2 = 8 exceptfons of angular momentum of each electron.
normal ru le. • It shows the shapes of orbitals, e . g.,
Electronic configuration of some elements s-orbHal is spherical, p-orbital is
are tabulated below dumb-bell shape, d-orbital is double
dumb-bell shape and !-orbitals have
Elements Configuration
complicated sb.·ucture.
2, 8, 8... nix type • It h as values O to n - 1.
type • l equal to O shows s-orbital, 1 shows
2, 8, 1 p-orbital, 2 shows d-orbital and 3 shows
f-orbital.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Magnetic Quantum Number, m
It shows the orbjtal of a subsbell or
mien tation of electron an d b as values from
- l to+ l includmg zero.
Spin Quantum Number, s
• It desclibes the spin of each elecb.·on
(spin up or spin dov,rn).
• The value of scan be+.!.. or-.!.
2 2
RADIOACTIVTIY
• It was rnscovered by Henry Becquerel but
term ramoactivity was given by Madam
CL11ie. It is the process of spontaneous
msintegration of nucleus an d js
measured by Geiger counter.
• It is a nuclear phenomenon, thus
remains unaffected by external factors
like temperatw·e, pressure, e tc.
Radioactive Rays
Ramoactivity involves emission of a, ~ and
"{ rays or particles and has WJ.lts Curie,
Becquerel, Rutherford.
Alpba(a) Rays
• These rays consist of positively charged
h eliwn nuclei (He++). They have +2 w:tit
charge and 4 u mass.
• They have lov,, penetrating power but
very rugh ionising power and kinetic
energy.
• An a-emjssion reduces the atomic mass
by 4 and atomic number by 2, thus, the
new nuclej formed occupy a position hvo
places left to the parent nuclei in the
peliomc table (Soddy Fajans group
msplacement law).
Beta ( ~) Rays
• These rays consist of negatively charged
0
elecb.·ons (_ 1 e ) and have - I urut charge
and zern mass.
• These are more dangerous than a-rays.
• These have hjgh penetrating power as
compared to a-rays.
• A ~enJjssion increased the atonnc
nwnber by one ,vith no change in atomic
mass, thus, the new nuclei obtained
Pauli Exclusion Principle
• It is the quantum mechanical p1inciple
wrnch states that no hvo identical
fermions (particles ·with h aJf-in teger
spin) may occupy the same quantum
state simultaneously.
or
• Only two electrons may exist in the san1e
orbital but these elecb.·ons mus t have
opposite spin.
occupy a position one place right to the
parent nuclej in the periomc table
(Soddy Fajans group rnsplacement lav,1) .
Gamma(y) Rays
• These are electromagnetic ramation an d
have very high penetrating power.
• These have low ionising power and
kinetic energy.
• Their emfasion does not affect the
position of nuclei in the periornc table.
HaJf-Life Period
It js the tin1e in which a radioactive
substance remains h aJf of its odginaJ
amount.
Nuclear Fission
• It is a process in wrnch a heavy nucleus
is broken dmm in to h'lro or more Ugh ter
fragments.
• It js usually accompanied , 1vith the
emfasion of neub.·ons and large amount
of energy. It js used in nuclear reactor
and atom bomb.
Atom Bomb
lt js based on unconb.'olled nuclear fission.
lt contains 235 U or 239 Pu as fuel.
Nuclear Reactor
• It is a device that is used to produce
electricjty and pernJjts a controlled chain
nuclear fission .
• It contains fuels e.g., 92 U 235 , moderator
(e.g., graphite and heavy water, D 20) to
slow do\l\rn neutrons and conb.·ol rods
(made up of boron steel or cadmium) to
absorb neutrons.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
• It may aJso contain liquid sodium as
coolant.
Nuclear Fusion
• It js a process whkh involves fusion of
two or more lighter nuclei to give a Anions are formed by the gain of electrons,
heavier nuclei.
• It occurs only at extremely high Electrovalent Bond
temperatme ( > 10 6 K), so aJso called
thermonuclear reactions.
• It is used in hydrogen bomb. Energy of
Sun is aJso a result of a sedes of nuclear
fusion reactions.
Hydrogen Bomb
It contains a mixture of deuteriunJ oxide
(D 20) and tritium oxide (T20) in a space
sunounding an ordinary atom bomb.
Radiocarbon Dating
It js used in determi.rung the age of carbon
bearing mateliaJs such as wood, aninJaJ
fossils, etc. It is based on the concentrntion
of (; 4 and Ci 2 isotopes.
Uranium Dating
It is used to determ.ine the age of earth,
minerals and rocks.
Uses of Radioisotopes
I. lodlne-131 is employed to study the
structure and activity of thyroid gland.
It is aJso used in internal radiation
therapy for the tTeatment of thyroid
disease.
2. lodlne-123 is used in brain inJaging.
3. Cobalt-60 is used in external radiation
therapy for the treatment of cancer.
4 . Soclium-24 js injected aJong with salt
solution to b_-ace the flow of blood.
5. Phosphorus-32 is used for leukemia
therapy.
6. Carbon-14 is used to study the kinetics
of photosynthesis.
CHEMICAL BONDING
• It js formed by elements to complete
eight electrons in their outer shell i.e., to
complete their octet.
• It results in decrease in energy and
increase in stability.
Ions
These are of two types : cation and anion.
Cations are formed by the loss of electrons
and carry positive charge, e.g., Na+, Mg 2 +.
and carry negative charge e.g., c 1-, p-, etc.
or Ionic Bond
• It is a type of chemical bond formed
through an elecb_-ostatic attraction
betv1reen two oppositely chai·ged ions.
• It is formed between a cation, v,1hich is
usually a metal_, and an anion, whkh is
usually a non-metal, e.g.,
xx xx
Na + xct;
xx
~ [Na+] [:c1;-J
xx
2,8,1 2,~7 sodium chloride
Ionic Compounds
• They can conduct electricity in molten
state or in solution, but not in solid state.
• They have a high melting point and tend
to be soluble in ,i1i,ater. Examples of such
compounds are limestone (CaCO:J,
common sal t (NaCl), lime (CaO),
magnesium oxide (MgO), etc.
• The energy required to sepai·ate the ions
of an ionic compound js cal]ed lattice
energy.
Covalent Bond
• It js a type of chemical bond that is
characterised by the sharing of electrons
bel:\veen two atoms.
• It may be a single bond (-), formed by
sharing of two elecb.·ons i.e., one elecb.·on
from each atom, double bond
( ), formed by shaiing of four electrons
i.e., two electrons from each atom, or
triple bond ( ), formed by shaiing of six
elecb.·ons i.e., thrne elecb_-ons from each
atom.
• The geomeb.-y of few covalen t molecule
H 20 (water) - Bent, NH3 (ammonia) -
pyranndal, CH 4 (methane)-tet:raheclral_,
CO 2 (cai·bon dioxide)-1.inear.
• Single bond contains only 1 a-bond;
double bond contains 1 cr and l1C-bond;
and triple bond contains 1 a and
2rr-bonds.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Covalent Compounds van der Waals' Interaction /Force

I . They are non-conductor of
elecmcity.
2. They have low thermal
conductivity.
3. They are insoluble in wa ter, but
soluble in non-polar solvents like
benzene, acetone, ether, etc.
4 . They have low melting and boiling
points (diamond and graphite
have very rngh melting point.)
5. They are directional. So, have
definite geometry.
Coordinate or Dative Bond
• It js a special type of covalent bond
in which both the electrons for
sharing (i.e., shared pair of
electrons) are given by only one
atom.
• Coordinate compounds have
properties in bet\ veen the ionic and
1 Combination Reactions
covalent compounds.
• Exan1ples of coordinate compounds
are
The attractive forces among the non-polar
molecules in solid or liquid states. Th ese are
relatively weaker compared to normal chemical
bonds.
The ability of Geckos wh ich can hang on a
glass surface using only one toe-to climb on sheer
surfaces has been attributed to the van der Waals'
forces between these surfaces and spatulae or
microscopic projections, which cover the hair-like
setae found on their footpads.
CHEMICAL REACTION
The process in wWch substances (reactants)
react to form new compounds (products), is
known as chernkal reaction.
Types of Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions are offollowimg fJ1.Jpes
In such reactions, t\vo or more substances
combine to give a single substance, e.g.,
CaO + H 20 ~ Ca(OHh
Calcium Water Calcium
oxide hydrmdde

[H-!-+{
(Ammonium ion)
;c- N, etc
(Cyanide ion)
Decomposition Reactions
These are those irreversible reactions in wrnch,
a molecule decomposes into t\vo or more
simplei- molecules e.g.,
Hychogen Bond 2KC10 3 ~ 2KC1 + 30 2
• It js the atl.Tactive interaction of a Potassium Potass~um Oxygen
chlorate chloride
hydrogen attached to rngh]y
electrnnegative atom (such as N, F, Dissociation Reactions
0) with another electronegative
atom, such as nitTogen, m')'gen
. or These ,He those reversible reactions in wrnch a
fluorine . molecule dissociates into t\vo or more simple
molecules, e.g.,
• It is strnnger (bas energy 5 to
30 kJ/mol) than a van der Waals' 2 HJ ~
interaction. Hydrogen Hydrogen Iodine
iodiae
• It occms in both inorganic
molecules such as water and Reversible Reactions
organic molecules such as DNA_ Reversible reactions are those wrnch occms in
• Ethanol, amine (except 3° anline), forward as well as in backvvard direction but
etc. , can form H-bond with water, never go to completion.
so these are soluble in water
although these are covalent Irreversible Reactions
compounds . Irreversible reactions occur only in forward
direction and go to completion.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - General Science
Displacement Reactions
In such reactions, an atom or a group
of a toms of a molecule is replaced by
another atom or group of atoms e.g.,
CuSO4 + Fe ~ FeSO4 + Cu
Copper fQ.tTous
sulphate sulphate
Double Displacement
Reactions
These involve exchange of ions
be tvveen two compounds. e.g.,
NaCl + AgNO3 ~ AgCl + NaNO3
Reactions occurring beh1veen the ions
or ionic compoWJds are very fast.
Exothermic Reactions
These are those reactions in vi'ltich
energy is released, e.g. , bmning of
natural gas, respiration, decomposition
of vegetable matter in to compost,
combustion reactions etc.
Endothermic Reactions
These are those reactions in vi'ltich
energy is consumed, e.g., digestion,
photosynthesis, evaporation of water,
melting of an ice, etc.
Redox Reactions
In such reactions, oxidation and
reduction occurs, simultaneously.
These are called disproportionation
reaction when the same element is
oxidised as well as reduced.
Oxidation
• It involves addition of oxygen or any
other electronegative element like
fluorine (F), chlmine (Cl), njtrogen
(N), etc.
• It involves removal of hydrogen (H)
or any other electropositive element
like sodium (Na). It involves loss of
elecb.·ons i.e ., increase in the
positive charge of ion.
Reduction
• It involves addition of hydrogen or • It js a tabular display of the chemkal
any other electropositive element.
• It involves removal of m-ygen
. or any properties .
other electronegative element. It • It contains horizontal 1·ows called periods
involves gain of electron, i.e.,
decrease in oxidation state.
Oxidising Agent or Oxidant
These are the substances that have the ability to
oxidise other substances, e.g., H 2O 2 , MnO~ ,
CrO 3 , Cr2O~-, Osoi- or elec- tronegative
elements (0 21 F 21 Cl 21 Br:J etc.
Reducing Agent or Reductant
These are the substances that have the ability to
reduce other substances, rr·ansfer elecb.'ons to
another substance; e.g., electropositive element,
metals such as litruum, sodium, magnesium,
iron, zinc, and aJuminjum, hydride b.'ansfer
reagents, such as NaB~ and ~ , etc.
Reduolion
t+2 +2
t
+1 +4
2HgCl2
(OHidJsing
Agenl)
(Reduolng
Agenl)
j
+ SnCl2(aq) ----+- Hg 2 Cl2 (s) + SnCl 4
I 01tldellon
Catalysis
• It was discovered by Berzelius.
• It is a term , used for the reactions/ processes
v,,Wch occur in the presence of certain
substances that increase the rate of the
reaction , vithout being consumed. Such
1
substances are called catalysts.
• Catalysis is called homogeneous , vhen 1
reactant and catalyst are in sanJe phase e .g.,
for the manufacture of sulphwic acid.
S02(g) +!02(g) NO(g) S03(g)
2
• Catalysis is called heterogeneous, when
reactant and catalyst are in different phase,
e.g. , Haber's process for the synthesis of
anmrnrua.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) Fe(s) 2NH3 (g)
• Catalysis js called autocatalysis, when one of
the product increases the rate of the reaction
i.e., acts as catalyst. e.g.,
CH 3 COOC 2lfs + H 2O ~
CH 3COOH + C 2lfsOH
PERIODIC TABLE
elements, organfaed on the basis of their
and ve11ical columns called groups.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Mendeleefs Periodic Law • lt is the only block \"i Wch contain metals,
1

non-metals and metalloids.

It states that, 'the physical and chemical
properties of elements are the peliodic
function of their atomk masses .'
Modern Periodic Law
It states that, "physical and chemical
properties of the elements are periodic
functions of their atomic numbers".
LongF011n
of Periodic Table
It is just graphical representation of Aufbau
principle. It 1s based on the electronic
configuration of elements and contains
118 elements. It is divided intofozm· blochs
s-Block
• It contains 1 and 2 group, i.e., hydrogen
and alkali metals (Ll, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr)
and alkaline Earth metals (Be, Mg, Ca,
Sr, Ba, Ra). General elecb.·onk
confiJ;Liration of these elements is
ns0--__
• These elements are soft metals,
elecb.·opositive and form basic oxides.
• Heavier elements show inert pair effect.
s and p-block elements are collectively
called representative elements.
d-Block
• lt complises 10 groups (3 to 12) . These
elements are called transition elements.
• General electronic corrfi~ation of
d-block elements 1s (n - l)d1" 0 ns 1- 2 _
• Elements of th.is block contain unpafred
elecb.·ons and are paranJagnetic.
• These elements are generally colow-ed and
used as catalyst.
• Hg, Zn, Cu, Sc, etc., are d-block elements,
but not the transition elements .
f-Block
• lt usually offset below the rest of the periodic
table, complises two rows of 14 elements,
called the ]anthanides and actinides
respectively.
• General electronic configuration of this
block elements is (n - 2)f 1- 14 (n - 1)
d1- 1011 s1 - 2._

p-Block There are two series in this block 4f and 5f

selies. 4f series elements are called
• It compdses the 1ast six groups Ian than.ides and 5fseries elements are calJed
(13-18). actinides. Elements of tWs block are called
• General elecb.·onk configuration of inner-transition elements and present in
this block elements 1s ns 2 np 1- 6 . IIlB (3) group onJy.
0.
::::l
e
C)
s-blook p-block
IA flA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 0
I+ ("1)
H
(2) (13) (14) (16) (16) (17) (18)
He
1
1 2
2 Li Be d-block or transition elements B C N 0 F Ne
3 4 I 5 6 7 8 9 10
3
Na Mg (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (1 1) (12) Al
(3) (4) Si p s Cl Ar
11 12 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB 13 14 15 16 17 18
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 36 36
Rb Sr y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
6
Cs Ba La Hu Ta w Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Os Rg Cn Uut Fl UUp Lv Uus Uuo
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 11 7 11 8

~
Oe Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Th Pa u Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
90 91 92 93 94 96 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
f-blook or inner-transition elements
0 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• For p-block elements, they show variable

Newly Discovered Element valencies [P(3, 5), S(4, 6) but tendency to
Ununseptium, recently discovered, a show higher valency decreases when we
superheavy chemical element wirh atomic move dmm in a group due to inert pair
number 11 7, is a member of group-17 in the effect.
periodic table below the five halogens • Ford-block elements Fe(2, 3), Cu (1, 2) the
(fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and elements of same group may have different
astatine). Its synthesis was claimed in valencies, and the element itself exmbit
Dubna, Russia by a joint Russian-American different valencies.
collaboration. In 2014, the GSI Helmholtz
Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Germany Oxidatjon State
also claimed to have successfully repeated
• It is the hypothetical charge that an atom
original experiment Ununseptium is a would have if all bonds of atoms of different
temporary systematic name that is elements were removed .
intended to be used before a permanent • It is typically represented by integers, \'l1hich
one is established. It is commonly called can be positive, negative or zero.
element-117, instead of ununseptium.
• It js + 1 for hydrogen, - 2for o:,..')'gen (except
in peroxide i.e., - 1 and in F20 i.e., + 2), + 1
for sodium and potassium and + 2 for
Periodic Properties magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium
and their Trends (Sr) .
PeLiodic properties are those which • It is - lfor fluorine (always).
shows a regu]ar trend along a peliod • It is zero for a neutral molecule.
and a group. ExC1J1nple : Calculation of oxidation number of
Atomic Size Mn in KMn04 .
Let the oxidation number of Mn is X.
• It generally increases on moving
KM.nO 4 = 1 + X + 4(-2) = 0
down the group because number of
shells increases. Therefore, the oxidation number of Mn in
KMn0 4 is+7.
• It decreases along a peliod from left
to light. Thus, size of alkali metal js Metallic Character
largest and that of halogens js • It is the tendency of an element to form
smallest in a period. cation by the loss of elecb.·ons.
• Smallest atom is hydrogen and
• It decreases along a peliod from left to light
largest atom js cesium.
and increases in a group on moving
• Most poisonous metal is plutonium. downwards.
Valency Ionisatjon Energy
• It is the combin.ing capacity of an • It is the enei-gy required to remove an
element. electron from the outermost shell of an
• It increases from 1 to 7 along a peliod isolated gaseous atom.
, 1vith respect to o:,..')'gen whereas with
• It generally increases along a period
respect to hydrogen, it fust increases from left to light but ionjsation energy of Be,
from 1 to 4 and then decreases to 0. Mg, Ca, Sr js larger than the iorusation
• For alkali me tal (i.e., sodium, energy of B, AL In, Tl, respectively.
potassium, etc.,) it is 1, for alkaline Moreover, ionisation energy of N, P is larger
Earth metals (i.e., magnesium, than ionisation energy of 0, S respectively.
calcium, etc. ,) js 2, for alwninjum, it • It generally decreases in a group on moving
is 3 and for njb:ogen it is 3. It remains downwards.
the same in a group.
• Fors-block elements, all the elements Elecb·on Affinity (EA)
in a group have same valency. • It js defined as the energy libera ted when an
extra elecb.·on js added to an atom.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• It inci·eases across a period from left to • Sodium and potassium burn in water
light but EA of II(2), 15 group and 0 while calcium floats over it.
group is O or positive. • Copper (Cu) js the first metal used by
• It decreases on moving down a group. man.
• It js rnghest for chlorine. • Pb (lead) is a bad conductor of elecliicity.
• Ti (Titanium) is called strategic metal.
Elecb:onegativity
It js the tendency of an atom in a molecule Non-Metals and their Prope1ties
to attract the shared electrons towards itsel£• These may be solid, liqwd or gas
It :incrnases regularly along a period from left (bromine is the on]y liquid non-metal).
to right and decrnases on moving dm'l'Il a
• These are soft, non-lustrous, biittle,
group. It is mghest for fluorine.
non-sonorous and non-conductor of heat
Metals and their Properties and elecliicity.
• These are the elements which are hard, • These have lm"i' melting and boiling
lustrous, ductile, malleable, sonorous points.
and conductor of heat and electricity in • These form oxides ,,.rith oxygen wmch are
their solid as well as molten state. generally acidic.
• These form oxide with air. These oxides • Examples are noble gases li.e., helium
are generally basic, but oxides of zinc (He), neon-(Ne), argon (Ar), h yp ton
and aluminium are amphoteLic, i.e., (Kr), xenon (Xe) and some other p-block
have acidic as , vell as basic properties.
1 elements].
• These evolve hydrogen gas , 1vhen reacts • DlanJond is the hardest substance ]mown .
,,.rith wa ter and acids. Iodine is lusb:ous. Melting point is very
• Metals which are rnghly reactive high for dianJond and graphite.
displace the less reactive metals from • The order of hardness of some
their salts. The order of reactivity is : substances is : dianrnnd > corundum >
potassium (K) > calcium (Ca) > topaz > quartz .
sodium (Na) > magnesium (Mg) >
alumiruum (Al) > zinc (Zn) > iron (Fe)
Helium
> lead (Pb) > hydrogen (H) > copper • It is a noble gas (discovered by Lockyear
(Cu) > mercury (Hg) > silver (Ag) > and Janssen).
gold (Au) (Thus, gold js less reactive • It is used for filling balloons and other
metal). ligh ter aircrafts. Helium, when mixed
e.g., \i\!ben iron nails are kept in copper with OJ\..-ygen, is used by deep-sea divers
sulphate solution (blue), iron being more for breathing and for respiratory patients.
reactive displaces the copper from copper • It js used as a heat transfer agent in gas
sulphate solution and thus, the blue cooled nuclear reactors .
colour of solution disappears.
• Mercury (metal) js liquid at room Neon
temperatw·e. It was discovered by RanJsay and Travers. It is
• Metal with lowest density js lithium. used in neon signs.
• Tungsten js the metal having rngh est Argon
melting point.
It was discovered by Rayleigh and Ramsay. It
• Reactivity of metals increases while that js used to generate inert abnospbere for
of non-metals decreases on mmring welding and to fill incandescent light bulbs.
dmvn the group. A mixture of mercury vapours and argon gas
• Sodium and potassium are soft and js filled in tube lights.
rnghly reactive metals. These react ,,.rith
air and water. That's why these are kept Xenon
in kerosene oil. Silver, gold and It is called stranger gas. Xe, when mixed
platinum do not react with air even on with Kr, used in high intensity, short
sb:ong heating. eJ\..-posme photographic flash tubes .
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Uses of Some Imp01tant Metals Ores

Metals and Non-Metals Aluminium Bauxite (Al2 0 3 • 2H2 0)
(Al) Corundum (Al2 0 3 )
• Ferrous Oxide (FeO) js used to Cryolite (Na 3 AIF6 )
prepare ferrous salts and green glass. Feldspar (KAISi 3 0 8 )
• Ferric Oxide (Fep 3 ) is used in Potassium Nitre (KN0 3 )
jeweller 's rouge. (K) Carnalite (KCI · MgCl2 • 6 H2 0)
• SiJver Nitrate (AgNO 3 ) js called Magnesium Magnesite (MgC0 3 )
(Mg) Dolomite ( MgCO 3 • Ca CO 3 )
lunar caustic and js used to prepare
Epsom salt ( MgSO 4 • 7 H2 0)
the ink used dw:ing voting.
Ca loium Caloite (CaC0 3 )
• Silver Iod'ide (AgI) is used for (Ca) Flurospar (CaF? )
art±fi cial rain.
Copper (Cu) Cup rite (CLI:20)
• Mercw·ic Chloride (HgCl i) is used to Copper glanoe (Cu2 S)
prepare calomel and as a poison. Copper pyrites (CuFeS 2 )
• Hydrogen Peroxide (H 2O 2) is used as Silver (Ag) Ruby silver(A&S · Sb2 S3 )
an oxidising agent, bleachmg agent, Hom silver (AgCI)
as an insecticide and for washing old Zinc (Zn) Zinc blende (ZnS)
oil paintings. Calamine (ZnC0 3 )
Zincite (ZnO)
Metalloids Mercury (Hg) Cinnabar (HgS)
These have properties of me tals as well Tin (Sn) Cassiterile (Sn02 )
as non-metals. They are present only in Lead (Pb) Galena (PbS)
p-block. Their examples are arsenic, Cerrusite (PbC0 3 )
antimony, germanjum, tellwjwn, Iron (Fe) Haematite (Fe 2 0 3 )
silicon and boron. Magnetite (Fe 30 4 )
Siderite (FeC0 3 )
Minerals Uranium (U) Pitoh blende (kernatile) (Ua0 8 )
These are the substances in the form of Thorium (Th) Monazite
which metal is found in nature.
• The main constituent of pearl js METALLURGY
calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ).
• Ruby and sappbfre are chentically It is the process of exb:action of metal from its
aluminium oxide, Al 2O 3 . ores.
Ores
• In haemoglobin and myoglobin, irnn ,i
js present as Fe 2 +.
Moderately reactive ores
Ores
Highly Moderately reactive Less
• These are the minerals from wmch
reactive m1.als reactive
metal can be obtained convenien tly metals metals
and beneficially.
• All ores are mmerals but all n:rinerals
+
Electrolysis
,J,,
Carbonate
i
Sulphide
-J,,
Sulphide
ore ore
are not ores. of fu sed ores
-J,, -J,,
metals Caloinalion Roa sting
-J,,
Gangue or Mah-ix + I
i
I
Roasting
-J,,
These are the :impw_ities associated Pure Metal
·with the ore. metals Metal oxide
-J,, -J,,
Ores of Some Important Metals Reduotion (smelting) Relining
-J,, of metal
Metals Ores Impure metal
Sodiu m (Na) Chile salt petre (NaN0 3 )
Common saJt or brine
+
Relining of impure metal
(NaCl) +
Pure Metal
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Calcination
• It is the process of heating the concentra ted ore in absence or in lin:tited supply of air
belm'I' its melting point. It is done for hydroxide or carbonate ore.
• It is done in reverberatory furnace.

Roasting
• It is the process of heating the concentrated ore in excess of air.
• It is used for sulphide ores.
• It is done in reverberatory fui-nace .

Smelting
It is the process of heating the oxides of elements with coke and flux above their melting
point.
Flux and Slag
• These are the substances which converts infusible impurities into fusible substances
called slag.
• These are of two types : Acidic flux such as Si0 2 (used to remove basic imprnjties) an d
basic flux such as CaO, MgO (used to remove acidic impurities).

Electrolytic Refining
In electrolytic reE.rring, anode is made up of impme metal and cathode is made by thin
sb.ip of pure metal.

Alloys
These are mixtures of two metals or a metal and a non-metal. They have properties
different from the main me tal . An alloy of mercury is called amalgam.

Alloys and their Uses

Alloy Composition Uses
Brass Copper (70%)+Zinc (30%) In making utensils
Bronze Copper (90%)+ Tin (10%) In making coins, bell, utensil
Gun metal Copper (88%)+ (10%) Tin+Zinc (2%) In making gun, barrels, gears
and bearings
German silver Copper (60%)+Zinc (20%)+Niakel (20%) In making utensils
Solder Lead (50%)+ Tin (60%) For soldering
Bell metal Copper (80%)+ Tin (20%) For casting bells, statues
Munz metal Copper (60%)+Zinc (40%) In making coins
Magnalium Aluminium (95%)+Magnesium (5%) For frame of aeroplane
Duralumin Aluminium (94%)+Copper+Magnesium and For making automobile parts
manganese
Type metal Lead (80%)+Antimony (15%)+ Tin (6%) In printing industry
Stainless steel Iron f5%)+Chromium (15%), Nickel For making utensils and
(10% +Carbon (0.5%) su rgical outlery
Babbir metal Tin (89%)+Antimony (9%)+Copper (2%) In making heater ooil
Niokel+Chromium
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

bases reacts with non-metallic oxides to

ACIDS, BASES AND give salt an d water v, h.icb shows that
1

SALTS non-metallic oxides are acidic in natme .

• When dissolved in wa ter, acids release
Arrhenius Concept H+ ions an d bases (or especially alk alies)
According to tms concept, "acids are those releases OI-r ions.
substances which give H + ions in their HA+ H2O ~ ~ o+ + A8
aqueous solu tion and _Qases are those
substances v,1hich give OH ions in their BOH + H20 ~ B+ + OH 8
aqueous solution. " Acids like HCl, HN0 3 H2S0 4 , etc., an d
HCl (aq) ~ W + Cl bases like NaOH, KOH, e tc., are good
conductors of electricity in their aqueous
NaOH (aq) ~ Na + +OH
solu tions.

Bronsted Lowry Concept Some Importan t Points

According to tms concept, "acids are • Aqua Regia is a mixtu re of cone HCI and cone.
proton donors and bases are proton HN 0 3 in a ratio of 3: 1 and is used to di ssolve
acceptors." noble metals like gold, platinum, etc.
CH 3 COOH + H 20 ~ CH 3 COO + H 3 0 + Pickles are always kept in glass jar because
Acid Base Conj ugate Conjugate acid present in them reacts with metal of
Base acid
metallic pot.

• Acidity is the num ber of replaceable OH

- ions, e .g., i t is I for NaOH, 2 for
Ca(OH) 2 . Whereas BasicHy represen ts
Lewis Concept the number of replaceable W ions, e .g.,
According to tms concept, ''Acids are it is 1 for H Cl, 2 for H 2 S0 4 .
elecb.·on pau- acceptors and bases are
elecb.·on pair donors."
Sources of Some Naturally
:NH3 + BF3 ➔ H 3 N: ➔ BF3 Occurring Acids
Base Ac.id
Acids Sources
Properties of Citric aoid Lemon , orange, grapes

Acids and Bases Maleic aoid Unripe apple

• Acids h ave sour taste and turns blue Tartaric aoid Tamarind
litmus red. While , bases have bit ter tas te Aoetic aoid Vinegar
and tmns red litmus blue. Lactic aoid Milk
• Acids reacts with metal to libera te Hydroohloric aoid Stomaoh
h ydrogen gas. Oxa lic aoid Tomato
Acid + Metal ~ Sal t + Hydrogen gas.
• Bases also reacts \i\rith some metals to Uses of Some Acids and Bases
liberate hydrogen gas .
Acids Uses
e .g., Zn+ 2NaOH ~ Na 2 Zn0 2 + H2
Nitric aoid, oxalic photography
• Acid an d base reacts together to form salt aoid
and water and the reaction is called
neutrali sation re action . Sulphuri c acid petroleum exp loration
Acid + Base ~ Salt+ H2 O. Hydrochloric acid leather industry
HCI(a q) + NaOH(aq) ~ Benzoic acid, preserva tion for food
NaCI(aq) + H2 0(l) formic acid, stuff
• Acids reacts \'lrith metallic oxides to give citri c aoid,
salt and water which shm'l,s that m etallic aoetic aoid
oxides are basic in natme. Whereas,
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Bases Uses Salts

Caloium hydroxide manufacturing of bleaohing These are the product of neu b.-alisation
caloium oxide powder reaction beh1veen an acid and a base
Magnesium anlaoid, in sugar industries e.g.,
hydro><ide HN0 3 (aq) + KOH (aq) ~
Sodium hydrrndde manufacture of hard soaps acid base
and drugs, paper and textile KN03 (aq) + H2 0 ([)
industry, petroleum relining salt waler
Potassium manufacture of soft soaps
hydro><ide
These are of the following types

Mixed Salt
pHValue These al'e obtained by neu b.-alisation of
• It is a measw·e of acirnty or basicity of a an acid by hvo base or a base by two
solution . acids. e.g., bleaching powder (CaOCl ~-
• It is defined as the negative logarithm of the
concen b.-ation in mol/L of h ydrogen ions Double Salt
vi'ltich it contains, i.e., lt js obtained by mixing h \10 or more
1 salt, e.g.,
pH =- log [H 1 = log-
[H 1 Alum (K2SO 4 -Al 2 (SO4 ) 3 -24H2 O),
or (H1 = 1 X 10-pl:I Mohr Salt (FeSO 4 · ~ ) 2 SO 4 · 6H2 O).
• It js 7 for neutral solution, greater than 7 for
Imp01tant Salts
basic solution and less than 7 for acirnc
solution . Common Salt
• pH of some common substances are: • lt is sornum chloride (NaCl).
Substance pH Substance pH • lt is obtained from sea water.
Gastric juioe 1.0-3.0 Rain water 6.0
• lt is also lrnm'l'Il as table salt.
Soft drinks 2.0-4.0 Tears 7.4 Baking Soda
Lemon 2.2-2.4 Sea waler 8.5
• lt js sornum h ydrogen carbonate
Vinegar 2.4-3.4 Milk of 10.6 (NaHCO 3 ). It is a rnild non-corrosive
magnesia
base.
Urine 4.8-8.4 Milk (oow) 6.3•6.6
(human) • ,iVhen mixed with a mild edible acid
such as tartai1c acid it is called
Saliva 6.5-7.5 Blood 7.30-7.42
(human) plasma baking powder and is used to make
(human) bread or cake soft an d spongy.
• lt is use d as mild antiseptic for sldn
Indicators infections, ill soda-acids an d as fire
• These al'e the substances which give extinguishers.
drlferen t coloms ill acidic and basic • Ant or bee sting contains methanoic or
solutions. formk acid . Due to v,1hich victim feel
• Some inrncators and their colom in acirnc pain and irritation. Use of a mild base
and basic mernum are : Wee bald.Ilg soda is a remedy for it.

Indicators Colour Washing Soda

In Acid In Base lt is chemically sornum carbonate
decahydTate (Na 2CO 3 -10Hp) and is
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
used in glass, soap and paper industries
Methyl orange Orange Yellow and also for removing permanent
Methyl red Red Yellow hardness of water.
Phenol red Yellow Red
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Bleaching Powder ELECTROCHEMISTRY

• It is chemically Ca(OCl)Cl or
CaOCl 2 • It is the study of production of elecmcity from
energy released during spontaneous chemical
• It is used for bleaching cotton and reactions and use of electrical energy to cany
linen in the textile industry, for out non-spontaneous chemical
bleaching wood pulp in paper transformations.
factories.
• It is used for disinfecting drinking ELECTROLYSIS
water.
The process in which a non-spontaneous
Plaster of Paris reaction is carried out by using electJ.jcal
• It is chemically calciwn sulphate energy.
1 It is used
hemihych-ate ( ½
Ca SO 4 · H'.p) and • in production of m,.'Ygen for space craft and
nuclear submarines.
obtained by heating gypswn
(CaSO 4 · 2H2O). It contains half • in layedng metals to fortify them .
molecule of water of crystallisation. • in production of hydrogen for fuel.
• It is a whjte powder and on mixing • in electrolytic etching of metal surfaces hl<e
,,v:tth water, changes into a hard solid tools or knives Virith a permanent mark or
mass, called gypsum. logo.
• It is used to plaster fractmed bones, • Elecfrometalltugy is the process of
for making toys, materials for reduction of metallic compound into pure
decoration and for making smooth metal by electJ.·olysis.
surfaces. • Anodjsation is an electJ.·olytic process that
makes the surface of metals resistant to
Copper Sulphate (Blue Vitriol) corrosion.
Copper sulphate when anhydrous, is • Elec trolysis of brine (the water, satmated or
white and when associated , 1vith wa ter nearly satmated with sal t, usually sodium
of crystallisation (i.e., CuSOd · 5H 2O), is chloride) gives hydrogen and chlodne. The
blue, so it is called blue v:ttJ.~ioL It is used products are gases.
to test the presence of water. 2NaCl + 2H 2O ~ 2NaOH + H 2 + Cl 2

Lime Faraday's Laws ofElectTolysis

• It is chemically calcium oxide (CaO)
and also called quicklime.
• It is used in the manufactme of glass,
cement, etc., and for drying anlllonia
and alcohol.
• Excessive use of fertilizers makes the
soil more acidic. To neutJ.·ilise it,
q u:icklime is added to soil as acidic
soil is not good for growth of the
plant.
Potassi mn Nib·ate
It is used as fertiliser, in gun powder
(C+S+KNO 3 ), in matchsticks, etc.
Magnesium hydroxide
It is used as a remedy for hyper aciruty
in stomach.
First Law of Electrolysis
It states that the quantity of elements
separated by passing an electJ.jc cmrent
thrnugb a molten or dissolved salt is
proportional to the quantity of elecmc charge
passed through the circuit.
w cc Q ; w = ZQ = Zit
(Charge (Q)=Cunent (i) xTinJe (t))
Second Law of Elecb·olysis
The anrnunt of rnfferent substances liberated
at the electrodes by the same quantity of
electdcity passing through the electrolytic
solution are proportional to their chenncal
equivalent weights.
W cc E or "½ = E.L
W.! E2.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Electrochemical Cell
• It is a device that produces an electric
cunent from energy released by a
spontaneous redox reaction (in short v,1h.ich
converts chemical energy into electlical
energy). Th.is kind of cell includes the
galvanic cell or voltaic cell.
• It has two conductive electrodes, i.e.,
anode (at '"''h.ich oxidation occms) and
cathode (at wh.ich reduction occms).
• It contains an electrolyte in beti.,veen the
electrodes, wh.ich contains ions that can
move freely.
BATTERY
• It js an arrangement of one or more cells
connected in selies.
• It js basically a galvanic cell_.
These arre of two tzJpes
1. Primary batteries (non-rechargeable)
e.g., dry cell, mercury cell etc.
2. Secondary batteries (rechargeable) e.g.,
lead storage battery, nickel- cadmium
battel)'.
Lechlanche Cell or Dry Cell
• It consists of a zinc container that acts as
anode and carbon (graphite) rod
sunounded by powdered manganese
dioxide and carbon which acts as cathode.
It contains a paste of NH4 Cl and ZnCl 2 in
bel:\veen the elecb.·odes.
• It js used in rr·ansistors and clocks.
• It has a potential of 1.5 V
Mercrny Cell
• It is suitable for the low current devices
like hearing aids and can1era, etc.
• It consists of zinc-mercury an1algan1 as
anode and a paste of HgO and carbon as
cathode. The elecb.·olyte is a paste of KOH
and ZnO.
• It has potential of 1.35 V Th.is potential
remains constant during its whole life.
Lead Storage Battery
• It js a secondary batte1y
• It acts as electrochemical cell during
dischai·ging (:i.e.,during use) and as
elecb.·olyt:ic cell dw:ing charging.
e
• It is used in automobiles and invertors.
• lt consists oflead as anode and a grid of
lead packed with lead dioxide (Pb0 2) as
cathode. A 38% solution of sulphuric
acid is used as an elecb.·olyte.
• It consists of a selies of six identical
cells assembled in selies. Each cell
may produce a potential of 2 V, hence
overall voltage produced is 12 V
• PbS0 4 js formed when lead storage
battery is in use and lead dioxide are
formed when it is charged.
Fuel Cell
These are galvanic cells wh.ich use energy
of combustion of fuels like hydrogen (H 2),
methane (CH,;1 ), methanol (CH 30H), etc.,
as the source to produce elecb.ical energy.
e.g., byd.rogen-OA'}'gen fuel cell.
Corrosion
• lt js the process of oxidative
dete1ioration of a metal surface by the
action of environment to form
unwanted products.
• e.g., conversion of iron into rust
[Fe 20 3 - x H 20], tamfabmg of silver
(due to the formation of Ag 2S),
development of green coating of
Cu(OHh-CuC0 3 (basic copper
carbonate)] on copper and bronze. lt js
basically an electrochemical process.
• Corrosion of iron is called rusting. lt is
accelerated by the presence of
impwities i.e. H+, elecb.·olytes such as
NaCl, gases such as CO2, S0 2, NO,
N02, etc.
• Formation of a layer of aluminium
oxide over aluminium surface protects
the metal from fw·ther corrosion.
• A sliced apple turns brown if kept
open for some time due to the
oxidation of iron present in the apple.
It is prevented by the follmuing methods
• By electroplating.
• By surface coating (i.e., coating of
surface with oil, grease, paint and
varnfab), by alloying, by galvanisation
of fron (process of deposition of a thin
layer of zinc over iron surface).
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• Urea lt is the first synthesised organic

CARBON AND ITS
COMPOUND
Carbon
It is a member of group 14 in the Periodic
Table, with symbol C and atomic number 6.
It has three crystalline allotropes
Graphite
• It is opaque and black.
• It is a very good conductor of electricity.
• It is soft enough to form a sb.·eak on
paper.
• It is used for thermal insulation (i.e.
firebreaks and heat shields).
• It is a very good lubricant.
compound (discovered by Whaler).
• Acetic Acid lt was the first organic
compound synthesised in the laboratm)'
from its elements.
Hydrocarbons
• These ai·e the compounds of only cai-bon
and hydrogen.
These are of three tzJpes
Sabuated Hydrocarbons
• These compounds contain only single
bonds.
• These are also called alkanes or
paraffins and have general formula
C 11 H 21, + 2 v, here, 1l = l, 2, 3 .... Methane
1

is the first member of tWs group.

Diamond
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
• It is highly transparent.
• These have atleast one double ( =) or
• It is the hardest matelial knmrn.
triple ( ==) bond and ai·e called alkene
• It is an elecb.1cal insulator. and alkynes, respectively.
• Under normal conditions, it has the • These have general formula C11 H2 ,, for
highes t thermal conductivity of all allmne and C11 H 211 _ 2 for alkynes.
known materials .
• Ethylene (C 2 H 4 ) lt is the first member of
• It is an ultimate abrasive.
alkene and acetylene (C 2H2.,) is the first
Fullerenes member of alkyne.
• C 60 looks like a soccer ball (or bucky Aromatic Hydrocarbons
ball).
• These have 1mg structme with alternate
• It contains 20 six membered 1fugs and
double bonds and obey ( 4n + 2) n e-
12 five membered rings of carbon atoms.
(Huc kel's rule).
• It acts as a wonderful lubricant and the
alkali metal compounds of C60 are used • Benzene is the first member of ai·omatic
as superconducting substance at the hydrocarbons .
temperatme range of l 0-40 K.
Functional Group
Graphene • It is an atom or group of atoms in a
Graphene is an allotrope of carbon _ Its molecule, which is responsible for the
structure is one-atom-thick planar sheets of chemical properties of the molecules.
carbon atoms that are densely packed in a • - OH is alcoholic group, - CHO is
honeycomb crystal lattice_ The term graphene aldehyde group, > C =0 is keto group,
was coined as a combination of graphite and - COOH is carbOA')'lic acid group, - 0 -
the suffix-ene by Hanns-Peter Boehm, who is ether group.
discovered single-layer carbon fo il s in 1962.
Homologous Series
Organic Compounds • It is a series of compounds in which
adjacent members differ by a --CH 2 -
• These are the compounds of ma.inly
unit (14 u:mt mass) .
carbon and hydrogen or compounds of
carbon and hydrogen with other • All members of a homologous series
elements like phosphorus, m,.')'gen, h ave same functional group and same
:mtrogen, sulphur, halogens etc. chemical properties.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Isomerism Glycerine (C3 H80J

Compounds having the same molecu]ar It js used to synthesise explosive
formuJa, but different structure are called rntroglycedne, stamp illk and boot polish.
isomers and the phenomenon js called
Formfo Acid (H COO H)
isomedsm. e.g., C2H 6 O can have the
folloViring sb.-uctures CH 3 OCH 3 and It js used as a preservative for fruits and
C 2ffsOH. .iwces, in leather industry and ill
coagu]ation of rubber.
Uses of Some Impo1tant Acetic _,k id (CH3 COOH)
Organic Compounds It is used in vinegai~ medicines and ac t as a
Methane (CH 4 ) solvent.
It is used to manufactme printer ink, Oxalic Acid (C2 H 2 0 4 )
methyl alcohol and to obtain light and It is used in prmting of clothes, ill
energy photography and in the synthesis of coaJtar.
Ethylene (C2 H 4 ) Glucose (C6 H12Os)
It is used to prepare mus tard gas (war gas) It is used for the synthesis of aJcobol and as
and for ripening of fruits. a preservative for fruitjuice.
Glycol (C2H 6 02) Benzene (C6 Hs)
It is used as an antifreeze mixtme in car It is used as a solvent for oil fat and in ill)'
radiator and prevent the freezing of fuel in cleaning. Sodium benzoate js a food
space crafts . preservative.
Acetylene (C 2 HQ) Toluene (C6 H5 CHJ
It is used to generate light, to weld metals It js used to synthesise explosive TNT, for
as oxy-acetylene £lan1e and to prepare di)' cleaning and for the syn thesis of
synthetic rubber (neoprene). medicilles like chlora.IIline.
Methyl Alcohol (CH3 OH) Phenol (C6 H5 0H)
It js used as a fuel with petrol, used to It is used to synthesise explosive,
synthesise varrnsh and polish, used to 2, 4, 6-trinitro-phenol (picric acid) and
denature ethanol. bakelite.
Chloroform (CHCIJ Ethyl Alcohol (C 2 H 5 0 H)
It is used as an anaesthetic and to preserve It js used for drin]dng as a liquor, ill
substances obtained from plants and medicille to prepare tinctme and as an
animals. It converts in to poisonous insecticide and as a fuel \'l'lth peb.·ol.
phosgene (COC1 2), when e>...-posed to
sunlight. So, it is kept ill dark bottJes.

Name Rum Brandy Whisky Beer Champagne Cider

Alcohol % 45-55% 40-50% 40-50% 3-6% 10-15% 2-6%
Raw material Molasses Grapes Barley Barley Grapes Apple
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• Bitlllninous is the mos t common variety

ENERGY RESOURCES
Natural Resources
These resoU1·ces are obtained by natme like
air, water, mineral, swilight, etc.
These are of two tzJpes
Renewable N ahITal Resources
These are available in excess amount e.g.,
air, sunlight, etc.
Non-Renewable N ahITal
Resources
These resources ~ue available in limited
quantity, e.g., minerals, coal, peb.·oleum,
natmal gas, etc.
Fuels
These are the substance \'l1Wch produce
heat and ligh t on combustion.
Coal
• It js believed to formed by the slow
carborrisation of vegetable matter buried
underneath the Earth from centmies
ago, in lim3 ted supply of air under high
temperatlll·e and pressme prevailing
there.
• It is available in different valieties : Peat
(60% C), ligni te or brown coal (70% C),
bitunJ.inous coal (80% C) and an thradte
(90% C).
of coal . Coal is used for the synthesis of
water gas and producer gas .
Petroleum
• It is a dark colomed oily liquid
with offensive odow:. It is also called rock
oil, mineral oil, crude oil or black gold .
• When subjected to fractional distillation,
it gives different produc ts at different
temperaturns.
Liquefied Petroleum
Gas (LPG)
It is a mixcure of n-bucane, lso-bucane an d som e
propane.
• It is easily compressed un der pressme as
liquid and stored in iron cylinders.
• A strong foul smelling substance called
ethyl mercapta.n, js added to LPG whkh
detect the gas leakage.
Compressed Natural
Gas (CNG)
• It consists ma.inly of methane (95%)
which is a relatively unreactive
hydrocarbon an d malces its nearly
complete combustion .
• It b as octane rating of 130.

Different Fuels, their Composition and Source

Fuel Composition Source
Waler gas Carbon monoxide (CO) + hydrogen (H 2 ) By passing steam over re d
hotcake
Producer gas Carbon monoxide (CO) + nitrogen (N 2 ) By passing insuttioient air
over red hot ooke
Oil gas Methane (CH~ ) + ethylene (C 2H~) By destructive distillation of
+ acetylene(C 2H2 ) kerosene
Coal gas Hydrogen (H 2 ) + methane (CH~) By fract ional distillation of
+ ethylene+ aoetylene + CO wood
Natural gas Methane (83%) + ethane From petroleum
LPG Bu1ane (C 11 H10 ) + propane (C 3H8 ) From oil wells
Biogas or Gobar Methane (CH~)+ carbon dirn<ide (CO 2 )+ From organic wastes
gas hydrogen ( H2 ) + nitrogen ( N2 )
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Different Fractions Obtained by Fractional Distillation of Petroleum

S.No. Fraction Boiling Range Uses
1. Uncondensed gases room temperature Fuel gases, refrigerants, production of
carbon black, hydrogen
2. Crude naphtha (It gives 30-160°
on retractionation)
(I) petroleum ether 30-70° Solvent
70-120° Motor fuel, dry cleaning, petrol gas
(iii) benzene derivatives 120-150° Solvent, dry cleaning
3. Kerosene 160-250° Fuel, illuminant, oil gas
4. Gas oil l As a fuel for diesel engines converted to
6.
6.
Fuel oil
Diesel oil
250-350°
j gasoline by cracking

7. Lubricating oil 350-450° Lubrication

8. ParaHin wax. > 500° C Candles, boot polish, wax. paper
9. Vaseline > 500° C Ointments, lubrication paints, road
surf aoing as fuel

Some Important Physical Octane Num_ber

Quantities • Octane number is the percentage of
iso-octane in the mixture of iso-octane
Calorific Value and n-heptane which has same
• It js defined as the heat obtained when 1 g Jmoclcing properties as the fuel sample.
of a fuel is bmnt in excess of oJ\.-ygen and js • It is a measlll'e of quality of petrol
expressed in kcal/g. (gasoline). It is zero for h eptane and
Cal01ific value of some important fuels are as 100 for iso-octane. (2, 2, 4-trimethyl
follow pentane).
Fuel Calorific Value (kJ/ g) • lligher the octane number, better is
the fuel.
Coal 25-32
Kerosene oil 48
CetaneNillllber
Petrol 60
• Cetane number is the percentage of
Diesel 46
cetane in the mixtlll'e of cetane and
Bio gas 35-40 a-methyl naph talene , 1vhich has same
LPG 60 Jmoclcing properties as the fuel sample.
Wood 17 • It is a measure of quality of diesel. It is
Cow dung 6-8 100 for Cetane and 0 for a-methyl
Ethanol 30 naphthalene.
Methane 65
Hydrogen 150 Flame
Natural gas 36-50 It is the hot part of fire and has three
parts
• Hydrogen is the fuel of futme.
1. Innermost Region of Flame It is
• Alcohol, when mixed with petrol, is called black because of the presence of
power alcohol. It is an al ternative smffce of WJburned carbon particles.
energy.
2. MiddJe Region It is yellow luminous
• For the combustion of a substance, its due to partial combustion of f uel.
ign_jtion temperature should be low.
3. Outermost Region It is blue
Note Substances that are used to reduce the (non-luminous) due to complete
knocking property are known as combustion of fuel.
anti-knocking compounds. e.g., Tetra Ethyl
Lead (TEL)
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
It 1s the hottest part of flame and js used by the
Goldsmith to heat the gold.
Fire Extinguisher
In case of electric fires and oil fires, water
cannot be used as an extinguisher as it is a
conductor of electricity and oil being lighter comes
above the water. Such fires are extjnguished by
carbon dioxide.
Safety Match Stick
Safety match stick contains a mixture of
antimony b.isulphide and potassium chlorate
at its one end. Its box side contains a mixture
of powdered glass and red phosphorus.
Man-Made Materials
Soaps
These are sodium and potassium salts of
higher fatty acids . e.g., sodium palm.Hate,
sodium stearate, etc.
Detergents
• These are sodium or potassium salts oflong
chain alkyl or aryl sulphonates or sulphates
e.g., sodium alkyl sulphonate, sodium alkyl
benzene sulphonate, etc.
• These are also called soapless soap.
• Detergents form lather with hard water.
• Detergents cause pollution but stra1ght
chain alkyl group containmg detergents are
biodegradable and do not cause pollution .
• The cationic detergents are used as fablic
softeners and germicides whlle non-ionic
detergents are used as liquid dish wasbmg
detergents.
Fertilisers
• These substances increase the fertillty of
soil by prov1mng elements essential for the
growth of plants Wee nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium. e.g., basic calcium rntrate
[Ca0-Ca(N0 3 )i], ammonium sulphate
[(NH 4 bS0 1 ]. These two chernkals
increases the acidity of soil which can be
removed by admng linJe.
• Other examples are calcium cyanarnide or
nitrolim (CaCN~, Urea or ca.rban:ride (it
does not effect the pH of soil), calcium
super phosphate or super phosphate of lime
[Ca(H 2 PO 4 ) 2 +2CaSO 4 · 2Hp].
Glass
• It is an anJorphous or □·ansparen t
solid, also called supercooled liquid.
• It contains mainly silica (Si0 2 ) .
It can be of the following tzJpes
1. Soda or Soft Glass js sodium
calcium silicate (Na 20 -CaO- 6Si0~
It is the ormnary glass and used for
ma.Icing bottles, window panes, etc.
2. Potash Glass or Hard Glass
contains potassium (from K 2C0 3 ).
It has higher softenmg temperature.
It is used for making chemical
apparatus such as beakers, flasks,
funnel, etc.
3. Crown Glass contaJns potassium
oxide (K 2 0), baiium oxide (BaO),
boric oxide (B 20 3 ) and silica (SiO~.
It is used for optical appai·atus.
4. Flint Glass contains lead oxide
(PbO) and used in optical
instruments like lenses, plisms.
5. Crook's Glass contaJns cesium
oxides . Bt :is used for spectacles as it
absorbs UV rays.
6. Jena Glass contains Bp 3 and
alumina. It :is s □·onger and more
resistant to acids and alkalies, that's
,,vby used for ma.king laboratot)'
bottles, for keeping acids and
a.Uca.li es.
7. Milley Glass is prepai·ed by adding
tin oxide (SnO~, calcium phospha te
[(Ca 3 (P0 4 b] or CL)'olite(Na 3 AlF6 ) to
the melt glass.
8. Glass Laminates is made by fixing
polymer sheets betvveen layers of
glass. l t is used to make windows
and screens of cai·s, trains and
aircraft. Spedally manufactured
glass lanJinates ai·e used as
bulletproof matelial_.
Different Substances gives
Different Colours to Glass
Colour Substance Added
Red Copper (I) rn<ide (Cup)
Green
Violet Manganese □><ide (Mn02 )
Blue Cobalt oxide (CoO)
Brown
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Ce111ent or Portland • Dettol is a mixtme of chJoroxylenol and

a-terpineoL Chlorm'}'lenol
. js responsible
Cement for its antiseptic property.
• It is a complex material containing the • Antibiotics ,He obtained from
silicates and alwninates of calcium microorgamsms and used to desb."oy the
,,.rith small amount of gypsum. other microorgamsms e.g., penicillin,
• It has the following composition (discovered by A. :Berning in 1929)
Calcium oxide (CaO) = 50 - 60% ampicillin, amm.'}'cillin (all are narrow
Silica (SiO 2 ) = 20 - 25% specb.·um), ofloxacin, tetracycline,
Alumina (AI 2o3 )= 5 - 10% chloramphenicol (all are broad
Magnesium oxide (MgO)= 2 - 3% specb.·um) .
• It is manufacturnd from limestone and • AntimaJa.rial cll'e used to treat malaiia.
clay. If cement contains excess lime, e.g.. chloroquine.
cracks during settings can occur and jf • Sulpha dmgs cll'e alternatives of
lime is less, cement is of weak strength. antibiotics, e.g., sulphamJamide,
• Gypsum decreases the rate of setting of sulpbadiazine, etc.
cement. • Antacids ,He used as a remedy for acidity.
• A pas te of sand, cement and water js e.g., magnesium hydroxide, sodium
called mortar and js used for joining bicarbonate (baking soda), etc.
bdcks and plastering walls. • Pesticides ,He used to desb.·oy the
• A DJ.Th..Ttll'e of stone chips (gravel), sand, orgarusms that harm the crop.
cement and water is knO\Jvn as concrete These are of the fol/01.uing types
and is used for flooring and making 1. Insecticides e.g., DDT, alwninium
roads. phosphate, gammexane.
• Concrete with steel bars and wires js 2. Fungicide e.g., bordeaux mixture.
called Rei.nlorced Concrete (RC) and
3. Herbicides e.g., benzipran1,
used for consb.·ucting roofs, bridges and
benzadox.
pillars.
4. Rodenticides e.g., alumimum
Medicines phosphide .
These are the chemical.s used for the Polymers
treatment of mseases and reduce
suffering from pain. These are classified They are made up of many repeating units
as known as monomers. Some important
• Analgesics are used to reduce pain. polymers such as plastics, fibres and rubber
are mscussed below.
e.g., aspirin, paracetamol, morphine,
etc.
Plastics
• Antipyretfos is used to reduce body • These cll'e cross-linked polymers (a
temperatme during high fever, e.g., substance having high molecular weight
paracetamol, aspirrn, phenacetin, and repeating unit) and are very tough .
analgin and novalgin.
• Lac is a natural plastic (polymer).
• Tra.nquiUsers are used to treat sb.·ess,
mild and severe mental msease. These These are of two tzJpes
are also called psychotherapeutic 1. Thermoplastics are the polymers which
drugs . e.g., equanil, valium, veronal, can be easily softens on heating and hard
serotonin, chlorodiazepoxide, on cooling e.g., polythene, polystyrene,
meprobamate, etc. polyvinyl chloride, teflon etc.
• Antiseptics prevent the grm,vth of 2. Thermosetting plastics are the
microorganisms or kill them but cll'e not polymers which undergo permament
h armful to lhring tissues. e.g., dettol, change on heating due to excessive
savlon, iodine tinctw.·e, boric acid, cross-linldng. These cannot be reused,
hydrogen peroxide, etc. e.g., bakelite.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Some Im portant Polymers and AIR,WATER

their Monomers
Polymer Monomer An· or Atmosphere
Polye thylene Bhylene
• Air is a homogeneous rrrixtw:e of
different gases.
Polystyrene Styrene
• It has the following composition : 78%
Polyvinyl chloride Vinyl chloride
(PVC) nitrogen; 21 % O:\.'}'gen, 0_03-0 .05%
Polytetralluoro Tetrafluoro ethene
carbon dioxide (CO2 ), argon, e tc.
ethylene (PTFE) or • An a!JJrnsphere is a layer of these gases
teflon sunounding a planet or other material
Bakelite Formaldehyde + body of sufficient mass that is held in
Phenol place by the gravity of the body.
Urea formaldehyde Urea + Formaldehyde
re sin Constituent ofAbnospbere
Melmac Melamine+ It has differnnt density at different heights
Formaldehyde from sea level. Thus, several layers are
formed. These layers are
Fibres
These have sb.·ong intermolecular forces Troposphere
like hydrogen bonding. e.g., nylon-66, • It is the lowest layer of a!J:nosphere,
dacron, orlon, e tc . extend upto a height of 18 km from sea
level.
NahITal Rubber • It is a tw-bulent and dusty zone which
It is an elas tomer. It is a polymer of isoprene contains air (N 2, 0 21 CO~ much water
(2-methyl-l , 3 butadiene). It is also called vapoms and clouds.
cis-polyisoprene. Synthetic rubber
(neoprene) is a polyn1er of chloroprene. Sb·atosphere
• It is insoluble in water, dilu te acids and • It lies between 18-60 km above sea level.
allcalies, absorbs a large amount of water • It is the )ayer v,1hich contains ozone
and has low tensile sb.·ength and layer (protec ts us from harmful UV rays
elasticity. coming from the Sun), so called
• It is heated with sulphur compounds at ozonosphere.
373K in the presence of ZnO to improve
the properties. T.Ws process is called Mesosphere
vulcanisation of rubber. • It extends from 60-85 km above sea
• If it is vulcanlsed with 5% S, it is used for level.
malcing tyres and if with 30% sulphm, it is • Its temperatw-e decreases with height
used in making battery cases. and reaches to - I 00° C_ That's why
• Trams-polyisoprene is called , 1vhen any meteors enter in mesosphere,

gu tta-purcha. it burns up.

• Thiokol rubber is a polyn1er of ethylene
ch]mide and sodium polysulphide and is Thermosphere
used in the manufactw:e of hoses, tank • It extends up to 10-50 Jan above sea
lining, engine gaskets and rocket fuel. level.
• In this region, the temperatw-e can rise
Explosives to l 500°C, a person , 1vould not feel warm
Some examples of explosives are because of the extreme lov,, presstffe .
b.injtrotoluene (TNT), nitroglycerine or • The international space station orbit is
trinitroglyce1ine (TNG), cyclotrimethylene also in thermosphere.
trinitroamine (RDX, also called cyclonite).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Exosphere
• It lies between 500-1600 km above sea
level.
• This region contains ionised gases.
• Beyond this region, inters tellar space is
present.
Major Gases in Air
Oxygen(0 2 )
• It was discovered by K Scheele.
• It js obtained during photosynthesis.
• It is colourless, odourless, neutral gas
\"i hich
1
gets adsorbed over alkaline
pyrogallol.
• It is non-combustible, but helps in
combustion. It form oxides with metals
and non-me tals.
• It is used for arti:fidal respiration and in
oxy-hydrogen flame and, o.x-ygen-ethylene
flan1e and o.x-ygen-acetylene flan1e (used
for welding) and as a rocket fuel.
• Metal oxides are generally basic but
alumina (Al 2O 3 ),zinc oxide (ZnO) and tin
oxide (SnO~ are ampbotedc oxides.
• Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is acidic while
carbon monoxide (CO) is neua·al.
Ozone(0 3 )
• It js an allotrope of oxygen.
• It is used as an insecticide, in purification
of water, to preserve food, to synthesise
artificial silk and camphor, ac t as a
bleacmng agent.
Nitrogen (N 2 )
• It was discovered by Rutherford (in 1771).
• It is a colotJTless, odotJTless, calcium and magnesium.
non-combustible, non-poisonous gas.
• It is neua·al and ughter than air
containing N2.
• It is filled in sealed packets and bulbs to
create inert atmosphere.
• Llving beings die in an environment of Temporary Hard Water
nitrogen .
• Soil contains several pores filled with air
containing N 0 • At the tin1e ofraining these • It is converted into soft water by boiling
pores get filled with water. That's why
earthv1rorm come at the surface to breath.
Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 )
• It is used by plan ts for photosynthesis.
• It is 1.5 times heavier than water.
• It tLITflS the ume wa ter milky whkb
disappears in the excess of CO 2 due to
conversion of milky calcium carbonate
(CaCO 3 ) in to soluble calcium
bicarbonate.
• It is used to extingwsh fire and for
arti:fidal respiration when mixed with
oxygen (carbogen).
• It :is dangerous to have charcoal fi1·e
burning in a closed room because it
produces carbon monoxide gas, whkb
is suffocating.
• Plants respu·e at night and releases
CO 0 which reduces o.x-ygen content of
air - required for breathing, so it is
dangerous to sleep under tJ·ees at night.
• Eno (fruit salt) produces effervescence
if dissolved in water due to evolution of
CO 2 gas.
Water(H 2 0)
• It contains two elements: hydrogen an d
oxygen (H2O). It constitute about 70%
part of Earth.
• It is a universal solvent and maintains
the body temperature due to its high
specific heat.
• It has boiling point 100° C and freez:ing
point 0°C. Its density :is maximum at
4°C.
Types of Water
There are different types of water
Soft water Soft wa ter easily form lather
with soap due to absence of soluble salts,
Hard water l t does not form lather with
soap due to presence of Calcium and
magnesiun1 salts.
1t is of two types
• It contains bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium.
or by adding calculated quantity of
calcium bydrnxide (Clark's process).
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - General Science

Pern1anent Hard Water Soil Pollution

• It contains sulphates and ch]mides of It is al teration in soil . l t is caused by
calciwn and magnesiwn. pesticides, insecticides (e .g., DDT, BHC etc)
• It js converted into soft water by h erbicides (e.g., sodiwn chlorate), fungicides
adding socUwn carbonate (Na 2CO 3 ), or (e.g., organomercury compounds).
calgon or zeoli te.
Hazardous Effect of Pollution
Heavy Water
Greenhouse Effect
It is deuterium oxide, D:P (molecular mass
20)_ It is used as a moderator in nuclear It js the heating of Earth and its objects
reactors, in the study of mechanisms of because of the trapping of IR radiations by
chemical reactions involving hydrogen and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH.i ), nitric
its compounds, etc_ oxide (NO), ozone (0 3 ) , chJorofluoro carbons
(CFCs) and water vapours.

POLLUTION Global Warming

• lt js a result of increased concentration of
Pollution is the contamination of greenhouse gases.
material pa.rodes or energy into the
• It may resuJt in melting of ice caps and
natLual environment. It causes adverse
glaciers, spreading of several infectious
effects on the ecosystem.
diseases W(e malaria, sleeping siclmess,
etc.
Types of Pollution
Air Pollution Acid Rain (By Robert Augus)
• It occurs ,,vhen any h armfuJ gases, • It has pH less than 5. It is due to the
dust, smoke enters into the presence of oxides of nib.'ogen and sulphur
atmosphere and make it difficult for in air that dissolve in rain water and forms
ni □ic acid and sulphuric acid.
plants, animals and hum ans to
survive. • It damages the buildings an d other
s □·uctmes made up of limestone and
• Common respiratory diseases such as
results in several diseases such as skin
asthma, bronchitis can occur.
infections.
Water Pollution • pH of normal rain water is 5.6.
• It is due to the presence of foreign
substances like sewage, algae, soluble
Pollutants
salts, etc., in water. These are the sztbstances that contaminate the
environment and of two types
• It can also be due to presence of
metals in water. This pollution causes Primary Pollutants
follmving diseases.
These persist in the envfronment in the form
Metal Disease in which they are produced e.g., sulphur
Chromium and Canoer dioxide (SO:J, nitrogen dioxide (NOo), etc.
Arsenic
Cadmium ltai-i1ai disease Secondary Pollutants
Mercury Minamata disease • These are the products of reaction of
pdmaJ.)' pollutants e.g., PAN
• For a healthy aquatic life, dissolved (Perocyacylni trates), ozone (0 3 ), aldehyde,
OA')'gen (DO) is 5-6 ppm. etc.
• For clean wa ter, BOD (biochemical • The ordei- of dllferent pollutants to cause
OA')'gen demand) is less than 5 ppm pollution is ca.1.·bon monoxide (CO), SO 2 >
,,vhiJe for highly polluted water, it is 17 hydrocarbon > particulates > nib.-ogen
ppm or more . oxides .
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
0
Carbon Monoxide (CO) • It is formed in cool hum.id climate ,,vhen
carbon soot particles combine \i\rith
• It js formed by incomplete combustion. gaseous oxides of sulphur.
• It js a colowJess, odourless gas.
• It contain a triple bond and are fairly Photochemical Smog
polar, resulting in a tendency to bind • It js also call ed Los Angeles smog.
permanently to h aemoglobin molecules, • It occurs in warm, dry and sunny dinJate
displacing m,.'}'gen, which has a lower by the action of sunnght on unsaturated
binding affinity. hydrocarbons and n.itrogen oxide.
Particul ates • It js oxid.ising in nature.
These are minute solid particles and hquid Tropospheric Pollution
droplets dispersed in air. e.g., mis ts, dus ts,
smoke, fumes, etc. Presence of undesirable solid or gaseous
particles in the air. Gaseous air pollutants
Disease Cause are S, N and C, H 2S, hydrocarbons, ozone
Pneumoooniosis Due to inhalation of coal and other oxidants . Particulate pollutants
dusL are dust, m.ist, fumes, smoke, smog, etc.
Silicosis Due to inhalation of fre e
silica (Si02 ). Sb·atospheric Pollution
Black lung disease Found in workers of ooal • Stratosphelic pollution means depletion
mines.
of ozone layer (ozone hole) by certain
While lung disease Found in teK!ile workers.
compounds like chlorofluorocarbons
Byssinosis Due to inhalation of
ootton i ibre dust. (CFCs), oxides of nitrogen (which are
released in to upper atmosphere from
engines of superson.ic transport planes).
Smog • CCl ~, h alons and methyl chloroform also
It is a consequence of paTticulate pollution deplete ozone layer.
and is of two hJpes
• Depletion of ozone layer can cause sldn
Classical Smog cancer, sunbw·n, ageing of skin, cataract
or even bhndness and also increases the
• It js also called London type smog.
evaporation of swface water.
• It js reducing in natme.
Industrial Names of Some Important Compounds
Industrial Name Chemical Name and Formula

■ Alum Potassium aluminium sulphate

(K~O 4 • Al 2 (SO 4 h · 24 H2O)
■ Aloohol
■ Baking powder Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3 )
■ Blue vitriol Copper sulphate (CuSO 4 • 5H 2O)
■ Bleaching powder Caloium hypochlorite (CaOCl 2 )
■ Borax Sodium tetraborate decahydrate (Na~ 4 O 7 -1 0H 2O)
■ Brine or salt Sodium chloride (NaCl)
■ Calomel Mercurous chloride (Hg 2Cl 2 or HgCI)
■ Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
■ Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
■ Chile saJt petre Sodium nitrate (NaNO 3 )
■ Chloroform Triohloromethane (CHCI 3 )
■ Dry ioe Solid carbon dioxide (CO 2 )
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Industrial Name Chemical Name and Formula

■ Epsum Magnesium sulphate (Mg SO 4 • 7H 2O)
■ Glauber's salt Sodium sulphate decahydrate (Na 2SO 4 • 10H 2O)
■ Green vitriol Ferrous sulphate (FeSO 4 • 7Hp)
■ Gypsum Caloium sulphate (CaSO 4 • 2H 2O)
■ Hypo Sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate (Na ~ 20 3 • 5HP)
■ Laughing gas Nitrous oxide (N 2O)
■ Litharge Lead oxide (PbO)
■ Lunar castic Silver ni1rate (AgNO 3 )
■ Magnesia Magnesium m<ide (MgO)
■ Marble or ohalk or pearl Caloium carbonate (CaCO 3 )
■ Marsh gas Methane (CH 4 )
■ Mohr's salt Ferrous ammonium sulphate,
(NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 • FeSO 4 • 6Hp
■ Mosaic gold Stannous sulphide (SnS 2 )
■ Muriatic aoid Hydrogen chloride (HCI)
■ Pearl ash

■ Plaster of Paris Caloium sulphate hemihydrate ( CaSO 4 •i H20)

■ Quicklime Caloium oxide (CaO)

■ Red lead Lead peroxide (Pb 3O 4 )
■ Rock saJt Sodium chloride (NaCl)
■ Ruby or sapphire Aluminium oxide, (AIP 3 )
■ Sand Silicon dim<ide (SiO 2 )
■ Sal ammoniac Ammonium ohloride (NH~CI)

■ Slaked lime Caloium hydroxide [Ca(OH) 2 ]

■ Spirit Methyl alcohol (CH 30H)
■ Soda ash Sodium carbonate (Na2 C0 3 )
■ Vinegar Aoetic aoid (CH 3COOH)
■ Vermilion Mercuric sulphide (HgS)
■ Washing soda Sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2 C0 3 , 10H2 0)
■ While vitriol Zinc sulphate (ZnS0 4 • 7H2 0)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
G
Important Points
A candJe blows o[f when covered because Chlorine is used for the pw±fication of
it does not get m -ygen . \'l1hich helps in
wate1~ for synthesis of baJdng powder, etc.
burning. Na and K are highly reactive. They react
Phosphoms catches fire if kept in air but with air and wa ter that's why, they are kept
it is unreactive \'lrith water, so it is kept in
in kerosene oil.
water. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2014)
When sugar is heated above 200°C, it E.Iic Betzig, Stefan W Hell, William E
decomposes in to carbon and water. Moerner won the Nobe] P1ize in Chemisl:I-y
Therefore, ge ts charred. (20 14), for the smart work of surpassing
While making ice cream, salt js mixed the linn tations of the light microscope,
\l\rith ice to reduce freezing temperature which has brought optical micrnscopy in to
from 0°C to 5°C, Trns helps to freeze the the nano dimension. By this acrnevement,
cream. scientists can visualise the roadways of
Lactose content of milk undergoes individual molecules in the living cells .
fermentation and changes in to lactic acid Now this can be seen that how molecules
which on reaction with lac tose forms curd. produce synapses between nerve cells in
the brain. AJso they can find proteins
Zinc phosphide is used for killing rats and involved in different diseases like
zinc chlmide is used for coating fmniture Parkinson, Alzheimer and Huntington as
to prevent ternntes. well as in fertilised eggs .
Calcium hydl"ide (CaH) js called hydrolith. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2015) was
In flash bulb, magnesium wire is kept in awarded jointly to Tomas LlndahL Pa ul
atmosphere of nitrogen gas. Modiich and Aziz Sancar. "for mechanistic
Barium s ulphate js used in X-rays of studies of DNA repair".
abdomen as barium meal. They have mapped, at a molecular level,
Silver and copper are best conductor of how cell repair damaged DNA and
elecl:Iicity. Gold and silver are the most safeguard the genetic information. Their
malleable me tal_. work has provided fundamental lmowledge
of how a living cell function and can be
Iron pyrites (FeS 2 ) is lmown as fool's gold.
used for the developments of new cancer
Zinc oxide (ZnO) js known as flower of zinc
treal:Inent.
or cbinese wrnte and is used as white paint.
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2016
Silver spoon is not used in egg food as it
turns black. The Nobel Prize in cbennsl:IJ' for 2016 has
been awarded to Jean-pierre. Sauvage, sir
Mercury is stored in iron pot. J. Fraser Stoddart and Bernars L. Feringa
Radium js exf:I·acted from pitchblende. for developing molecular,· machines.
Phosphine gas is used in Holme's signals. "Molecular machines will most. Llke]y to
Sea weeds contain iodine. Bones contain be used in the development of things such
57% calcium phosphate. as were mateLials, sensors and energy
Artificial perfumes are prepared from storage systems."
ethyl acetate.
 I BIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
• Biology is a natural science
concerned with the study of hfe and
living organisms, i.e., plants and
animals. It is classified in to two part:
Botany and zoology.
• Study of plants is called Botany and
study of animals is called Zoology.
Zoology and Botany are collectively
called Biology. The term 'Biology'
was coined by Lamarck and
Treviranus.
• The scientist who gave his thought
for the first time about the hle of
plan ts and animals was Aristotle.
That's why he is knmm as the Father
of Biology. He is also lmown as the
Father of Zoology.
• Theophrastus is known as Fathe r of
Botany.
The Cell
• The CeU is the basic sb.-uctural and
functional unit of alJ known living
organisms. l t is the smallest unit of
hfe and is often called the building
block of life.
• The branch of biology which deals
,,vi.th the study of cell, is called Differences between Prokaryotic
Cytology.
• Robert Hooke coined the term cell
,,vhen he saw honey-comb like Prokaryouc Cell
sb.-ucture in the section of cork.
However, he onJy discovered cell wall.
• The first living cell was discovered by
Leeuwenhoek.
Types of Cells
These are of two types
1. Prokaryotic CelJs
(Pro =primitive, haryos =nucleus)
These are prim.1tive cells, Jacking a
well defined nucleus and most of
the other cell organelles, e.g.,
bac tedal cell
I
CHARACTERISTIC OF
LIVING ORGANISMS
• They have cellular organisation and also
respire, i.e., take in 0 2 and evolve CO2 .
• Metabolism is one of the most important
charactelistic featme of living organism. It
comprises two phases that are anabolism
(constructive phase) and catabolism
(destructive phase.)
• They take nutrition for their growth.
• They h ave tendency to reproduce.
• They have the ability to respond to changes
in both internal and external environment
i.e. they have sensitivity. Their survival
0
chances are maximum.
• They move from place to place as animals or
some bacte1ia. Plants cannot move but
some movement can occur in plants.
2. Eukaryotic CelJs (Eu = tTue, lrnn·yos =
nucleus) These have a well defined
nucleus and membrane bound cell
organelles. These are present in
unicellular and multicellular plant and
animal cells.
and Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryotic Cell
Simplest and Developed and
primitive in nature. comparatively complex in
nature.
Lacks nuolear Nuoleu s is present with
envelope elaborate nuclear envelope
Membrane bound Membrane bound cell
cell organelles are organelles are presenL
absent.
Single naked Many chromosomes are
chromosome present.
present.
Cell division is Cell division occurs by
direct. mitosis or meiosis.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
e
Facts about Cell Mitochondria
• The largest known cells are unfertilised Ostrich • It was discovered by R Altman in
egg cells (size 6 inch diameter). 1880 and the term mjtochondria
• The sma llest cell is of PPLO (Mycop/asma was coined by Carl Benda.
gallisepticum of size 0.1-0.3 µm). • It is bounded by a double memb-
• Human nerve cell is the longest animal celL rane. The inner membrane has
• Largest unicellular plant is Acetabularia (10 cm) many folds, called the cristae. Fluid
and animal is Amoeba (1 mm)_ (called matrix) is present on intedor,
which contains many enzymes and
• The largest human cell is the female ovum and
coenzymes. It is a semi- autonomous
the smallest human cell is the red blood cell.
( can form its own copies) organelle
and is called power house of the
Parts of Cell and their cell because in it, stepwise oxidation
of fuel occms which results in
Functions release of chemical energy. This
A typical cell consists of cell wall and energy is stored in the form of ATP.
protoplasm.

Protoplasm of Cell Plastids

• These are present only in plant cells
It is the living fluid matter present inside the and are of tm·ee types- chloroplasts
plasma membrane. The flllid present outside (green), leucoplasts (white) and
the nuclear membrane is called cytoplasm and cbrnmoplasts (of vaiious colow·s
the fluid present inside the nuclear membrane
except green). Chloroplastis the site
is cal]ed nucleoplasm. Deutoplasm is the
of photosynthesis as it contains
non-living matter of the cell.
chlorophyll, v, hile leucoplasts are
1

storage plastids. Chloroplast is called

Cell Wall the kitchen of the cell
It is present in plant cells, bacteria~ fungi, algae
• The red colour of tomatoes is due to
and some archaea. It is composed of cellulose
in plants and chitin in fungi. It is non-living. Its the presence of lycopene pigment,
main function is to provide shape and rigidity to i.e., chromophore.
the cell. • The colow· of carrot is due to
carotene pigment.
Plasma Membrane
The cell is enclosed by a thin membrane called Endoplasmic Reticulum
the cell membrane or plasmalemma. It is It was discovered by KR Porter. These
composed of proteins and phospholipid are hollow membranous system having
molecules. It is elastic, living and selectively 1ibosomes (thus called Rough ER) or
permeable, i.e., provide passage for vaiious no dbosomes (thus cal]ed Smooth
substances. ER).
Nucleolus Rough endoplasmic reticuJwn is
NuolBUs ohondris
the site of protein syn thesis, while
Rlbo "'" ...,,_...,.,,.,.._ Cytosfteleton
smooth endoplasmic reticuJwn is the
Rough _ _.;,,,-,,r~ ~ ,
site of synthesis of steroids and
endoplsmlo
Golg1 detoxification.
apparatus
rsUoulum
Golgi Apparatus
It was discovered by CamiUo Golgi. It
II IIJII
smio
m
is made up of sac-like flattened
st:ructmes and play an important role
.irn,
in sec retion, transportation and
Structure of 1he Cell acrosome formation.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Nobel Prize in Physiology and Chromosome

Medicine 2013 Chrnmosome js thrnad-like sb.1.Jcture,
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or medicine 2013 was found in the nucleus. Bead-like
awarded jointly to James E Rothman, Randy W structures found on chromosome are
Schekman and Thom as C Sudhof for their called genes , which are made up of
DNA and are the carder of genetic
di scoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a
information from generation to
major transport system in our cells. In general, we
generation . Chromosomes are units of
call it Golgi body_ Randy Schekman discovered a set
inbelitance. In some viruses e.g.
of genes that were required for vesicle traffic.
retrovirus, RNA is the genetic
James Rothman discovered machinery that allows matelial.
vesicle to fuse wirh their targets to deliver the
stored matter._ Differences between
Plant and Animal Cell
Ribosomes Plant Cell Animal Cell
llibosomes ·were discovered by GE Palade. It has cell wall. Cell wall is usually
absenL
These ,He minute, non-membranous particles,
composed of RNA and protein. 70 S type of Plaslids are found. Plastids are usually
absenL
ribosomes are found in prokaryotes, while 80 S
type in euJcaryotes. These are the site of protein Centrioles and Cenlrioles and
cen trosome are aenlrosomes are
synthesis. absent. found in all oells.
A big vacuole is Vaouole is absent
Lysosomes presenl or very small in
• Lysosomes were discovered by de Duve. size.
These ,He polymorphic organelles having
hydrolytic enzymes. These enzymes function Nucleic Acids
at (acidic) pH - 5. These are sometimes
These contain the genetic
caJ]ed suicidal bags of the cell insb.-uctions used in the developmen t
• Lysosome helps in carcinogenesis, i.e., and functioning of all lrnown hving
conversion of a normal cell into cancerous organjsms.
cell. These are of two types: DNA and RNA.

Centrosome Deoxyribonucleic
It was discovered by T Boveri. It is composed of Acid(DNA)
two set of centdoles and participate in the
formation of mi totic spindJe dw:ing cell division. • DNA ,,vas diBcovered by James
D Watson and Francis Crick, ,,vho
Vacuoles got Nobel Prize for thjs discovery.
These are non-hving reservior, bounded by • lt is a long polynJer made from
a membrane called tonoplast. Pjgment repeating units called nucleotides.
anthocyanin js present in the cell vacuole, • Each nucleotide consists of a
which provide colour to flowers. It stores toxic nucleoside (i.e. nib.·ogenous baBe
metabolic was te and helps in osmoregu]ation. and deo:\.-yiibose sugar) and a
phosphate group, joined together by
Nucleus phosphodiester bonds.
It was discovered by Robert Brown . It contains • It has four bases, i.e. adenine,
nucleoplasm, nucleolus and chromatin guanme, cytosine and thymine.
material Nucleolus is lich in protein and RNA. • Adenine and guanme are the
All this matetiaJ js covered up by a nuclear ptu·i.ne bases; cytosine and thymine
membrane. Chromatin is the controlling are py.rimjdlne baBes.
centre of cell as it form chrnmosomes.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
RibonucleicAcid (RNA)
• It js also made up of a long chain of
nucleotides.
• Each nucleotide consists of a
nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar, and
a phosphate group.
• It contains uracil in place of thymine.
• RNA is of three types-
mRNA (messenger RNA)
rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
tRNA (transfer RNA)
These three RNA's take part in protein
synthesis.
Cell Division
• It js the process by whkh a cell
increase in number. lt is essen □ a.J for
the grmivth, development and repair
of the body.
Differences between DNA and RNA
DNA
It usually ooours in side nucleus and in some
oell organelles like mitochondria and
ohloroplast
DNA is the genetic material exoept in some
viruses.
It is double stranded with the e>cception of
some viruses like q> x 174.
DNA shows regular helical coiling.
It contains derncyribose sugar.
Nitrogen base thymine occurs in DNA along
with other three i.e. adenine, cytosine and
guanine.
It replicates to form new DNA moleoules.
DNA oontrols heredity, evolution , metabolism,
structure and differentiation.
BIOMOLECULES
Biomolecules are the substances that
are essential for a living being to
pe1form the basic functions,
e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
(fats), nucleic acids and vitamins. • These are the source of energy and about
Carbohydrates
• It was believed that these are the • The main end product of carbohydrate
organic compounds , 1vbich have carbon,
hydrogen and m,.J'gen in the ratio of
I : 2 : 1 but starch (C6 ~ 0 0 5 ) 11 and
G
• It is of hvo types - Mitosis and Meiosis
(i) Mitosis It occurs in unicelluJar
organism dilllllg asexua.J reproduction.
Each n:li totic cell division results in the
formation of two daughter cells having
number of chrnmosomes equa.J to the
parent cell
Twmowr or carncer is a result of
ZLncontrolled mitosis.
(ii) Meiosis It occms in reproductive cells
and 1s called reduction division because of
the presence of single set of chrnmosomes
(i.e., half of the parent chromosomes). It
resuJts in the formation of four da ughter
cells.
• Exchange of genetic matedal occms
beh1veen chromatids (branches of
chrnmosome) of a diploid set dilllllg
pachytene stage of meiosis and 1s lmown as
crossing over.
RNA
Very little RNA occurs inside nucleus. Most of it
is found in the cytoplasm.
RNA is not the genetic material e>ccept in
oertain viruses, e.g_, HIV, reovirus.
RNA is single stranded with the exception of
some viru ses, e.g., double stranded in T2 , T4 ,
T bacteriophage.
There is no regular coiling exoept in parts of
RNA
It contains ribose sugar.
Thymine is replaced by uraoil in RNA. The
other three are adenine, cytosine and guanine.
It cannot replicate itself exoept in RNA-RNA
viruses.
RNA controls only protein synthesis.
some others are exceptions. So this
definition has been changed. According to
modern de.finjtion, these are the
polyhydrnxy aldehydes and ketones or their
dedvatives.
50-75% energy is obtained by the oxidation
of carbohydrates.
digestion is glucose, v,1hich is called blood
sugar. It oxidises to give energy along with
CO2 and H2 0.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
• I gm glucose provides about 17 kJ energy
or 4 .2 kcal energy.
• Ca..rbohych-ates are better fuel as
compared to proteins and fats as they
readily decompose to give energy.
• Main sotll"ces of carbohydrates are wheat,
maize, 1ice, potato etc.
The can-bohydJrates are categorised into
following three tzJpes
Monosaccharides
• These are simple sugars, v,,Wch cannot be
hydrolysed further, e.g., Iibose, glucose,
fructose, galactose etc.
• In human beings, blood glucose level is
100-120 mglmL. Extra glucose, jf any, is
converted into glycogen in the liver by a
process called glycogenesis.
• D-fructose 1s the sweetest of all sugars
and is found in fruitjuice, honey etc.
0 ligosaccharides
• They release 2-10 monosaccharides on
hydrolysis, like disaccha.tides, e .g.
sucrose, lactose maltose etc and
tliEaccha.tides, like raffinose etc.
• Sucrose 1s also called invert sugat·. It
gives glucose and fructose when
subjected to hydrolysis.
Polysaccharides
• They release more than ten • Fats are digested by enzymes called
monosaccha.Iides on hydrolysis. These
are non-sugars, i.e., do not have sweet
taste, e.g., cellulose, glycogen and starch.
• Cell ulose 1s found in plant cell wall and is
digested by rwn.inants (like cow, goat, • Fa.tty acids are of two types- Saturated
buffalo, etc), but not by carnivorous or
omnivorous animals like human beings.
Thus, it acts as roughage ill case of
h uman beings.
Function of Carbohych·ates
• Carbohydrates provide energy, that ac ts
as reserve food, help in the synthesis of
nucleic acid and form exoskeleton of
animals. Excessive intake of carbohydrate Function of Lipids
results in digestive problems and obesity.
Proteins
These are found ill alJ living cells. These a.re
the compounds of carbon (C), hydrogen
(H), m..')'gen (0), nitrogen (N) and sulphm
(S). These form 15% pa.rt ofhunJan body.
Snalce venom. rlcin of castor and bac tedaJ
toxins are pr~teinaceous in natui-e. Main
sources of protein a.re groundnuts,
soya.bean, pulses, fiEh etc.
Function of Proteins
• These are important for the growth and
repair of the body (75% of our body is
protein only). However, in the
deficiency of carbohydrates, these acts
as the s0U1·ce of energy. Protein also
control the development of genetic
characters.
• Deficiency of protein causes
Kwashiorkor (a disease in v,,Wch hands
and legs of children get slimmed and the
stomach comes out) and Mat·asmus (a
disease in wWch muscles of children are
loosened). Kwasbiorkor occms in
children be tween I to 5 yea.rs of age and
ma.rasmus ill children belov,, 1 year.
Lipids (Fats)
• These are also the compounds of carbon
(C), hydrogen (H) and m.')'gen (0).
Chemically, these are the ester of
glycerol and fatty acids. These are
present in cytoplasm, cell wall etc.
• The main source of fats are ghee, butter,
almond, cheese, egg yolk, meat,
soya.bean etc .
lipases in the small intestine. Generally,
at 20°C, these are in solid state but if
their state is liquid at this temperatme,
these a.re termed as oils .
and Unsatura ted. Saturated fatty acids
are found in coconut oil and palm oil,
while unsa.tmated fatty acids are found
in fish oil and vegetable oil.
• Excess of saturated fats raises the level
of blood cholesterol and may cause
arteriosclerosis. TWs may lead to
heart attack.
The main fumctions of lipids are
• These provide twice the energy than
that from carbohydrates.
• These remain under the skin and
prevents the loss of heat from the body.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Malnutrition Effects These are divided into two growps

• Deficiency of fat results in dryskin and weight 1. Fat soluble vitamin, viz. vitamin-
loss . A, D, E and K.
• If fat is in excess, the body gets fatty an d 2 . Water soluble vitamin, viz.
resul t in several h eart diseases and hjgh vitamin-B and C.
blood pressure. • Vitamin-B 32 contains cobal t.
• Tbe skin fat, in case of ,,..,bales and seals , Vitamin-Dis synthesised in our sldn
forms a truck layer called the blubber. It acts by the action of ultraviolet rays of
as reserve food and also mamtains the body the sunhgbt. Vitamin-K is
temperatw·e. synthesised in our colon by the
bacte1ia.
Vitamin • Water soluble vitamins normally do
• It was fast discovered by FG Hopkin. not show bypervitaminosis (this
However, the term vitamin was coined by C disease occU1·s due to excess intake
Funk. of vitamins) as excess of these
vitamins is normally excreted
• Vitamin is an organk compound, wbkb through urine.
cannot be synthesised in sufficient quantities
• In balanced diet, alJ the important
by an organfam and must be obtained from
nutrients (like carbohydrate,
the diet.
protein, rats, vitamins etc.) are
• They provide no calmies, they only regulate available in sufficient quantity.
chemical reactions occuning in the
metabolism of the body.
Vitamins, their Deficiency Diseases and Sources
Vitamin Chemical Name Deficiency Disease Souroe
Vitamin-A Retinal, Night-blindness(Nyctalopia) Orange, green vegetables,
carotenoids , Hyperkeratosis, carrots , pumpkin, squash and
Keratomalaoia spinach.
Vitamin-D Caloiferol Riokets and Osteomalaoia Fish, eggs, liver and
mushrooms.
Vitamin-E Tooopherols, Infertility Many fruits and vegetables.
toootrienols
Vitamin-K Phylloquinone Non-olotting of blood Green vegetables
Vitamin-B, Thiamine Beri-beri, Oatmeal, rioe, vegetables,
Wernicke-Korsakoff cauliflower, potatoes, liver
syndrome and eggs.
Vitamin-8 2 Riboflavin Craoking of skin , reddish Dairy products , bananas,
eye, cracking of tongue popoom and green beans.
Vitamin-B-3 Niaoin and Pellagra,Glossitis Meat, brooooli and avocados.
niootinic aoid
Vitamin-8 5 Pentothenic aoid Premature greying of hair Meat, fish, eggs, many
(Achromotrichia), vegetables, mushrooms.
Vitamin-8 6 Pyridoxine Dermatitis, anaemia, mental Meat, vegetables, tree nuts
disorder and bananas.
Vitamin-8-, Biotin Dermatitis, enteritis and Raw egg yolk, liver, peanuts
anaemia and vegetables.
Vitamin-8 9 Folic aoid, folinic Megaloblastic anaemia and Leafy vegetables, pasta,
aoid birth defects. bread, cereal and lrver.
Vitamin-B, 2 Cyanooobalamin Pernioious anaemia Meat and other animal
(contains cobalt) products.
Vitamin-C Asoorbic aoid Sourvy (Sailer's disease) Peppers , citrus fruits.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Biological Evolution
Origin of Universe
• The universe is made up of matter and
energy. Scientists believe that it was
formed about 10 to 13 billion years ago
as a vast, dense, red-hot and rotating
gaseous cloud of cosmic dust called the
updmaeval matter or 'ylem '.
• Two hypothesis i.e., Big -Bang
(universe formation through a very big
e:xplosion) and NebuJa.r (universe
formation by the condensation of
gaseous cloud) were given to explain
mi gin of Earth.
ORIGIN OF LIFE
• Life originated on Earth about 3.5
billion years ago. Some philosophical
themies Wee special creation,
spontaneous generation, Biogenesis,
panspermia (life miginated in the form
of pansperms from some unknown
part of the universe) or cosmozoic and
catastrophism (life orginated suddenly
from inorganic matter) were given to
e>...-plain migin of life.
• The first scientific account of the
migin of life vvas given by Russian
scientist Al Oparin in his book 'Origin
of life'.
• The primitive atmosphere contained
hydrogen, methane, ammonia and
wa ter vapotu-. In it, O>...'}'gen and ozone
, 1vere absent. Thus, it was believed that
life is odginated from inorganic
substances by a selies of complex
reaction.
• Hydrogen atoms were most nunJerous
and most reactive in the p1imitive
atmosphere. First, these combined
, 1vith all available O>...'}'gen atoms,
forming water and leaving no free
m '}'gen
. atoms. Thus, the primitive
atmosphere was 'Teducing' unWc.e the
present 'oxidising' atmosphere. This
was also supported by MilJer and U1·ey
in 1953.
• In Miller-Urey e>...-periment, a mixttu-e
of wate1~ hydrogen, methane and
ammonia was cycled through an
apparatus and the organic compound,
amino acids were obtained.
Organic Evolution
More and more creation of organism by
gradual changes from low category aninJal to
higher animal is called organic evolution .
There are several evidences regarding
organic evolution.
Evidences from morphology
and anatomy
On the basis of morphology (outer
appearance) and anatomy (inner stTucture),
several evidences have been described as
follows
Homologous Organs
• The organs which are similar in basic
strncture and odgin but dissimilar in
function are called homologous organs,
e.g., wings of bat, cat's paw, front foot of
horse, hunJan's hand and ,11rings of birds.
• These show divergent evolution.
Analogous Organs
(Homoplastic)
• The organs which are similar in shape and
function but dissimilar in their origin and
development. e.g., wings of insects, birds
and bats, eyes of octopus and manmJals.
• They shov,, convergent evolution.
Vestigial Organs
• These are degenerate, non-functional
organs v,,Wch were functional earlier.
• Human body has been desc1ibed to possess
about 90 vestigial organs. Some of these
are muscles of ear pinna, ca.nine teeth and
third molar teeth, body haiTS, vermiform
appendix, nictitating membrane of eye,
caudal vertebral (coccyx or taiJ bone) etc.
Atavism or Reversion
It is the sudden reappeaTance of some
ancestral featw-es. Appearance of thick body
hair, lai·ge canines, monstral face, short
temporary tails, extTa nipples etc are
examples of atavism.
Evidence from Connecting
Links
Connecting link is one which exhibit
cha1·acteristics of more than one groups.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
e
Intermediate Forms between Two Mutation Theory
Groups of Organisms • Hugo de Vries proposed the theory
Organism Connecting Unk Between
of mutation, wmle working on
Oenothera lamarchiana plant.
Virus Living and non-living • Mutations are discontinuous
Euglena (Protozoa) Plants and animals variations.
Proterospongia Protozoa and Porifera • Mutations are due to changes in
(Protozoa) chromosomes, genes and DNA.
Peripatus (Arthropoda) Annelida and Arthropoda • These may or may not be inbelited.

Neopilina (Mollusca) Annelida and Mollusca Synthetic Theory

Ba/anog/ossus Non-ohordata and According to it, the five basic factors
(Chordata) Chordata are
Dipnoi (Lung fish) Plsoes and Amphibia I . Gene mutation
Archaeopteryx (Aves) Reptiles and Aves 2. Changes in chromosome
Prototheria Reptiles and Mammalia sb.-uctme and number
(Mammalia) 3. Genetic recombination
4 . Natural selection
THEORIES OF 5. Reproductive isolation
EVOLUTION First three factors are responsible for
genetic va.riablity.
Lamarckism (1809)
■ Devonian period is known as Age of
• Jean-Baptiste de Lamarc k gave the idea that
fishes.
an orgarusm can pass on characteristics that it
■ Mesozoic era is known as Age of
acquired dw:ing its lifetime to its offspring
Reptiles.
(also Jmown as heri tability of acquired
■ Coenozoic era is known as Age of
characteristics).
Mammals.
• Lamarck's theory of evolution was published
in Philosophie Zoologique and had four
propositions, viz Classification of
1. Living organisms and its par ts tend to Organis1ns
increase in size due to in ternal force of life. In Linnaeus time, a two Jdngdom
2. Formation of new organs is the result of a system of classification ,vith Plantae
ne\1'1' need and nev,, involvement. and Animalia kingdom was developed.
3. Individuals lose characteristics that they do The system did not diEtinguish
not require (or use) and develop between the eukaryotes and
charactelistics that are useful prokaryotes, uniceUuJar and
4. Individuals inbelit the traits of their multicellular and photosynthetic
ancestors. organjsms.

Darwinism (1859) Five Kingdom Syste1n

• Darwin's theory of evolution was Origin of
Species by Natma.l Selection.
• The theory consists of five propositions, they
are
1. Overproduction or enormous fertility
2. Struggle for existence
3. Vaifation and heredity
4. Survival of the fittest or natural selection
5. Origin of species.
RH Whittaker (1969) proposed a five
kingdom claEsification. The kingdom
named were Monera, ProtiEta, Fungi,
Plantae and Anima.lia.
Classification of
Anin,alia Kingdom
Storer amd Usinger classified
animals into following phylums
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Characteristics of the Five Kingdoms

Character Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Cell wall Non-oellulosic Present in some Present Present Absent
Nuolear Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane
Body Cellular Cellular Multioellular/ Tissue/ Tissue/
organisation loose tissue organ organ/organ
system
Mode of Autotrophic and Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
nutrition heterotrophic heterotrophic
Examples Bacteria Amoeba Acholrophyllus, Multioellular Multicellular
archaebacteria Euglena heterotrophic eukaryotic animals
cyanobacteria Dinoflagellates fung i plants
and some
primitive fungi

Phylum- Protozoa Phylum- Platyheln,inthes

• These are urricelluJar ammals, i.e., made
up of only one cell.
• In these, all the me tabolic activity like
digestion, respiration, excretion and
reproduction takes place in unicelluJar
body.
• Respiration and excretion take place
through diffusion.
e.g. , Amoeba, Plasmodium, Euglena etc.
Phylum- Po1ifera
• These are found in maiine water and have
porous body. The pores are called ostia.
These ai·e muJticelluJai· animals.
• Their skeleton js made up of minu te
calcai·eous or siliceous spicules.
e.g., Sycon, Sponge etc.
Phylum- Coelenterata
• These are aquatic animals, have thread-like • There 1s no circuJatory and respiratory
sb.-uctures caJJed tentacles ai·ound the
mouth which help in holding the food.
• They have specialised cnidoblast cell to
help in catching the food.
• Phenomenon of polymorphism (many • Most forms aise pai·asitic but some are
forms) and meta.genesis (al ternation of
generation) ai·e assodated with
coelen trates.
e.g. , Hydra, Jelly fish, Sea Anemone etc.
• Animals of this phylum have
alimentary canal with single operring,
anus js absent.
• Excretion takes place by flan1e cells.
• There js no skeletal system such as,
respiratory system, circuJatory system
etc.
• These are hermaphrndite animals
(males are not separated from
females).
e.g., Planaiia, Liver fluke, Tape worm
etc.
Phylum- Aschdn1inthes
• These are long, cylincliical,
unseg1nented worms.
• Their alimenta.11' canaJ is complete in
which mouth and anus both are
present.
system but nervous system is
developed. Excretion takes place
thrnugh protoneph1·idfa.
• They ai·e unisexual.
free living in soil and water.
e.g., Ascaris, Threadworrn, etc.
■ Thrnadworm is found mainly in the
anus of child. Due to \'l mch children
1

• Hyarn has a tendency of regeneration of fee] itching and often vomits. Some
body organs. children urinate on the bed at rright.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Phylum-Annelida
• Their body js long, thin, soft and
metamerically (b.wy) segmented.
• AJimentary canal is well-developed.
• These are the first to have proper organ
systems.
• Nervous system is normal and blood Phylum- Echinodermata
(called haemolymph) is red (iron rich
h aemoglobin).
• Their blood flows in dosed vessels.
• Like in earth\Jvorm, there are five pairs of
blood vessels called as heart.
• They respire through sldn, in some
animals respiration takes place thrnugh
coelom.
• Excretion by nephridia.
• They move through setae made up of
chitin.
e.g. Earthworm, Nereis, Leech etc.
Phylum- Arthropoda
• Arthrnpoda is the largest phylum
(con tains maximum number of animals
and its existence is recorded for
maximum pe1iod over the Eai·th).
• Jointed leg is theil" main featme.
• Their body js mvided into thrne
pai·ts-head, thorax and abdomen.
• Circulatory system js open type.
Cochoach's heai·t has 13 chambers.
• Trachea or book lungs, body swface are
respiratory organs.
e.g., Cochoach, Prav,rn, Crab, Bug, Fly,
Mosquito, Bees, etc.
■ Insects generally have six feets and foU1·
, 1vings.
■ Ant is a social aninJal v, hich reflects
1 inJpme blood and h ave two chambers.
mvision of labom.
■ Term.ite is also a social aninJal v, hich
1
lives in colony.
Phylum- Mollusca
• Their body js soft and divided in to head
and musculai· foot.
• Mantle is always present in it, which
secretes a hard calcareous shell .
• Their alimentai-y canal is well-
developed.
• Respiration takes place through gills or
ctenidfa. Blood is colourless.
e
• Excretion takes place through kidneys.
e.g., Pila, Ap/JzJsia (Sea rabbit), Doris (Sea
lemon), Octopus (Devil-fish), Sepia
(Cuttle-fish).
■ Eyes of octopus are similar to chordate
eyes.
• All the animals in this group are marine.
They have water vascuJar system.
Brain js not developed in nervous
system.
• They h ave a special capacity of
regeneration.
• These al'e the only invertebrate animals
\"i 1hich contain proper bone lli{e
strnctures (ossicles).
e.g., Stai· fish, Sea mchin, Sea cucumber
etc.
Phylum-Chordata
• They h ave notochord. A dorsal hollow
tubular nerve cord and paired
phai-yngeal gill slits at some stage of their
life span.
• In advanced forms, notochord changes
to vertebral colllilJJJ, nerve cord develops
to brain and spinal cord and phai)'Ilgeal
gill slits to sb.7..lctures of jaw attachment.
• This phylum is sub-mvided in to two
sub-phylum, i.e., Protochordata and
Vertebrata.
Some main classes of phylzmn- Chordata
are as foll ows
Pisces
• These 81'€ aquatic animals (cold-blooded
animals). Their heai·t pumps only
• Respiration takes place thrnugh gills.
e.g., Trygon , Scoliodon, Torpedo etc.
Amphibia (First land
vertebrates)
• These ai·e found both on land and water.
All of them al'e cold-blooded.
• Respiration takes place through gills,
skin and lungs.
• They have three chanJbered heait
e.g. , Frog, Nectzm·us, Toad, lcthyophis,
Salamander.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Reptilia (First true land Mammalia is divided into thrree

sub-classes
vertebrates) • Prototheria It lays eggs, e.g.,
• These are crawling animaJs. Echidna.
• These are cold-blooded and contains two • Metatheria It bears the immature
pair of limbs. child, e.g., Kangaroo.
• The skeleton is completely flexible. • Eutheria It bears the well developed
• Respiration takes place thrnugh lungs. child, e.g., Humans.
1 They give birth to young ones, but
• They have 3 - chambered heart (four
2 Echidna and Platypus are the egg
chanJbered in crocodile). laying mammaJs.
• Their eggs are covered with shell made up
of calcium carbonate. SYSTEMS OF
e.g., Llzard, Snake, Tortoise, Crocodile, HUMAN BODY
Turtle, Sphenodon etc.
Integwnentary System
■ Cobra is the only snake wWch makes
The hunJan skin (integwnentaiyr) is
nests.
composed of a minimum of three major
■ Heloderma is the only poisonous lizard. )ayers of tissue, the epidermis, dermi s
■ Sea snake is also called Hydrophis and hypodermis.
belcheri. It js the \"i orld's most poisonous
1

snake. Epidermis
The top layer of skin is made up of
Aves (Aerial Vertebrates epithebal cells and does not contain
Birds) blood vessels.
• The animaJs of tWs group ~ue
warm-blooded tetrnpod vertebrates vl'ith Dermis
llight adaptation. • lt gives elasticity to the integunJent,
• Their fore-feet are modified in to wings to allowing stretching and conferring
fly. :flexibility, while aJso resisting
mstortions, wrinkling and sagging.
• They respiTe through lungs .
• Nails grow I mm per ·week on an
• Birds have no teeth, beak helps in feeding. average.
• They have a single ovary and pneumatic
• Protein, keratin stiffens epidermal
bones . e.g., Crow, Peacock, Parro t etc.
tissue to form finger nails.
■ Flightless birds are IGwi and Emu.
■ Largest bird is Ostrich. Hypodermis
■ Smallest bird is Humming bird. • lt is made up of adipose tissue.
■ Largest zoo in Ind.fa is Alipur (KoU<.ata) It pe1forms several irmportantftmctfons
and the lai·gest zoo of the wodd is Cruiser 1. Protect against invasion by
National Park in South Africa. infectious orgamsms.
2. Protect the body from dehydration.
Mammalia 3. Maintain homeostasis .
• These ai·e waim-blooded animaJs. 4. Act as a receptor for touch, pressure,
• Tooth comes twice in these animaJs pain, heat and cold.
( cllphyodont). 5. Protect the body against sunburns by
• There is no nucleus in their red blood cells secreting melanin.
(except in camel and llama). 6. Generate vitamin-D thrnugh
• Skin of mammaJs contains hair. e>...-posme to ul traviolet light.
• External eai· is present. 7. Store water, fat, glucose and
vitamin-D.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
e
Anin, al Nutrition and and OA'}'gen and constitute about 4% of
totaJ body weight.
Digestion • Milk, eggs, meat, fruit , food, vegetables
AnimaJs are not able to synthesise their etc are the sources of mineraJs.
O\'VIl food , therefore they obtain it from
Minerals are of two types
outside environment for their nutJ.i tionaJ
req uirements. 1. Macronutrients These are required in
large amount, e.g. , caJcium (Ca),
phosphorus (P) , potassium (K) etc.
Mineral Nutrients
2 . Micronutrients These are required in
• These are metaJs, non-metaJs and their
very small amount (less than 1 g), e.g.,
saJts other than the four iodine (I) , iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) etc.
elements- carbon, hydrogen , nitrogen
Minerals and their Functions in the Body
Mineral Major Food Source Uses Defioienoy Disease
Macronutrients
Caloium Milk, oheese, bread Muscle oontraclion, nerve Tetany and riokets.
(Ca) and vegetables. action, blood clotting and
the formation of bone.
Phosphorus Cheese.eggs, pea Bone and tooth formation , Tetany and riokets.
(P) nuts and most foods. energy transfer from foods,
DNA, RNA and ATP
formation.
Sulphur (S) Dairy produots, meat, Formation of ihiamine, Disturbed protein
eggs and brooooli. keratin and coenzymes. metabolism
Potassium Potatoes, meat and Muscle contraction , nerve Nervous disorder, poor
(K) chocolate. action, active transporl muscles leading to
paralysis.
Sodium (Na) Any salted food, meat, Muscle contraction , nerve Nervous, depression,
eggs and milk. action and aotive transport. muscular cramps, pH
disbalance
Chlorine (Cl) Salted food and Anion/cation balanoe and Loss of appetite muscle
seafood. gastric acid formation . cramp s.
Magnesium Meat, chocolate and Formation of bone, Irregularity of metabolism.
(Mg) green vegetable formation of coenzymes in
cell respiration.
Micronutrients (Traoe Elements)
Iron (Fe) Uver, kidney , red Formation of haemoglobin , Anaemia and low immunity.
meat, cocoa powder myoglobin and cytochromes.
and water oress
Fluorine (F) Water supplies, tea, Resistanoe to tooth decay. Weak teeth (H present in
sea food , meat, liver excess causes mottling of
and beans. (teeth)
Zinc (Zn) Meat, liver and beans. Enzyme aolivalion and Anaemia, retarted growth,
carbon dioidde transport. weak immunity and fertil~.
Copper (Cu) Uver, meat and iish. Enzyme, melanin and Anaemia, weak blood
haemoglobin formation. vessels and connective
tissues.
Iodine (I) Seafood , iodised salt Thyroxine produotion Goitre
and iish.
Manganese Tea, nuts, spioes and Bone development and Irregular growth of bones
(Mn) cerea ls. enzyme activation. and connective tissues.
Chromium Meat and cereals. Uptake of gluoose. Irregular metabolism.
(Cr)
Coba lt (Co) Meat and yeasL Synthesis of vitamin- B12 , Anaemia
formation of red blood cells
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Water • The number of teeth are different in

different animals. These are represente d
About 70% of the human body consists of by dental formula as
water. Two-third of water exists inside
I C Pm M - Upper half jaw
cells, the other one-third is outside the
cells in tissue fluid and blood plaBma. Ilt is IC Pm M - Lower halfjaw
essential for digestion, transportation, Where, I - Incisors , C - Canmes,
excretion and to reguJate body Pm - Premolars and M - Molars.
temperatw·e . • Premolars and molars are caJled cheek
Many factors affects the health of human teeth . Mille teeth do not include molar
body. One of them is adulteration. teeth.
• In hWJJans, first teeth come in bet11veen
Food Adulteration 6 and 8 mon tbs. By the age of 6, milk
Addition of w1desi.rable, cheap and teeth are graduaJly replaced by permanent
harmful substances in the food is called teeth.
food adulteration.
• Hardest part in the body is tooth enameL
Indian Standards Institution (ISI) Mark
and Agmar_k (Agiicultrn·aJ marketing) are • In elephants, the tusks are the incisors of
given by the Bmeau of Indian Standards upper jav11•
after testing the pwity and quality of • Maximum nWJ1ber of teeth are present in
matedal and food respectively. horse and pig.
Some Common Adulterants Dental Formulae of
in Food Some Mammals
Food Item/Stuff Adulterant Mammal Dental Total Number
Milk, curd and Water and urea
Formula of Teeth
oheese Man (child) 2102/2102 X 2 20
Sweets Saccharin, harmfu l colour Man (adult) 2123/2123 X 2 32
Ghee Vanaspati and animal Horse 3143/3143 X 2 44
fats Dog 3142/3143 X 2 42
Cereals Stones, sand and grit Cow and 0033/3133 X 2 32
Dhania powder Powdered horse dung Sheep
Haldi powder Lead chromate Cat 3131/3121 X 2 30
Pulses Metanil yellow Rabbit 2033/ 1023 X 2 28
Edible oils Argemone oil Mouse 1003/1003 X 2 16
Black pepper Papaya seed
Tongue
HUMAN DIGESTIVE • Saliva, secreted by the saJivai-y glands, is
mixed with the chewed food by the
SYSTEM tongue.
The human digestive system consists of • Tongue also contains taste buds due to
alimentary canal and digestive glands. whkh we sense bitter, sow·, salty or sweet
The alin1entary canal consists of mouth, taste.
(having teeth and tongue) oesophagus,
stomach, small in testine and large
intestine.
Bitter
Teeth
• With the help of teeth the food is Sour
chewed. Teeth are offour types
Incisors (for cutting)
Canines (for teaiing) Sweet
Premolars (for chewing) Taste Areas on the Human Tongue
Molai·s (for chewing and grinding)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
G
Functions of the Complete digestion process tahes place in
following four steps
Digestive System
Spntting of complex food ma tedaJs into Ingestion of Food
simpler molecules by hydrolysis so that • Ingestion takes place m buccaJ cavity.
they can be easily absorbed by the • Siliva lubiicates the food and binds the food
intestine js the main function of particles together to form bolus.
digestive system.
• Siliva.1.1' gland have sta.1.·ch spitting enzyme
• Man and other animals have holozoic
ptyaUn.
nutrition i.e., sand form of food.
• Parotid gland is the la.1.·gest siliva.1.-y gland.

Tongue-----
Parotid gland
Salivary Submandibular--------r~
Gland gland
Sublingual
gland

Asoending portion
of larg ·

I leum
of small
intestine
Duodenum of
small intestine

Human Digestive System

Digestion of Food Digestion in Duodenum,

Digestion in Mouth • Chyme moves to duodenum.
In mouth, siliva.1.1' amylase acts on • Food js mixed with bile (liver) to breakdown
sta.1.·ch . fats m to smallel' globules.
PLyalin • Trypsin ac ts upon proteins and break them
Sta.1.·ch Maltose into polypeptides. Amylase converts stai-ch
(Complex form) (Simple form) in to simple sugai-.
• Llpase convert fats into fatty acids and
glycerol.
Digestion in St01nach
• The food passes down thrnugh the Digestion in Intestine
oesophagus m to stomach . • Food passes m to ileum and mixes ·with
• Now food js mixed with gastric juice intestinaJjuice, where
and hydrochloric acid wruch ■ Maltase converts maltose m to glucose
rnsinfect the food and creates acirnc ■ Lactase converts lactose into glucose
medium. and galactose
• Pepsin rngests pro teins and converts ■ Sucrase converts sucTose into glucose and
them into peptones. fructose
• Rennin convert milk into curd.
■ T11'PSll rngests the peptides into amino
• Digested food nm"i' js called chyme. acids
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Absorption and Assimilation of Pancreas

Digested Food
• Ileum's internal surface h as finger-like
folds called villi.
• It h elps in absorption of foo d.
• Intestinal juice is alkaline in nature.
• pH of saliva, gastric juice, panc1·eatic
juice and intestinal juice is respectively
6.8, 2.0, 7.0 and 8.5.
~jection of Unwanted Food
• Digested foo d passes into large intestine.
• Large intestine cannot absorb food, but
absorbs much of the water.
• The remaining semi solid was te is called
faeces and is passed into rectum .
• It is e>...rpelled out thrnugh anus.
• It is the second-largest gland of the
human body and contains islets of
Langerhans and exocrine part secreting
enzymes for carbohydi-ate, protein and
nucleic acid digestion.
• The most common is the ~-cells, which
secretes insulin, a hormone deficiency
of which causes diabetes melitus.
• Excess of insulin causes hypoglyaemfa,
in which one loses the reproducing
capacity and vision.
Intestinal Glands
Crypts of Lieberkubn and Brunner's
glands arn intestinal glands an d secrete
intestinal juice wWch is alkaline in natw·e .

Roughage RESPIRATORY
• Roughage is another term for dietary SYSTEM
fibres e.g., Natural food, dalia etc. Respiration is a catabolic process in
• It does not provide energy but only helps '"''rnch the respfred O>...'}'gen is used in the
in retaining water in the body. ox:ida tion of food res ulting in the release of
energy. It is brought about by respiratory
organs.
SOME DIGESTIVE
Respiratory Organs
GLANDS
of Some Animals
Liver Respiratory Animal
• It is the largest gland of the human body Organ
and secretes bile juice, which is stored in
gall bladder. Lungs Reptiles like lizards,
mammals like man, camel,
• It regulates the quantity of glucose in the cattle , etc.
blood by converting extra glucose (if any)
into glycogen or glycogen (during Skin Frog, earthworm and leeohes
deficiency of glucose) is converted in to Gills Fishes, tadpoles and prawns
glucose. Trachea Insects, oentipedes and
• It destroys dead RBC and regu]ates body millipedes.
temperatw·e. It conver ts excess of amino Body surface Amoeba, Euglena,
acid into ammonfa (v,1ruch is converted Chlamydomonas , Spirogyra,
into w.-ea by Orrnthine cycle). Urea Hydra, etc.
comes out from the body through kidney. Book lungs Spider, scorpion, ticks and
• If there is any obsb.·uction in bile duct, mites.
liver cells stop taking bilirnbin from the Book gills King crab, prawn, oray fish
blood, consequently it spreads and Daphnia.
throughout the body wWch is called
Air bladder Lung iish and bony
jaundfoe. iishes(e.g., Labeo).
• Liver is an important body organ in
Air sacs/lungs Birds
investigation of a person's death that has
been due to poison in food.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Human Respiratory System yeast

Glucose - - ~ Carbon dioxide +
• Overall passage of air in hwnans is as ethyl alcohol
follows:
muscles+ Energy (in plants)
Nosb.ils ➔ Pharynx ➔ Larynx ➔ Trachea Glucose ----i Lactic acid
➔ Bronchi ➔ Bronchioles ➔ Alveoli ➔
+ Energy (in animals)
Cells ➔ Blood.
• The hwnan respiratory system is shown PHASES OF AEROBIC
in the follmiving diagram.
EplgloUs RESPIRATION
Larynx
a
Ea:;
Trachea
External Respiration
(Breathing or Ventilation of
Lungs)
Pleural • It involves inspiration and expiration of
Cut end membranes
of rib air.
~ ~ :;.J.+-Alveoli
------.:::~"'<nir-,,~Pleural fluid • Inspiration js the process of intake ofair.
Bronchiole During inspiration, muscles of the
diaprn:agm conb:act and diaphragm
Human Respiratory System flattens.
• The lower libs are raised upward and
outwards. The chest cavity enJarges, the
Types of Respiration air pressure in the lungs gets decreased
Aerobic Respiration and air rushes into the lungs.
• The respiration taldng place in the • Expb·ation is breathing out of air. During
presence of m,.')'gen js known as aerobic eA'J)iration, relaxation of muscles of the
respiration. 1ibs and diaphragm takes place.
• This respiratory m')'gen
. oxidises the • Dlaphi-agm again become dome-shaped.
substance in to carbon dioxide, water Chest cavity is reduced and air is
and energy, as follows forced outwards through nose and
Glucose + 0 2 ~ Carbon dioxide trachea.
+Water+ Energy. • Breathing rate in hwnans is 18 - 20 times
• In this process, each glucose molecule js per min.
converted in to two molecules of pyruvjc • The exchange of gases, i.e., oxygen and
acid by the process, called glycolysis. It carbon dioxide takes place due to the
tal<.es place in the cytoplasm of the cell. difference in their partial pressmes.
The pyruvic acid formed, releases energy
, 1vith the formation of carbon dioxide and Internal Respiration
wa ter (in Kreb's cycle which occur in (Oxidation of Food)
mitochonclria) .
• It js a complex process in which food is
Anaerobic Respiration broken down to release energy.
• The respiration taldng place in the • Thansportation of OA')'gen talces place by
absence of m ')'gen
. js Jmmm as h aemoglobin of blood . Whereas
anaerobic respiration. transportation of only 10-20% carbon
dioxide takes place by haemoglobin of
• It is found in endoparasites like
blood.
roundworm. In tWs process, the
respiratory substances are incompletely • Approximately 400 ml water is lost
oxidised to carbon dioxide and alcohol. thrnugh breathing everyday.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• Respiration being a catalytic process, also fluid, which allows frictiooJess

reduces the weight of the body_ movements of heart and protects it from
mechanical shocks.
• Larynx or voice box or Adam's apple
produces sound_ It has a small flap of Blood lo
cartilage called the epiglottis, which the body
prevents the food from entering the trachea_ Blood lo Lhe
lungs
• Purring sound in cats is due to the
_ .._,__..,..,_..._ ~ ~ . a - -1
Blood from
vibration of false vocal cord_ the lungs
• In hippopotamus, true vocal cord is absent Left
■ Total Lung Capacity (TLC)= 6000 ml auricle
Rlghl
■ Residual Volume (AV)= 1200 ml au ricle
■ Tidal Volume (TV)= 500-600 ml

CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
• It is a transport system that supplies the
useful ma terial and removes the was te
from tbe body cells.
It consists of heart, blood vessels and
blood.
HEART
• Heart is a thick, muscular, contractile,
automatic pumping organ of blood
vascular system.
• The chamber which receives tbe blood
from body tissues are called am·icles and
the chambers of heart which pump blood
to body tissues are called ventricles_
• There is a thin t\ivo Jayered sac around
the heart knmvn as pericarclium, fille d
,,.rith a wa tery fluid called pelicardial
Human Heart
• Fishes have ooJy two-cbanJbered heart
(one auricle and one ventiicle)_
• ln amphibians, heart is
three-chambered.
• ln crocodile, birds and mammals, tbe
heart is divided into four chambers (two
auricles and t\1110 ventricles).
• ReptiUan heart 1s sb_-ucturally tm·ee-
chanJbered but is functionally four-
chambered (i_e_, incomplete four-
chanJbered) except in crocodile.
• A new born baby's heart weight is about
20 g.
• The average weight of heart in men
is 280-340 g, while in women is
230-280 g.

Diseases of Heart
Angina pectoris Pain in heart muscles, appearing as chest pain_ It is caused due to
obstruction in ooronary artery_
Tachycardia Increased rate of heartbeat
Bradycardia Decreased rate of heartbeal
Heart attack Breathlessness, palpiiations, pain in the ohesL unconsciousness
appear suddenly (Nitroglycerine is used for the treatment) _
Heart block When heart beat is not passed to the ventricles properly_This is the
defect of conducting system of the heart.
Coronary thrombosis Due to the formation of clot in coronary artery_
Myocardial infarction It is the death of a part of heart muscle following cessation of blood
supply to rl It is acute heart attack_
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
e
• The circulation of blood through the whole This exb.-a blood supplies additional
body can be shown as OA'Ygen to body cells.
Superior Vena oave '-..... • During blood clotting fib1IDogen
~ Righi changes into fibrin by thrombin
Righi vontrlolo
/ a t rium
Inferior Vena oava which is obtained from thrombop-
Pulmonary arlery lastin in the presence of Ca 2 +.
i
t
Ds -o><ygsnsted blood
-- ----------- ----- - ------------------- Lu ngs
0 Hlfgensled blood
Oapllla ri es In Oeplllsrles In
head re gion body organs
t
Pulm onary ve ins
• The haemoglobin content of adult
female vaijes from 13.5-14.5%
whereas in adul t male its amount
vai-ies from 14.5-15.5% Haemoglobin
count is highest ill the foetus and is
LAorta Lett ventricle Left alrium about 23 g per 100 mL of blood at
Circulation of Blood 1hrough the Whole Body birth.

• To pump out blood, the heart chamber Blood Vessels

undergoes alternate contraction called Blood vessels are of three tzJpes
systole and relaxation called djastole. The
regular sequence of these systole and Aii:eries
diastole causes the heart sound Lub and • These ai·e thick walled blood vessels
Dub. which cai-ry the blood away from the
• Arteries carry pw·e blood from the heart heait to valious body parts. These are
,,vbiJe veins carry impurn blood to the heart. deep seated in the body and have no
• Human heart beat 1s myogenk in nature, valves ill them.
i.e_, initia ted by a patch of modified heart • These cai-ry OA'Ygenated blood except
muscles 1tself w:ithout requiring an external the pulmonary aitery , 1vruch car1ies
stimulation. Tbjs patch is called SA node deoA'Ygenated blood to the lungs. In
(sino-auricular node) or pacemaker. ai-teries, blood flows at a rugh
• When SA-node becomes defective, i.e_, it pressure and a higher speed.
does not genera te cardiac impulses, 1t can
be cured by surgical grafting of an artificial Veins
pacemaker (an elecmc dev:ice) in the chest • These ai·e thm walled blood vessels
of the patient. It stimulate the heart and caiTy blood away from valious
elecb.jcally at reguJar intervals. body pa.its towai·ds the heart. These
• The normal rate of heartbeat at rest is have valves ill them to prevent
about 70-72 times per minu te. In a newly back flow of blood in them. Blood
born baby, heartbeat rate is about 140 per flows at low pressure and at a lower
minu te. speed.
• DwIDg heavy exercise it may be high as • These carry deoxygenated blood
170-200 times per minu te. except the pulmonai-y vein whkh
cardes OA'Ygenated blood to the heart.
BLOOD Capillaries
• Blood is a fh..tid connective tissue and
composed of blood corpuscles, plasma and • These are the thinnest blood vessels
platelets . and connect ai-teries to the veins.
• These help in exchange of mateiials
• It is slightly alkaline is nature (pH 7.4).
like the numen ts, gases, was te
• Its volume in an adult is 5.8 L. products e tc., between blood and
• The oxygenated or pure blood is blight red celJs.
,,vbiJe the deoA'Ygen ated blood 1s purple
colomed (Darker shade of red).
• People who live at rugh altitudes have more
blood than those who live in low regions.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Blood Type of Parent and their Children • Mature red blood cells Jack a
nudeus and organelles in
Blood Type of Parent Possible Blood Type of man1ma1s. Howeve1~ in camel
(Homo or Heterozygous) Children and llama it is nucleated.
OxO 0 • One RBC contains about 280
OxA O,A haemoglobin molecules.
OxB 0, B
Ox AB A, B Leukocytes (WBCs)
AxA A,O These are part of the body's
AxB O,A,B,AB inlmune system; they destroy and
remove old or aberrant cells and
Ax AB A, B,AB
cellular debds, as well as attack
BxB B, 0 infectious agents and foreign
Bx AB A, B,AB substances. These are much Jess
ABxAB A, B, AB in number than RBCs (1 : 600).

Blood Cells Thrombocytes

Erythrocytes (RBCs) (Platelets)
It is responsible for blood dotting
• Red blood cells contain the blood's haemoglobin
(coagulation). It changes
and distribute OA")'gen.
:fibdnogen into fibrin.
• RBCs are the most abundant cells.

Comparison between Plasma and Lymph

Plasma Lymph
It contains 92% water, 8% blood plasma Lymph contains a variety of substances
proteins and traoe amounts of other materials including proteins, salts, glucose, fats, water
and WBCs.
It is cell tree part of blood , oontain salts, It is modified tissue fluid, contains oells like
considerable amount of proteins as well as lymphocyte and monocytes, saJt and small
more or less all constituents of body_ amount of proteins. It is oolourless.
It flows within blood vessels. It flows within lymphatic vessels.
It takes part in nutrition, excretion, respiration, It supplies nutrition to tissue devoid of blood
etc., by transporting various materials and helps supply, takes part in fat absorption and
in the defenoe mechanism of the body by defence mechanism of the body.
producing antibodies.
It can coagulate because it oontains iibrinogen It can coagulate but very slowly because it
and prothrombin. contains these two in small quantities.

Blood Pressure (BP) • If a person h as persistent high

• The pressme created by the blood on the walls of
the blood vessels due to the repeated pumping of
heai-t is called blood pressw·e. It is measmed by
sphygmomanometer.
• It can be felt at certain places in our body viz,
,,vrist of the hands etc.
• Blood pressme is recorded as systollc/diastolic.
Blood pressure in a normal person is 120 / 80
mmHg. Factors affecting blood pressme ai·e age, • Electrocarcliograph (ECG) is
cardiac output, tota.1 petlpbera.1 resistance etc.
blood pressme then it is called
hypertension and persistent
high blood pressure is 150/90
mm Hg. Factors responsible are
over eating, fear, , 1v01Ty, anxiety,
sorrow etc. Hypotension is
condition oflm'I' blood pressme,
i.e., persistent 100/50 mm Hg.
used to check proper working of
heart by using elecb.-odes.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
e
Hips (Pelvic girdle) 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM I lium , isohium,
Pubis
The human skeleton consists of both fused (In nominate)
and individual bones supported and Th igh Femur 2
supplemented by bgaments, tendons, Knee Patella 2
muscles and cartilage.
Shank Tibia-Fibula 4
It is divided into two pm-ts Ankle Tarsal 14
Sole Metatarsal 10
Axial Skeleton (80 Bones)
Toes Phalanges 28
• It includes skull, vertebral column and
bones of chest (libs and sternum).
• Vertebral column is responsible for the
Joints
upright position of the human body. The sb.-uctural arrangements of tissues by
, 1vhich bone and bone or bone and cartilage
• Most of the body weight 1s located at the
joined together.
back of the vertebral column. It provides
:flexibility to the neck and protection to They are of following types
spinal cord. Joint Name Looation
Immovable Bones of skull
Appendicular Slightly movable Pubic bones of pelvic
Skeleton (126 Bones) girdle
Their function is to make locomotion Hinge Ankle, Knee, elbow
possible and to protect the major organs of Ball and Sooket Shoulder and hip
locomotion, digestion, excretion and Pivot Radius and humerus
reproduction.
Saddle Metacarpal and carpal
Important Bones in the Body Gliding Vertebra, radio-ulna and
carpals
Body Part Name of the Total
Bones Number • Tendons join the muscles and bones.
Skull (29) Faoial 14
• The muscles v, Wch join bone to bone are
1

Cranium 8 called ligaments.

Hyoid
Ear ossioles 6 Diseases of Skeletal System
(ma leus, • Hard tissue deposits over articular
lnous, stapes) cartilaO'e a.Iona·b \"i'lth higher secretion of
b
Vertebral Cervical 7 synovial fluid causing pain and stiffoess
column(26) lead to rheumatoid arthritis. (An auto
(Note-The total Thoraoic 12 jm.m un e disease) .
number of bones in
vertebral column,
Lumbar 5 • Tearing of articular car□Jage and
initially is 33 and Saorum 1 (6) development of bony lumps at places
after development, Coccyx 1 (4) causing pain, st::i.ffness and permanent
it redu oes to 26) bending lead to osteoarth riti s.
Bones of chest (25) Sternum • Osteoporosis is loss of bone density due
Ribs 24 to excessive absorption of calcium and
(12 pairs) phosphorus from the bone.
Shoulder (Pectoral Scapula 4 • Osteopet::rosis 1s a hereditary disease
girdle) Claviole marked by abnormally dense bone and by
Upper arm Humerus 2 the common occurrence of fract1..ll.'es of
Fore arm Radius-ulna 4 affected bone.
Wrist Carpals 16 • Birds have spongy bones \"i'lth air filled
Palm Metacarpals 10 spaces, called pneumatic bones.
Fingers Phalanges 28 • Rigor morHs 1s the state of body
stiffellllJg after death.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• Ghl'Onk fatigue is the inability of a Ureotelic Anim.als

muscle to contract due to depletion
of its chemicals and lactic acid They excrete nitrogen in the form of mea,
e.g., mammal (man), frogs , toads, other
accumuJation by repeated contraction.
amphibians and cartilaginous fishes like
A completely fatigued muscle refuses to sharks.
respond to nervous stimuli.
U ricotelic Anim.als
Muscular System They excrete the nib.'ogenous was tes in the
• Human body has about 639 types of form of wic acid, e.g., Reptiles, snalces,
muscles. lizai·ds, crocodiles and birds.
• Muscles specialised to conb.'action al'e
of three types, i.e., sb.:iated, unsb.:ia ted Human Excretory System
and cardiac. The human excretm-y system includes-the
• Striated muscles Also called skeletal kidneys (two), ureters (hvo), urina11'bladder
muscles or voluntary muscles. They al'e (one) and meth_ra (one) .
present in limbs, tongue, pharynx etc.
Kidney
• Unstriated muscles These ai·e
involuntai)' muscles and present in • It is bean-shaped, chocolate brown organ
lying in the abdomen, one on each side of
urinai-y bladder, in walls of lai·ge blood
the vertebral column just below the
vessels and alinrnntai-y canal.
diaphragm.
• Cardiac muscles They ai·e involuntai)',
• The left kidney is placed a little higher
sb:iated and non-fatigued fibres \"i1Wch than the right kidney (but reverse in
ai·e found in the wall of heait , where rabbit).
they form myocai·dium. They generate
• These form the urine and controls
their own wave of excitation. osmotic pressme within the organjsm with
respect to external environment.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM • Nephrons ai·e the functional and
The process of removal of nitrogenous structmal unjt of kidney. Each nephrnn is
,,,.,astes from the body is called excretion. made up of Bowman's capsu]e and ren al
The organs of excretion are cal]ed tubuJe. Renal tubuJe is made up of
excretm)' organs. ProxinJal Convolu tid TubuJe (PCT),
HenJe's loop, Distal Convoluted TubuJe
Excretory Organs (DCT) and Collecting Tubu]e (CT).
of Some Animals
Ureters
Exoretory Organ Animal
These bdng the urine downward and open
Contractile vacuole Amoeba
in to urinai-y bladder.
Flame oells/solenocytes Tapeworm
Renette cell Ascaris Urinary Bladder
Nephridia Earthworm • It temporarily stores the t.Irine.
Malpighian tubules Cockroaoh • It can hold about 0.5- l.0 L of urine.
Coxal glands Soorpion • It is absent in birds. In both reptiles and
Green glands Prawn birds, ureters and rectum, opens into a
common sac called cloaca.
Excretory Products Urethra
Ammonotelic Anim.als • It is a muscuJar and tubuJar structure
These anjmal excrete nitrogen in the wWch extends from neck of bladder to
form of ammorua, e.g., aquatic outside. In females, tWs tube is small and
invertebrates Amoeba, Hydra, Pra\lvn, serves as a passage of urine onJy.
Pila, and freshwater fishes, bony fishes, • In males, it is long and functions as a
Frog's tadpole. common passage for urine and spermatic
flujds.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Urine The functions of brain parts an·e as

follows
• It is a pale yellow coloured fluid due to
presence of rn·ochrome pigment. Forebrain
• It is acidic in nature (pH 6.0) and is slightly • Cerebrum leads to consciousness,
heavier than water. storage of memory having
• It has a faint aromatic odour due to urinoid. information.
Daily urine output in normal adult is • Thalamus deals with touch, visual
l. 5-l. 8 L. system, sleep and walcefulness.
• Chemical composition of urine : water is • HypothaJamus deals with water
95-96%, lll'ea is 2% and some other substance balance in body, behavioral patterns
like uric acid, creatinine, etc., are 2-3%. of sex, sleep, stress emotions etc. It
• The urine on standing gives a pungent smell. also regulates pituitary hormones
It js due to conversion of m-ea into ammonia and metabolism of fat,
by bac tetia. carbohydrate water and maintain
• Haemodialysis js the process of removal of body temperatlll'e (homeostasis).
excesss Ul'ea from the blood of patient using Midbrain
artificial lddney.
• Kidney stone are generally calcium oxalate It deals with visual analysis, auditot)'
crystals. etc.
Broca' s area is present in brain and is
NERVOUS SYSTEM related with speech production, while
• The nervous system provides the fastest Wernick' s area of brain is related
means of communication within the body so with understanding of speech.
that suitable response to stimuli can be made
at once. Hindbrain
• Nervous system is found only in animals and • CerebeUum controls coordination
absent in plants. of accm·ate movements and
• In most ani□Jals, the nervous system consists balancing.
of hi\10 parts-central and petlpberal nervous • MeduJJa oblongata is long
system. connecting part of brain to spinal
cord. It deals , 1vith control of heart
Central Nervous beats, blood vessels, breathing,
Syste1n ( CNS) salivary secretion and mostly reflex
and involuntaJ.)' (unconb.·olled)
Brain n1ovements.
• Brain lies in the cranium of skull.
• Cerebrospinal flwd js present in brain and
spinal cord.
Nobel Prize in Medicine 2016
The Nobel Pri ze in physiology or
Brain medicine 2016 was awarded to
Yosh inori Ohsumi "for his discoveries of
mechanisms for autophagy.
The word 'autophagy' originates from
Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain
the Greek words auto, meaning 'self and
0erebrum Optic lobes Cerebellum phageil meaning to 'eat'_ It is an
(Largest part Tectum Medulla evolutionarily conserved process in
of brain) ob Iongala
which the eukaryotic cell can recyc le
Thalamus erebral ans varolii
(Hypothalamus) peduncle part of its own content.
!factory Lobes
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Spinal Cord
Deals with impulses to and from the brain
and is the cen b.·e for reflex actions like
blinJdng of the eye when an object comes
near to olll· eyes suddenJy, rapid
\l\rithc:h-awal of band whiJe coming near to
heat, knee jerk reflex etc.
Acquired reflex action is also caJJed
conditioned reflex as dependent on pas t
expedence, rr·aining and learning.
It was first denrnnsb.·ated by Ivan Peb.·mrich
Pavlov e.g. learnmg, dancing, cyclmg,
swimming, singing and driving etc are
controlled by spinaJ chord. It is under
cerebral conb.·ol dw:ing learning.
Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS)
• It is a collective term for the nervous
system sb.·uctures that do not be withm
the CNS.
• It is composed of cranial and spinal
nerves. There are 10 pairs of c1·an_jal
nerves in fishes and amphibians and
12 paiJ·s in rest of the higher chordates.
• There ai·e 10 pai1·s of spinal nerves
found in fishes and amphibians and
31 paiJ·s in humans.
• The PNS js divided into two dhrisions:
Somatic Nervous System (SNS) and
Autonomous Nervous System (ANS).
• It is a part of pedpheraJ nervous system
that relays impulses from the CNS to
skeletal muscles.
Autonomous Nervous
~~~~!!1 ~~S]f
pedpheral nmous
system that rr·ansm_jts impuJses from the
CNS to involuntary organs and smooth
muscles of the body. Autonomic nervous
system consists of two divisions
1. Sympathetic Nervous System
:increases defence system of body Retina
against adverse conditions. It is active • Ligh t sensitive tissue that lies at the
in sb.·ess condition, e.g., pain, fear and bac k of the eye. It contains millions of
anger.
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System
prmrides relaxation, comfort, pleaslll'e
at the tinJe of rest. It helps in the
restoration and conservation of • The inJage formed on retina is real and
energy.
• Electroencephalogram (EEG) is a test
that measures and records the elecb.1cal
acti,rity of our brain.
SENSE ORGANS
Eye
Eyes are the sensitive detectors oflight. The
human eye can distinguish about 10 million
cololll's. It consists of three parts
Sclerotic Layer
It is the outermost, bony laye1; wh1.ch
includes
• Cornea the cleai·, dome-shaped tissue,
coveting the front of the eye.
• Conjunctiva, the continuation of upper
eyebd.
Choroid Layer
It is the middle layer and consists of
1. Pupil is the black hole in the centre
of the il1s . It changes size as the
amount of light changes.
2. Cilfa.ry muscles regulates the lens
cw·vatw:e.
3. Iris js the colow:ed part of the eye. It
controls the amount ofbght that enters
the eye by changing the size of the
pupil.
4. Lens is a biconvex rr·anspai·ent
drcular solid located just behind the
iris. It focuses light onto the retina.
Retina
Fovea (point of
central focus)
~
Optic nerve to
brain's visual
cortex
photoreceptors (rods and cones) that
convert bght rays into elecb.ical :impulses
that are relayed to the brain via the optic
nerve.
:inverted.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
G
• Rods are highly sensitive to dim light and Correspondence between
contain a reddish purple pigment called Camera and Eye
rhodopsin. Night vision involves mostly rods
(not cones). Part of Camera Corresponding
• Cones are sensitive to bright light, hence
Part of Eye
differentiate the colours. Box Solera
• The fovea centrali s is the area of sharpest Black inner paint Choroid
vision due to high concentration of cones. Shutter Eye lids
• The blind spot (optic disc) has no rods and Diaphragm Iris
cone cells, hence no inJage is form in this
Light hold Pupil
region.
Lens Lens
Eye Defects Light sensitive iilm Re tina
plate
Nearsightedness (Myopia)
• A condition in v,,Wch nearby objects are seen
more cleaiJy than distant objects because
Ear
• Ears ai·e meant for both balancing
h ght js focused in front of the retina, not on it.
It can be corrected by using concave glasses. and hearing.
• It can be divided into three parts
Farsightedness (Hypern1eb·opia) as External ear (pll]J]a +
• A condition in which dis tant o~jects ai·e seen external auditory canal), Middle
more clearly than neai·by objects because bght ear (tympanic cavity) and Internal
js focused behind the retina~ not on it. ear (bony and membranous
• It can be correc ted by using convex glasses. labyrinth).
• Hearing is controlled by audit011'
Astigmatism area of temporal lobe of cerebral
• A conmtion in ,,vh.ich the lens js wai·ped, cortex.
causing inJages not to focus properly on the • Human eai· can receive the soWJd
retina. ranging between 60-80 decibel.
• The cylinrn1cal glass can correct the defect. • Human eai· is sensitive to soWJds
• Colour blindness also caJled Dalton.ism js frequency 50-20,000 cycles/sec.
caused due to deficiency of cones. \i\fb.ile • Defects of ear are : Otalgia eru·,
night blindness is due to deficiency of ache (Pain in eai-) ; Othitis media
rhodopsin in rods. (Acute infection of middle eai-)
• Retina of Owl contains only rods ,,vhiJe fowl Labyrithlne disease (malfunction
contains only cones. of inner ear).
• The eyes of carnjvores like cat, dog, iron sea
etc, glov,, in night due to tapetum lucidum. Nose
Eyes ai·e most sensitive to yellow green • Nose is a sense organ for smell or
colour. Bees can see ultraviolet light. olfaction. It contains
Presbyopia I . Olfactory celJs '"''Wch are more
chemosensitive than taste cells.
• It is a reduction in pupil size and the loss of
accommodation or focusing capability with 2. Olfactory stimuli such as,
age, leading to a substantial decrease in bght chloroform and aTIJillonia are
received at the retina. frdtating and can cause teaiing.
• Bifocal lens can correct the defect. • Dogs have an acute olfactory sense.
They can trace people because they
• Conjunctivitis is an inflanJillation of
can distinguish between the odow-s
conjwJctiva by bactelia.
of differen t persons.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• Males can produce spermatozoa

REPRODUCTIVE (sperm) thrnughout their life from age
SYSTEM of 13-14 years . The grm,vth of hairs on
• The process by which nev,, individuals ,ue body is due to masculine hormones.
produced from their parents is called
reproduction and the organs which are
used for tms process, collectively Urinary
constitute the rnproductive system . bladder Seminal
vesicle
• Reproduction is of two types, i.e., asexual (behind
and sexual. bladder)

• In asexual 1·eproduction, only one parent Proslale

gland
1s involved and sex cells are not involved. ~-e<-=1-_~~- Urelhra
Bulbourelhral
• In sexual reproduction, t\ivo parents are gland
Sorolum
involved and formation and fusion of Ereollle tissue
gametes takes place. of penis
)
Glans
Modes of Reproduction in Vas deferens , penis
Different Organisms Epldidymis
TesUs
Mode of Organism Male Reproductive System
Reproduction
Fission (asexual) Amoeba, bacteria,
flatworm etc. Female Reproductive
Budding (asexual) Hydra , yeast and sponge
etc. System
Syngamy (se}{ual) Cockroach , frog and Female reproductive system includes
human being etc. following organs which are tabula ted
below
Male Reproductive System Reproductive No Function Performed
• The various organs which constitute the Organ
male reproductive system and their
Ovaries 2 To produoe ova and
functions are tabulated below: hormones.
Reproducilve No Function Oviducts 2 To move the ovum
Organ towards uterus.
Uterus To provide spaoe for
Testes 2 Produce sperm and
testosterone developing ohild.
Sperm duct 2 Conduct the sperm Vagina 1 To receive the
from the testes to sperms.
urethra
Seminal vesicles 2 Secrete seminal
plasma
Epididymis 2 Temporarily store
sperm and provides
mobility.
Urethra Conduct urine and
sperms.
Prostate gland 2 Secrete an alkaline
fluid to neutralise the
aoidity of urethra and
make the sperm
more active.
Cowper's gland 2 Secrete an alkaline
white lubricating fluid. Female Reproductive System
Penis (have rioh 2 Pass urine and
blood supply) deposit sperm in • If sperm 1s present, the egg v,ill be
female genital tract. fertilised in the ampullary isthmic
junction of Fallopian tube.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• After maturity the ovary releases an • An:mfocentesas or anmiotic fluid test is

ovum (egg cell) after every 28 days. te chnique of finding out sex and disorder
• The connection between developing of foetus.
embryo and mother js made by
placenta. It supplies blood, organic and
Gestation Periods of Some
inorganic nutrients, hormones, An imals
antibodies etc. Animal Gestation Animal Gestation
• The emb11'0 develops for nine months in Period Period
uterus. It is called gestation period_.
Buttalo 310 days Horse 340 days
• Child is delivered after its development
Elephant 610 days Leopard 105 days
and mother produces milk to not111sh
the child Oactation). Lion 120 days Tiger 103 days
• The first milk which comes out from the Whale 365 days Squirrel 40 days
mother's mammary gland just after
child birth is called colostrum . ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• This milk js rich in protein, antibodies
• It includes endocrine or ductless glands.
, 1vhich imparts immunity to new born
Their secretion is known as hormones.
baby.
• Different types of hormones are
Menstrual Cycle • Steroids , e.g., oesb.·adiol, testosterone,
• Reproductive pedod of a human female androsterone, aldosterone, cortisol and
extends from puberty (10-1 4 years) to cortisone.
menopause (40-50 years). • Peptides, e.g., insulin, glucagon,
• The release of the first mensb:ual flov,, or pituitary hormones, pai·athormone and
peliod is called menarche. relaxin.
• Menarche marks the onset of • Amino acid derivatives, e.g., adrenaline,
reproductive life and onset of puberty in noradrenaline and thyroid hormones.
females. Various glands are~
• Menopause is stopping of ovulation and
menses. It normally occw·s between the Hypothalamus
age of 45 to 55. This stage onwards, It is a pai·t of forebrain and regulates the
,,voman lose the ability to reproduce. pituitai-y glands and main ta.ins body
• The periodic vaginal bleeding during tern peratme (homeostasis) .
mensb.L.lal cycle is called menstmation.
• On an average menstural cycle is
Pituitary Gland or
completed in 28 days. Hypophysis
• It is absent dilling pregnancy, may be • It governs other endocdne glands lili.e
suppressed dwfog lactation and thyroid, adrenal and gonads.
permanently stops at menopause. About • Pituitai}' gland js also Jmown as master
13 mature eggs are released from t\Jvo gland.
ovaries of female in a year.
• Menstrual cycle js controlled by FSH, Thyroid Gland
LH, oesb.·ogen and progesterone • It is the lai·gest endocrine gland and
h ormones. located in neck region.
• It js the 'pace setter' of the endocrine
Birth Control Methods or system. It secretes
Contraception Methods I . Thyroxine, which regulates BMR
• The prevention of unfon of sperm and (Basal Metabolic Rate), physical,
ovum is ]mown as contraception. The mental and sexual development.
vaiious methods used for it ai·e 2. ThyrocaJcitonin secreted by the
diaphragm, conb.'aceptive pills, C-cells and regulates the calcium
tubectomy, vesectomy, copper-T etc. h omeostasis Oowers calcium level).
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Pancreas
It is both an exocdne and endocrine gland.
The islet of Langerhans (endocrine) h ave
three major types of cells
1. Alpha-Cells secretes glucagon hormone
which increases blood sugar level.
2. Beta-CelJs secretes insulin, which
decreases the amoUJJt of sugar in the
blood.
3. Delta-Cells secretes somatostatin
whkh is an anti-gro,11rth factor.
Adrenal Gland
• It is also Jmown as emergency gland_.
(a) Cortex (outer layer)
(b) MeduJJa (inner layer) It secretes two
important hormones- Epinephrine or
adrenaline and nor-epinephrine or
noradrenaline
• It increases the blood glucose level, blood
pressure and cardiac output.
Pineal Gland
• It js situated in the brain and also Jmown
as clockwork gland_.
• It regulates the ovaries and b as an effect
on the biological rhythm.
GONADS
These secrete steroid hormones.
Ovarian Hormones
(Oestrogens)
It helps in the development of plimary and
secondary sexual characters (oestradiol,
oestriol and esb.-ogen). Hypersecretion of
androgenic steroids in female results in
stopping of mensb.-uation, hairs on face and
breasts .
Testicular Hormones
(Androgens)
These are produced by Leydig cells of
testes.It stinrnJate gro\'\rth, matui-ation and
maintenance of male gonads and
development of secondary sexual characters,
e.g., testosterone, androsterone etc.
HEALTH
Health is the function al or metabolic
efficiency of a living being. In human, it is
the general condition of a person's mind,
body and spilit, usual meaning, to be free
from illness, inj ury or pain.
DISEASES
lt is a condition of the body or its part in
which functions ~ue disturbed. The
diseases may be broadly classified into
two types, i.e., congenital and acquired .
Congenital Diseases
These are anatoutical or physiological
abnormilities present from birth.
They may be caused by
• A single gene mutation (alkaptonuria,
pbenylketonwfa, albinism , sickle-cell
anaelilla, haemophilia and colour
blindness).
• Cm·omosomal aberrations (Down's
syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome and
Turner's syndrome).
• Environmental factors (cleft palate
and harelip). Unlike the gene and
chrnmosome induced congenital
defects, environmentally caused
abnormalities are not transmitted to the
childrnn.
Acquired Diseases
These diseases develop after brrth.
They are further of hvo types, i.e.,
communicable and non-communicable.
I. Communicable (infectious)
diseases are caused by pathogenic
nticro-organisms, such as bacteda,
viruses, parasites or fungi; the
c:Useases can be spread, directly or
indirectly, from one person to
another. Infectious diseases, are also
Jmown as transmissible diseases.
2. Non-communicable (non-
infectious) diseases are not passed
by organisms anrnng people, but
come from genetic or lifestyle
factors.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
COMMUNICABLE
DISEASES
These are the cliseases ,,vhkh may pass or
carded from one human or animal to
other.
Commumcable cliseases are illness caused
by germs such as bacte1ia, viruses and
spread by an infected person, animals or
object to other persons.
Viral Diseases
Viruses are parasitic and causes a number
of cliseases.
BirdFlu(H 5
Bird flu (Avian influenza) js a disease
caused by an influenza virus-A, that
primarily affect birds.
The folio-wing persons may be on higher rish
for developing the bird flu
• Farmers and othe1·s, ,,vho \iVork ,,.rith
poultry.
• Travellers, visiting affected countries.
• Those who h ave touched an infec ted development in males. Dark urine and
bird.
• Those who eat raw or undercooked general itching, fever, usually low-grade
poultry meat, eggs from infected birds.
Symptoms
Fever, cough, sore thrnat, muscle aches and
eye infection (conjunctivitis).
Treabnent
Treatment ,,.rith the antiviral medication
oseltamivir (tamillu) or zanamiv:ir (relenza)
may make the disease less severe.
Oseltamivir may also be prescribed for
persons, who live in the same house as
those diagnosed ,,.rith a,rian flu .
Severe Acute RespiTatory
Syndrome (SARS)
It is a selious form of pneumonia. lt :is
caused by a vims that was firnt identified in
2003. Infection ,,.rith the SARS virus causes
acute respiratory distress (severe breat.Wng
difficulty) and sometimes death.
Symptoms
Cough usually starts 2-3 days after other
symptoms like Fever, headache and muscle
aches.
Treatment
Antibiotics to treat bac teria that
cause pneumorua. Antiviral meclications.
H.igh doses of steroids to reduce swelling in
the lungs. O>..'}'gen, breathing support
(mecharucal ventilation) or chest therapy.
Hepatitis
Hepatitis is a swelling and inflammation of
the liver. It is not a conclition, but is often
used to refer a viral infect.ion of the liver.
Hepatitis can be caused by
• Immune cells in the body attacking the
liver and causing autoimmune hepatitis.
Infections from viruses (such as
hepatitis-A, B or C), bacteria or
parasites. Liver damage from alcohol,
poisonous mushrooms or other poisons.
• Medications, such as an overdose of
acetaminophen, can cause harm or death
also.
Symptoms
Abdominal pain or distention . Breasts
pale or clay coloured stools. Fatigue,
jaundice (yellowing of the sldn or eyes)
and loss of appetite, nausea, vom.iting and
weight loss.
AIDS
Acquired lnJil1WJO Defic.iency Syndrome
(AIDS) js a disease of the human immune
system caused by the Human
lnJil1unodeficiency Virus (HIV). AIDS was
first recognised by the Centres for Disease
Control and Prevent.ion (CDC) in 1981.
HIV Infection
AIDS is a condition caused by HIV
infection. The conclition gradually
destroys the i.nJmune system, which
makes it harder for the body to fight
infections.
Tr ansmission
HIV can be spread by the following
• Through sexual contact Le. oral, vaginal
and anal sex.
• Through blood transfusions, accidental
needle sticks or needle sharing.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• From mothei- to child: A pregnant woman Causes of Cancer

can b.-ansn:tit virus to her foetus thrnugh
• Cancer
is induced by physical,
their shared blood circuJation or a nlli'sing
che □:tical
and biological factors or
mother can pass it to her baby through
agents. These are called carcinogens
breast's milk.
or cancer causing agents. Ionising
Test fo r AIDS radiations such as X-rays, ')'-rays and
non-iorusmg radiations such as
• Enzyme Llnked lmmunosorbent Assay/
uJttaviolet (UV) damage the DNA
Enzyme Immw10 Assay (ELISA/EIA)
leading to neoplastic b.-ansformation.
• Radio lmmwrn Precipitation Assay/ Indirect • Tobacco smoke contains che □:tical
Fluorescent Antibody Assay (PJP/IFA) carcinogens that causes lung cancer.
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Viruses also cause cancer. These are
• Western Blot Confirmatory Test. called oncogenic viruses as they have
genes called viral oncogenes.
NON-COMMUNICABLE Cancer Detection
DISEASES and Di~onosis
There are vaifous kinds of Leukae□:ti a or blood cancer can be
non-communicable djseases, which affect detected based on biopsy and
the health of human beings. Some of the histopathological studies of the tissue
com,mon non- com,mzmicable diseases are and blood and bone marrow tests for
increased cell counts. Cancers of
Diabetes internal organs are detected using
Diabetes is a long-term condition caused by too techrnques such as Radiography
much glucose (sugar) in the blood. There are Computed Tomography (RCT) and
two main types of diabetes Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRl).

Typel Cancer Therapy

Diabetes occlli's when the body doesn't
produce enough insuJin to function properly or
the body's cells don't react to insulin. This is
lmown as insulin resistance.
Type2
Diabetes is far more common than type 1
diabetes, which occlli's when the body doesn't
produce any insuJin at all.
Symptoms
Symptoms common to both types of diabetes
include
(i) Feeling very thirsty.
(ii) Urinating frequently, pai·ticuJarly atrnght.
(ill) Feeling very med.
(iv) Weight loss and loss of muscle bulk.
Cancer
It is WJconb.-olled grmivth of abnormal cells in
the body. Some diseases cause emergence of
tumours in body. These ,He called neoplastic
diseases. Trns includes from a minor role to a
lethal cancer.
• Ctryo Surge1ry It is the technique of
using extreme rapid cooling that freeze
tissues, thereby destroy them. Rapid
cool ing to temperature below freezing
point produces irreversible cell damage
and cell death occurs at 20°C to - 90°C.
• Proton Therapy It is a type of particle
therapy, wh ich uses a beam of protons to
irradiate diseased tissue, most often in
the treatment of cancer.
■ Radiation Therapy Radiation therapy
is a cancer treatment Its goal is to kill
cancer cells and shrink tumours.
■ Stem Cell Transplantation Stem cell
transplants can be an effective treatment
for people with certain forms of cancer,
such as leukaemia and lymphoma.
■ Peripheral Blood Stem Cell
Transplantation IPBSCT) It is also
called peripheral stem cell support This
procedure restore stem cells that has
been destroyed by high doses of
chemotherapy.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Heart Diseases Osteoarthritis

Some hearrt diseases are as follow It js a joint inflammation that res ul ts
from cai·tilage degeneration . It can be
Angina Pectoris caused by ageing, heredity and injlll}'
Human with angina, e>...1Jedence pain in the from trauma or msease. The most
cenb.'e of the chest. The chest can feel common symptom of osteoaithiitis is
constricted and tight, but the pain can also be pain in the affected joint(s) after
oppressive, as if something is crushing ymJT repetitive use.
chest. Pain starts in the centre of the chest
behind the breast bone (sternum) or on the left Gout
side of the front of the chest. lt can spread out to Gout is a kind of ai-thri tis . It can cause
other parts of yom body Wee yom arms and an attack of sudden burning pain,
stomach. sliffoess and swelling in a joint,
usually a big toe. These attacks can
Myocardial Infarction happen over and over unless gout is
• It is commonly ]mown as heart attack, results b.'eated. Overtime, they can harm
from the interruption of blood supply to a part youi-joints, tendons and other tissues.
of the heart, causing heart cells to me. Gout is most common in men.
• This is most commonly due to occlusion Sexually Transmitted Diseases
(blockage) of a corona.11' arteL1' following the
ruptme of a vulnerable atherosderotic • Gonorrhoea It js caused by
plaque, which is an unstable collection of bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
Anyone \'l ho has any type of sexual
1
lipids (cholesterol and fatty acids) and white
contact can catch gonorrhoea. The
blood cells (especially macrophages) in the
infection can be spread by contact
wall of an artery.
·with the mouth, vagina, perris or
• The result is jschemfa (restriction in blood anus.
supply) and ensuing O>...'}'gen, if left untreated • Syphms It is a sexually
for a sufficient pedod of time, can cause transmitted infection caused by the
damage or death (infai·ction) of heai·t muscle spirochete bacterium Treponema
tissue (myocarmum). pallidZLm sub-species pa.llidwm.
The prima.11' route of transmission
Heart Arrest is thrnugh sexual contact; it may
• It occurs , 1vhen the heart js WJable to provide also be rr·ansmitted from mother to
sufficient pump action to mstribute blood flow foetus dULfog pregnancy or at birth,
to meet the needs of the body. Heai-t arrest res ul ting in congenital syphilis.
can cause a number of symptoms including
• Genjtal herpes It is a Sexually
shortness of breath, leg swelling and exercise 'Iransmitted Infection (STl) caused
intolerance. by the Herpes Simplex Virus
• The conmtion is magnosed ·with (HSV).
ecbocarmography and blood tests. Treatment • Trichomoniasis It js a sexually
commonly consists of lifestyle measures such rr·ansmitted infection caused by the
as smoking cessation, light exercise including parasite Trichomona.s vaginalis.
breathing protocols, decreased salt intake and
other metai-y changes and memcations. Mental Disorder
A mental msorder or mental illness is
Arthritis a psychological pattern or anomali,
• It affects the musculosk.eletal system, potentially reflected in behaviom, that
specifically the joints. lt is the main cause of is generally associated vvith msb.·ess or
msability anJong people over 55 yeai·s of age in msability and which js not considered
indusb.jalised counb.ies. pa.it of norm al development of a
person's cultme. This may be
• Rheumatoid Artluitis (RA) lt js a long-term
associated with pai-ticulai· regions or
msease that leads to inflammation of the functions of the brain or rest of the
joints and smrounding tissues . It can also nervous system, often in a social
affect other organs. context.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Alzheimer's Disease Antihistamines

It is a progressive mental detelioration
that can occur in m_jddle or old age, due to
generalised degeneration of the brain. It is
the commonest cause of premature
senility.
DRUGS
A drug is a substance, which when taken
in, alters the body functions . Repeated use It is a drug that induces tranquility in an
of drngs particularly for obtaining quic k individual_. The minor tranquilisers induce a
pleasw-e is called drug abuse.
Some Simple Drugs
Below are the tzJpes of simple drugs
Analgesic (Pain Killers)
These drugs act in vaijous ways on the
pedpberal and central nervous system;
they indude paracetamol
(acetam.jnopben), the non-steroidal
anti-inflanIDJa tory drugs (NSAIDs) such
as the salicylates, narcotic drugs such as
morphine, synthetic drugs with nai·cotic
properties such as tranJadol and various
others.
Anaesthetic
An anaesthetic is used to temporarily
reduce or take away sensation, usually so
that painfuJ procedmes or surgery can be
performed.
There are tzuo types of anaesthetics
• General which make the patient
unconscious.
• Local ,,.,hich numb the pa.it of the body
that would otherwise feel pain.
Antibiotics (Bactericidal)
These ai--e powerrul medicines that :fight the temperature, resulting in a reduction of
bac tedal infections. When used propedy, fever.
antibiotics can save lives. They either kill • Bactelia of cholera and TB was discovered
bacteda or stop them for reproducing.
These ai--e medicines that can be used to
relieve severe itching and help in breaking
rnstam.jne cycle. It leads to thickening and
weeping of the sldn and generally makes the
eczema worse and more likely to become
infected because scratching breaks the sldn.
Tranquiliser
feeling of calm and relaxation . Depending
on the medication and dosage, this can
range from feeling of mild euphoria to states
of drowsiness, confusion and lightedness.
Sedative
It is a substance that induces sedation by
reducing :irritability or exdtement. At higher
doses it may result in slurred speech,
staggeling gait, poor judgment and slow,
uncertain reflexes.
Doses of sedatives such as benzodiazepines,
,,vhen used as a hypnotic induce sleep, tend
to be higher than anrnunts used to relieve
anxiety, whereas only low doses ai·e needed
to provide a peaceful and calilllng sedative
effect.
Narcotic
It is 01igi.nally referred medically to any
psychoactive compound with any
sleep-inducing properties.
Antipyretics
(Temperahire Reduction)
These ai·e drugs or herbs that reduce fever.
Antipyretics cause the hypothalamus to over
1ide an in terleukin-induced increase in
temperature. The body then works to lower
by Robert Koch .
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
G
Disorders Caused by Hormonal Irregularities
Disorders Hormone Quantity Gland
Dwarfism GH Defioienoy Pituitary
Gig ant ism GH Exoess Pituitary
Aoromegaly GH Exoess Pituitary
Simmond's disease GH Defioiency Pituitary
Diabetes insipidus ADH Deficiency Pituitary
Cretinism Thyro><ine Defioiency Thyroid
Simple goitre Thyrrndne Defioiency Thyroid
Myxoedema Thyrrndne Defioienoy Thyroid
Exophthalmic goitre Thyrrndne Exoess Thyroid
Tetani Parathyroid Deficiency Parathyroid
Plummer's disease Thyro><ine Defioiency
Addison's disease Mineralooorticoids (aldosterone) Defioiency Adrenal oortex
and glucccorticoids (cortisol)
Crohn's disease Mineralooorticoids Exoess Adrenal cortex
Cushing disease Corticosteroid Exoess Adrenal cortex

Bacterial Diseases in Human Beings

Disease Pathogen Affected Organ Symptom
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Lungs Repeated coughing, high feve r.
tuberculosis
Diphtheria Corynebacterium Respiratory tract Difficulty in re spi ration (mainly in
diphlheriae child of age 2-5 yrs).
Whooping cough or Bacillus pertussis Respiratory Continuous coughing.
pertussis system
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Intestine Vomiting , acute diarrhoea, mus-
cular □ ramps, dehydration etc.
Leprosy or Hansen's Mycobacterium Chronic infection Ulcers, nodules, scaly scabs (the
disease leprae of skin and nerve infected part of the body
becomes senseless).
Tetanus (lock jaw) Clostridlum tetani Central nervous Painful contraction of neck and
system jaw muscles fo llowed by
paralysis of thoracic muscles.
Pneumonia Dlplococcus Lungs Sudden chill, chest pain, cough,
pneumoniae high and iever.
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Intestine High fever, diarrhoea and
headache
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis Skin and intestine
Plague Pasteurella , Blood disease High fever, weakness and
(i) Bubonic plague Yersinia pestis haemorrhage which turn blaok.
(ii) Pneumonic plaque Lungs Haemorrhage of bronchi, lungs.
(iii) Septicemic Anaemia, feve r, chills leading to
plague death with in two days.
Gonorrhoea (sexual Neisseria Urinary tract Swelling in urinary tract
disease) gonorrhoea
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Viral Diseases in Human Beings

Disease Pathogen Affected Part Symptom
Measles (Rubella Rubella virus Whole body Loss of appetite, reddish eruption on
disease) the body:.
Chicken pox Variaella virus Whole body High fever, reddish eruption on body.
Small pox Variola virus Whole body Light fever, eruption of blood on body
Polio or Polio virus Th roat, Fever, backbone and intestine wall
poliomyelitis backbone oells are destroyed_ It leads to
and nerve paralysis.
Influenza (flu) Influenza virus Whole body In fl ammation of upper respiratory traot.,
nose throat and el'es.
Rabies RNA virus called Nervous Encephalitis, fear of water, high fever,
(hydrophobia) rabies virus system headache, spasm of throat and ohest
leading to death.
Hepatitis (Epidemic Hepatitis virus Liver Loss of appetite, nausea, whi1ish stool
Jaundice) and jaundice.
(i) Hepatitis-A Hepatitis-A virus Not i atal
(ii) Hepatitis-B Hepatitis-B virus Fatal
Dengue fever RNA containing Whole body, High fever, backache, headache,
dengue virus partioularly retro-orbital pain behind the eye ball.
head , eyes
and ·oints
AIDS (Acquired HIV (Human White blood Weak immune system.
lmmuno Deficiency lmmuno cells
Syndrome) Deficiency Virus)
Herpes Herpes virus Skin Swelling of skin.
Ebola virus disease Ebola Virus Whole body Fatal hemorrhagic fever, liver and
(iilovirus} kidnet disfunction vomiting. headaohe.
Swine influenza (flu) H1N1 flu virus Whole body Headache, tiredness , sore throat,
(muscles) Vomiting , breathing problems.
COVID 19 Novel Corona Respiratory Fever, dry cough , tiredness , aches and
Virus System pains, nasal congestion , headache,
oonjunctivi1is, sore throat, diarrhoea,
loss of taste or smell or a rash on skin
or disooloration of fingers or toes.

Protozoan Diseases, their Vectors and Affected Part

Disease Pathogen Vector Parts Affected and
(Causative agent) Symptoms
Pyorrhoea Entamoeba glngivalis None, infeotion by Bleeding of gums.
lip kissing .
African Trypanosoma Tse-tse i ly Blood and nervous tissue_
trypanosomiasis gambienes (Glossina pa/pa/is) Man feels sleepy, may cause
death.
Amoebic dysentery Entamoeba None, Infection by Colon (intestine). Develop
(Amoebiasis) histolylica contamination. loose motion with blood , pain
in abdomen
Diarrhoea Giardia None, infection by Digestive system causes
contamination loose motions, vomitting.
Kala azar or Leishmania donovani Sand flies Spleen and liver enlarge and
dumdum fever (Phlebotomus) high fever develops.
Filaria or Wuchereria bancrom Cu/ex mosquito Swelling of legs , testes and
elephantiasis other body parts.
Malaria Plasmodium sp. Female Anopheles Periodical attaoks of high
mosquito fever, pain in joints
acoompanied by ohill, heavy
perspiration and fast pulse.
~ lsnesTike cat fish , Gambus1a and aquatic birds eat mosquito larvae.
■ Quinone, a product of Cinchona tree , is administered ior malaria_
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
G
Fungal Diseases in Human Beings
Disease Pathogen (fu ngi) Symptoms
Asthma or aspergillosis Aspergillus fumlgatus Obstruction in the functioning of lungs.
Athlete's foot Tinea pedis Skin disease, oracking of feet.
Scabies Acarus scabiei Skin itching and white spot on the skin.
Ringworm Tricophyton Verrucosum Round red spot on skin.
Baldness Tinea capilis Hair fall.

Some Immunological Tests and Diseases

Test Disease Test Disease
Ames test Carainogeneoity Widal test Typhoid
Dick test Scarlet fever Wayson stain test Plague
Montoux test Tuberculosis Tourniquet test Dengue fever
Rose-Waaler test Rheumatoid fever ELISA test AIDS
Wassermann test Syphilis

Some Viral Diseases in Animals

Animal Virus Disease
■ Cow Vario/a vera Small pox
■ Buffalo Pox virido orthopox Small pox
■ Cow Blue tongue virus Blue tongue
■ Cow Herpes virus Herpes
■ Dog Street rabies virus Rabies

Vaccination
• It js the process of arti:fidaJ introduction of germs or the germ substance called
antigen into the body for developing resistance to a particular disease. The mateLial
introduced into the body js called vaccine.
• A vaccine js a dead or weakened microbes. They are unable to produce disease as they
are less in number but they stimulate the body to produce antibodies.
• World Heal th Orgarusation (WHO) in 1974 offidally launched a global vaccination
programme to protect children from six fatal diseases . Diphthe1ia, pertussis , tetanus ,
polio, TB (Tuberculosis) and measles . It was launched in India in 1985.
• BCG (Bacillus CaJmette Guerin) vaccine is given to protect against TB (Tuberculosis).
• DPT (diphtheria, Pertussis and Te tanus) vaccine js given to babies within first 6 weeks
of their birth.
Some Vaccines and their Doses
Age Vaooination Dose
Birth to ■ DPT (triple vaccine , against ■ Three doses (oommonly oral) at
12 months diptheria, \llhooping cough/pertussis intervals of 4-6 \f/eeks.
and tetanus)
■ Polio (Sabin's oral, previously Salk's ■ Three doses at intervals of 4-6
injectible) weeks.
■ BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) ■ lntradermal and one vaccine
9-15 months ■ Measles vaooine (MMR or Measles, ■ One dose
Mumps and Rubella)
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Age Vaooinauon Dose

8-24 months ■ DPT ■ Booster dose
■ Polio (oral) ■ Booster dose
■ Cholera vaccine (can be repealed ■ One
every year before su mmer)
6-6 years ■ OT (Bivalent vaccine against ■ Booster dose
diphtheria and tetanus)
■ TAB (vaccine against Salmonella ■ Two doses at intervals of 1-2 months
s_
typhi, paratyphi A and S paratyphi
B) or Typhoid Paratyphoid vaccine
10 years ■ Tetanus , TAB (typhoid) ■ Booster dose
16 years ■ Tetanus, TAB ■ Booster dose

Human Body (At a Glance)

■ Total number of muscles in the body 639
■ Total number of bones in the human body 206
■ Largest organ of human body Skin
■ Number of oells in body 75 trillion
■ Longest bone Femu r (Thigh bone)
■ Smallest bone Ear-ossiole and stapes
■ Weigh t of brain 1424 g
■ Blood volume 6.8 L (in 70 kg body)
■ Normal BP 120/80 mm Hg
■ Hb content in body 500-700 gm
■ Blood platelets 200000-400000 per aubic mm
■ Universal blood donor 0 Rh-(ve)
■ Universal blood recipient AB
■ Blood clotting time 2-6 minutes
■ Normal body temperatue 98.4° F or 37°C
■ Breathing rate 16-20/minute
■ Dental formula Adult : 2123/2123 = 32
Child : 2120/2120 = 20 milk teeth
■ Largest endocrine gland Thyroid
■ Largest muscle in the body Gluteus maximus (Buttock muscle)
■ Greatest regeneration power In liver
■ Menopause age 40-50 years
■ Minimum regeneration power In brain oells
■ Minimum distance for proper vision 25am
■ Pulse rate 72/minu1e
■ Normal sperms count 200-360 million/ejaoulalion
■ ESR (Eryth rocy1e Sedimentation Ra te) 4-10 min/h
■ Th innest skin Conjunctiva
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Human Genetic Disorders
The i1nportant hzrnzan genetic disorders can be categorised as follows
Human Genetic Disorder due to Autosomal Abnormalities
Disorder Chromosome
Complement
Down's Trisomy 21 (eKtra
syndrome ohromosome number)
Edward's Trisomy 18 (eKtra
syndrome ohromosome number)
Cri-du-ohat Deletion is short arm of
syndrome ohromosome 5
Palau's Trisomy 13 (emra
syndrome chromosome number)
GENETICS
It is the study of heredity and
vaifations. The term 'Genetics' was
coined by W Bateson in 1905. Gregor
Johann Mandel (commonly called
Father of Genetics) proposed three
laws
(a) Law of Dominance It states that
crossing of plant with red and
whHe flower produced plants
only ·with red flowe r i.e_,
dominant trait appear and
recessive disappeai·ed.
(b) Law of Seg1·egation It states
that allele of a gene separate
during gamete formation. It is
also called law of purity of
genetics or Ja\Jv of splitting of
hyblids . It gives 3 : 1 ratio in F2
generation.
( c) Law of Independent
Assortment lt states that hvo or
more genes assort independently
duringinheli tance. It gives 9: 3:
3 : 1 ratio in F2 generation.
Linkage is an exception to this
law.
• Test Cross The cross betv,,een
he terozygous F 1 and homozygous
recessive is called test cross. 1n test
cross, the monohybrid ratio :is 1 : 1
and dihybrid ratio :is 1: 1:1: 1.
• Back Cross The cross behveen
he terozygous F1 hybrid and
homozygous dominant allele is
called back cross.
Effect
Short stature, epicanlhus, small round head , protruding
lower lip, flattened nasal bridge, mental retardation, short
liie, dattiness_
Long but narrow skull, small faoe, short digits, webbed
neok, corneal opacity, mental retardation_
Miorooephaly, enorusted distance between eyes, moon
face, severe mental deficiency, cat like cry of neonate_
Lett plate and lip, polydactyl, mental retardation ,
anomalies in dermal pattern, heart viscera and genitalia_
Some Important
Genetic Tenns
• Phenotype lt js the physical appearance of an
individual.
• Genotype It is the entire genetic complement
of an individual organism.
• AIJeles The two individual genes in a
paiticuJar gene pair that occupies same locus
(position) on homologous pair of chromosome_
• Dominant and Recessive Traits (inherited
chai·acter) The b.'aits may be dominant or
recessive depending upon the fact that on
crossing the individuals (whkh are
homozygous for a pai·ticu1ar trait of same
chai·acter the b.'ait \"i Wch appears in the Fi
1
generation :is called dominant and the other
one :is recessive.
• Hybrid An offspring, wWch is obtained from a
cross between two genetically different
pai·en ts .
• Linkage The phenomenon of genie
inheritance in which genes of a particular
chromosome sho\lv their tendency to inhedt
togethe1; i.e_, tendency to retain their parental
combination even in the offsprings is knovm as
link.age.
• Mutation It is a sudden change of a gene (gene
mu tation) or chrnmosome (chromosomal
mutation) from one form to another, which are
passed to the daughter cells.
• Heteroploidy It is the variation in
chromosome number.
• PleiotJ'opy lt occurs when one gene
influences multiple phenotypic traits .
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Human Genetic Disorder due to Abnormalities

in Sex-Chromosome Number
Name Chromosomes Effect
Complement
Turner's 44+XO (46) Phenotypically fema le, sterile due to undifferentiated
syndrome gonads, webbed neck, low posterior hair line
increased carrying angle of elbow, short stature.
Noonan's 44+ YO (45) Phenotypically male, short stature , webbed neck ,
syndrome drooping upper eyelid , little development of gonads.
Super males 44+XYY (45) Male, tall, excess testosterone secretions,
subnormal intelligenoe.
Super 44+XXX(47) Female, mental retardation, low fertility but genitalia
females 44+ XXXX(48) normal.
Klinefelter's 44+XXY(47) Male tall with long legs, some with gyneoomastia,
syndrome 44+XXYY(48) small testes , azospermia, infertile, increased
e>ccretion of gonadotropin.

Human Genetic Disorder due to Gene Mutations in Autosomes

(Chromosome that is not a sex chromosome)
Disorder Dominant/ Autosoma/J Symptoms Effect
reoessive Sex-linked
Phenylketonuria Recessive Au1osomal Failure of brain to Defective form of
(ohromosome 12) develop infancy enzyme phenyl
mental retardation. alanine hydroxylase.
Sickle-cell Recessive Autosomal Aggregation of Abnormal
anaemia (ohromosome 11) erythrocytes , more haemoglobi n in
rapid destruction of RBCs
erythrocytes leading
to anaemia
Haemophilia Recessive Sex-linked Failure of blood to Defective form of
NB (X-ohromosome) olol blood clotting fac tor
VIII/IX_
Colour Recessive Sex-linked Failure to Defect in either red
blindness (X-ohromosome) disoriminate between or/and green oones.
red and green colour.
Huntington's Dominant Autosomal Gradual degeneration Production of an
disease (ohromosome 4) of brain tissue in inhibitor of brain oell
middle ages. metab olism .
Cystic fibros is Recessive Au1osomal Mucus clogging in Failure of chloride
(ohromosome 7) lungs, liver and ion transport
pancreas anomalies. mechanism.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Biotechnology
It deals with technique of using live Golden Rice
micro-organisms, their par ts or processes for • lt js a vaiiety of Oryza sativa (rice)
the manufacttll"e of useful or commerdal produced through genetic engineedng
substances . It has hvo core tec hniques i.e., to biosynthesise beta-carotene, a
genetic engineering and technique to precursor of pro-vi ta.min-A in the
facilitate the growth and muJtipllcation of edible paits of rice. Golden 1ice was
only desired microbes. In genetic engineering developed as a fortified food to be used
(aJso called recombinant DNA technology) in areas, '"''here there is a shortage of
resb.iction endonucleases are very useful met having vitamin-A.
They cleave the DNA at specilic locations
called resb.iction sites. • Golden Rice 2 produces up to 23
times more beta-cai·otene than the
• Vectors ai·e organisms or their pai·ts used to
01iginal vai·iety of golden rice. Golden
transfer the desired DNA from one
rice was created by lngo Pob.ykus of
orga.rrism to another. T he common vectors
the Institute of Plant Sciences at the
ai·e bac tedophage, cosmids, phagem1ds,
Swiss Federal Institute of Technolog)',
plasmjds etc.
working with Peter Beyer of the
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Urnversity of Frejburg.
developed by Kary Mums (1983) can clone
• Cai·otene impai·t orange colotll" to
or amplify the small amount of DNA. It
carrots and is the reason why
involves denaturation, primer annealing
genetically modified 1ice is golden. For
and polymedsation in the de.finite
the golden rice to mal(e beta-cai·otene,
sequence.
three new genes are inserted: h"i'Ofrom
daffodiJs and the third from a
Applications of Biotechnology bacterium.
A number of transgernc plants, merucines,
adds are produced through genetic Flavr Savr
engineering.
By the use of antisense RNA technology
the enzyme polygalacto-uronase, which
BtCotton causes danJage to pectin 1s deactivated
It was developed to reduce the heavy reliance and the toma to is kept fresh for longer
on pesticides. The bacterium Bacill1.ls dmation.
thzmingiensis (Bt) natmally produces a
chemical harmful only to a small fraction of Canola
insects.
lt is either of rape seed (Brassica napus
L) or field mus tai·d (Brnssica campestris
BtBrinjal L or Brassi ca rapavar). Its nodes are
It is a b.'ansgernc brinjal (also known as an egg used to produce edible oil suitable for
plant or aubergine) created by inserting ~ consumption by hunJans and livestock.
crystal protein gene (Cry IAc) from the soil The oil 1s also suitable as bioruesel.
bac tedum Bacillus thurimgiensis in to the
genome of vaiious brinjal vai·ieties. Daiiy Products
• Cheese js prepai·ed by the coagulation
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) of casein and other minor milk
It is Gram positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, proteins ( curdllng of millc) by an
commonly used as a biological pesticide. The Cry enzyme rennin extracted from calf
tmdn found in the bacterium is extracted and used gastric mucosa.
as a pesticide. It also occurs naturally in the gut of • Streptococcus and Lactobacillus
caterpillars of various types of moths and species are involved in the
butterflies, as well as on the dark surfaces of plants. manufac ture of most cheese .
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• In cheese manufacture, • Biochips allow rapid screening of gene

mkro-orgarrisms are important in both
souring and ripening processes.
• Sen:usoft blue Roquefort cheese of
France is produced using the mold • Biocl:ups can help in identifying precise
Penicillium roqueforti.
• Yoghrn·t is a preserved milk product • Gene therapy is the b.·eatmen t of disease
h aving a distinct taste and a thick
texture than rnillc
• Yoghurt is made by fermenting '"''hole
milk with a Illl.A'Tlll'e of Lactobacilfos
bulgaricus, Streptococcus lactis and S.
thermophilus at 40° to 46°C.
Vitm11ins
• Vitamin C was the fii·st vitamin to be
produced by a fermentation process
using Acetobacter, a wild bacterium .
• Bactelia used for industrial production
of vitamin-B 12 are propionibacterium
shermanii, P. freundenreichii and
Pseudomonas denitrificans.
• Vitamin-B 2 (lliboflavin) is synthesised
by many Illlcro-organisms including
bacteria, yeasts an d fungi . The fungus ,
Ashbya gossypii is used for the
mforobiaJ production of vitami n-B2 .
Biotechnologies in
Human Health
• Monoclonal antibodies are made
outside the body by the h yblid cell • In 1997, a rr·ansgenic cow 'Rosie'
cultures known as hybridomas.
• Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) are
antibodies that are identical because • It js possible to cure phenylketonm·ia
they were produced by one type of
immune cell and are all clones of a
single parent cell
• A biochlp is a discrete collection of
gene fragments on a stamp-sized chip
that can be used to screen for the
presence of particular gene valiants .
profiles, a tool that pron:uses to have a
revolutionai-y impact on medicine and
society.
forms of cancer.
by replacing, al tering or supplementing a
gene whose absence or abnormality is
responsible for the disease. Gene therapy is
unique as it employs the genetic mate Li al,
i.e. DNA, itself as the means of rr·eatment.
DNA finger printing is the technique, in
which the banding pattern of DNA
fragments is compared an d can be used in
many species, including human, to indicate
relativity. (used for rape victim, paternity,
other criminals).
• Human insulin or humulin js the first
genetically engineered pharmaceutical
product, developed by Eli Lilly and
company in 1982.
• Genentech, a Califorma-based company,
have produced human growth hormone
(hG H) from genetically engineered
bacteria.
• Somatostatin is the first polypeptide,
which was expressed in E coli as a pai·t of
the fusion peptide.
• BST or Bovine Somatotropin js produced
in a lai·ge quantity from milk production in
cows .
produced human alpha-lacta.lbunllil
protein enriched milk (2.4 grams per lib.·e).
disease by using recombinant DNA
techniques in eaiJy peLiod of pregnancy.
• Un-ok.inase js involved in dissolu tion of
blood clots. It has been synthesised in h uge
quantity by using genetically engineered
bacteria with urn.kinase genes .
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
e
Organic Acids Synthesised by Various Microbes
Organic Aoid Mioro-organism
Lactic aoid Lactobacillus delbreukii, L bulgaricus, Streptococcus lactis and
Rhizopus species
Aoetic aoid (vinegar) Acetobactor aoeli
Citric aoid Aspergillus niger, Penioillium sp and Muoor sp.
Gluconic aoid Aceobaoter aceti, Aspergillus niger, Penioillium and Chrysogenum
Propionic aoid Propionibacterium
Butyric aoid Clostridium aoetobuti;lioum
Oxalic aoid Aspergillus sp.
Gallic aoid Aspergillus niger
Some amino aoids Escherichia coli

Types of Antibiotic with their Source and Action

AnilbiotJcs Souroe Action
Penioillin Penioillium chrysogenum , Tonsililis, Sore Throat, Gonorrhea,
P notatum + Phenyl Acetic Rheumatic Fever, some Pneumonia types
Acid
Griseofulvin Penioillium griseofulvum Antiiungal , espeoially for Ringworm
Nystatin Streptomyces noursei Antifungal for Candidiasis and overgrowth
of Intestinal Fungi during exoessive
antibiotic treatment.
Hamyoin Streptomyces pimprina Antiiungal Antibiotic
Fumagillin Aspergillus fumigatus Broad spectrum antibacterial espeoially
against Salmonella and Sh/gel/a.

Bacitraoin Bacillus licheniformis Syphilis, Lymphonema or Retioulosis.

Streptomyoin Streptomyces griseus Meningitis, Pneumonia, Tuberoulosis and
Local Infection. To><ic in some , through
eighth oranial nerve.
Chlorampheniool Streptomyces venezue/ae, Typhoid, Typhus, Whooping oough,
Chloromyoetin S. lavendu/ae Atypical Pneumonia, Bacterial Urinary
Infections.

T etracyolines/ Streptomyces aureofaoiens Viral pneumonia, Osteomyelitis, Whooping

Aureomyoin Cough. Eye infections.
Oxytetracyoline/ Chlorotetracycline ~ Intestinal and Urinary Infections
Terramyoin Hydrogenation Streptomyces (Spirochaetes , Riokettsia, Viruses)
rimosus
Erythromyoin Streptomyces erylhreus Typhoid , Common Pneumonia,
(= S. erylhraeus) Diphtheria, Whooping Cough etc.
Gentamyoin Micromonospora purpurea Ettective against Gram ( +) baoteria
Polymixin Bacillus polymyxa Antiiungal

* Milk is pasteurised (preserved) by boiling it at 62.8° for 30 minu1es (Low Temperature Holding
method or LTH) or at 71 .7.°C for 15 seconds (high temperature holding method) . These
treatments kfll all baoteria
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Botany
• It is the branch of biology which
deals ·with plants, whkh are
considered as multicellular
ulcerates. The cells of these
organisms contain a cell ,,vall
made up of cellulose and other
polysaccharides. Plants have the
ability to synthesise their O\'VIl
food (autotrophic) in the
presence of sunlight, via the
process of photosynthesis.
• Plants have hvo main groups i.e.,
cryptogams (lower plan ts
\"irjthou t well defined flo wers and
seeds) and phanerogams (higher
plants with well defined flowers
and seeds).
• Cryptogams further contains
thallophytes and pteddophytes
\"irjth bryophytes in behveen.
Here, thallophytes means those
plants which h ave thallus like
body i.e., ·without roots, leaves
and stem e.g., algae, fungi,
bacteda e tc.
• All the plants of cryptoganJs are
considered as primitive as these
do not have well defined features
of plants like presence of phloem
(a tissue for food transport) and
presence of xylem (a tissue for
water transport etc) .
• Phanerogams are well defined
advanced plants with proper roots,
leaves and stem and well
differnntiated tissue system. These
can be categorised as
Gymnosperms (Naked Seed) and
Angiosperms (Covered seed)
plants.
• Algae like Nostoc, Anabaena etc are
used as manure.
• Sphagnum a genus of mosses is
used as fuel and antiseptic.
• Some plants catch insects to
fulfill their nitrogen requirement.
Such plants are called
insectivorous plants.
PLANT MORPHOLOGY
Plant morphology represents a study of the
development, form and sb.1.Jcture of plants and by
implication, an attempt to interpret these on the
basis of similadty of plan and migin.
Classification of Plants
• Plant classilication is the placing of knmvn
plants into groups or categodes to show their
relationship.
• Thus, plants are classified in to group h a,ring
same characte1istics .
• Tballophyta A phylum of plants of very
diverse habit and sb.·ucture, e.g., Algae, fungi
an d lichens .
• Bryophytes Have stems and leaves but lack
rr·ue vascular tissue and reproduce by spores
e.g., Mosses, hormvorts, liverworts etc.
• Pteridophytes Vascular plants with leaves,
stems and roots , but lack both seeds and
flowe rs , e.g., Ferns, Lycopodium, horsetails etc.
• Gymnosperms Group of seed producing
plants. A plant that h as seeds unprotected by an
ovary or fruit, e.g., Conife1~ cycads , pine tree etc.
• Angiosperms (Vascular plants) A major group
of flowedng plants. Their characteristics a re the
possession of protected seeds or frui ts, e.g.,
Rose, tulip, tomatoes etc .
Virus
The term virus was given by Pasteur. Virus was
discovered by Iwanowski in the extract of diseased
tobacco plant Viru s is a nucleoprotein entity which do
not have machinery of its own but can utilise the
synthetic machinery of living cell of other organisms for
its multiplication. Virus is considered to be a cellular,
i.e. wi thout a celL
Bacteria
Basically, bacteria are unicellular prokaryotes. Their
cell wall is generally, made up of peptidoglycans and
polysaccharides. Genetic material is not organised into
nucleus, i.e. a primitive nucleus is present !without a
nuclear membrane). Al l membra ne bound cell
organelles are absent.
Flagella, if present is single-stranded, made up of
protein flagellin.
Gamete formatjon is absent
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
PARTS OF A PLANT
Different parts of a plant perform dmerent
function. Accordingly they are divided into
root, stem, leaves, flower, fruits and seeds.
Root
It is that part of plant body, which develops
from ramcle and grows dovm into the earth.
It gives secondary and tert.iai·y roots.
Plants have two types of root systems
1. Tap root develop from ramcle, normally
found in mcot plants.
2. Adventitious root , 1vith a main tap root
that is lai·ger and grows faster than the
branch roots.
Modification of Tap Roots
Confoal Trus type of root is tmckened
towards base but tWn near the side of the
plant, e.g., Carrot.
Napil'orm Trus type of root is very broad at
the top and tapedng like a tail at the bottom,
e.g., turnip, beet root etc.
Fusiform Trus type of root is inflated in the
middJe portion, while tWn towards bottom
and top, e.g., Radish.
Pneumatophores Trns type of root is found
in salty soil neai· the sea and for the
respiratory activities, it wJdergoes tmvai·d
negative geob.-opism, e.g., Rhizophora, plant
sundari etc.
Mycorrhlzal These roots ,ue Jmown from
90% of plant species and ai--e mutualistic
association of a fungus with plant root tissue.
Most plants require specific mycorrhizal fungi
without, wrnch they are unable to absorb
sufficient quantities of P, Zn and Mn.
The fungus takes the place of root hairs and
may penetrate the cortex completely
( endomycorrhizae) or remain on the swiace
of the root (ectomycorrhizae).
Functions of Root
• Keeps the plants static.
• Thansports water and mineral salts to the
stem and ultimately to the leaves.
• Absorbs water and mineral salts from
the soil .
e
Stem
lt js the ascending organ of the plant,
which js formed by the elongation of
plunmle. Thus, stem is that pait of the
plant, which originates from plumuJe and
goes towards sunlight opposite to the
gravity.
Underground Modifications
In the adverse conmtions underground
stems store their food and become
tmckened and tuberous.
Various tzJpes of modifications can be
desc1ibed as
Stem tuber Potato
BuJb Onion , garlic, tulips, lilies etc.
Corm Glamolus, CrocZ£s sativus or
saffron etc.
Rbjzome Ginger, turmeric, arrow root
etc.
Subaerial Modifications
There are various tzJpes of modifications
e.xists 11n such types of stem
Runner Grass root, Mereilia etc.
Stolon Mint, jasmine, srrawberry etc.
Offset Water hyacinth, Pistia etc.
Sucker Pudira, chrysanthemwm etc.
Aerial Modifications
Various aerial modifications arre:
Stem tendriJ Grape
Stem thorn Lemon, roses , jujube plWTI
or Chinese date
Phylloc)ade Cactus
Bu)biJs RuscZLs.
Leaf
It is a green pai·t, its main function is to
make food t:hrnugh photosynthesis and
respiration. Leaves are mainly of two
types
I . Simple Leaf A leaf having one blade
but blade js not divided, e.g., mango.
2. Compound Leaf A leaf with more
than one blade. All blades are
attached to a single leaf stem, e.g.,
Rose, orange etc.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Parts of a Typical Leaf

Leaf Base lt js the lowermost part of the leaf, borne onto the node of the stem or jts
branches.
Petiole The stalk of leaf that connects the lamina with the stem or its branch is
called petiole.
Lamina It is the terminal, flattened, green and conspicuous part of a leaf and is
spedalised to manufacture foo d (photosynthesis).
Differences between Stem and Root
Stem Root
Cutiole or outinised outer walls of epidermal Cutiole or outinised outer walls absent
oells presenl
Epidermis is protective in function. Epidermis (young) is absorptive in function. It is
called epiblema or rhizodermis.
Stomata is present in epidermis. Stomata is absent in epiblema.
Stem hairs are additional □ ells , i.e., they do Root hairs are tubular outgrowths of the epiblema
not arise as outgrowths of epidermal □ ells. (epidermal) □ ells.
Chloroplasts may be present in some outer Chloroplast almost absent
oells of ihe cortex.
Cortex narrow. Cortex broad.
Endodermis is inoonspiouous. Endodermis is oonspiouous.
Pericyole not involved in seoondary growth. Pericycle aotively involved in root branches
formation and in seoondary growth.
Xylem characteristically endaroh. Xylem characteristically e>caroh.
Xylem and ph loem fib res present. Xylem and ph loem fib res usually absent
Secondary growth, if occurs, takes plaoe by Secondary growth, i' present, takes plaoe by
primary cambium , which is both seoondary cambium , the conjunctive parenchyma
interfascioular and intrafasoioular. and pericyole start meristematic activity and
participate.

Inflorescence Cymose Inflorescence

The arrangement of flowers on a floral 1n cymose inflorescence, the main axis ends
axis js called :inflorescence. The portion of in a flower, since the peduncle stops grm11fug.
stem that bear cluster of flowers is called The flowers show basipeta.1 succession.
peduncle and the stalk of individual flower
is called pedicel. The inflorescence h as Common Racemose Inflorescence
been classified into five distinct types and their Presence
according to modes of brancWng and lnfloresoenoe Presence
modification of peduncle.
Spike Adhatoda
Solitary
Spikelet Grasses
Racemose
Cymose Catkin Marus
Mixed Spadix Banana and maize
Specialized Corymb lberis amara (ca ndy tuft)
Out of four, two types are mos t important. Capitulu m (head) Sunflower
Special Inflorescence and their
Racemose Inflorescence presence
In racemose inflorescence, the main axis Cyathium Euphorbiaceae family
is capable of continuous grO\Jvth. The Vertioillaster Ocimum and Leucus
flm 1vers show acropetal succession on the
Hypanthodium Ficus
main axis.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

FLOWER Pollination
It js a modified shoot that consists of Thansfer of pollens from stamens to stigma
accessary whorls ( calyx and corolla) and js called pollination.
essential ,,vhorls (androeciwn and It is of two hJpes
gynoeciwn). The plant, which bears both
male and fe male flower is called Self-pollination
monoecious, while separate plants with Thansfer of pollen from stamen to the
one type of flower are called clioecious. stigma of same flower or different flower of
the same plant.
Calyx
The outermost \"i horJ consisting of w:tits
1 Cross-pollination
called sepals ; these ai·e typically green and In th.is, pollen reach from anther of one
enclose the rest of the flm 1ver in the bud flower to the stigma of diffe1·ent flower of
stage, hm1vever, they can be absent or same species. Th.is js done ,vjth the help of
prominent and petal-like in some species. air, ,,vater, insects or animals (agents of
pollination). In most flowers , maximum
Corolla pollination occurs by the method of
The next whorl toward the apex, composed anemophily (by n:tind). In this mode,
of unHs called petals , whkh ai·e typically pollen-loss is maximum.
thin, soft and coloW'ed to attract animals
that help the process of pollination. Fruits
It is ripened ovaiy of flower. The fruit may
Androecium be b.-ue (formed from ovaiy alone) or false
The ne:,..i: whorl, consisting of w:tits called (developed from other pait of flower except
stamens. It consist of two pai·ts-a stalk ovai-y). These ai·e of thl'ee main types, i.e.,
called a filament, topped by an anther, simple, aggregate and composite.
where pollen is produced by meiosis and
eventually dispersed.
Simple Fruit
A simple fruit always develops from a single
Gynoecium ovai-y containing one or more cai·pels and
• The innermost whorl of a flower, may or may not include admtion al
modified accessm-y floral (pedanth)
consisting of one or more w:tits called
sb.-uctures. In addition, a simple fruit is
carpels. The carpel or m uJtiple fused
either fleshy or my Fleshy £rt.tits ai·e edible
carpels form a hollow structme called an
and ai·e seen in the fresh fruit and
ovary, which produces ovules internally. vegetable section of your local super
• Ovu]es ai·e megasporangia and they in market.
turn produce megaspores by meiosis,
which develop into female Agg;regate Fruits
gametophytes. These give rise to egg These are groups of simple fruits, developed
cells. from m ul ticai-peliai-y or polycarpellai-y,
• The gynoecium of a flower is also apocarpous ovaiy of a flower. These are
desc1jbed using an alternative etae1io of follicle, etaedo of achenes, etae1jo
terminology, wherein the sb.-uctlli'e one of berries and etae1jo of drupes.
sees in the innermost whorl (consisting
of an ovary, style and stigma) is called Composite Fruits
a pistil. A composite or m ul tiple fruit develops from
• A pistil may consist of a single carpel or a the complete inflorescence. These are of
nwnber of cai·pels fused together. The two types
sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, js the Soros is A muJtiple £rt.tit derived from just
receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the pistils of many unisexu al flowers of an
the style, becomes the pathway for pollen inflorescence, e.g., MuJben-y, jackfrwt,
tubes to grow from pollen grains pineapple etc.
adhering to the stigma.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Syconus A multiple fruit derived from Crop rotation also rutigates the build-up of
numerous ovaries borne on the inside of pathogens and pests that often occurs,
the fleshy receptacle of an inflorescence. when one species :is continuously cropped
Also in accessory fruit, the fleshy portion of and can also improve soil sb.-uctme and
the fruit is formed by the hollow peduncle fertility by alternating deep-rooted and
of the (inside-out) inflorescence, e.g., shalJow-rooted plants.
peepal, guJar.
Intensive Cropping
Seeds It refers to efficient use of water, nutrients
Seed is a fertilised mature ovule that and tillage. The interdependence of and
possesses an embryonic plant. synergies an1ong water, nutrients and
There are two types of seeds energy in regard to increasing crop
performance is generally preferred.
Non-endospermjc seeds non-albuminous
seed Endosperm :is absent in thjs seed
and stores their food material in Main Crops for Rotations
cotyledons, e.g., Gram, pea. One yearly Paddy and wh eat
Endospermjc or albumfoous seed These Two yearly Maize and cotton
possess endosperm and store their food in Three yearly Tomato and lady's finger
it, e.g., Castm~ maize, rice.
Four yearly Cotton and wheat
AGRICULTURE
• Agriculture is derived from Latin ,,vords
Zero Tillage
Ager and Cultura . Ager means land or It is a way of g:r·owing crops from year to year
field and Cultnra means cultivation. without disturbing the soil through tillage.
Therefore, the term Agricultzm·e means No-till is an agricultural technique, whkh
cultivation of land, i.e., the science and increases the amount of water and orgaruc
art of producing crops and hvestock for matter (nutrients) in the soil and decreases
economk purposes. erosion. It increases the anrnunt and variety
of life in and on the soil.
• It was the key development :in the rise of
sedentary human civilisation, whereby It has two distnctive features
farmmg of domesticated species created • Sole Cropping It is to cultivate a pure
food surpluses that nurtured the vadety of crop.
development of civilisation. • Monocu.ltrn·e Planting a sole crop in a
field regularly but harvest it single in a
AGRONOMY year.
The branch of ag:rjculture that deals with C01npanion Planting/Cropping
:field crop production and soil It is the plan ting of different crops in
management. Agronomists generally ,,vork proxinnty on the theory that they assist each
·with crops that are g:r·mvn on a large scale other in nutJjent uptake, pest conb.-ol,
(e.g., small g:r·a:ins) and that require pollination and other factors necessary in
relatively htt.le management. Agronomic inc1·easing crop productivity.
expedments focus on a variety of factors
relating to crop plants, includmg yield, Intercropping
diseases, cultivation and sensitivity to
factors such as climate and soil . It is the practice of growing two or more
crops in proximity. It is particuJarly
important not to have crops competing with
Cropping Pattern each other for physical space, nutiients,
Crop Rotation water or sunhght.
It is the practice of growing a sedes of The most common goal of intercropping is
dissimllar types of crops :in the same area to produce a greater yield on a given piece of
in sequential seasons. It confers various ]and by making use of resources that would
benefits to the soil. other\Jvise not be utilised by a single crop.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Muitiple Cropping
It is the practice of growing two or more crops
in the same space during a single growing
season.
It can take the form of double-cropping, in
which a second crop is planted after the first
has been harves ted or relay cropping, in v,,Wch
the second crop is started amidst the first crop
before it has been harves ted.
Farming System
Mixed Farming
It is one in which crop production is combined
vvith the rearing of livestock. The lives tock
en terpLises are complementary to crop
production, so as to provide a balance and
productive system of farming.
Ranching
It is the practice ofraising the grazing livestock
such as cattles, sheep or pouJb.--y. The area is
Jmown as 1·anch and the practice js called
ranching . The ranching and cowboy tradition • The era of hybddisation of seeds
miginated in Spain. During the Reconquista in
middle ages the Spanish nobles got huge lands
on grants.
Terrace Farming
It is a piece of sloped land, which has been
landscaped in such a way that, the practice of
farming can be easily carded out.
Generally, tWs type of farming :is done in the
moun ta.in regions along the slope. The land is
cutout along the slope and terraces are made.
This system :is more common in North-Eastern
hilly a·acts of Ind.fa.
Truck Farming
(Marketing Gardening)
It :is a horticuJ tmal practice of growing fruits,
vegetables, etc., on commerdal basis, in b.7..lcks
for direct deuvery to big restaurants, ho tels and
motels. Thjs technjque was evolved by the
engbsh speaking farmers, ,,vho referred them
as a-u ck farms in 19th century.
Organic Farming
Orgaruc agriculture means a process of
developing a viable and sustainable
agroecosystem. lt is an ag:dcultural practice
that reues on crop rotation, green manure,
compost and biological pest control.
e
Organk farming uses fertilisers and
pesticides but sb.·ictly hmHs the use of
syn the tic fertilisers, pesticides, plant
gro\lvth regul ators such as hormones,
livestock antibiotics, food adrntives
and genetically modified organfams.
Blanching
In it, the young shoots of a plant are
covered to exclude light to prevent
photosynthesis, wWch would produce
chlorophyll and thus, remain pale in
colom. Blanched vegetables have a
more deucate flavour and texture than
unblanched.
SEED SCIENCE
• lt js a basic and mos t important input
of agriculture. A good quality seed is
one, v,,Wch is free from adulterants,
diseased or insect-pest infestations,
wWch hinder or reduce the quality of
a seed.
started after 1930. The hybrid seeds
are the cross breeded seeds, which
are art:ifidally developed so as to have
the desirable characters. While
developing a hybrid seed, it goes
thrnugh the various developmental
stages.
• These are
• Nuclear Seed lt is imtial pure seed
of an improved vaiiety available with
the breeder.
• Breeder's Seed lt is the seed
obtained from the progeny
(generation) of nucleus seed.
• Foundation Seed The breeder
seeds grov,rn on State Government
farms and agiicuJture universities
under scientific observations and
check.
• Registered Seed The seeds gi·own
from nucleus, breeder's and
foundation seeds.
■ Certified Seed The seeds certified
before release as a new vadety
having all the desirable characters.
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Synthetic and Composite Traitor Technology

Seed Varieties In this technology, to make the induced
gene active, certain chemicals ai·e used .
• Synthetic variety: It is a valiety
Many M u]ti National Corporations
developed by selecting a number of inbred
(MNCs) ai'e trying to bring tWs in lnma
lines with good General Combinjg Ability and environmentalists ai·e opposing it.
(GCA). Synthetic vaiieties can be
developed by using clones or inbreeds, Crop Diversification
e.g., ICMS 7703.
It is intended to give av.rider choice in the
• Composite variety: It is a variety that is production of a vadety of crops in a given
developed by mbdng of seeds of vaiious ai·ea so as to eA-pand production rnlated
outstanding inbred lines, which have acti,rities on vadous crops and also to
similar charactedstics. So, the exact lessen 11sk. Crop mversi:fication in lnma is
reconstitution of composite vai·iety is not oenerally viewed as a shift from
possible, e.g., Sona, Shakti, Afdcan tall etc. btramtionally gi·own 1ess remunerative •
crops to more remunerative crops.
Hybrid Seed
• It is produced by cross-pollinated plants. AGRO FORESTRY
In hyblid seed production, the crosses are
specific and controlled. The advantage of It is an integi·ated approach of using the
growing hyblid seed compared to inbred interactive benefits from combining b.'ees
and shrubs with crops and/or livestock. It
lines comes from he terosis.
combines agi·icultural and foresb.-y
• To produce hyblid seed, elite inbred technologies to create more mverse,
vaiieties are crossed with well- productive, profitable, heal thy and
documented and consistent phenotypes sustainable land-use systems. A narrow
(such as yield) and the resulting hybrid definition of agi·oforesb.-y is trees on farms.
seed is collected.

Artificial Seed Vermicomposting

It is a method of using , 111orms to transform
It is encapsulated plant propagu]e (somatic oroanic was te into a nutrient-rich
b
embryo/shoot bud) in a suitable matrix, fertiliser. It is a healthy and clean way to
containing substances like nutrients, grmvth eliminate wastes going into our landfills,
regulators, herbicides, insecticides, whkh improves the environment.
fungicides and mycorrhizae, which will Vermkomposting is inexpensive and only
allo\lv and help it to grov,, into a complete talc.es two to three months to produce
plantlet. res ul ts.
Genetically Modified Seeds Plant Preservation
It is that they have been al tered or modified, Llke other organisms plan ts can also be
through bio technology to have their genetic infected with the msease. All these
sb.'ucture changed . TWs is usually
msease causing agents ai·e called Pests.
accomplished by either adding or ta.Icing Main causative agents ai-e virus, bactelia
away genes of the miginal_.
and fungi. As for example, wheat is
infected \l\r:ith rust and smut. In paddy,
Terminator Seed generally blas t is found, whkh is spread by
The term Termin a tor seeds as it applies to Gandhi bug. In cotton, bollworm causes
the ai-ea of agiicul tme can be defined as a rnsease .
descriptive term used by some for seeds that Keeping frwts and vegetables fresh fm: a
have been genetically engineered to produce longer peliod withou t hampering 1ts
a crop whose first generation produces physical and chemical properties, is
sterile seeds, thus preventing a second called frujts and vegetables preservation.
generation from being grown fro m seeds Essential Commomties Act, 1955 has
saved from the fast. Pai-t-3 for its revelation.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
e
Methods of Preservation gainmg resistance to chemicals produced
by the plant or applied to the crops. By
Varrious methods of preservation are not killing all the pests there are some
Low Temperabue un-resistant pests left that will dilu te any
Microbes become inactive at low temper- resistant genes that appear.
ature. We can keep them in freezer.
Preventive Culttual Practices
Pasteurisation Selecting va11eties best for local growing
It js a mj]d heating treab:nent at conditions and maintainmg healthy crops is
temperatmes up to 100°C (which is the the first lme of defence, together with plant
boiling point of water at elevations up to quarantine and cultural techrnques such as
300 metres above sea level). TWs method crop sarutation (e.g., removal of rnseased
causes only a slight decrease in taste and plants to prevent spread of infection).
nutritional value. Pasteurised products
therefore spoil faster than steLilised Monitoring
products. Regular observation js the cornerstone of IP.l\lL.
Observation is broken into h'l'D steps, first
Canning inspection and second, identification. Visual
There are t\1110 primary methods of canning inspection, insect and spore traps and other
A hot water bath and pressure canning measurement methods and monitoring tools
which ever method you use, be SLll'e to use are used to monitor pest levels.
jars with lids made specifically for that Since, insects are cold-blooded, their
technjque. Glass canning jars, which are physical development is dependent on the
reusable, come in various sizes (most are temperature of their environment. Many
single pints or quarts), so choose one that insects have had their development cycles
bes t swts your cannmg needs. modelled in terms of degree days. Morutor
the degree days of an environment to
Integrated Pest determine when js the optinJal time for a
specific rnsect's outbreak.
Management(IPM)
It jg an ecological approach to ag11cultural Responsible Pesticide Use
pest control that integrates
pestiddes/herbiddes into a management Synthetic pesticides are generally used as
system incorporating a range of practices required and often only at specific times in a
for economic conb.'ol of a pest. An LPM pest life cycle.
system is designed around six basic
components Locust Conb·ol and Research
On seemg the grave situation of locust
Acceptable Pest Levels attack, a warrung centTe as, locust warrung
• The emphasis is on control, not orgarusation has been created, at Jodbpur.
eradication. 1PM programmes first wod{ It has locust surveillance and morutoring
to establish acceptable pest levels, called thrnugh 5 circle offices and 23 outposts.
action thresholds and apply conb.'ols jf
those thrnsholds are crossed. IPM holds Mechanical Conb·ols
that wiping out an entire pest population They include simple hand-picking, erecting
js often impossible and the attempt can insect ba.rders, using traps, vacuuming and
be expensive and environmentally unsafe. tillage to disrupt breedrng.
• These thresholds are pest and site
specific, mearnng that it may be Biological Conb·ols
acceptable at one site to have a weed The main focus for biological control is on
such as wrnte dover, but at another site promoting beneficial insects that eat target
it may not be acceptable. pests. Biological rnsecticides, dedved from
• By allowing a pest population to survive naturally occurring microorgarusms
at a reasonable threshold, selection (e.g., Bt, entomopa-thogenic fungi and
pressure is reduced. This stops the pest entomo- pathogenic nematodes).
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Animal Husbandry
The rearing of animals for specific • Mebsana It is found ill Mehsana, Sabar
purposes is called domestication and Kantha, Palanpur and Banaskatha. It
such animals are called domestic gives 8-9 L milk per day. 8-13% fat is
animals. Domestication of animals present in its milk. l t is considered as a
started during the hunting and gathering hybLid of Murrah and Surti breeds.
phase of h unJan civilisation. • Surti lt found in Gujarnt, South-West
part, Anand, Nadia.cl and Vadodara. It
BUFFALOES gives on an average 1 700 L milk per year.
Bubahls bubalis is its scientific nanJe. 8-12% fat is available in its milk.
Generally, it is assumed that India 1s place • Nagprn·i or Ellichpuri lt found ill
of its origin. There are two types breeds of Nagpm, A.kola and Am.rav,,ati. It gives on
buffaloes an average 1000-1200 L milk per year.
7-8% fat is present ill its rniJk.
Exotic or Marshy • Tarai It found in Tarai belt of Ranmagar,
These are generally found in Myanmar, Tanakpm. lt gives about 900-1200 L milk
Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, in a year.
Singapore, Indonesia, China. These are • Manda It found in the boundary of
used for cart mainly. Its breeds are Mondosa and Parlakimedi mountain.
Jerangi, Kuhzestani, Ongole, Sinhala, Male 1s used for carrying heavy loads.
Manofi, Suinue and Walede .
• Toda l t found on the Nilgiri moun ta.in ill
Aquatic or Indian Tamil Na.du. It gives about 4-8 L milk per
day.
These are heavy or light weighted and
generally preferred to stay in wa ter. It has
low heat-tolerancce capacity.
cows
Scientific name of cow is Bos indicus and
These are again categorised into two types Bos tam-us. In India, 30 varieties of cows are
Heavy Weight Buffaloes present. Rearing of CO\'I' and bull is preferred
in India. 16% of the world cow and bull are
It includes three breeds present in lnrua.
• Ja.IT.rabadi Its place of origin 1s
supposed to be at Junagarh, Ku tch and Varieties of Cows
Janmagar of Gujarat. l t gives 15-18 L Some varieties of cows are as follows
milk per day. Its milk contains 7-9% fat.
Humped Indian Breeds
• Munah It found generally in Punjab,
Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Uttar These are high milk-yielding and their calves
are not used for agdcultmal pmposes.
Pradesh etc. l t generally gives about 25 L
milk per day. Follo7.uing are its iniportant breeds
• Nm Ravi It 1s found mainly in Sahiwal Actually found in Mont- Gomari
Ferozpur of Punjab. Horns are small, in Pakistan . In India, it 1s found in Punjab,
, 1vhite spots on mouth and head. Gives
Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
on an average 1500-1800 L milk per Bihar. It gives around 2150 L milk in a year.
year. 4-6% is content offat in its milk.
Red Sindhi Found in Allahabad,
Light Weight Bufffaloes Guwahati, Bengalurn. It gives around 5440
It in cludes following breeds L milk in a year.
Gir Generally found in J unagarh,
• Bhadawari lt is generally found in Kathfawad, Mumbai, PwJe, Ahmedabad,
Etawah, Agra, Gwalior and SlllTOWJding Hyderabad . Oxen are very strong. It gives
areas. Rt gives 4.5 Lmilkper day. 12-14% 1746 L milk on an average. Fat content is
fat is found in its milk. Male buffaloes 4-5% in its milk.
are used as load carrying cattle.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
Deoni SinJjJ ar to Gir breed. It gives
1600-1650 L milk in a year. Fat content is
4-5% in its milk.
Dual Purpose Breeds
These breeds give more milk along with its
calf is vet)' useful in ploughing. Foll01.uing are
its breeds
• Haryana It foWJd in Robtak, Hai)'ana. It
give 1000-11 00 L milk in a year. Maximum
milk yielding capacity is 3178 kg/yr CaJf is
best for ploughing activities.
• N imari It mainly foWJd in Khai·gaWJ.
Oxen are vet)' sb.-ong.
• Tbarparkar It mainly foWJ d in Kutch ,
Mai·wai· an d in Northern Mum bai. It is also
known as Thaii . Its average milk yielding
capacity is 14 7 4 kg.
Load Carrying Breeds
• Nageri Main place of 01igin js believed to
be Rajasthan. Nov,, max:inJum foWJd in
Hai)'ana, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.
Fanrnus for fast walk and heavy load.
• MaJvi Main place of migin is Uttar
Pradesh, now also foun d in Madhya
Pradesh and in Rajasthan.
• AmritmabaJ It foun d in Mysore of
Kai·nataka. These breeds are fast run ning
and quick.
• Gangatil·i Main place of origin is Uttar
Pradesh. These are vet)' useful for
agricultural practices.
• Siri It basically a hilly breed . FoWJd in
Dai~jeeling and Sikkim. Used in cai-rying
h eavy loads .
Without Humped Cows
(Exotic Breeds)
Mille Yielding Breeds
• Jersey Its colour js almond and body is,
spotted, milk yielding capadty js 4500 L per
yeai· 5% fat content in its milk.
• Brown Swiss It mainly foun d in
Switzerland. It gives 5200 L milk in a yeai·.
Fat content js 4%.
e
SHEEP
There are many breeds of sheep (Ovis
wries) in our country. Today sheeps are
raised in all pai·ts of the world . Sheep
provides us with wool, sldn and mutton .
A sheep lives for about 13 yeai·s.
Exotic Breeds of Sheep
• Merino TWs js the main
representative of the Me1ino breed in
Australia an d is foWJd in extremely
high number throughout New South
Wales, Queensland, Victmia and
Western Australia .
• South Devon The South Devon js a
lon£\vool and meat breed which
t,:,
originated in South Devon and
Cornwall in England. They are of the
English Longwool type and ai--e sinmai·
to Devon Longwoolled but ai·e lai·ger.
Both sexes are polled and are naturally
h ornless.
• Lincoln It js foWJd in England and it
js usefuJ for , 1vool and meat.
• CorriedaJe It js mainly foWJd in New
Zealand and Australia. It is useful for
, 1vool and meat.
• Romney Marshy The Romney
Marshy are found in England.
Romney wool has the finest fibre
dianJeter of all the longwool breeds.
These are mainly used for ,,vool
production.
Shearing ofWool
It is essential to promote the health of
sheep. The removal of hairs (wool) from
the recommended peliods for shearing
of wool are winter (Februai-y-March) and
rainy (August- September) season ,,vhen
Iich grazing groWJd js available.
The sheeps ai·e washed properly before
the removal of hairs. The manufacture
of wool from sheep hairs js a
complicated process consisting of
cleaning, ch-ying, bleaching, dyeing,
spining and twisting.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

GOAT PIGS
There are many breeds of goat (Capra • It is also called hog or swine and is an
capra) in our countT}'- Goat provide us omnivorous, non-ruminan t, gregarious
milk, meat, skin and hair. The fine soft mammal of genus Sus_
wool called Pashmina is the underfur of • All breeds of pigs have descended from the
Kashmir and Tibet goats. Eurnpean wild boar SZ£s scrofa or a
crossbreed of trus and the Asiatic species,
Noori S_ indi cus_ The care and management of
World's first Pashmina goat clone, pigs is called piggery
produced in Kashmir h as been named • Pigs a1·e the most prolific breeders and
Nood and Arabic word referring to light. quick gro,111ers among the domestic aninJals.
Funded by world bank, the clone project
• A group of 10 sows (female h og) and one
,,,.,as a jointy worked on Skaust and Nari
boar may produce over 160 piglets in a year.
Kamal.
The clone h as come as good news for • Pigs are most usefuJ domestic animals,
fine fibre producing Pashmin a goats, especially of lower classes of society. They
which are only spotted at an altitude of are most economical sow·ce of meat and
14,000 feet in Ladakh. animal fat.
Breeds of Pig
Asom H illy Breeds
These are smaller dwarf breeds of goats __o_m_e_s_u_·o_a_te_d__D_is_m
D _·b_u_ti_
o_n_______
found in the hilly tract of Asom and Indigenous Pigs
other Easte1·n states. _G_h_o-ri- - - - -M
- an- i-pu_r_,-A-so_m
_,M
_ _e_g -ha- 1-ay_a_ _
and Arunachal Pradesh
Important Breeds of
Desi Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab
Indian Goats and Madhya Pradesh
Breeds Distribution Exotic Pigs
Gaddi and Himachal Pradesh Landraoe Switzerland and Denmark
Chamba
Large White UK
Ka shmiri and Himachal Pradesh , Yorkshire
Pashmina Kashmir and Tibet
Berkshire UK
Jamunapari Uttar Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh
Beetal Punjab CAMELS
Marwari Aaj asthan The canrnl is a large, h orn less, ru.minan t
Berari Maharashtra
maJJJmal of genus Camelus_ lt is popuJ arly
called the sbjp of the desert because of its
Malabari Ke rala
great travelling power in a desert.
Bengal Bihar and Odisha It is a valuable beast carrying bmden in hot
desert and semi-desert regions as it can live on
Exotic Breeds of Goat minimum food and water when travelling with
Exotic breeds of Goats are load. The re are two types of camels
• Saa.hen • Alpine 1. Arabian camels (Camelus dromedarius)
With a single hump, short h air and found
• Nubian • Angora
in North Africa to India. It does not occur
• Boer • Mubende
in wild form .
• Sudan Nubian • Kambing
2_ Tw·k.ish or Bactrian camels (Camelus
Katjang bactrianus) With two humps, long h air
• Toggenbmg • Khursani and found in Gobi desert of Central Asia.
• Baluchi • Anglo Nubian It occurs in ,,.rild form also.
 I COMPUTER I

INTRODUCTION AJan Matbjson Tw-ing is widely regarded as

The ,,vord computer h as been derived from the Father of Modern Com puters or Father
the Latin word 'COMPUTARE', whkh of theortical com puter science and Artificial
means to compute or to calcuJate. In telligence (Al) .
A computer can be defined as an Characteristics of Computer
electronic device used to calculate and
manipulate the data (i.e. input) and • Speed • Accuracy
generates an output in the form of usefuJ • Diligence • Versatility
information by following a set of
procedural instructions. Applications of Computer
Blitish scientist Charles Babbage is • Education
considered as the Father of Computer. • Hospitals
He invented the first mechanical • Business
computer in early 19th century and
• Weather forecasting
further in 1833, he conceived a automatic
analytical engine for performing • Entertainment
arithmetic functions. • Organisations

Generations of Computer
The history of com puters is discussed in terms of different generations of computer.
Generation Technology Features Processing Examples Languages
Used Speed
First Vaouum ■ Magnetic drum for Measured in Mark-I, Machine
(1940-1966) Tubes primary storage miliseoonds UNIVAC, language
or Valves ■ Punoh card used as ENIAC
seoonda~ storage
Seoond Transistor ■ Magnet oore memory Measured in IBM-700, Assembly
(1966-1963) used as internal storage mioroseconds IBM 1401 language
■ Magnet tapes used as and HLL
seoondary storage (FORTRAN,
COBOL)
Third IC ■ Semiconductor memory Measured in IBM360 HLL
(1964-1971) (Integrated used as primary storage nanoseconds series, (SNOBOL,
Circuit) ■ Magnetic disks were ICL 1901 BASIC)
used as secondary
stora e
Fourth VLSI or ■ Massive use of Measured in IBMPC, HLL
(1971- Mioroprocess magnetic and optical piooseconds Pentium (ORACLE ,
Present) storage devices and beyond. PC, APPLE, EDA)
Maointosh .
Fifth Bio-chips ■ Artiiioial intelligenoe will Very high Robotics Natural
(Present & &ULSI make computer speed Language
Beyond) intelligent and
knowledge based
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Types of Computer • Mini Computers TWs type of computers are

more powerful than mjcro computers, but
Computer can be classified on thrne less powerful than mainframe computers.
basis They a.1.--e also termed as mjd-range computers.
On the Basis of Functions lt is a m ultiprocessing system capable of
supporting 4 to about 200 users
• A..nalog Computers TWs js a type simuJtaneously. e.g. IBM mjd range
of computer that reads data using computers, K-202, SDS-92 etc.
measw:em ent and some program • Mainframe Computers It is a vet}' la.1.·ge
scale. It calcuJ ates by measwing computer an d is used for h andling major
continuous changes in the physical applications in la.1.·ge business organjsations.
quantities. e.g. Mechanical They can also be used as cenb.'alised
integrators, nom ogram , computers ,,.rith several terminal users
speedometer etc. connected to it. They can contain la.1.·ge
• Digital Computers Thjs is a databases an d are also known as super
computer that performs calculations servers.
and logical operations ,,.rith They can h andle huge an1ount of
quantities represen ted as bin a.1.1' input/output (1/0) operations at the san1e
mgits. e.g. Desktop, mainframe etc. time. They are very expensive. e.g. Fujitsu's
• Hybrid Computers These ICL VME, Hitachi's Z800 etc.
computers are the combination of • Super Computers lt can be defined as the
both analog and mgital computers. It most powed'ul computer in terms of
works by measw:ing quantity and performance and storage capacity. They are
caJcuJating logical operations. e.g. highly expensive and a.1.·e employed for
ECG morn tors, HPLS-100 etc. specialised applications such as for weather
forecasting, several scientific resea.1.·ches etc.
On the Basis of Pml)oses NASA (National Aeronautics for Space
• General Prn·pose Computers TWs AdmirustTation) uses super computers for
type of com puters ~ue designed in laun ching space shuttles, controlling them
order to ,11,ocl<. in all environments. and for space e>...-ploration purpose.
They are versatile com puters but a.1.·e PARAM js the fhst super computer in ln ma. It
not efficient and also consume a is a sedes of giga:flops developed by the Cenrre
large amount of time in generating of Development of Advanced Computing
the results. e.g. ENIAC, desktops (C-DAC), Pune.
etc. Super Computers Developed in India
• Special Prn·pose Computers They Super Year MftCompany
a.1.·e designed to perform only a Computers
specified task. They are not versatile
Param Anant 2022 IIT, Gandhinagar
and their speed and size depends on
Param Siddhi 2020 C-DAC, Pune
the task. They are efficien t an d
Param Shivay 2019 IIT. BHU
consume less time in generating
Pra~ush 2017 IITM , Pune
resuJ ts . e.g. ATM, aircraft controllers
PARAM 2016 C-DAC and NIT
etc. Kanchenjunga Sikkim
PARAM ISHAN 2016 C-DAC and IIT
On the Basis of Size and Guwahati
Capability Aaditya 2013 Indian Institute of
• Micro Computers It is a mgital Tropical Meteorology
computer used by inmviduals and is PARAM YUVA II 2013 C-DAC, Pune
also considered as an acronym for SAGA-220 2011 ISRO
Personal Computers (PCs). They are ANUPAM-Adh~a 2010-11 BARC
small in size. They are usu ally used PARAM YUVA 2008 C-DAC, Pune
at h omes, m schools and offices etc. EKA 2007 Compu1ational
Research
e.g. Laptop, Palmtop, Notebook, Laboratories, Pune
Desktop etc. PARAM SARITA 2007 C-DAC, Pune
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Top 10 Super Computers of World

0
Name Manufactured Country Operating Memory Speed
Company Sys/em
Fronlier Hewlett Packard USA HPECrayOS
Enterprise Front ier
Fugal<u Ja~an Linux
Frontera Texas Adva noed Americ a Linux
Comp uting Oentre
IBM Summit Amer ic a IBM
Sunway Taihu Light Nalional Super China Linux 1_31 PB 105 Peta flops
(20 '16) computing oenter
Tlanhe-2 (20 13) Sun Yat-Sen Chin a Ky lin Lin ux 1,375 TB 33 .86 Petaflops
University
Titan (2012) Oal< Ridge National Americ a Linux 693_5 TB 17.59 Petaflops
Laborato~ (Cra'i)
Seguoia (20 11 ) IBM America Linux 1,572,864 GB 12 Petaflops
K-oomputer (20 11 ) Fujiler Japan Linux 1,4'I0,048GB 10.5 Peta flops
Mira (20'10) IBM America Linux 8.16 Petaflo~s
Plz Diant (2009} Cra'i INC Switze rland Linux 6.2 Petaflo~s
Stampede (2008) Dell Amer ic a Linux 192,192 GB 5.2 Petaflops
JU Queen (2007} IBM German~ Linux 468,752 GB 5 Petaflo~s
VULCAN (2006) IBM America Linux 393,2'16 GB 4.3 Petaflo~s

Components of Computer 2. Output Unit

The computer system compdses of the
follmving four main components
1. Input Unit
It consists of those devices through which
user can enter the data into a computer. l t
links a computer to the external
environment. It translates the data in to
computers understan dable form. Some input
devices are
• Keyboard is used to enter data or
information, v, ruch may be in numeric
1 two plates. It is a chin, flat and light
form or alphabetical form, in a computer
system.
• Mouse is a pointing device , 1vhich provides
a means to input data and commands in
graphic form by selecting thrnugh moving
an arrow called pointer.
• Trackball 1s another pointing device which
1s an alternative to a mouse.
• Joystick is an input device that moves in all
directions and controls the movement of
the Clll'SOr.
• Scanner is an optical input device and
uses hght as an input source to convert an
jmage into an electronic form that can be
stored on the computer.
• Touch Screen is an electronic visual
display that can detect the presence and
location ofa touch , 1vitrun the display area.
Trus llll]t contains those devices that
provide the desired output (results) in
the human acceptable format.
Some output devices are
• Moni tor 1s also ]mown as V1sual Display
Unit (VDU). The monitor 1s provided
along with the computer to view the
display result. The popular types of
monitor are
• LCD (Llqwd Crystal Display), a specjal
type of liqwd is sandwiched between
weight sc1'een made up of any number
of colour or monochrome pLxels
a..l'ranged in from of a light source.
• LED (Liqwd/ Light Emjtted Diode) 1s
an electronic device t.bat emits light
when electrical currem is passed
r.hrnugh iL
• TFT (fhin Film TI·ansisrnr) is a LCD
wit.b acdve-man'ix rnsplays, each pixel
1s cono·oUed by one to four D.'ansislors
that can make t.be screen faste1~
brighte r, more colotluJ t.ban
passive-man•ix and capable of being
viewed at differem angles.
• 3-D .Monjtors desc11be an image t.bat
provides the perception of length_
When 3-D 1mages are made inr.eracdve
t.ben user feel imrolved Virit.b t.be scene,
and t_bjs e.Kperjence is called virtual
reality_
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science
• Printer prints information and data
from the computer onto a paper. It can
print documents in colour as well as in
black and wm te.
• Plotter js a special kind of output
channel, W<.e a printer, that produces
:images on paper. They are mainly used
to produce large clra\i\rings or inJages.
• Speaker is an output device that
receives sound in the form of elecbjc
cunen t. It needs a sound card
connected to a CPU, that generates
sound.
3. CPU (Cenh·al Processing
Unit)
CPU js considered as the 'Brain of
Computer'. It js responsible for all the
man:ipulations and processing of the
data provided to the computer. It is
further categorised basically into two
main components
• Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) Tms
un_j t performs both arithmetical and
logical operations. Aiithmetic opera-
tions mvolves addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division etc and the
logical operations involves AND, OR,
NOT, NOR, NAND etc.
• Control UnH (CU) It js an :important
part that insb-uc ts, maintains and
conb·ols the flow of information but
does not store the data. It tells the
memory, ALU and 1/0 devices that
hm11• they have to respond to the
program's insb7..lctions.
4. Mem ory Unit
This unit stores the data and
insb.·uctions, intermediate :results or the
processed data and thus, provides the
:relevant mformation v,•henever :required
by the other unHs of computer.
It consists of two types
• Primary Memory It is considered to
be the main memory of computer that
stores the data , 1vh.icb js currently in
use by the computer.
Types of Pdmary Memory:
• RAM (Random Access Memmy) is a
volatile mernmy, which losses me data
when the power gets switched OF£
There are basically two types of RAM:
Static RAM and Dynam.ic RAM.
• ROM (Read Only .M emmy) 1s a non-
volatile memory, which retains the data even
when the power gels svviLched OF£
Program and data that caiJnot be altered are
stored in ROM. There are basically three
types of ROM: Programmable ROM(PROM),
Erasable PROM(EPROM) and Electrically
EPROM(EEPROM).
• Secondary Memory The computer sys tem
uses secondary memory to store data,
program msb.7..lction and information. It
stores the data permanently. User can
access or :rerneve the data , 1vhenever
required. Types of Secondary Memory:
• Magnetic Tape (sequential access)
• Magnetic Disk (Floppy rnsk, Hard Disk)
• Optical Disc (CD, DVD, Blu-ray Disc)
• Solid State drive (Flash c:lrlve, SD cards)
Cache Memory
It is a type of memory used to hold the frequently
used data_ It acts as a buffer between the CPU
and the main memory_ It consumes less access
time as compared to main memory and thus, is
used to match up the speed of fast running
processor.
Registers
These are defined as the special memory units
used by the CPU to speed up the rate of accessing
information_ There are some special type of
registers used for specific work_
e_g_ Program Counter (PC) is used to hold the
address of the next instruction for e><ecution.
Some other examples are Accu mulator, Memory
Buffer Register (MBA), Instruction Register OR) etc.
Hardware
It can be de.fined as the physical components
of a computer i.e. the parts that can be seen
and touched.
The fom main categodes of hardware are
• Input devices e.g. keyboard, mouse etc.
• Output devices e.g. pdnter, monitor etc.
• Storage devices e.g. hard disk, floppy disk etc.
• Processing devices e.g. CPU etc.
Software
The term software can be defined as the set of
programs and procedurns that enable a
computer to perform a specific task or to
process the information. Software can be
classified m to thrne types:
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

System Software Programming Language

It is a set of one or more programs designed
to control the operations of a computer
system inducting hardware components
and implementations of apphcation
software.
Types of System Software are
• Operating System lt is a sys tem
sofuvare, consisting of an integrated set
of programs that controls computer
resomces (CPU, memory, 1/0 devices,
etc) and provides common services for
efficient execution of various apphcation
sofuvare.
• Language Translator It helps in
converting programming languages to
machine language . There are three kinds
of language translator
+ _i\ssembler lt convel."Ls program wrilLen in
assembly language imo machine
language.
+ Interpreter It con vert.s a high level
language into machme language by
converting il line by line.
+ Complier h also comrerls high level
language program imo madJme language
al one go_
Utility Software
It is a type of system software, which js used
to support, secure an d enhance the existing
programs and data in the computer system_
It is also used to debug the sofuvare errors.
e.g. antivi.rus software, backup software etc.
It is a set of keywords, symbols and a system
of rules for constructing statements, by which
human can communicate, to be executed by a
computer_
Programmi ng languages are mainly
categorised into two parts:
Low Level Languages These languages
are designed to operate and handle the entire
hardware and instruction set architecture of a
computer system directly_ It is divided into
two parts:
• Machine language, referred to as machi ne
code or object code, is a collection of binary
digits or bits that the computer reads and
interprets.
• Assembly language uses structured
commands as substi tutions for numbers,
allowing humans to read the code easier_
High Level Languages These languages
are not limited by the computer, designed for
a specific task and are easier to read, write
and understand. e_g_ BASIC, C, FORTRAN,
JAVA etc_
Application Software
It is a set of one or more programs
designed to carry out operations for a
specific apphcation. It cannot run on
itself, but it is dependent on system
sofuvare to get executed. It js wiitten in
high level language .

Applioation Software What Does It Do? Examples

Word Prooessor Virtually all personal oomputers are Miorosoft Word,
equipped with a word-processing program, WordPerfect
which has the same function as a type-writer
for wri1ing letters, reports or other
doouments and printing s_
Spreadsheet A table containing text and figures, which is Miorosoft Exoel,
used to perform caloulations_ Spreadsheets Lotus 1-2-3
are usually used for budgets, statistics and
so on_
Database Management Used for storing information, e.g _the nam es Miorosoft SOL Server,
System and addresses of the olients_ Oracle
Aocounting Program They generate extensive iinanoial reports, Tally (all versions)
produoe invoioes and statements to
customers, handle accounts payable and
receivable , print payroll checks and payroll
rep orts and track inventories_
Presentation Tool To create presentations by allowing one to Miorosoft PowerPoint
produoe slides or handouts.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Applioation Software What Does It Do? Examples

Desktop Publishing For creating magazines, newsletters , books QuarkXPress,
and so on. Adobe Pagemaker
Multimedia Application Used for creating multimedia presentations. Dreamweaver, Flash,
e.g. Websites , animations and videos. Premier
Telecommunication A program that helps a user to connect and Dial-up Networking,
Software transfer information and iiles to and from the Open Transport
Internet. It is often a part of operating system
or system software.

NE1WORKING
Computer netvvorking relates to the
conID1llillcation between a group of two or
more computers linked together. When we
conID1llillcate on a network, we share
information or data through a 10 Jan or we can say within a san1e
COilJil1llillCation mernum . E-mailing,
instant messaging and web pages all are
dependent on comm llillcation that take
place across an underlying computer
netv1rork.
Benefits of Networking
• Data and Fill sharing
• Software shaiing
• Hardware sharing
• Reliability
Network Devices
These are required to amplyfy the signal to
restore the odginal strength of signal and to
provide an in terface to connect multiple
computers in a network. Many types of
Network Devices
• Repeater is a device that amplifies the
signals \1\ hen they are transported over a
1
long rnstance so that the signal can be as
sb:ong as the miginal signal .
• Hub is like a repeater with m ul tiple ports
used to connect the network channels.
• Gateway is an interconnecting device,
which joins two dillerent network
protocols together.
• Switch forwards a data packet to a
specific route by establishing a temporary
connection behveen the sow·ce and the
destination.
• Bridge reduces the amoWJt of b.'a:ffic on a
LAN by rnvirnng it into two segn1ents.
• Modem is a device that converts rngital
signal to analog signal and vice-versa.
Types of Computer Network
• Local Area Network (LAN) In this,
computers can be connected with a
geographical ai·ea spread over I km to
builrnng. All the terminals are
connected to a main computer calJed
server.
• Mefropolitan Area Network (MAN) It
is a data nehl\rork designed for a town or
city. Its main pmpose is to share
hardware and software resow·ces among
the valious users.
• Wlde Area Network (WAN) In this,
the computers are farther apart and are
connected by rarnowaves. Such a
nehvork may spread over counb.ies.
Communication Media
Communkation merna of a nehvod<. refer
to the □·ansm.ission media or the
connecting media used in the nehvodc
Transmission merna can be rnvided in to
hl\ro broad categmies; guided and
unguided merna.
• Gu.ided Media or Wired Technologies
It consists of a cable composed of metals
like copper, tin or silver. BasicalJy, these
are divided into thrne categmies
• Elhel'Ilet Cable or Twisted Pair A
[ype of cable chat consisls of cwo
independent..ly insulaled wires L\\lis ted
around one a.nor.her. The use of [WO
wiJ:es rndsted Lager.her helps to reduce
crosstalk and electromagnetic
induction .
• CoaxiaJ Cable A type of wiJ'e that
consisls of a center wiJ:e swToUJJded by
insulation and then a grounded shield of
braided wiJ:e_ The shieJd minimizes
electrical and radio frequency
inLerference.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• Fibe1·-0ptic Cable A type of 'Ni.re that Network Inte1face Card (NIC)

comaining one or more optical fibers that
are used Lo car.ry llghL The optical fiber
elements are typically individually coaled
with plastic layers and contained in a
proLective rube suirnble for the
environmenL
• Unguided Medja or Wireless
Technologies When the computers in a
network are interconnected and data 1s
transmitted through waves, then they are
said to be connected through unguided
media. Some commonly used unguided
media of t:ransmfasion are
• Radio Wave Transmission There are
It is a hardware component that connects
a computer to a computer network as it
contains the physical address of a
computer. It is also known as network
adaptor.
Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN)
It is the ·world's collection of inter
connected voice oriented public
telephone networks. It provides landline
phone service to residence and many
other establishments. Thats \"i hy :is also
1

two principal ways in which referred as Plain Old Telephone Service

elect..romagnetic (radio) energy D'.avels (POTS).
from a CTansmiLdng amenna rn a receiving
amenna. One way is by GROUND WAVES Value Added Network (VAN)
that are radio waves that traveJ near the
sur.face of the Earth (surface and space It provides Elecb:onic Data Interchange
waves) and the other is by SKY WAVES that (EDI) facility. It acts as a region al post
are radio waves that are reflecLed bac k to office that exan:rines the from and to
Earth from the ionosphere. information. It subscribes services lili.e
• M.icrnwave Transmission It is the invoices sale purchase order etc.
n·ansmjssion of information or energy by
elect..romagnetic waves whose wavelengths lntegTat ed Service
are convenjenrJy measured in small Digital Network (ISDN)
numbers of cenlimeLer; these are called
mjcrov11aves. It 1s a set of commw:tication standards for
digital b:ansnrission of voice, videos and
• Satellite Communication It provides
communication links beLv1 een vaiious other data services. It combines both
1

points on Earth. It covers a vast range of circwt switching and packet switching for
area. It is very usefuJ in television the purpose of transmjtting data.
n·ansmission.
• Infra.red Wave Transmission lt refers to
Firewall
energy in the region of the electromagnetic It :is a combination of both software and
radiation specD'.urn at wavelengths longer hardware based devices to permit or deny
than those of visible light, but shm'ler than netwod{ transmission based on a set of
those of radio. rules. It :is frequently used to protect
• Bluetooth It is a wireless Lecbnology network from unauthmised access while
standard for exchanging darn over short permitting legitimate communication to
disLances from fixed and mobile devices pass.
and to creaLe a Personal Area Networks
(PANs).
INTERNET
Network Related Terms Internet is defined as network of
Topology netwodcs that consists of millions of
plivate and public computer neh"i1orlcs
It 1s defined as the way in which several
linked together and sharing information
nodes of the network are linked together. It using client server relationship. Data is
represents the physical path between the
shared by packet switching thrnugh
connected nodes. e.g. Bus, Ring, Star, Tree, standardised Internet Protocol Suite
Mesh etc.
(TCP/IP).
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Important Protocols Used Web Server

over Internet
HyperText Transfer Protocol
(HTTP)
It 1s a set ofruJes for transntitting files such
as text, lillages, sound, videos etc, on the
World Wide Web 0NWW). As soon as a web
user opens the web browser, the user js
indirectly making use of HTTP Its plirnary
function is to establish a connection with
the server.
lt is a program that serves the files to the
web user with the use of client server
model approach and VI/VVVV's http. It
contains the web pages corresponding to
the website available on the Internet.
Client Server
lt is a network architecture which
separates the client from the server. Each
instance of the cl:ien t softvvare can send
request to server.

Transmission Conb~ol Protocol/ Webpage

lt is a resource on WWW, usually \i\'litten in
Internet Protocol (TCP /IP) HTML/XHTML with hypertext links that
It js a combination of two separate enable navigation from one page to
protocols TCP and IP, which are used another.
together. TCP ensmes the reliability of data
transntission across the Internet Website
connected neh1vorks while IP ensw·es hov,, lt js a collection of web pages, grouped
packets of information are sent out over un der a same domain name on the WWW
neh'l1orks. or In tern et.
Point to Point Protocol (PPP) Web Browser
It is clial account which puts the computer lt is an application sofuvare that runs over
directly on the Internet. Using this protocol the client computer connect it with the
each computer on the server has its own server or to access the In tern et and the
name and IP address. VI/VVW. e.g. Opera, internet Explore1~
Mozilla Firefox etc.
File Transfer Protocol (FfP)
It js a type of transfer protocol that enables Uniform_Resource Locator
the user to transfer their files from one (URL)
computer to another in a nehvork Web address is a synonym for URL. lt is
environment and develop a basically a string of characters or an
communkation. e.g. E-mails etc. addressing scheme used by WWW
browsers to locate sites on the Internet. e.g.
Telnet http://wwv,,.google.com/services/index.htm
It is a network protocol that allows a user
on one computer to log into another DomainName
computer that js part of the same network. lt is a way to identify and locate computers
It js an underlying TCP/IP protocol for connected to the internet. It always have
accessing remote computers. hvo or more parts, separated by dots(.). e.g.
google.com, yahoo.com etc.
Terminology Related to
Internet Wireless Application
Protocol (WAP)
World Wide Web (WWW) WAP is a technical standard for accessing
It js a collection of connected documents by information over a mobile wireless
hypertext links, enabling the user to search nehvodc A WAP browser is a web browser
for information by moving from one used by the mobile devices that are based
document to another; usually accessed by on this protocol.
web browsers via In tern et.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

IP Address
Along with the physical address stored in NICs, In ternet requires and additional
addressing that identifies the connection of a host to its net.wade which js known as the IP
address. No h'l'0 hos ts on the Internet can h ave the same IP address. Each IP address
consjsts of 4 bytes i.e. 32 bits defining 3 fields: Class, Network ID and Host ID .

Internet Service Provider (ISP)

It js an organisation that provides the Internet connection services to the people, who
want to used Internet.

Communication through Internet

E-mail (Electr onic Mail)
It is a service provided by the Internet that allows the exchange of digital messages
thrnugh a nehvodc It provides a communication medium thrnugh which people can
conJIDunicate \"irith each other.

Instant Messaging
There are several applications (apps) prmrided for instant messaging such as Viber,
WeChat, Line, \i\!hatsApp etc. Among all, \i\!batsApp is considered to be the most globally
popular messaging app. It was bought by fucebook in 20 14. The messengers ,He only
available for Android, Black berry, iOS and Windows phone mobile operating system.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
The migin of wireless communication goes back to 1896, when Marcom invented the
\l\rireless telegraphy. Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a
di.stance ,vithout the use of electrical conductors or wires. The distance involed may be
short or long. e.g. GPS unHs, wireless computer mice, keyboards and headsets, satellite
telev1sion etc.

Generations of Wireless Communication

IG (The First Generation)
It js a \'lrireless telephone technology and mobile telecommunication introduced in 1980s.
1G networks use analog signals as opposed to digi tal signals used by all the successive
generations. In thjs, voice calls were generally modulated to a higher frequency typically
150 MHz and up.

2G (The Second Generation)

It was conJIDerdally launched for the GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)
standard in 1991 by Radiolinja in Finland. It was allowed for enhanced data services and
also introduced the Short Messaging Services (SMSs).

3G (The Third Generation)

It was introduced by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in 2001. Its data transfer rates aTe 384 K
bi t/sec to 2M bi ts/sec. So, it allows for never before services like video calls, video
conferencmg, mobile, TV etc.

4G (The Fornth Generation)

TeliaSonera was the first operator in the world to commerdally launch 4G in late 2009 in
the City Centre of Stockholm and Oslo and a year later it was launched in FinJand.
Bharti Airtel had launched 4G on mobiles in Bangalore, thus becommg the first in India
to offer such a service on 14th February 2014.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

5G (The Fifth Generation)

It is a successor for 4G. It is a term used in some research papers and projects to denote
the next major phase. 5G Services in Inrna were formally launched on 1st October 2022,
at the 6th eclition of Inclian Mobile Congress.

Security Threats
Phisbing
It is charncterised by the attempts to frauduJently acquire sensitive information such as
passv1rords, credit card detaiJs etc. by masquerading as a rr·ustv1rorthy person.

Inbuders
The attacker who , 1vouJd constantly find their way for breaJdng and entering in to a
secured system to access confidential or users information are called inb.·uders.

Virus
It is defined as a program or a piece of code that gets loaded onto the computer ,11rithout
users Jmowledge and replicates itself. Vaiious kinds of virus ai·e Boot sector virus, Macrn
virus, Resident virus, Polymorphic virus, Direct action virus etc.
e.g. Creeper, Stuxnet, Melissa, Con:ficker, Code red, SQL Slammer, Nimda (delived from
the word 'Admin') etc.
• Creeper is generally accep ted to be the first computer vims wlitten by Bob Thomas at
BBN (Bolt Beranak and Newman) in 1971.

Worm
It is a self replicating computer program, similar to a vims. It is a self contained program
and does not need to be a pai-t of another program to propagate itself.

Spam
It is an unsolici ted message sent over the Internet in the form of E-maiJs, to a large
number of users for the purpose of spreading malware, advertising prnshing etc.

Spyware
It is a type of malicious softwai·e instal]ed on computers and collects information about
users ,11rithout their lmowledge and may send such information to another entity. It can
assets control over the computer ,11rithout the consumer's lmowledge.

Malware
A software which is specifically designed to rnsrupt or damage a computer system. It is a
superset of computer viruses, worms, spyware, rr·ojan horses and other malicious or
unwanted softwai·e.

Botnet
It is a number of Internet computers that have been set-up to forward rr·ansm.issions
induding spam and viruses to the other computers on the Internet without the
lmowledge of their owners. It is also lmown as Zombie Army.

Antivirus
It is a softwai·e consisting of computer programs that attempt to identify, detect and
prevent the malware from the computer. It typically uses two different techniques to
accomplish this
• Exannning files to look for lmown viruses by means of a virus rnctionaiJ'.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

• Identifying suspicious behav:iom from any computer program which might indicate
infection.
e.g. Kaspersky, Norton, AVG, Avast, McAfee etc.

Some Famous Personalities

Bill Gates
Bill Gates is an American Business magna te, computer progran1illet, Philanthroprust,
inventor and co-founder of Microsoft (the sofu1vare company) with Paul Allen. He
acquired the posts like CEO, Chairman and Chief Executive Arcrutect. He stepped down
in Febrauary, 2014 and now :is one of the Board of Members of Microsoft.

Steve Jobs
Steve Jobs was an Amelican businessman, inventor and industiial designer and the
co-founder of Apple Inc with Stephen Wozniak. He was the Chairman and CEO of Apple
Inc.

Mark Elliot Zuckerberg

Mark Elliot Zuckerberg js an American computer progranJil1er and Internet
ent:reprenelll· best lmm'l'Il as one of the co-founders of the famous social net.worJdng site
'Facebook'. He is considered as one of the younges t billionaires as on April, 2013. He is
the Chairman and Chief-Executive ofFacebook. Recently facebook bought ,i\!hatsapp (an
instant messenger) by paying$ 19 billion.
Tim Cook
Tim Cook is the CEO of Apple Inc. He has filled the seat of Steve Jobs. He is the decision
maker in a company that has revolu tionized the way humans see and use technology
Tim Berners Lee
Tim Berners Lee also knmvn as Tim BUs a Blitish computer scientist and the inven tor of
the World Wide Web (WVI/V\/). He implemented the fast successfuJ communication
behveen a Hypertext Transfer Protocol client and server via the In ternet.
JanKoum
Jan Koum founded a proprietary, cross-platform ins tant messaging service for
Smart.phones ,vith Bdan Acton, which is called WbatsApp in 2009. It is one of the most
popular mobile messaging application . Jan Koum js the CEO and co-founder of
WhatsApp Incorporation.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Glossary
• Algorithm It is a fin ite set of step-by-step, well defined instructions for accomplishing
desired actions or results.
• Animation It is the optical illusion of motion created by the conseou tive display of images of
static elements _
• Artificial Intelligence It is a branch of science that deals with helping machines fin d
solutions to complex problems in a more human like fashion.
• Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) It is also known as ROM BIOS _It is a consistent way for
application programs and operating system to interact with inpuVouput devices_
• Biometric Device A device used for user au thentication that veriiies some physical
characteristics of a user such as the person's appearance , finger print etc.
• Blu-ray Disc It can be defined as a digital optical disc data storage medium, storing high
definition video resolution. It contajns 25 GB per layer and 50 GB dual layer. It is a plastic
disc with 120 mm diameter and 1 .2 mm thickness, the same size as of DVDs and CDs.
• Camcorder It is a video camera recorder_ It is a portable electronic device capable of
recording live motion video and audio, for later playback.
• Cloud Computing It is a general term for the delivery of hosted services over the Internet
whereby shared resources, softwares and information are provided to computers and
devices as a utility over the network_
• Cookies These are often used to store information on the computer system to track the
browsing pattern on a particular site_
• Cryptography It is a method of storing and transmitting data in a particular coded form so
that only those can read and process it, for whom it is intended. It includes encoding and
decoding of data_
• Firmware It is defined as the program that has been written on to ROM.It cannot be
changed or deleted by an end user_ They are in the non-volatile memory_ Firmware is the
combination of both software and hardware_
• Flow Chart It is the graphical representation formed with specified symbols (fig) and shows
the flow of data, operations performed and the sequence of their execu tion.
• Microprocessor It is the controlling element in a computer system and is sometimes
ref erred to as the chip. e.g. Intel, Dual core, Pentium-IV etc_ Intel 4004 was the first
microprocessor.
• Motherboard The biggest piece of silicon housed in the system unit of a computer is
motherboard. All the other electronic devices and circuits of compu ter system are attached
to this board like, processor, ROM , RAM , expansion slots and USB ports. It also includes
controllers for devices like the hard drive, keyboard and mouse.
• Multimedia It refers to the use of several medias such as text, audio, graphics, video etc, to
convey information_It simply means, being able to communicate in more than one way_
• Robot It is a system that contains sensors , control systems, manipulators, power supplies
and software all working together to perform a task_
• Robotics It is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction,
operation, structural disposition, manufacture and application of robots and computer
systems for their control , sensury feedback and information processing_
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Abbreviations
ANSI American National Standard Institute
ALGOL Algori thmic Language
ASCII American Standard Code for Information lnterohange
AR PANET Advanoed Researoh Projects Agency Network
BASIC Beginner's All Purposes Symbolic Instruction Code
BIOS Basic Input Output System
BPS Bits Per Second
CAD Computer Aided Design
CGI Common Gateway lnterf aoe
COBOL Common Business Oriented Language
DSL Digital Subsoriber Lines/Domain-Speoiiic Language
ENIAC Eleotronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
EDI Eleotronic Data lnterohange
FAX Far Away Xerox
FORTRAN Formula Translation
GPS Global Positioning System
GIF Graphic Interchange Format
IBM International Business Maohine
ISDN Integrated Servioes Digital Network
LI PS List Processing
MICA Magnetic Ink Character Reoognition
MMS Multimedia Messaging Service
MODEM MODulator DEModulator
MIDI Musical Instrument Digital lnterf aoe
NICNET National Information Centre Network
OMR Optical Mark Reader
OOP Object Oriented Program ming
RISC Reduoed Instruction Set Computer
SNOBOL String Oriented Symbolic Language
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protoool
SOL Structured Query Language
TOMA Time Division Multiple Aooess
TRAI Teleoom Regulatory Authority of India
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
USB Universal Serial Bus
WiMAX World Wide Interoperability for Microwave Access
Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
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 GENERAL
KNOWLEDGE
First in World (Male)
First Seoretary-General of Uniied Nations Trygve Lie (Norway)
First President of Uni1ed Stales of America George Washington
First President of the Republic of China Dr Sun Yat Sen (1912)
First Prime Minister of Great Bri1ain Robert Walpole (1715)
Pakis tan's first Governor-General Mohammed Ali Jinnah
First Ethnic-Indian Prime Min ister of Fiji Mahendra Choudhary
First American President to visit India Dwight David Eisenhower
First Russian (Soviet) Prime Minister to visit India Nikolai Bulganin
First European invader of Indian soil Alei<ander The Great
First man to go into space Major Yu ri Gagarin (USSR)
First man to walk in spaoe Alei<ey Leonov (Russia)
First space iourist Dennis Tito (USA)
First man to set foot on the Moon Neil Armstrong (USA)
First man to fly an aeroplane Wright Brothers
First man to reaoh North pole Robert Peary
First man to reaoh South pole Roald Amundsen
First man to olimb Mount Everest Sherpa Tenzing Norgay and Sir
Edmund Hillary (29th May, 1953)
First man to olimb Mount Everest twioe Nawang Gombu (1965)
First blind man to scale Mount Everest Erik Weihenmayer (25th May, 2001)
First person to sail around the world Ferdinand Magellan
First deaf and dumb to oross the Strait of Gibralter Taranath Shenoy (India)
First European to vi sit China Maroa Polo
First man to draw the map of Earth Anaximander
First man to compile encyolopaedia Aspheosis (Athens)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Literature Sully Prudhomme (Franoe)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Peaoe Henry Dunant (Switzerland}
and Frederic Passy (Franoe)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Physics WK Roentgen (Germany)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Chemistry Jaoobus H Van' t Haft (Holland)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Medioine AE Von Behring (Germany)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Economics Ragnar Frisch (Norway) and Jan
Tinbergen (Holland)
First and only blaok man ever to win singles Arthur Ashe (USA}
Wimbledon Trophy
First Asian io head the International Crioket Counoil Jagmohan Dalmiya
First man to hit double oentury in One Day Saohin Tendulkar (India}
International Matoh
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

First in World (Female)

First woman President of UN General Assembly Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit (1953)
First woman President of a oountry Maria Estela Peron (Argentina)
First woman Prime Minister of a country S Bhandarnayake (Sri Lanka)
First woman Prime Minister of England Margaret Thatcher
First woman Prime Minister of any Muslim country Benazir Bhutto (Pakistan)
First woman cosmonaut in space Valentina Tereshkova (USSR)
First woman space tourist Anousheh Ansa ri (Irani American)
First woman Vioe President of United States Kamla Harris
First woman to set foot on the North pole Ann Bancroft, USA
First woman to reach Antarctica Caroline Michaelson
First woman to olimb Mount Everest Junko Tabei (Japan)
First woman in the world to cross the Strait of Gibraller Sophie Psilolignou (Greek)
First woman to chair US Central Bank 'Federal Reserve' Janet Yellen
First UN Deputy Seoretary-General Louise Frechette (Canada)
First female Amputee to climb Mount Everest Arunima Sinha
First woman CFO and MD of World Bank Anshula Kant
First female amputee to climb Mount Vinson Arunima Sinha
First woman chief economist for IMF Gita Gopinalh
First female ICC match referee GS Lakshm i
First astronauts complete historic all-female spacewalk Christina Koch and Jessica Meir

First in World (Miscellaneous)

First oountry to make public transport free Luxembourg
First oountry to declare a climate emergency UK
First oountry to grant oitizenship rights to robot Saudi Arabia
First oountry to ban plastic bags Bangladesh
First oountry to approve three parents baby United Kingdom
First oountry to make a written Consti1ution United Stales of America
First oountry to appoint Lokpal Sweden
First oountry to ban capital punishment Venezuela
First oountry to give voting right to woman New Zealand
First oountry to impose carbon tax New Zealand
First oountry to start VAT (Value Added Tax) Brazil, Germany and Denmark
First oountry to issue paper ourrency China
First oountry to give oonsti1utional status to animal rights Switzerland
First oountry to implement family planning India
First oountry to print books China
First oountry to sig n nuclear agreement with India France
First oountry to send human to Moon United Stales of America
First spaoe ship landed on Mars Viking-I 20th August, 1975
First spaoe shuttle launched Columbia
First oountry to launoh satellite into space Russia (former USSR)
First oountry to launoh radio telescope satellite into space Japan
First oountry to win the Football World Cup Uruguay (1930)
First oountry to host the Modem Olympic Games Greeoe
First oloned human baby Eve
First religion of the world Sanatan Dharma
First university of ihe world Taxila University
First oountry to ban sunsoreen (for protection of coral ree fs) Palau
First oountry to give legal rights to animals Eouador
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Superlatives of the World

(Largest, Biggest, of the Smallest, Longest, Highest, Tallest etc)
Continent Smallest-Australia
Largest-Asia
Country Largest On area)-Russia
Largest On population)-China
Mountain Range Longest-Andes (South America)
Highest-Himalayas
Mountain Peak Highest-Mount Everest (Nepal) (8848 m)
Desert Largest Hot Desert-Sahara, Africa
Largest Cold Desert (ou1side the poles)-Gobi Desert (Mongolia and China)
River Longest-Nile (6690 km)
Busiest-Rhine (Germany)
Largest (by water vo/ume)-Amazon (South America)
Basin Largest-Amazon
Gorge Largest-Grand Canyon, on the Colorado river, USA
WaterfaJI Highest-Saito Angel Falls (Venezuela)
Delta Largest-Sundarbans, India
Gulf Longest-Gulf of Mexico
Island Largest-Greenland (renamed Ka/aallit Nunaat)
Bay Largest-Hudson Bay, Canada
Peninsula Largest-Arabia
Volcano Largest-Mauna Loa (Hawaii Islands) , HighestDojos del Salado, Andes,
Argen tine-Chile (6885 m)
Sea (Inland) Largest-Mediterranean
Ocean Deepest and Biggest-The Pacific
Lake Deepest-Baikal (Siberia)
Highest-Trticaca (Bolivia)
Largest (Fresh Water)-Lake Superior, USA
Largest (Artiiioiaij-Lake Kariba (between Zambia and Zimbab\1/e)
World's Rainiest Spot Maltirsynram (Meghalaya)
Sea Port Largest- Shanghai (China)
Airport Largest-Beijing Daxing International Airport (PKX) , China
Highest-Daocheng Yading Airport, Garzi, Tibet (China)
Airliner Largest- Airbus A380
Dam Tallest-Jinping-I Dam (China)
Longest-Hirakud Dam (Odisha) , India
Biggest (Water storage capacity)- Kariba Dam, Zimbabwe
Largest (Concrete)-Grand Coulee Dam (USA)
Coral formation Largest-The Great Barrier Reef (Australia)
Cruise ships Largest-Royal Caribbean
Canal Longest-Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal
Animal Most Intelligent-Chimpanzee
Fastest-Cheetah
Archipelago Largest (area)-Malay Archipelago
Largest (number)-Norway Arohipelago
Asteroid Impact Zone Largest-Australia
Nation with Coastline Longest-Canada
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Dome Largest-World Peace Monument Dome (Puns)

Plateau Largest-Pamir Plateau (Asia)
Motorable Road Highest-Umling La, Road Ladakh, (19,006 Ft)
Country Sharing Maximum-China (14) and Russia (14)
border with others
Country with Highest-Monaco
population Density
Bird Largest-Ostrich
Largest flying bird-Albatross
Fastest-Needle-tailed swift
Smallest-Humming bird
Mammal Largest-Blue whale
Smallest-Bumblebee bat
Park Largest-National Park, Greenland
Rail\1/ay Longest-Trans-Siberian Railway
Rail\1/ay Platform Longest-Gorakhpur, India
Largest-Grand Central Terminal, New York (USA)
Tunnel Longest and Largest (Canal)-Le Rove Tunnel (South of France)
Longest (Aailway)-Gotthard Base Tunnel (Switzerland)
Bridge Longest-Danyang-Kunshan Grand Bridge
(Beijing-Shanghai High-speed Railway)
Building Tallest-Bu ~ Khalifa, Dubai (828 m)
Minar (Free standing) Tallest-Great Hassan II Mosque, Casablanca, Morocoo
Statue Tallest-Statue of Unity (Gujarat, India)
Tower Tallest-Tokyo Sky Free, Tokyo (Japan)
Mosque Largest-Masjid at Haram (Mecca)
Temple Largest-Angkor Vat (Cambodia)
Churoh Largest-Basilica of St Peter, Vatican City, Rome (Italy)
Museum Biggest-Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC
Place Coldest-Verkhoyansk (Siberia) , Temperature -85°C
Hottest-AI-Aziziyah (Ubya, Africa) , 136°F
Driest-Atacama Desert, Chile (South America)
Stadium Largest-Strahov Stadium in Prague (the Czech Republic)
Wall Longest-Great Wall of China
Capital City Highest-La Paz (Bolivia)
City Highest-Wen Chuan (Tibet, China)
Largest On populalion)-Tokyo
Biggest (in area)-Hulunbuir, China
Day Longest-21st June (in Northern hemisphere)
Shortest-22nd December (in Southern hemisphere)
Substance Hardest-Wurtzite boron nitride
Metal Lightest-Lithium
Heaviest-Osmium
Costliest-Californium 262 ($ 27 million per gram)
Diamond Largest-The Cullinan (over 1.6 lb)
Largest (Mine)-Kimberley (Sou1h Africa)
Melting Point Highest-Tungsten, 34100°C
Gas Lightest-Hydrogen
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Countries with Capitals and Currencies

Country Capital Currency Country Capital Currency
Afghanistan Kabul Afghani Kazakhslan Nur-Sultan Tenge
Albania Tirana Lek Kenya Nairobi Shilling
Algeria Algiers Algerian Dinar Kuwait Kuwait City Kuwait Dinar
Angola Luanda New Kwanza Latvia Riga Euro
Antigua and Saixt John's East Caribbean Uberia Monrovia Uberian Dollar
Barbuda dollar
Ubya Tripoli Ubyan Dinar
Argentina Buenos Aires Peso
Mauritius Port Louis Rupee
Armenia Yerevan Dram
Mongolia Ulan Bator Tugrik
Auslralia Canberra Australian Dollar
Morooco Rabat Dirham
Austria Vienna Euro
Mozambique Maputo Melical
The Nassau Bahamian dollar
Bahamas Myanmar Naypyidaw Kyat
Bangladesh Dhaka Taka Namibia Windhoek Namibian Dollar
Barbados Bridgetown Barabados Nepal Kathmandu Rupee
dollar Nelherlands Amsterdam Euro
Belarus Minsk Belorussian Nigeria Abuja Naira
ruble North Korea Pyongyang Won 0JVPW)
Belgium Brussels Euro
Norway Oslo Krone
Bhutan Thimph u Ngultrum
Pakistan Islamabad Rupee
Bostwana Gaborone Pula
Phillippines Manila Peso
Brazil Brasilia Real
Poland Warsaw Zloty
Cambodia Phnom-Penh Riel
Portugal Lisbon Euro
Canada Otiawa Canadian Dollar
Qatar Doha Riyal
Chile Santiago Peso
Russia Mosoow Aub le
China Beijing Yuan , Renminbi
Saudi Arabia Riyadh Riyal
Colombia Bogota Peso
Singapore Singapore Dollar
Denmark Copenhagen Krone
Somalia Mogadishu Somali Shilling
Djibouti Djibouti Djibouiian Franc
Souih Africa Pretoria Rand
East Timar □ ii i US Dollar
Souih Korea Seul Won (KRW)
Egypt Cairo Egyptian Pound Souih Sudan Juba Sudanese Pound
Ethiopia Adis Ababa Birr Spain Madrid Euro
Finland Helsinki Euro (Formerly Sri Lanka Colombo, Rupee
Morka) Sri Jayawar-
France Paris Euro (Formerly denepura
Frenoh Franc) Kottes
Georgia Tbilisi Lari Sudan Khartoum Pound
Germany Berlin Euro Sweden Stookholm Krona
Greece Athens Euro Switzerland Bern Swiss Franc
loeland Reykjavik Krona Taiwan Taipei Taiwan New
Dollar
India New Delhi Rupee
Th ailand Bangkok Baht
Indonesia Jakarta Rupiah
Turkey Ankara Li ra
Iran Tehran Toman Uganda Kampala Uganda Shilling
Iraq Baghdad Dinar UK London Pound Sterling
Israel Jerusalem Shekel Ukraine Kiev Hryvnia
Italy Rome Euro us Washington Dollar
Jamaica Kingston Jamaican dollar DC
Japan Tokyo Yen Zimbabwe Harare Dollar
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge
e
TOPS
Largest and Smallest Countries
Lamest Country Largest Country Smallest Country Smallest Country
(Area-wise) (Population-wise) (Area-wise) (Population-wise)
Russia China Vatican City Vatican City
Canada India Monaco Tuvalu
us USA Nauru Nauru
China Indonesia Tuvalu Palau
Brazil Brazil San Marino San Marina

Languages and Religions

Languages Spoken (Native Speakers) Religions of the World
Language Speaker Religion Member Percentage
Mandarin Chinese 918 million Christianity 2.4 billion 33.0%
Spanish 480 million Islam 1.9 billion 21%
English 312-380 million Hinduism 1.1 billion 14%
Hindi 341 million Buddhism 0.52 billion 6%
Bengali 228 million Sikhism 0.30 billion 0.36%

Geographical Epithets
Geographical Epithet Looation Geographical Epithet Location
Blue Mountains Nilgiri Hills Island of Cloves Zanzibar
City Beautiful Chandigarh Island of Pearls Bahrain (Persian
City of Golden Gate San Francisco GulD
Key to the Mediterranean Gibraltar
City of Magniiicent Washington (USA)
Buildings Coffee Port of the World Santos

City of Palaoes Kolkata Land of Golden Fleece Australia

Land of Maple Canada
City of Seven Hills Rome
Land of Morning Calm South Korea
City of Skysorapper New York (USA)
Land of the Midnight Sun Norway
Cookpit of Europe Belgium
Land of the Rising Sun Japan
Dark Continent Afri ca
Land of the Thunderbolt Bhutan
Uranium City Saskatohewan
Land of Thousand Lakes Finland
(Canada)
Land of White Elephant Thailand
Forbidden City Lhasa (Tibet)
Continent of Birds South America
Windy City Chicago Pearl of the Pacific Guayaquil Port of
Land of Golden Pagoda Myanmar Eouador
Garden City Chicago Roof of the World The Pamirs, Central
Asia
Gift of the Nile Egypt
Spioe Garden of India Kerala
Granite City Aberdeen
Sugar Bowl of the World Brazil
Hermir Kingdom North Korea
Land of Morning Calm South Korea
Holy Land Palestine
Playground of Europe Swi1zerland
Island Continent Australia Land of Kangaroo Australia
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Geographical Discoveries
Discovery Discoverer Discovery Discoverer
America Christopher Columbus North Pole Robert Peary
China Marco Polo South Pole Amundsen
Australia James Cook Mount Everest Edmund Hillary
Newfoundland Cabot Sebastian Sailed around the World Magellan
Hudson Bay Henry Hudson Sea route to India via Cape Vasco da Gama
of Good Hope
Tasmania Island Abel Tasman Planets Kepler
Hawaian Island James Cook Solar System Copemious
Cape of the Good Bartolomew Dias
Hope

Important Monuments of Major Countries

Monument Country Monument Country
Statue of Liberty (New York) USA Christ the Redeemer Brazil
Kremlin (Moscow) Russia Machu Picchu Peru
The Great Wall of China China Taj Mahal (Agra) India
Emperial Palaoe (Tokyo) Japan Tugu Negara (Kuala Lumpur) Malaysia
Eittel Tower (Paris) France The Great Sphinx (Giza) Egypt
Leaning Tower of Pisa Italy Pyramid (Giza) Egypt
Opera House (Sydney) Australia Kinder Disk Denmark

Major News Agencies of the World

Agency Country Agency Country
Assooialed Press (AP) USA
Algemeen Nederlands Netherlands
Novosti Russia Persbureau
lnterfax Russia Assooiated Israel Press (AIP) Israel
China News Servioe, Xin Hua China Press Trust of India (PTI) India
Allgemeiner Deutsohar Germany United News of India (UNI) India
Nachriohlendienst
Islamic Republic News Agency Iran
Deutsohe Presse Agentur Germany Petra Jordan
Agenoe Franoe Presse France WAFA Palas tine
(AFP)
Middle East News Agency Egypt
Agence Parisienne de Presse France
Anadol Ajansi Turkey
Kyodon Tsushin Japan
Antara Indonesia
Reuters UK
Malaysian National News Malaysia
Exohange and Telegraph UK Agency
Company
Assooiated Press of Pakistan Pakistan
Australian Associated Press Australia
Bangladesh Sangbad Bangladesh
Australian United Press Australia Sangstha
Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Italy Indonesian National News Indonesia
Associate (ANSA) Agency
Europa Press Spain Kenya News Agency Kenya
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge
e
National Emblem of Major Countries
Country Emblem Country Emblem
Australia Kangaroo Italy White Lily
Bangladesh Water Lily Japan Chrysanthemum
Canada White Lily, Maple Leaf Netherlands Uon
Chile Candor and Huemul New Zealand Southern Cross, Kiwi, Fem
Denmark Beach Norway Uon
France Lily Pakistan Crescent and Star
Germany Corn Flower
Spain Eagle
India Lion Capital of Ashoka
UK Rose
Iran Perso Arabic Script of
Arabic word 'Allah' USA Great seal of United State

Legislatures of the World

Country Name Legislature Name Country Name Legislature Name
Afghanistan Shara Israel Knesset
Albania People's Assembly Japan Diet
Algeria National People's Kenya National Assembly
Assembly
Korea (North) Supreme People's
Australia Parliament/Federal Assembly
Parliament
Korea (South) National Assembly
Aus/Jia National Assembly
Ubya General People's
Bangladesh Jatia Sansad Congress
Bhutan Tasongadu
Malaysia Parliament (De\1/an
Bols\1/ana National Assembly Rakyat, Dewan Negara)
Brazil National Congress Mongolia Great People's Khural
Britain Parliament (House of Nepal Rashtriya Panchayat
Commons and House of
Lords) Netherlands State General

Canada Parliament New Zealand Parliament (House of

Representatives)
China, Mainland National People
Congress Norway Starting
Colombia Congress Pakistan National Assembly
Denmark Folketing Romania Grand National Assembly
Egypt People's Assembly Russia Duma
France National Assembly South Africa Parliament
Germany Bundestag Spain Cortes Generales
India Sansad (Parliament) S\1/ifz.erland Federal Assembly
Indonesia People's Consultative
Syria People's Counoil
Assembly
Turkey Grand National Assembly
Iran Majilis
Iraq National Assembly USA Congress

Ireland Orieaohtas Zambia National Assembly

e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Political Parties of Major Countries

CountJy Politioal Party
Australia Uberal Party, Labour Party
Bangladesh Bangladesh Nationalist Party, Awami League, Jatiya Party
China Communist Party of China
France Sooialist Party, National Front, Union for Frenoh Democracy
India Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Bhartiya Janta Party (BJP), Communist Party of India
(CPI) , Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPM), Indian National Congress (INC),
Nationalist Congress Party (NCP), Aam Adm i Party (AAP) , National People's Party
Iraq Ba'ath Party
Israel Labour Party, Likud Party, Hamas Party, Shas Party
Nepal Nepali Communist Party, Nepali Congress Party, Madhesi Jana Adhikar Forum
Pakistan Muslim League, Pakistan People Party
Russia Uberal Democratic Party, Democratic Choioe of Russia, United Russia Party
South Africa African National Congress, National Party, lnkatha Freedom Party
Sri Lanka United National Party, Freedom Party
UK Conservative Party, Labour Party, Liberal Democratic Party
USA Republican Party, Democratic Party

Major Newspapers of the World

Newspaper Country Newspaper Country
The Sydney Morning Herald Australia People's Daily China
The Age Australia Mainiohi Daily News Japan
Globe and Mail Canada The New Zealand Herald New Zealand
The Gazette Canada The Press New Zealand
Le Monds Dawn Paris (Franoe) The Scotsman UK
Dawn Pakistan The Guardian UK
Die Welt Germany The Herald UK
The Times Britain The Courier UK
The Sun Britain Merdeka Indonesia
New York Times USA Pravada Russia
Washington Post USA The Hindu India

Official Books of Major Countries

Blue Book An ottioial report of the British Government
Green Book An ottioial publications of Italy and Iran
Grey Book An ottioial report of the Government of Japan and Belgium
Orange Book An ottioial publication of the Government of Netherlands
White Book An ottioial publication of China, Germany and Portugal
Yellow Book French oHioial book
White Paper An offioial paper of the Government of Briiain and India on a particular issue
Joint Paper The point report of two or more than two governments
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Some Important Symbols or Signs

Pen Symbol of oulture and oivilisation
Lotus Culture and oivilisation
Red Cross Medical aid and hospi1al
Red Flag Revolution; also sign of danger
Blaok Flag Symbol of protest
Yellow Flag Flown on ships or vehicles carrying patients
suttering from infec tious diseases
White Flag Sign of truce, Symbol of Peace
Flag flown upside down Symbol of distress
Flag flown at half mast Symbol of national mourning
Pigeon or Dove Symbol of peace
A blind fo lded woman holding a Symbol of justice
balanoed scale
Blaok strip on face arm Sign of mourning or protest
One skull on two bones crossing Sign of danger
each other diagonally
Wheel (Chakra) Symbol of progress
Olive Branch Symbol of peace

Fathers of Various Fields

Field Father Field Father
Atom Bomb Dr Robert Oppenheimer Anatomy Andreas Vesalius
Aviation Alberto Santos Dumont Nuclear Physics Ernest Rutherford
Railways George Stephenson Modem Physics Albert Einstein
Chemistry Robert Boyle Sanskrit Panini
Modern Chemistry Antoine Lavoisier Grammar
Eoonomics Adam Smith Geometry Euolid
Geography Eratosthenes Mathematics Archimedes
Sooiology Auguste Cornie Internet Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn
Political Soienoe Aristotle
Robotics AI-Jazari
Green Revolution Norman Borlaug
Computers Charles Babbage
Modern Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt
Psychology Artificial John Mc Carthy
lntelligenoe
English Poetry Geoffrey Chauoer
Eleotrioity Benjamin Franklin
Greek Tragedy Aeschylus
Immunology Edward Jenner Mobile Phone Martin Cooper

Genetics Gregor Johann Mendel Indian Nuclear Homi Jahangir Bhabha

Soience
Biology Aristotle
Miorobiology Antonie Van Leeuwenhook Nanotechnology Richard Feynman
-
V GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Intelligence/Detective Agencies of the World

Detective Agency Country Detective Agency Country
Central lntelligenoe Agency USA Research and Analysis Ind/a
(CIA) ,Federal Bureau of Wing (RAW), lntelligenoe
Investigation (FBI) Bu reau (IB)
KGB/GAU Russia National Intelligence Agency South Africa
Central External Liaison China Australian Seou ri ty and lntelligenoe Australia
Department Organisation
Naicho Capiialize Japan Sazamane Etelaat Va Amniyate Iran
Kechvar (SAVAK)
Director General de la Seourite France General Seourity Di rectorate Iraq
Exterieure (DGSE)
Military lntelligenoe (M l-5) UK AL-Mukhabarat AL-Ammah Egypt
and 6, Special Branch , Joint
Intelligence Organisation
MOSSAD Israel Inter Services Intelligence (ISi) Pakistan

The Seven Wonders of the World

Ancient World
Colossus of Rhodes
Lighthouse of Ale>candria
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
Great Pyramid of Giza
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
Statue of Zeus at Olympia
Medieval World
Colossus of Rome
Cataoombs of Alexandria
The Great Wall of China
The Pagoda of Nanking
Leaning Tower of Pi sa
Sancta Sophia of Constantinople
Stonehenge
Modem World
Great Pyramid of Giza
Hagia Sophia (lstanbu~
Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italy)
Taj Mahal (Agra , India)
Washington Monument
EiHel Tower (Paris, France)
Empire State Building

The 'New' Wonders of Modern World

Chichen ltza, Mexico Petra, Jordan
Christ Redeemer, Brazil The Roman Colosseum, Italy
The Great Wall of China The Taj Mahal, India
Maohu Piochu, Peru Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt

First in India (Male)

First Governor-General of India William Bentinck (1833-35)
Governor-General of Independent India Lord Lewis Mountbatten
First and Last Indian Governor-General of Free India C Rajagopalachari (1948-1956)
The first Muslim President of India Dr Zakir Hussain
The first Prime Minister of India who resigned before the full Morarji Desai
term
First person to stay in Rashtrapati Bhawan Lord Irwin
First President of National Congress Womesh Chandra Bannerjee
The first Home Minister of India Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
The first Indian Judge of International Court of Justioe Dr Nagendra Singh
Indian Managing Direotor of World Bank Gautam Kazi
Governor of Reserve Bank of India Sir Osborne Smith
The first Indian to join the ICS Satyendra Nath Tagore
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

The first Field Marshal of India SHFJ Manekshaw

The first Indian Commander-in-Chief of India General KM Karippa
The first Indian Naval Chief Vice Admiral RD Katari
The firs t Indian to \I/in the Nobel Prize Rabindranalh Tagore (1913)
The first Indian to get Nobel Prize in Physics CV Raman
The first Indian to receive Nobel Prize in Economics Amartya Sen
The first person of Indian origin to get Nobel Prize in Medicine Hargobind Khurana
The first Indian to receive Bharat Ratna Award Dr Radhakrishnan
First Sportsperson to receive Bharat Raina Sachin Tendulkar
The first person to receive Magsaysay Award Acharya Vinoba Bhave
First cricketer to get Padma Bhushan CK Nayudu
First Indian to get the Grammy Award Pandit Ravishankar
First Indian to win Prizetaker A\1/ard (Architecture) Balkrishna Doshi
The first person to receive Jnanpith Award Sri Shankar Kurup
The first Indian pilot JRD Tala (1929)
First Indian to win Richard Dawkins Award Javed Akhtar
First Indian to score triple century in Test Cricket Virender Sehwag
First Ex-CJI appointed as Governor P Sathasivam, as Governor of
Kerala
First Viceroy of India Lord Canning (1858-62)
First Indian to win World Food Prize MS Swaminathan
First speaker of Lok Sabha GV Mavalankar
First Indian member of Brttish House of Commons Dadabhai Naoroji
First Indian Cricketer to score a Test Century Lala Amamath (1933)
First Chief Election Commissioner of India Sukumar Sen
First Chairperson of Lokpal of India Pinaki Chandra Ghose
First Chief of Defence Staff India General Bipin Rawat

First in India (FemaJe)

The first \I/Oman Prime Minister Indira Gandhi
The first \I/Oman Minister in Government Rajkumari Amrit Kaur
The first \I/Oman Judge in Supreme Court Fathima Beevi
The first \I/Oman Chief Justice of High Court Leela Seth
First Woman Lawyer to appear before a High Court in India Violet Alva
and first to preside over the Rajya Sabha
The first \I/Oman President of Uniied Nations General Assembly Vijaya Laxmi Pandit
The first woman Chief Minister of an Indian state Sucheta Kripalani
The first \I/Oman Governor of a State in free India Sarojini Naidu
The first \I/Oman Chairman of Union Public Service Rose Millian Bethew
Commission
The first \I/Oman Director General of Police Kanchan C Bhattacharya
The first woman IPS Officer Kiran Bedi
The first \I/Oman President of Indian National Congress Annie Besant
The iirst woman Judge Anna Chandy
The first woman Barrister Cornelia Sorabjee
The first \I/Oman Honours Graduate Kam ini Roy
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

The iirst woman Chairperson of Indian Airlines Sushma Chawla

The iirst woman to receive Nobel Prize Mother Teresa
The iirst woman Airline Pilot Durga Bane~ee
The iirst woman to receive Bharat Ratna Indira Gandhi
The iirst woman to reoeive Jnanpith Award Ashapurna Devi
The iirst woman to reoeive Ashoka Chakra Nirja Bhanot
The fi rst woman Asian Games Gold Medal Winner Kamaljit Sandhu
The iirst woman Olympic Medal Winner Kamam Malleswari
The iirst woman to climb Mount Everest Baohhendri Pal
The iirst woman to climb Mount Everest twioe Santosh Yadav
The iirst woman to cross English ohannel Aarti Saha
First Woman Doctor Kadambini Ganguly
First Test Tube Baby Durga (Kanupriya Agarwal, 1978)
First woman to pariioipate in Olympics N. Polley (1924, Tennis)
First woman Chief Election Commissioner of India V.S. Ramadevi (1990)
First woman Speaker of Lok Sabha Meira Kumar (2009)
First woman to win Wimbledon from India Sania Mirza
First woman to go into Spaoe Kalpana Chawla
First woman to win Silver in Olymp ics PV Sindhu
First woman wre stler to win Olympic Medal Sakshi Malik
First woman President Pratibha Patil
First Indian woman tighter pilot to ily a iighter jet Avani Chaturvedi
First Indian naval woman pilot Shubhangi Swaroop
First Indian to win Gold Medal on International Track Hima Das
First Indian women Flig ht Engineer Hina Jaiswal
First iemale miliiary diplomat posted at Indian Missions Abroad Wing Commander Anjali Singh

First in India (M iscellaneous)

The iirst Bank Bank of Hindustan (1770)
First general post offioe of India Madras (GPO 1786)
India's iirst plane to be hijaoked Fokker Friendship Plane (1971)
First telephone line introduoed in India 1851
First talkie iilm of India Alam Ara (1931)
First battle tank of India Arjun
First satellite of India Aryabhatia
The iirst Indian stale to implement the Panchayati Raj System Rajasthan
District to become India's iirst totally electrified district Palakkad (Kerala)
City to have an e-oourt Ahmedabad
First Indian to win individuaJ Olympic gold Abhinav Bindra
First lunar probe Chandrayaan-I (October 2008)
First dedicated miliiary Satelliie Rukmini (01 G-SAT-7)
First Mars Orbiter Mission 5th November, 2013
First Organic Stale Sikkim
First state to attain 100% Primary Li teracy Level Kerala
First Stale/Union Territory to operate tully on solar energy Daman and Dlu
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge
Superlatives India
(Biggest, Highest, Largest, Longest, Smallest, Tallest, etc)
The longest river
The longest canal
The longest dam
The longest sea beach
The highest lake
The highest dam
The largest lake
The largest saline waler lake
The largest fre sh water lake
The largest artifioial lake
The largest river island
The highest waterfall
The deepest river valley
The longest river bridge
The longest sea bridge
The largest can tilever bridge
The state with longest coastline
Longest rail-oum-road bridge
The longest river without delta
The longest railway platform
The longest road
The highest road
The longest corridor
The highest airport
The largest desert
The largest delta
The largest zoo
The biggest stadium
The tallest TV tower
The largest gurudwara
The largest cave temple
The highest peak
The longest tunnel
The largest animal fair
The largest cave
The highest gale way
The tallest statue
The most populous oity
The oldest churoh
The biggest church
The longest national highway
The highest award
The highest gallantry award
The Ganga (2525 km)
Indira Gandhi Canal or Rajasthan Canal (Rajasthan)
Hirakud dam (Odisha)
Marina beaoh (Chenna1)
Devtal lake (Uffarakhand)
Tehri Dam (Uttarakhand)
Wular lake (Jammu and Kashmir)
Chilka lake (Odisha)
Wular lake (J & K)
Govind Sagar (Rihand dam)
Majuli, Brahmaputra river (Assam)
Kunohikal falls, Shimoga (Karna/aka)
Bhagirathi and Alaknanda
Bhupen Hazarika Bridge, Loh it River (9_ 15 Km)
Bandra-Worli Sea link
Rabindra Setu or Howrah Bridge (Kolkata)
Gujarat
Bogibeel Bridge
Narmada
Hubli
Grand Trunk Road (Kalka/a to Delhi)
Road at Umling La (Ladakh)
Corridor of Ramnathswam i Temple at Rameshwaram
(Tamil Nadu)
Leh Airport (Ladakh)
Thar (Rajasthan)
Sunderbans (West Bengal)
Zoological Garden (Kolkata)
Yuva BharU (Salt Jake) Stadium (Kalka/a)
Rameswaram TV tower (Tamil Nadu)
Golden temple, (Amritsar)
Kailash temple (Blora , Maharashtra)
Godwin Austin, K-2 (8611 m)
Syama Pra sad Mukherjee (Chenani-Nashiri)
Tunnel (Jammu and Kashmir)
Sonepur (Bihar)
Amamath (Jammu and Kashmir)
Buland Darwaza, (Fatehpur Sikri, UP)
Statue of Unity (Gujarat)
Mumbai (Maharashlla)
St Thomas Church at Palayur, Trichur (Kera/a)
Saint Cathedral at old Goa (Goa)
NH-44 (Srinagar to Kanyakuman)
Bharat Raina
Param Vir Chakra
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Famous Sobriquets of Important Persons

Person Niokname Person Niokname
Abdul Gattar Khan Badshah Khan; MK Gandhi Bapu; Mahatma,
Frontier Gandhi Father of the Nation
Bal Gangadhar Tilak Lokmanya MS Golwalkar Shri Guruji
CF Andrews Deenabandhu Madan Mohan Mahamana
CN Annadurai Anna Malaviya

CR Das Deshabandhu Rabindranath Tagore Gurudev

Rajinder Singh Sparrow
C Rajagopalaohari Rajaji
Dadabhai Naoroji Grand Old Man of Sarojini Naidu Nightingale of India
India Sheikh Mohammad Lion of Kashmir
Jawaharlal Nehru Chaoha, Pandi1ji Abdullah (Sher-i- Kash mir)
Jayaprakash Loknayak Sheikh Mujibur Bangabandhu
Narayan Rahman
Lal Bahadur Shastri Man of Peace Subhash Chandra Bose Netaji
Lala Lajpat Rai Punjab Ke sari ; T Prakasam Andhra Kesari
Lion of Punjab Vallabhbhai Patel Iron Man of India,
(Sher-i-Punjab) Bismarck of India

Crematorium of Famous Person (India)

Crematorium Persons Crematorium Persons
Samata Sthal Jagjeevan Ram Sadaiv Atal Atal Bihari Vajpayee
Karma Bhumi Dr Shankar Dayal Sharma
Veer Bhumi Rajiv Gandhi
Mahaprayan Ghat Dr Rajendra Prasad
Ekta Sthal Giani Zail Singh, Chandra
Raj Ghat Mahatma Gandhi Shekhar, PV Narasimha
Vijay Ghat Lal Bahadur Shastri Uday Bhoomi KR Narayanan
Kisan Ghat Chaudhary Charan Singh
Shanti Van Jawaharlal Nehru
Sm ri1i Sthal IK Gujral Shakti Sthal Indira Gandhi

Some Great Works Associated with Famous Persons (India)

Father of Sanskrit Grammar Panin i
Founder of Anand Van Baba Amte
Founder of 'Auroville Ashram ' (Puduoherry) Aurobindo Ghosh
Founder of Shantiniketan Rabindranath Tagore
Founder of Vishwabharati Rabindranath Tagore
Founder of Paunar Ashram Vinoba Bhave
Founder of Bhudan Movement Vinoba Bhave
Founder of Golden Temple Guru Arjan Dev
Founder of Kha lsa Panth Guru Gobind Singh
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Major Newspapers in India

Newspaper Published From Language
Economic Times Mumbai , Delhi English
Hindustan Times Delhi, Patna English
Deccan Bengaluru English
Mid Day Mumbai English
National Herald Lucknow, Delhi, Kolkata English
Pioneer Luoknow, Delhi, Kanpur English
Searah Light Patna English
The Hindu Bengaluru, Chennai, Coimbatore English
The Indian Express Delh i, Mumbai, Chenna i, Lucknow, English
Madurai, Ahmedabad
The Statesman Kolkata, New Delhi English
The Times of India (Largest English New Delhi/Mumbai/ Ahmedabad English
oirculating newspaper in the world)
The Tribune Ambala, Chandigarh English
Aa j Kanpur, Varanasi Hindi
Amar Ujala Allahabad/Agra/Jhansi/ Mee rut Hindi
Hindustan Delhi/Patna Hindi
Nav Bharat Ti mes New Delhi/Mumbai Hindi
Amrit Bazar Patrika Kolkata Bengali
Anand Bazar Patrika Kolkata Bengali
Yuganlar Kolkata Bengali
Matrabhoomi Cut1ack Odiya
Akali Patrika Jallandhar Punjabi
Tej Delhi Urdu
Dinamani Madurai Tamil

Renamed Indian Cities

Old Name Changed Name Old Name Changed Name
Vizagapatam Vishakhapalnam Avan tika Ujjain
Bezawada Vijayawada Bhelsa Vidisha
Masulipatam Machilipalnam Bombay Mumbai
Gauhati Guwahati Yanaon Yanam
Baroda Vadodara Koyamutihoor Coimbatore
Broach Bharuch Madras Chennai
Simla Shim/a Cape Comori n Kanyakumari
Trivand rum Thiruvananthapuram Conjeevaram Kanchlpuram
Cochin Koehl Cawnpore Kanpur
Calicut Kozhikode Benares Varanasi
Palghat Pa/akkad Calcutta Kalka/a
Allahabad Prayagraj Gurgaon Gurugram
Mangalore Manga/uru Bangalore Bengaluru
e
UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Yearof Sites Yearof Sites

lnolusion lnolusion
1983 Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra} 2004 Brihadeshwara Temple
1983 Ellora Caves (Maharashtra} (Gangaikondacholapuram, Tamil Nadu)
1983 Taj Mahal (Uttar Pradesh} 2004 Victoria Terminus (CST) , Mumbai
1983 Agra Fort (Ut1ar Pradesh} 2004 Airavalesvara Temple, Darasuram
1984 Sun Tem~le, Konark (Odisha} (Tamil Nadu)
1985 Mahabali~uram Tem£2Ies (Iamfl Nadu} 2004 Champaner-Pavagadh
1985 Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Archaeological Park (Gujarat)
Bharat~ur (Rajasthan} 2005 Valley of Flowers (Uttarakhand)
1985 Kaziranga National Park (Assam} 2005 Nilgiri Mountain Railway (Tamil Nadu)
1985 Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur 2007 Red Fort (Delhi)
(Rajaslhan)
2008 Kalka-Shim la Railway (Himaohal
1986 Churches in Goa (Goa)
Pradesh)
1986 Khajuraho Temples
(Madhya Pradesh} 2010 Jantar Maniar, Jaipur (Rajasthan)
1986 Fateh~u r Sikri (Uttar Pradesh} 2012 Western Ghat
1986 Ham~i Tem~les (Karnataka} 2013 Hill forts of Rajasthan
1987 Sundarbans National Park 2014 Rani ki Vav (Gujarat)
(West Bengal)
2014 Great Himalayan National Park
1987 Elephants Caves (Maharashtra) (Himaohal Pradesh)
1987 Pat1adakal Temples (Karnataka) 2016 Nalanda Mahavihara (Bihar)
1988 Nanda Devi National Park 2016 Khangchendzonga Nalional Park
(Uttarakhand) (Sikkim)
1989 Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh) 2016 The Architectural work of Le
oorbusier (Chandigarh)
1993 Humayun's Tomb (Delhij
2017 Historic city of Ahmadabad (Gujarat)
1993 Outub Minar (Delhij
2018 The victorian and Art Deco
1999 Darjeeling Himalayan Railway Ensemble of Mumbai
(West Bengal) 2019 Pink City, Jaipur
2002 Mahabodhi Temple (Bodh Gaya) (Bihar) 2021 Kakaliya Rudreshwara (Ramappa
2003 Rook Shelters of Bhimbetaka Temple), Telangana
(Madhya Pradesh) 2021 Dholavira, Gujarat

Foundation Day of Some States

1st January Nagaland Day
21st January Manipur, Meghalaya and Tripura Day
6th February Jammu and Kashmir Day
20th February Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Day
11th Maroh Andaman and Nicobar Islands Day
22nd March Bihar Day (Bihar Diwas)
30th Maroh Rajasthan Day
1st April Utkal (Odisha) Day
14th Ap ril Tamil Nadu Day
15th April Himaohal Pradesh Day
1st May Gujarat and Maharashtra Day
16th May Sikkim Day
1st November Chattisgarh
09th November Ut1aranohal (Now Uttarakhand) Day
15th November Jharkhand Day (Jharkhand Diwas)
2nd June (2014) Telangana Day
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge
G
Famous Tourist Spots of India
Site LocaUon Founder
Aram Bagh Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Babur
Anand Bhawan Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh) Moti Lal Nehru
Adhai Din Ka Johpda Ajmer (Rajasthan) Outub-ud-din Aibak
Ajanta Caves Aurangabad Gupta Rulers
Akbar's Tomb Sikandera (Uttar Pradesh) Jahangir
Bibi Ka Maqbara Aurangabad (Maharashtra) Aurangzeb
Bharatpur Fort Bharatpur (Rajasthan) Raja Surajmal Singh
Bundi Fort Bundi (Rajasthan) Rao Deva
Bada lmambada Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh) Nawab Asaf-ud-daulah
Belur Math Kolkata Swami Vivekanand
Botanical Garden Shibpur (West Bengal)
Chhatra Mahal Bundi Fort Rani Chhatrasal
Chenna Keshab Temple Belur (Kamataka) Vishnu Vardhan
Char Temple Konark (Odisha) Narasing Dev I
Chasma"Shahi Jammu and Kashmir Ali Mardan Khan
Charar-e-Sarif Srinagar (Kashmir) Jainul Abedin
Choota lmambada Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh) Mohammad Ali Shah
Cochin Fort Kerala Portuguese
Dewan-e-Khas Agra Fort (Uttar Pradesh) Shah Jahan
Dilwara Jain Temple Mount Abu (Rajasthan) Vastu Pal Tejpal
Deeg Palaoe Deeg (Rajasthan) Raja Badan Singh
Dhar Fort Dhar (Madhya Pradesh) Mohammad Bin Tughlaq
Etamad-ud-daulah's Tomb Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Noor Jahan
Ellora Caves Aurangabad Rash trakuta Dynasty
Elephanta Caves Mumbai Rashtrakutas
Fatehpur Sikri Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Akbar
Firoz Shah Katia Delhi Firoz Shah Tughlaq
Fort William Kolkata Lord Clive
Fateh Sagar Udaipur (Rajasthan) Maharana Fateh Singh
Gateway of India Mumbai British Government
Goloonda Fort Hyderabad (Andh ra Pradesh) Ou1ubshahi Dynasty
Gal Ghar Patna (Bihar) British Government
Humayun's Tomb Delhi Hameeda Bano Beghum
Hauz Khas Delhi Ala-ud-din Khilji
Hajratbal Masjid Srinagar (Kash mi r)
Harmandir Sahib Patna (Bihar) Maharaja Ranjit Singh
Junagarh Bikaner (Rajasthan) Raja Jai Singh
Jama Masjid Delhi Shah Jahan
Jantar-Man tar Delhi and Jaipur Sawai Jai Singh
Jodhpur Fort Jodhpur (Rajasthan) Rao Jodha Ji
Jaku Temple Kolkata Rani Ras Mani
Jagannath Temple Pu ri (Odisha) Chola Gang Dev
0 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Site LocaUon Founder

Jama Masjid Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Shah Jahan
Khas Mahal Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Shah Jahan
Ka nka ria Lake Ahmedabad Sultan Qutub-ud-din
Khirki Masjid Delhi Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq
Kandaria Mahadev Khajurah o (Madhya Pradesh) Chandela Kings
Kanheri Caves Mumbai Buddhists
Laxman Temple Chhatarpur (Madhya Pradesh) Chandela Rulers
Laxmi Narayan Temple Delhi Birla Family
Laxman Jhula Ri shikesh (Uttarakhand)
Moti Masjid Agra Fort (Uttar Pradesh) Shah Jahan
Moti Masjid Delhi Fort Aurangzeb
Mrignayani Palace Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh) Raja Man Singh Tomar
Madan Palace Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) Raja Madan Shah
Mecca Masjid Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) Kuli Kutub Shah
Nahargarh Fort Jaipur (Rajasthan) Raja Jai Singh
Nishaat Bagh Jammu and Kashmir Asaf Ali
Nakhuda Masjid Kolkata
Old Fort (Purana Quila) Delhi Sher Shah Suri
President House Delhi British Government
Pichhola Lake Udaipur (Rajasthan)
Pathar Ki Masjid (Naev Patna (Bihar) Parvez Shah
Masheed)
Padari Ki Haveli Patna (Bihar) Father Capuchin
Patthar Ki Masjid Jammu and Kash mir Noor Jahan
Prince of Wales Museum Mumbai George V
Rani Ki Badi Bundi (Rajasthan) Rani Nathvati
Red Fort Delhi Shah Jahan
Sheesh Mahal Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Shah Jahan
Safdarjung ka Maqbara Delhi Shuja-ud-daulah
Sabarmati Ashram Ahmedabad Mahatma Gandhi
St Geogre Fort Chennai (Tamil Nadu) East India Company
Vimal Shah
Shalimar Bagh (Garden) Srinagar (Kashmir) Jahangir
Sunset Point Mount Abu (Rajasthan)
Sher Shani Masjid Patna (Bihar) Parvez Shah
Sher Shah's Tomb Sasaram (Bihar) Islam Shah Suri, Son of Sher
Shah
Taj Mahal Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Shah Jahan
Tughlakabad Delhi Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq
Umaid Palace Jodhpur (Rajasthan) Maharaj Ummed Singh
Vijay Stambh Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) Rana Kumbha
Victoria Memorial Kolka ta
Vishnupad Temple Gaya (Bihar) Rani Ahilya Bai
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Institutions

Indian Agrioulture Researoh Institute New Delhi
Central Rioe Researoh Institute Cutiaok
Central Sugarcane Researoh Institute Coimbatore
Central Tobaoco Research Institute Rajahmundry
Central Potato Researoh Institute Kutri , Shimla
National Centre at Organic Farming Ghaziabad
National Plant Protection Training Institute Hyderabad
Central Frozen Semen Production and Training Institute Hissar Ghatia (Kamataka)
Central Sheep Breeding Farm Hissar
Indian Veterinary Researoh Institute lzzatnagar, Bareilly (Uttar Pradesh)
Animal Health Institute Jalandhar
Central Institute of Fisheries, Nautical and Engineering Kochi
Training
Integrated Fisheries Project Kochi
Central Island Agriculture Researoh Institute (ICAR) Port Blair
Central Institute of Cotton Research Nagpur
Central Institute of Agrioultural Engineering Bhopal
Central Institute of Fisheries Education Mumbai
Central Institute of Fisheries Technology Coohin
Central Institute of Fresh Water Agrioul ture Bhubaneswar
Central Soil Salinity Researoh Institute Kamal
Central Inland Fisheries Researoh Institute Barrackpore
Looust Warning Organisation Jodhpur
National Institute of Agricultural Marketing Jaipur
Random Sample Poultry Performance Testing Centre Gurgaon
National Institute of Animal Health Baghpat (Uttar Pradesh)
Disease Investigation Laboratory Pune
Institute of Animal Health & Veterinary Biologicals Bengaluru (Karnataka)
Indian Council of Agriouliaural Resarah (ICAR) New Delhi
National Sugar Research Institute Kanpur
Animal Welfare Board of India Ballabhgarh (Haryana)

Trade Related Institutions

Rubber Board Kottayam ■ Spices Board Kochi
Coffee Board Bengaluru ■ Indian Institute of Foreign Trade New Delhi
Tea Board Kolkata ■ Indian Institute of Packaging Mumbai
Tobacco Board Guntur (Andhra Pradesh) ■ Indian Diamond Institute Surat

Institute of Communication
Bharat Ratna Bhim Rao Ambedkar Institute of Telecom Training Jabalpur
Tele Communication Engineering Centre New Delhi
National Academy of Telecom Finanoe and Management Secunderabad, Hyderabad
Advanced Level Telecom Cen tre Ghaziabad
Indian Institute of Telecom Management (IITM) Pune
Indian Railways lnsLitute of Signal Engineering and Secunderabad
Telecommunications
Telecom Centres of Exoellenoe (TCOE) India New Delhi
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Education
Central Institute of Indian Languages Mysore
Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages Hyderabad
Rash triya Sanskrit Sansthan New Delhi
Rash triya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha Tiru pati
Indian National Academy of Engineering New Delhi
High Altitude Training Centre Shillaru (Himachal Pradesh)
Fire Training Centre New Delhi
Maharishi Sandipani Rash triya Veda Vidya Prathisthan Ujjain
Indian Sohool of Business Hyderabad
Indian Statistical Institute Kolkata
National Law Sohool Bangalore
Indian Institute of Spaoe Science and Technology Thiruvanan thapu ram (Kera/a)
Indian Institute of Public Administration New Delhi
Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Researoh Mumbai

Energy
National Power Training Institute Faridabad
Centre fo r Wind Energy Technology Chennai
National Solar Energy Federation of India (NSEFI) New Delhi

Environment
Centre for Environmental Education (GEE) Ahmedabad
Centre for Mining Environment (CME) Dhanbad
GB Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development Almora (Ultarakhand)
Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES) Bengaluru
National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) Chennai
CPR Environmental Education Centre (CEEC) Chennai
Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) Chenna i
Forest Survey of India (FSI) Dehradun
Indian Council of Forest Research and Education (ICFRE) Dehradun
Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy (IGNFA) Dehradun
Wildliie Institute of India (WIT) Dehradun
Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (IICT) Hyderabad
Central Soil and Material Researoh Station (CSMRS) New Delhi
National Mangrove Genetic Resouroe Centre (NMGRC) Odisha
National Coral Reef Researoh Centre (NCRRC) Port Blair
National Institute of Hydrology (NIH) Roorkee
National Environmental Engineering Researoh Institute Nagpur
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) New Delhi

Forest
Centre for Social Forestry and Eoo-rehabilitation (CSFE) Allahabad
Indian Plywood Industries Researoh and Training Institute (IPIRTI) Bengaluru
Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) Bhopal
Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding (IFGTB) Coimbatore
Forest Research Institute (FRI) Dehradun
Tropical Forestry Researoh Institute (TFRI) Jabalpur
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Arid Forest Research In stitute (AFRI) Jodhpur

Rain Forest Researoh Institute (RFRI) Jorhat, Assam
lnslliute for Forest Productivity (IFP) Ranchi
Himalayan Forest Research Institute (HFRI) Shimla
Advanced Researoh Centre for Bamboo and Rattans (ARCBR) Aizawal
Centre for Forestry Research and Human Resource Development (CFRHRD) Chhindwara

Food and Civil Supplies

Bureau of Indian Standards Delhi
Indian Grain Storage Management and Researoh Institute Hapur
Nalional Institute of Training for Standardisation New Delhi
National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Ltd (NAFED) New Delhi
Food Corporation of India (FCI) New Delhi

Government Industrial Undertakings

Bharat Electronics Ltd Jalahalli (Bengaluru)
Heavy Engineering Corporation Ltd Ranchi
Heavy Machine Building Plant Ranchi
Heavy Vehicles Factory Avadi (Chennai)
Hindustan Aeronau1ics Ltd Bengaluru
Hindustan Airoraft Factory Bengaluru
Hindustan Pref ab Umi1ed New Delhi
Hindustan Teleprinters Ltd Chennai
Integral Coach Factory Perambar (Tamil Nadu)
Security Paper Mill Hoshangabad (Madhya Pradesh)
Neyveli Ugni1e Corporation Ltd Neyveli (Tamil Nadu)
Hindustan Organic Chemicals Ltd Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Hundustan Photo Films Manufacturing Company Ltd Ooty (Tamil Nadu)
Hindustan Zinc Ltd Udaipur (Rajasthan)

Health and Family Welfare

National Academy of Medical Science New Delhi
National Institute of Ayurveda Jaipur
National Institute of Unani Medicines Bengaluru
National Institute of Homeopathy Kolkata
National Institute of Naturopathy Pune
National Institute of Siddha Chennai
Morarji Desai National Institute of Yoga New Delhi

Health and Medicinal Research Centres in India

School of Trop ical Medicine Kolkata
Central Leprosy Training and Researoh Institute Chengalpattu (Tamil Nadu)
PGI Medical Education and Researoh Chandigarh
National Institute of Nutrition Hyderabad
National Institute of Occupationa l Health Ahmedabad
Ki ng Institute of Preventive Medicine Guindy (ChennaQ
All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health Kolkata
All India Malaria Researoh Institute New Delhi
All India Institute of Medical Sciences New Delhi
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - General Knowledge

National Tuberculosis Institute Bengaluru

Indian Cancer Research Centre Mumbai
Institute of Ayurvedic Studies and Researoh Jamnagar (Gujarat)
Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute Delhi
Hattkine Institute Mumbai
National Institute of Communicable Diseases Delhi
Indian Counoil of Medical Research New Delhi

Industry
Sardar Vallabhbhai Institute of TeKtile Management Coimbatore
Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology Gurgaon
Central Institute of Plastic Engineering and Teohnology Chennai

Justice and Law

National Judicial Academy Bhopal
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy Hyderabad
National Institute of Criminology and Forensic Scienoe New Delhi
National Law School of India University Bengaluru

Labour
V V Giri National Labour Institute Naida (Uttar Pradesh)
National lnstruclional Media Institute Chennai
Central Staff Training and Research Institute Kolkata

Laboratories
Central Soientiiic Instrument Organisation Chandigarh
Central Leather Research lnslitute Chennai
Indian Institute of Petroleum Dehradun
Central Mining Research Stalion Dhanbad
Central Fuel Research Institute Dhanbad (Jharkhand)
Nalional Geophysical Researoh Institute Hyderabad
National Metallurgical Laboratory Jamshedpur
Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute Kolkata
National Botanical Researoh Institute Lucknow
Central Drug Research Institute Luoknow
Central Institute of Medical and Aromatic Plants Lucknow
Central Food Technological Research Institute Mysore
Nalional Environment Engineering Institute Nagpur
Nalional Physical Laboratory New Delhi
Pulses Research Laboratory Pachmarh i (Madhya Pradesh)
Nalional Biological Laboratory Palampur (Himachal Pradesh)
National Institute of Oceanography Panaji (Goa)
Central Electronic Engineering Researoh Institute Pilani (Rajasthan)

Mass Communication
Film and Television Institute of India Pune
Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute Kolkata
Indian Institute of Mass Communication New Delhi
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge
e
Nuclear and Space Research Centres in India
Research Centre Place
Indian Rare Earths Limited (IREL) Alwaye (Kerala)
Uranium Corporation of India Limited Jadugora (Jharkhand)
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) Mumbai
Eleotronics Corporation of India Limited Hyderabad
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) Trombay (Mumbaij
Radio Astronomy Centre Ootacamund (Tamil Nadu, Ooty)
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Mumbai
Saha Institute of Nuolear Physics Kolkata
Centre of Earth Soienoe's Studies Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala)
Physical Researoh Laboratory Ahmedabad
Spaoe Commission Bengaluru
Vikram Sarabhai Spaoe Centre Thiruvananthapuram
Indian Spaoe Researoh Organisation (ISRO) Bengaluru
Spaoe Application Centre Ahmedabad
Thumba Equatorial Rooket Launohing Station Thumba (Kerala)
College of Satellite Communication Technology Ahmedabad

Social Welfare Institutes

Institute for Emp owerment of Persons with Multiple Disabilities Chennai
National Institute of Rehabilitation Tra ining and Researoh Cuttaok
National Institute for the Visually Handicapped Dehradun
National Institute for Orthopaedically Handicapped Kolkata
Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for the Hearing Handicapped Mumbai
Institute of Physically Handicapped New Delhi
National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development New Delhi
National Institute for Mentally Handicapped Seounderabad
(Telangana)

Science and Technology Research Institutes

Physical Researoh Laboratory Ahmedabad
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanoed Scientific Researoh Bengaluru
Indian Institute of Astrophysics Bengaluru
The National Centre for Biological Soienoe Bengaluru
Raman Researoh Institute Bengaluru
Institute of Life Soiences Bhubaneswar
National Institute of Ooean Teohnology Chennai
Central Marine Researoh Station Chennai
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology Dehradun
National Centre for Antarotic and Ooean Researoh Goa
High Altitude Researoh Laboratory Gulmarg (Kashmir)
The Survey Training Institute Hyderabad
Centre for DNA Finger Printing and Diagnostics Hyderabad
Indian National Centre for Ocean and Information Services Hyderabad
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Institute of Microbial Teohnology Hyderabad

Institute of Bio-resources and Sustainable Development Imphal
The Centre for Marine Uving Resource and Ecology Kochi
S N Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences Kolkata
National Brain Research Centre Manesar (Haryana)
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism Mumbai
Indian Cancer Researoh Centre Mumbai
Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology Nagpur
National Environmental Engineering Researoh Institute Nagpur (Maharashtra)
Indian National Academy of Engineering New Delhi
National Institute of Immunology New Delhi
Indian National Scienoe Academy New Delhi
National Seismological Database Centre New Delhi
National Centre for Plant Genome Research New Delhi
National Centre for Cell Scienoe Pune
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology Pune
Indian Lac Research Institute Ranohi
Shri Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Science and Technology Thiruvananthapuram

Transport
Rail Wheel Faotory Bengaluru
Chittaranjan Looomotive Works Chittaranjan (West Bengal)
The National Institute of Aviation Management and Research Delhi
Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi Fursatganj (Uttar Pradesh)
National Institute of Water Sports Goa
The Indian Institute of Tourism and Travel Management G\1/alior
Rail Coaoh Factory Kapurthala
Diesel Locomotives Work Varanasi
LBS College of Advance Maritime Studies and Researoh Mumbai
Marine Engineering and Researoh Institute Mumbai
National Rail and Transportation Institute Vadodara
Integ ral Coach Factory Perumbur (Chennai)
Maritime Training Institute Po\1/ai (Mumbai)

Water Resources
The Central Soil and Material Research Station Ne\1/ Delhi
The Central Water and Power Research Station Puns
The National Institute of Hydrology Roorkee

Youth Affairs and Sports

Netaji Subhash National Institute of Sports Patiala
The Rajiv Gandhi National Institute of Youth Development Sriperumbudur (Tamil Nadu)
National Sports University Imphal, Manipur
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Important Dates and Days of the Year

January
1 Army Medical Corps Establishment 18 Ordnance Manufacturing Day
Day 21 World Forestry Day, International
4 Louis Braille Day Day ior the Elimination of Racial
8 African National Congress Foundation
Disc rimin ation
Day 22 World Water Day
9 NRI Day (Pravasi Bhartiya Diwas) 23 World Meteorological Day
10 World Hindi Day 24 World TB Day
11 World Laughter Day 26 Bangladesh Liberation Day
12 National Youth Day (Birthday of Swami 27 World Theatre Day
Vivekanand) April
15 Army Day
2 World Autism Awareness Day
21 Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura Diwas
5 National Maritime Day, International
23 Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose's birth Day for Mine Awareness
anniversary 7 World Health Day
24 Rashtriya Balika Divas, Giri Child Day
10 World Homeopathy Day
25 National Tourism Day, Voter's Day,
13 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre Day
International Customs and Excise (1919)
Day, Voters Day
14 BR Ambedkar Remembrance Day;
26 Indian Republic Day, International Fire Extinguishing Day
Customs Day
17 World Haemophilia Day
30 Martyr's Day (Mahatma Gandhi's
18 World Heritage Day, Azad Hind
Martyrdom) , World Leprosy
Fauz Day
Eradication Day
21 Civil Servioes Day
February 22 World Earth Day
1 Indian Coast Guard Day 23 World Book and Copyright Day
2 World Wetlands Day 24 Panchayat Divas
4 National Day of Sri Lanka 25 World Malaria Day
5 Kashmir Day 26 World Intellectual Property Day
(Organised by Pakistan)
May
13 World Radio Day
1 International Labour Day (May
20 World Social Justice Day
Day) , Maharashtra Day, Gujarat
21 International Mother Tongue Day Day
24 Central Exoise Day 2 World Asthma Day
28 National Scienoe Day 3 World Press Freedom Day,
March International Energy Day
8 World Red Cross Day
3 National Defence Day, World Wildlfie
Day 11 National Technology Day
12 International Nurses Day
4 National Securrty Day
15 International Family Day
8 International Women's Day
17 World Telecommunications Day
11 Andaman Nicobar Day
21 Anti-Terrorism Day, Rajiv Gandhi
13 World Kidney Day
Death Anniversary
15 World Consumer Rights Day, World
22 World Biodiversity Day
Disabled Day
24 Commonwealth Day
16 National Vaccination Day
31 World Anti-Tobaoco Day
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge
Jnne
1 Global Day of Parents
5 World Environment Day
7 World Food Safety Day
20 World Refugee Day
21 lnternationaJ Yoga Day
29 National Statistics Day
July
1 Doctor's Day, State Bank of India
Foundation Day
4 Amerioan lndependenoe Day
7 lnternationaJ Day of Co-operatives
11 World Population Day
18 lnternationaJ Nelson Mandela Day
26 Kargil Victory Day
28 World Nature Conservation Day,
World Hepatrtis Day
August
1 World Breast Feeding Day
6 Hiroshima Day (World Peaoe Day)
9 Kranti Divas, Nagasaki Day, Quit
India Day, International Day of
word's Ingenious People
12 lnternationaJ Youth Day
15 India's lndependenoe Day
19 World Photography Day
20 Sadbhavna Diwas
29 National Sports Day
(Dhyanchand's birthday)
30 Small Industry Day
September
5 Teachers' Day,
Dr Radhakrishnan's Birthday
8 International Literacy Day
(UNESCO)
14 World First Aid Day
15 Engineers Day,
International Day of Democracy
16 World Ozone Day
18 Biosphere Day,
World Alzheimer's Day
20 Railway Police Faroe Foundation
Day
21 lnternationaJ Day of Peaoe
24 World Deaf Day, World Heart Day
27 World Tourism Day
October
1 International Day for the Elderly (UN)
2 lnternationaJ Non-violenoe Day, Lal
Bahadur Shastri and Mahatma
Gandhi's Birthday
3 World Habitat Day
4 World Animal Welfare Day
5 World Teacher's Day
8 Indian Air Faroe Day
9 World Postal Day
10 World Mental Health Day; National
Post Day
11 lnternationaJ Girl Child Day
13 World Calamity Control Day (UN)
14 World Standards Day
15 National Women Farmer's Day
16 World Food Day
17 lnternationaJ Poverty Eradication Day
20 National Solidarity Day
(China attaoked India on that day)
21 World Iodine Shortage Day
22 World Energy Day
24 United Nations Day, World Polio Day
31 World Thrift Day, National Integration
Day
31 National Unity Day
November
7 Infant Protection Day; National Canoer
Awareness Day
10 Transport Day, Malala Day (by UN)
11 National Eduoation Day
14 Children's Day,
World Diabetics Day
16 National Press Day
17 National Epilepsy Day
18 National Naturopathy Day
19 World Citizen Day, National
Integration Day, World Toilet Day
20 Unrversal Children's Day (UN) , Africa
Industrialisation Day
21 World Fisheries Day
25 World Non-veg Prevention Day
26 Law Day, National Milk Day,
Samvidhan Diwas
December
1 World AIDS Day
2 lnternationaJ Day for the Abolition of
Slavery, World Computer literacy Day
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

3 World Disabled Day 2013-2022 International Decade for the

Reapproachment of Cultures
4 Navy Day (UNESCO)
5 lnternationaJ Volu nteers Day
2011-2020 Third International Decade for the
7 Armed Fornes Flag Day Eradication of Colonialism , UN
10 Human Rights Day Decade on Biodiversity, Decade
of Action for Road Safety
11 UNICEF Day
2010-2020 UN Decade for Deserts and
14 National Energy Conservation Day Fight against Desertification
16 Vijay Divas
19 Goa's Liberation Day UN International Year
23 Kisan Divas (Farmer's Day) 2024 International Year of Camelids
25 National Good Govemanoe Day,
2023 International Year of Millets
X-Mas Day
2022 International Year of Artisanal
26 Veer Baal Diwas Fisheries and Aquaculture
29 lnternationaJ Biodiversity Day 2021 International Year of Peace and
Trust, International Year of Creative
Important UNO Decades Eoonomy for Sustainable
Development, International Year of
2021-2030 International Decade of Ooean Fruits and Vegetables
Soienoe for Sustainable
Development 2020 International Year of Plant Health ,
International Year of the Nurse and
2019-2028 United Nations Decade of Midwife
Family Farming
201 9 International Year of Indigenous
2018-2028 International Decade for Action
'Waler for Sustainable Languages, International Year of
Development' Moderation, International Year of the
Periodic Table of Chemical Elements
2016-2026 Third Industrial Development
Decade ior Africa 2017 International Year of Sustainable
2016-2026 United Nations Decade of Tourism for Development
Action on Nutriiion
2016 International Year of Pulses
2015-2024 International Decade for People
of African Descent 2015 International Year of Light and
2014-2024 United Nations Decade of Light-based Technologies,
Sustainable Energy for All International year of Soils

Abbreviations
[KJ ASCI Advanoed Strategic Computing
Initiative
ABM Anti BallisUc Missile
ASCII American Standard Code for
AD Anno Domini (After the birth of
Information Interchange
Jesus)
ADF Asian Development Fund ATM Automated Teller Machine
AERE Atomic Energy Research APEC Asia Paoific Eoonomic
Establishment Cooperation
AFSPA Armed Foroes Speoial Power Act ASSOCHAM Assooiated Chamber of
AGOC Asian Games Organising Commeroe and Industry of India
Commrttee ASLV Augmented Satellite Launoh
AIDS Aoquired lmmuno Detioienoy Vehiole
Syndrome
ASI Arohaeological Survey of India
ALB Advanoed Light Helicopter
APPLE Ariane Passenger Payload AVES Aoute Viral Enoephalitic
Experiment Syndrome
ASAT Anti-Satellite Weapon AWACS Airborne Warning And Control
ASEAN AssooiaUon of South-East Asian System
Nations
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

[[] COLA Cellular Operator Association of

India
BC SBI Banking Codes and Standard CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
Board of India CPRI Central Power Research Institute
BARC Bhabha Atomic Research CSHR Council of Scientific and Industrial
Centre Research
BBC Brttish Broadcasting Corporation CVC Central Vigilance Commission
BC Before Christ (Before the birth of

BCG
Jesus Christ)
Bacillus Calmette Guerin
[[]
(Anti-Tuberculosis Vaccine) DAVP Directorate of Advertising and
BCTT Banking Cash Transaction Tax Visual Publicity
BCCI Board for Control of Cricket in DDT Dichlorodiphenyl Trichloroethane
India DFDR Digital Flight Data Recorder (Black
BHEL Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited Box)
BHI.l\lI Bharat Interface for Money DIG Deputy Inspector General
BIMSTEC Bay of BengaJ Initiative for DPSA Deep Penetration Strike Aircraft
Multi-Sectoral Technical and DPT Diphtheria Pertussis Tetanus
Economic Cooperation DRDO Defence Researoh and
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards Development Organisation
BIT Binary Digit (Basic unit of
information in computing and
telecommunication)
[I]
ECG Electro Cardiogram
Bl\IDS Ballistic Missile Defence System
ECT Electro Concvulsive Therapy
BRO Border Roads Organisation (electric shook treatment)
BRT Bus Rapid Transit EEG Electro-Encephalography
EET Exempt Exempt Taxation
[I] EUSA Enzyme Linked lmmuno Sorbent
Assay (used for testing AIDS)
CAA Civil Aviation Authority
EXIM Bank Export -Import Bank of India
CABE CentraJ Advisory Board of
Education ECGC Export Credit Guarantee
Corporation
CAG Comptroller and Auditor General
CAD Computer Aided Design ESCAP Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific
CAJR Centre for Artificial Intelligence
EVl\lI Electronic Voting Machine
and Robotics
CAPES Computer-Aided Paperless EPZ Export Processing Zone
Examination System
CAZRI Central Arid Zone Research [[]
Institute
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
CAT CentraJ Administrative Tribunal
FIi Foreign Institutional Investor
CBI CentraJ Bureau of Investigation
FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation
CECA Comprehensive Economic
Cooperation Agreement FERA Foreign Exohange Regulation Act
CERT Computer Emergency Response FEM.A Foreign Exohange Management
team Act
CHOGM Commonwealth Heads of FICCI Federation of Indian Chambers of
Government Meeting Commerce and Industry
CISF CentraJ Industrial Security Foroe FRIBA Fellow of the Royal Institute of
British Architects
CITES Convention on lntemationaJ
Trade in Endangered Species FLAG Fibre Optic Link Around the Globe
CLASS Computer Literacy and Studies
in School []]
CNG Compressed Natural Gas
GAIN Global Alliance for Improved
Nutrttion
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

GATS General Agreement on Trade in IRBM Intermediate Range Ballistic

Servioes Missile
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs IRSS Indian Remote Sensing Satellite
and Trade
ISCS Integrated Smart Card System
GEF GlobaJ Environment Fund
GMPS Global Mobile Personal ISRO Indian Spaoe Researoh
Communications System Organisation
GMT Greenwioh Mean Time
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite I J,K,L I
System
JNNUR.M Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
GPS GlobaJ Positioning System Renewal Mission
GSLV Geosynohronous Satellite KYC Know Your Customer
Launch Vehiole
KG Kinder Garten

[[] LCA
LOC
Light Combat Airoraft
Line of Control
RAC Hindustan Aluminium LOAC Line of Actual Control
Corporation LTA Light Transport Airoraft
LIGO Laser lnterf eramenter
HAL Hindustan Aeronautics Limited Gravitational-wave Observatory
mv Human lmmunodetioienoy Virus
HRIDAY National Heritage City
Development and Augmentation IBJ
Yojana. l\lJAT Minimum Alternative Tax
HYVS High Yield Variety Seeds l\lJ:ETSAT Meteorological Satellite
M.MS Multimedia Message Servioe
[I] MR.TS
MTCR
Mass Rapid Transit System
Missile Technology Control
lAAI International Airport Authority of Regime
India
IAEA International Atomic Energy [[]
Agenoy NACO National AIDS Control
IBRD International Bank for Organisation
Reoonstruction and NADA National Anti-Doping Agenoy
Development NAFTA North American Free Trade
ICAO International Civil Aviation Agreement
Organisation NASA National Aeronau1ics and Spaoe
ICAR Indian Counoil of Agrioultural Administration
Researoh NATA Natural Aptitude Test for
ICMR. Indian Counoil of Medioal Arohitecture
Researoh NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NCEP National Commit1ee on
ICRC International Committee of the Environmental Planning
Red Cross NeGP National e-Govemanoe Plan
IDPL Indian Drugs and NEP National Education Polioy
Pharmaoeuticals Limited NEPA National Environment Protection
International Maritime Act
Organisation NTPC National ThermaJ Power Corporation
INSAS Indian Small Arms System
INSAT Indian National Satellite []]
IPC Indian PenaJ Code OCI Overseas Citizen of India
IPCC lntergovernmentaJ Panel on OAS Organisation of American States
Climate Change OAU Organisation of African Unity
ODS Ozone Depletion Substanoes
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

OIC Organisation of Islamic Countries SWIFT Sooiety ior Worldwide Interbank

OSCE Organisation ior Security and Finanoial Teleoommunioations

m
Cooperation in Europe
OROP One Rank One Pension

[!] TADA Terrorist and Discrupiive Activities

(Prevention) Act
PURA Provision of Urban Amenrties in TAPS Tarapur Atomic Power Station
RuraJ Areas TIN Tax Identification Number
PATA Paoiiic Asia Travel Association TNT Tri Nitro Toluene (high explosive)
PIB Press Information Bureau TRAI Telecom Regulatory Authority of
PN Partioipatory Note India
POTA Prevention of Terrorism Act TRIPS Trade Related Intellectual Property
PPE Personal Protection Equipment Rights
PSLV Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
PWD Public Works Department [[]
[]]] UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on
QIB Qualiiied Institutional Buyer Trade and Development
QIP Qualiiied Institutional Placement UNDP United Nations Development
Programme
RAF Rapid Action Faroe
UNEP United Nations Environment
RBI Reserve Bank of India Programme
RCC Reinforced Cement Concrete UNFPA United Nations Fund for
RDSS Radio Determination Satellite Population Aotrvities
Service
RLV
RTGS
Reusable Launch Vehicle
Real Time Gross Settlement VAT
00
Value Added Tax
System VLSI Very Large Scale Integration
VOIP Voice Over Internet Protocol
[]] VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminals

SAFTA
SAIL
South Asian Free Trade Area
Steel Authority of India Limited [R]
SAPTA SAARC Preferential Trading WADA World Anti-Doping Agency
Agreement WAVE Wireless Aooess for Virtual
SATNAV Satellite Navigation Enterprise
SAVE SAARC Audio Visual Exchange
WFP World Food Programme
sco Shanghaj Cooperation
WFTU World Federation of Trade Unions
Organisation
SCOPE Standing Commitiee of Public WLL Wireless in Local Loop
Enterprises WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
SEBI Securities and Exchange Board

SIDBI
of India
Small Industries Development
I x,v I

Bank of India nJICA Young Men's Christian

SMART Simple Moral Accountable Association
Responsive and Transparent YWCA Young Women's Christian
SPIN Software Process Improvement Association
Networks
STARS Satellite Tracking and Ranging
Station
[I]
STARTS Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty ZSI Zoological Survey of India
Station ZIP Zone Improvement Plan
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Books and their Authors

Famous Books of Foreign Writers
Authors Books Authors Books
William ■ King Lear Salman ■ The Other Side of the
Shakespeare ■ All's Well That Ends Well Khurshid Mountain_
■ Twelfth Night Adam Smith ■ Wealth of Nations
■ Comedy of Errors AG Noorani ■ "'India-China Boundary
■ Romeo and Juliet Problems, 1846 to 1947"
■ Antony and Cleopatra Andy Marino ■ Narendra Modi : A Political
■ The Tempest Biography
■ Macbeth Arthur Conan ■ Adventures of Sherlock
■ Julius Caesar Doyle Holmes
• Othello Arthur I Miller ■ Empire of the Stars
Charles • A Tale of Two Cities Arthur Stanley ■ Expanding Universe
Diokens • Oliver Twist Eddington
■ David Copperfield Anna Jeon ■ The Dry Glass of August
■ Great Expectations Mavhew
George ■ Back to Methuselah Alan Shapiro ■ Night of the Republic
Bernard Shaw Benazir Bhutto ■ Reconciliation : Islam
■ Man of Destiny
■ Arms and the Man
Democracy and the West
■ Man and Su~erman Catherin O' ■ The News Where you are
Leo Tolstoy ■ Resu rrection Fl nn
■ War and Peace Charles ■ Descent of Man, Origin of
■ Anna Karenina Darwin Species
Baraok ■ Dreams from My Father : A Cherie Blair • Speaking for Myself
Obama Story of Race and Inheritance Chesler Bowles ■ A View from Delhi
■ The Audacity of Hope: Dan Brown ■ The Lost Symbol
Thoughts on Reclaiming the
David Loshak ■ Pakistan Crisis
American Dream
Desmond Tutu ■ No Future Without
■ A Promised Land
Forgiveness
(Autobiography)
DH Lawrence ■ Sons and Lovers
TS Eliot • Murder in the Cathedral
■ Lady Chatterley's Lover
■ The Wasteland , and other
poem Dominque • "'A Rainbow in the
Lapierre Night-Nelson Mandela and
HG Wells ■ The War of the Worlds
■ The Time Machine
the Tumultuous Birth of
■ Invisible Man South Africa"
George Eliot ■ Mill on the Floss Domingo ■ Thy Boy Kings of Taxas
■ Middle Maroh Martinez
Dould ■ Barack Obama: The Making
John Milton ■ Paradise Regained
■ Paradise Lost
Maraniss of the Man
Jane Austen ■ Pride and Prejudice
Doniel Silva . Moscow Rules
■ Sense and Sensibility EM Forster • A Passage to India
Lewis Carroll • Through the Looking Glass Edited by ■ '"The World Bank in

■ The Hunting of Snark Michele Kelley, India-Undermining

Deepika Sovereignty, Distorting
Rober Louis ■ Kidnapped
Stevenson D'Souza Development''
■ Treasure Island
Edward ■ Decline and Fall of the
Abdu l Salam ■ "' My Uie With the Taliban "
Gibbon Roman Empires
Zaeef
Adam Gilchrist ■ True Colou r : My liie Eric Segal ■ Love Sta~
(Autobiography) Ernest ■ The Old Man and the Sea
Javier Moro ■ A Dramatised Biography of, Hemingway
Sonia Gandhi Fyodor ■ The Idiot
• The Red Sari Dostoevskv
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Authors Books Authors Books

GB Shaw ■ At!!::!le Cart Mark Twa in ■ Adventures of Tom
Gabrielle ■ Blood, Bones and Butter Sawyer
Hammon Mart in Amis • The Pregnant Widow
George Co ■ Deoision Point Mathew Arnold ■ Sohrab and Ru stu m
Bush (Autobiography)
Maxim Gorky ■ Mother
George Orwell ■ Ninteen Eighty Four
Malala ■ We are Displaoed
Goethe ■ Faust
Yousafzai
HB Stowe ■ Uncle Tom's Cabin Miohael ■ Moon Walk (Autobiography)
Herschele ■ To the Point Jaokson
Gibbs (Autobiography) Michael ■ No Limits : The Will to
Herta Muller • The Appointment Phelps Suooeed
Homer • Odyssey Nelson ■ The Conversations with
Isaac Newton ■ Prinoipia Mathematica Mandela Myself
JasperF ■ Shades of Grey Oliver • She Stoops to Conquer
Forde Goldsmith
Jean Paul ■ Iron in the Soul Oscar Wilde ■ Imp ortance of Being Earnest
Sartre Parvez ■ "In the Li ne of Fire"
Je ffrey Aroher ■ First Among Equals Mu sharraf
JK Rowling ■ The Tales of Beedle the Pearl S Buok ■ The Rainbow
Baral Philip Pullmen • The Good Man Jesus and
John ■ Nine Days Wonder The Scoundrel Christ
Masefield Plato ■ The Republic
John Ruskin ■ Unto this Last Robert TS ■ Blood Kin, A Savannah Story
Jonathan Swift ■ Gulliver's Travels Miokles Sr
Joy Adamson ■ Born Free Rudyard Kipling ■ Jungle Book
Jules Verne ■ Around the World in 80 Ruskin Bond ■ Notes from a Small Room
days
RM Lala ■ For the Love of India : The
Karl Marx ■ Das Ka~ital Liie and Times of Jamsetji
Katherine ■ Mother India Tata
Mal'o
Kim Edwards • Lake of Dreams
Shoaib Akhtar . Controversially Yours
(Autobiography)
L Fischer ■ A Week with Gandhi Syyed Amir Ali ■ The Spirit of Islam
Lapierre and ■ Freedom at Midnight TC Boyle ■ Wild Child
Collins
Thomas Moor ■ Utopia
Larry Collins ■ Mountbatten and
Sdomininique Independent India Thomas ■ Gandhi at First Sight
lapierre Weber
Lord Byron ■ Don Juan Tony Blair ■ A Journey
Lord Curzon ■ Problems of The East U Thant ■ View from the UN
M Veerappa ■ cShree Ramayana Winston ■ Gathering Storm
Moily Mahanveshanam" Churohill
Machiavelli ■ The Prince ZA Bh utto ■ If I am Assassinated,
Margaret ■ Gone with the Wind The Myth of
Mitchell Independence

Famous Books by Indian Writers

Authors Books Authors Books
Dr APJ Abdul ■ Ignited Minds : Unleashing Amiiabh Ghosh ■ The Great Derangemen t:
Kalam the Power within India, Climate Change and the
■ You Are Born to Blossom, Unthinkable
My Journey, Mulk Raj Anand ■ The Village,
■ India 2020-A vision for the ■ Seven Summers,
New Millennium, ■ Two Leaves and a Bud,
■ Wings of Fire ■ Coolie
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Authors Books Authors Books

Amri1a Pritam ■ Kora Kagaz, Amit Chaudhuri ■ The Immortals
■ Death of a City, Annie Besant ■ Wake up India
■ Kagaz Te Kanwas, The
Anuradha Roy ■ The Folded Earth
Revenue Stamp
Aravind Adiga ■ The White Tiger
Ramaohandra ■ Makers of Modem India
Guha Arundhati Roy ■ The God of Small Things
■ India af1er Gandhi : The
■ The minis try of Utmost
History of the World's
Happiness
Largest Democracy,
■ Environmentalism : Asha Puma Devi ■ Subamalata
A Global History, Aurobindo Ghosh ■ Liie Divine
■ The States of Indian Cricket
Balwant Gargi ■ Naked Triangle
Jawaharlal Nehru ■ Bunch of Old Letters,
Glimpses of World History, BG Tilak ■ Giia Rahasya
■ Letters tram a Father to BR Ambedkar ■ What Congress and Gandhi
his Daughter, have done to Untouohables
■ The Disoovery of India ■ Himalayan Blunder
Brig John Dalvi
Khushwant Singh ■ The Sunset Club,
Dadabhai Naoroji ■ Poverty and Unbritish Rule
■ Sahibs Who Loved India, in India
■ Why I Supported the
Emergency, Truth , Love Daisy Hasan ■ The To-Let House
and A Linle Malioe, Din Bandhu Mitra ■ Neel Darpan
■ We Indians,
Dr Radha Krishnan ■ Hindu View of Liie
■ A Bride for the Sahib,
Maharaja in Denims Dr Rajendra Prasad ■ India Divided
RK Narayan ■ Guide, Dark Room , VD Savarkar ■ Indian War of
■ The Vendor of Sweets Independence
Chelan Bhagat ■ One Night @ the Call Edited by Pranab ■ The Congress and The
Centre, Mukherjee Making of Indian Nation
■ Revolution 2020, What Gen Ayub Khan ■ Friends not Master
young India Wants ■ Of a Certain Age : Twenty
Gopal Krishna
Making India Awesome,
Gandhi Liie Sketahes
■ Half Girlfri end,
■ One Indian Girl Gopinath Mohanty ■ Mali Mahal
Bankim Chandra ■ Devi Chaudharani Hamid Ansari ■ Travelling Through Conflict
Chattopadhyay ■ Anand Math IK Gujral ■ Matters of Discretion
(Autobiography)
Maithili Sharan ■ Saket
Gupt ■ Yashodhara lmran Hashmi • The Ki ss of Liie
JP Narayan ■ Prison Diary Indira Gandhi ■ My Truth
■ To all Fighters of Janardan Thakur ■ All the Prime Minister's Men
Freedom, Why Sooialism? Nandan Nilekani ■ Imaging India : Ideas for a
Sarat Chandra ■ Devdas New Century
Chattopadhyay ■ Parineeta Jaswant Singh ■ Jinnah-India, Partition,
lndependenoe
Sarojini Naidu ■ The Golden Threshold
Jyotiba Phule ■ Ghulam Giri and other
■ The Bird of Time Stories
Munshi Prem ■
Rang Bhoomi
K Natwar Singh ■ One liie is not enough
Chand ■ Godan 'My China Diary'
Rammohan Roy ■ Preoept of Jesus Kapil Dev ■ Straight from the Heart
• A Gift to Monotheists Kapil Sibal ■ I Witness-Partial
Mahatma Gandhi ■ My Experiments with Tru1h Observation
■ Hind Swaraj Khan Abdul ■ Pakhtoon
Amartya Sen ■ Development as Freedom Ghafiar Khan
■ The Idea of Justioe Kingshuk Nag ■ The Namo Story : A Political
■ India Wins Freedom Liie
Abul Kalam Azad
KM Munshi ■ I Follow the Mahatarna
AL Basham ■ Wonder That was India
G GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Authors Books Authors Books

Kuldip Nayar ■ The Judgement Saurav Ganguly ■ A 0entury is not enough
Kailash Sathyarthi ■ Azad Bachpan Ki Or Sachin Tendulkar ■ Playing it my way
KP Mathur ■ The Unseen Indira Sanjay Manjrekar ■ Imperfect
Gandhi
S Nihal Singh • My India
Kishalay ■ Blood or My Hands;
Bhat1acharya Confession of stated SC Bose ■ The Indian Struggle
Encounters
Shashi Tharoor ■ The Darkest Hour. Pax
Kartar Lahani ■ The Making of India lndica, The Paradoxical
Lal Kri shna ■ My Country My Life Pri m e Minister
Advani Shashi Tharoor • Shadows Across the Pla~ing
Lala Lajpat Rai ■ Unhappy India and Shaharyar Field : 60 years of India- ak
Khan Cricket
Mahadevi Verma ■ Varna
Shobha De ■ Superstar India : From
MajHPS • Face of Everest Incredible to Unstoppable
Ahluwa lia
Manohar ■ A Bend in the Ganges Shyam Bhatia ■ Good Bhe Shahzadi (A
Malgaonkar Biograp y of Benazir Bhutto)

Meghnad Desai • The Rediscovery of India Sir Syyed Ahmed ■ Causes of the Indian Mutiny
Khan
MJ Akbar ■ Nehru: The Making of India
SK Nandi ■ Ramacharit
Morarji Desai ■ A Minister and his
Responsibilities Sri Aurobindo ■ Savitri
Ghosh
Narayan Shehgal ■ A Voioe of Freedom
Sunil Gavaskar ■ Su nny Days
Sh ri Narendra ■ "Convenient Action :
Modi Gujarat's Response to Surin Singh BamaJa • My Other Two Daughters
Climate Change"
Swami Dayanand ■ Satyarth Prakash
■ Exam warriors
TS ■ The Miracle of Democracy :
Nilanjan • Narendra Modi: The Man, Krishnanmurthy India's Amazing Jou rney
Mukhopadhyay The Times
■ An Unknown Indian Upinder Singh ■ A History of Ancient and
Nirad C Choudhary
Early Medieval India from
NR Narayan ■ A Better India A Better Stone Age to the 12th
Murthy World Century
PM Nayar ■ The Kalam Effect My VV Giri ■ Voice of Conscience
Years with the President
V VS Laxman R ■ 281 and Beyond
Parameswaran
Iyer
■ The Swachh Bharat
Revolution Veerappa Moily . Unleashing India

Rabindranath ■ Chilra Vinita Kamte ■ To the Last Bullet

Tagore Vinod Mehta • Luoknow Boy (Autobiography)
Raghunalh ■ "Timeless lndtirator- Vijay Lakpally ■ Driven
Mashelkar Reliving Gan hi"
YV Reddy ■ Global Crisis Recession and
Rajmohan Gandhi ■ The Good Boat Man : A Uneven Reoovery
Portrait of Gandhi
Jairam Ramesh ■ Indi ra Gand hi : A Liie in
Ramdhari Singh ■ Rashmirathi Nature, A Chequered
Dinkar Brmiance : The many lives of
Rashika Chaube ■ An Inspirational Journey: VK Krishna Menon
and Chhaya Pratibha Devi Singh Patil; DG Tendulkar ■ Gandhi in Champaran
Mahajan The First Women President
of India Navin Chawla ■ Every Vote Counts

Ramesh Chandra ■ Eoonomic History of India Raghuram Rajan ■ The Third Pillar
Dutta ■ I Do What I Do
Ram Chandra ■ Gandhi Abhijit Baner/ee ■ Good Economics for
Guha & Esther Duf o Hard Times, Poor
Ravi Shankar ■ My Music, My Life Economics

■ Crisis of India Ramchandra ■ Gandhi-The Year that

Ronald Segal
Guha Changed the World
Saniya Mirza ■ Ace Against Odse
Yuvraj Singh ■ The Test of My Life
Ruskin Bond ■ A little book of Happiness Autobiography
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge
Award Winning Authors of Indian Origin and their Writings
Author Wrilings Awa.Id
Salman Rushdie ■ Midnight Children Booker Prize 1981
■ Shame (Midnight Children)
• The Moor's Last Sigh
■ Fury
■ The Satanic Verses
■ Two years, at Month and Twenty-at
Night
Vikram Seth ■ The Golden Gate Padma Sh ri in Literature and Education
■ A Suitable Boy 2007
• An Equal Music
■ Summer Requiem
■ Two Uves

Arundhali Roy ■ The God of Small things Booker Prize 1997

■ The Algebra at Infinite Justioe
Rohinton Mistry ■ Suoh a Long Journey
• Family Matters
■ A Fine Balanoe
VS Naipaul ■ A House for Mr Biswaas
■ India : a Wounded Civilization
■ An Area of Darkness
• India : a Million Mutinies now
• The Masque of Africa
■ A Bend in The River
(The God of Small Things)
Booker Prize 1991
(Such a Long Journey)
Nobel Prize in Uterature 2001
(for having uniied perceptive narrative
and inoorruptible scrutiny in works that
oompel)

Amitav Ghosh ■ The Cirole of Reason Padma Sh ri by Government of India

■ River of Smoke 2007
■ The Glass Palace (for his best work in English Language)
■ Shadow Une
■ The Calcutta Chromosome Crossword Book Prize in 2008 for Sea
■ Flood of Fire of Pappier
■ The Hungry Tide
■ Sea of Poppies
■ In an Antique Land
Jhumpa Lahiri • The Namesake
■ The Interpreter of Maladies
(Pultlzer Prize for Ficlion)
■ The Unaccustomed Earth
Shashi Tharoor ■ The Great Indian Novel Common Wealth Writer's Prize
■ Show Business (The Great Indian Novel) ,Sahitya
Academy Award 2019 (for An Era of
■ India : From Midnight to Millenium Dartness : British Empire in India)
• Why I am Hindu
• India Shastra: Reflections on the
Nation in our time
Upamanyu ■ The Mammaries of the Welfare Sahitya Akademi Award 2004
Chatterjee State (The Mammaries of the Welfare State)
■ English
■ August
■ Way to 90
Kiran Desai ■ The lnheritanoe of Loss Man Booker Prize 2006

Books Awarded with Prizes

Books Authors Year
Pulitzer Prize
■ The Road Cormac McCarthy 2007
■ The Looming Tower : Al-Qaeda and The Road io 9/11 Lawrence Wright 2007
■ The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao Junot Diaz 2008
■ The Years of Exterminalion : Nazi Germany and The Saul Friedlander 2008
Jews, 1939-1945
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge
Books Authors Year
• Olive Kitteridge Elizabeth Strout 2009
■ Slavery by Another Name : The Re-Enslavement of Douglas A Blackmon 2009
Blaok Americans from The Civil War to World War II
■ The Dead Hand : The Untold Story of The Cold War David E Hottman 2010
Arms Race and its Dangerous Legacy
■ Tinkers Paul Harding 2010
■ A Visit from the Goon Squad Jennifer Egan 2011
■ The Emperor of All Maladies : A Biography of Canoer Siddhartha Mukherjee 2011
■ The Orphan Master's Son (Fiction) Adam Johnson 2013
■ Disgraced (Drama) Ayad Akhtar 2013
■ 3 Sections (Poetry) Vijay Seshadri 2014
• The Gold! inch (Fiction) Donna Tartt 2014
■ Digest (Poetry) Gregory Pardlo 2015
■ Sympathizer (Fiction) Viet Thanh Nguyen 2016
■ Underground Railroad (Fiction) Colson Whitehead 2017
• Less (Fiction) Andrew Sean Greer 2018
■ The Over Story Riohard Power 2019
■ The Nickel Boys (Fiction) Colson Whitehead 2020
■ The Night Watchman (Fiction) Louis Erdioh 2021
■ The Hotwing (Drama) Katori Hall 2021
■ Joshna Cohen (Ficlion) The Netanyahus 2022
■ James Ijames (Drama) Fat Ham 2022
Man Booker Prize
• The Gathering Anne Enright 2007
■ The Whi1e Tiger Aravind Adiga 2008
■ Wolf Hall Hilary Mantel 2009
■ The Finkler Question Howard Jacobson 2010
• Troubles JG Farrell 2010
■ The Sense of an Ending Julian Barnes 2011
■ Bring up the Bodies Hilary Mantel 2012
■ The Luminaries Eleanor Catton 2013
■ The Narrow Road to the Deep North Rlohard Flanagan 2014
■ A Brief History of Seven Killings Marlon James 2015
■ The Sellout Paul Beatty 2016
• Lincoln in the Bardo George Saunders 2017
■ Flight Olgo Tokarczuk 2018
■ The Testaments Margaret Atwood 2019
■ Girl. Women . Other Bernardine Evaristo 2019
• Shug gie Bain Douglas Stuart 2020
■ The Promise Damon Galgut 2021
■ Shehan Karunatilaka 'The Seven Moons of Maali 2022
Almeida'
Sahitya Akademi Award
■ Hajar Churashir Maa Mahasweta Devi 1996
■ Mahabharata An Inquiry in the Human Condition Chaturvedi Badrinath 2009
■ Hawa me Hastakshar Kailash Vajpeyi 2009
■ Book of Rachel Esther David 2010
■ Mohan Das Uday Prakash 2010
■ India After Gandhi Ramachandra Guha 2011
• Rehan Per Ragghu (Novel) Kashinath Singh 2011
■ Pathar Fenk Rara Hoon (Poetry) Chandrakant Devtale 2012
■ Miljul Man (Novel) Mridula Garg 2013
■ Trying to Say Goodbye (Poetry) Adil Jussawala 2014
• Vinayak (Novel) Ramesh Chandra Shah 2014
■ Aag ki Hansee Ramdash Mishra 2015
■ Parijat Nasrina Sharma 2016
■ The Black Hill (Novel) Mamang Dai 2017
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Books Authors Year

■ Post Box No. 203 Chitra Mudgal 2018
■ Chheelate Hue Apne ko (Poetry, Hindi) Nand Kishor Acharya 2019
■ An Era of Darkness (Non-Fiction, English) Shashi Tharoor 2019
■ Things to Leave Behind Namiia Gokhale 2021
Saraswati Samman
■ Mandra SL Bhyrappa 2010
• lrama Kathaiyum lramayakalum AA Manavalan 2011
■ Manalezhuthu Sugalhakumari 2012
■ Dhool Paudho Par Govind Mishra 2013
■ Ramayana and Mahanveshanam Veerappa Moily 2014
■ Chitt-Chete Padma Saohdev 2015
■ Hawthan Mahabaleshwar Sail 2016
■ Vakhar Sitanshu Yashaschandra 2017
• Pakkaki Ottigilite K Siva Reddy 2018
■ Chequebook (short story) Vasdev Mahi (Sindhi) 2019
■ Sanalan Sharan Kumar Limbate 2021
■ Mai to Yahan Hoon Ramdarash Mishra 2022
Orange Prize for Fiction (Women's Prize for FicUon)
■ Home Marilynne Robinson 2009
• The Laouna Barbara Kingsolver 2010
■ Serious Men Manu Joseph 2010
■ The Sly Company of People Who Care Rahul Bhattacharya 2011
■ Home Boy HM Naqvi 2011
• The Tiger's Wife Tea Obreht 2011
■ The Song of Achille s Maleline 2012
■ May We Be Forgiven AM Homes 2013
■ How to Be Both Ali Smith 2015
■ The Glorious Heresies Lisa Mcinerney 2016
■ The Power Naomi Alderman 2017
■ Home Fire Kamila Shamsie 2018
• An American Marriage Tayari Jones 2019
■ Hamnet Maggie O'Farrell 2020
■ The Vanishing Hali Brit Bennett 2021

United Nations
The United Nations (UN) js an 5. The International Court of Jus □ ce
international organisation, whose stated 6. The Secretariat
aims are facilitating cooperation in
international Jav, international secwjty, General Assembly
1,

economic development, social progress,

human rights and achievement of , 1vorld • It is also called as the town meeting of the
peace. The UnHed Nations Day is world.
celebrated on 24th October each year. • The General Assembly meets at )east once
Presently, there are 193 member states of in a year and the session comm ences on
the United Nations. the first Tuesday of September.
• It appoin ts the Secretary General of UN
Principle Organs Secretariat on the recomm endation of
There are six principle organs of the the Security Council..
UnHed Nations, they are • The presidency of the Assembly rotates
I . General Assembly each year am ong the five geographical
2. The Security Council groups of the coun tries v-tz Asia, Afi.ican,
3. The Economic and Social Council Latin America, East Eurnpean an d West
4 . The Trusteeship Council Eurnpean and other states.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge
• Consist of all member states of the
UN.
• Each member nation can send five
delegates, but each nation has only
one vote.
• The headquarters of General
Assembly is at New York (US).
Security Council
• The main aim of Secur1ty Council is
the maintenance of the international
peace and security.
• The Secwjty Council originally
consisted of eleven members, but
increases to fifteen in 1966.
• Security Council comprises of five
permanent members nanrnly China,
OK, Russia, France and USA and 10
non-permanent members, elected for
a term of 2 years by a two-third
majority of the General Assembly, five
non- permanent members rel:i.re every
year. Retiring members cannot be
re-elected immediately.
• Permanent member have Veto Power,
\'l hich can be cast against
1
any
decision supported by the majority
members.
• The headquarters of Seclllity Council
:is at New York (US).
Economic and Social
Council (ECOSOC)
• Its main aim is to promote social
progress and better standards of life.
• ECOSOC comprises 54 members, 18
(one third) of whom are elected every
year by the General Assembly of UN,
to serve a 3-years term. The rel:i.dng • The Secretaiiat is composed of a Secretar)'
members as well as the President are
eligible for :immediate re-elections.
The headquarters of ECOSOC is at
New York (US).
The Trusteeship Council
• The United Nations 'frusteeship
Council was established to help
ensme that rr·ust territories were
administered in the best interests of
their inhabitants and of international
peace and secw..ity.
Secretary Generals Till Date
Name
Trygve Ue (1946-1952)
Dag Hammarskjold (1953-1961)
U Thant (1961-1971)
• Trusteeship Council was formed in 1945.
• The headquarters of Trusteeship Council is
at New York (US).
• The rr·usteeship council suspended
operation on 1st November, 1994 with the
independence of Palau, the last remaining
United Nations b.7..lst terdtory, on 1st
October, 1994.
The International Court of
Justice (I CJ)
• The International Court of Justice (]CJ) is
the prin1ary judicial organ of the UnHed
Nations.
• Its main functions al'e to settle legal
disputes submitted to it by states and to
prov1de advisory oplillons on legal
questions submjtted to :it by only authmised
international organs, agencies and the UN
General Assembly. The headquarters ofICJ
:is at Hague (Netherland).
• The ICJ was established in 1945.
• It consists of 15 judges. The judges of the
cow·t are elected by the General Assembly
along with the Secwity Council for a
9-years term.
The Secretariat
• The United Nations Secretarfat :is one of
the p1inciple organs of the United Nations,
an inter governmental organisation
charged with the promotion of aiding states
to collectively maintain international peace
and secwity. It serves as a forum for
member-states to discuss and resolve
pressing :issues in the international :field
through primarily diplomatic resources.
General, assisted by a staff of international
civil servants ,,vorldwide. The Secretar)'
General :is appointed by the General
Assembly upon the recommendation of the
Secwjty Council.
• The Secretat)' General of the UN is elected
for 5-year·s and eligible for re-election,
although, none so far· has held office for
more than t\Jvo terms.
ResignaUon/Relirement
On November, 1952, resigned
Died in plane crash in Northern Rhodesia
(now Zambia)
Deolined to consider a third term
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge
Name
Kurt Waldheim (1 972-1981)
Javier Perez (1982-1991)
Boutros- Boulros Ghali (1992-1996)
Kofi Annan (1997-2006)
Ban ki• Moon (1st January, 2007-2016)
Antonio Guterres (1st January
2017-Present)
Important United Nation Agencies
Name of Agency
Universal Postal Union (UPU)
International Labour
Organisation (/LO)
lnternalional Monetary Fund
(IMF)
Food and Agricultural
Organisation (FAQ)
lnternalional Bank for
Reoonstruclion and
Development (/BRO)
United Nations International
Child ren 's Emergency Fund
(UNICEF)
United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO)
lnternalional
Telecommunication
Union (ITU)
lnternalional Civil Aviation
Organisation (/CAO)
World Health Organisation
(WHO)
International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA)
International Development
Association (JOA)
United Nations Development
Programme (UNOP)
United Nations
Environmental
Programme (UNEP)
World Trade Organisation
(INTO)
Resigna Uon/ ReUrement
China voted against his third term
Ref used to be considered for a third term
The United States voted against his seoond term
Retired atter two full term
Retired atter two full term
Till date
Estd in Headquaners Objective
1874 Bern, The UPU is a specialised agency
Swi1zerland of the United Nations that
coordinates postal policies among
member nation s, in addition to the
worldwide postal system _
1919 Geneva To improve conditions and living
standa rd of workers.
1945 Washington Promotes international monetary
DC cooperation.
1945 Rome To improve living conditions of
rura l population.
1944 Washington To provide fund s from different
DC sources , otters loans to middle
income developing countries.
1946 New York To promote children's welfare all
over the world_
1945 Paris To promote collaboration among
nations through education,
soience and culture.
1866 Geneva Sets international regulations for
radio telegraph, telephone and
space radio communications.
1944 Montreal, It codifies the principles and
Canada techniques of international air
navigation and iosters the
planning and development of
international air transport to
ensure safe and orderly growth.
1948 Geneva Attainment of highest possible
level of health by all people.
1957 Vienna To promote peaceful uses of
atomic energy.
1960 Washington An attiliate of the World Bank,
DC aims to help under-developed
countries ra ise living standards.
1966 New York Helps developing countries
increase the wealth producing
capabilities of their natural and
human resources.
1972 Nairobi Promotes international
cooperation in human
environment.
1995 Geneva Settjng ru les for world trade to
reduce tariffs.

International Organisations and Groups
Organisation and HQ
Red Cross
Estd in 1863
(Geneva, Swiizerland)
International Olympic Committee
(IOC)
Estd in 1894 (Swi1zerland)
International Criminal Police
Organisation (INTERPOL)
Estd in 1923 (Lyon, Franoe)
The Commonwealth
(London) formally estd by London
Declaration 28th April, 1949
Arab League (AL)
Estd in 1945 [Cairo (Egypt)] Syria
susp~nded fo llowing the 2011
uprising
International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO)
Estd in 1947 (Sw11zerland)
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
(NATO)
Estd in 1949 (Brussels)
Colombo Plan
Estd in 1960 (Sri Lanka)
South-East Asia Treaty
Organisation (SEATO)
Estd in 1964 (Bangkok)
Organisation of Petroleu m
Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Estd in 1969
[Vienna (Austria)]
World Wildlife Fund For Nature
0JVWF) , NGO
Estd in 1961 (Swi1zerland)
Amnesty International (NGO)
Estd in 1961 (London)
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
Estd. in 1961
Organisation for Economic
Co-opera tion and Development
(OECD) Estd in 1961 (Paris ,
f=ranoe)
Group of Seventy Seven (G-77)
Estd in 1964
European Union
Forma lly estd by Treaty of
Maastricht in 1993 [Brussels
(Belgium)]
Asian Development Bank (ADB)
Estd in 1966 (Man~a)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge
Member Objective
192 International Humaniiarian Movement for re lief
of su ffe ring in time of wa r/disaster_
96 To promote the Olympic ideals and administer
olympic games.
194 To promote international cooperation among
oriminal p olioe authorities.
63 It was originally known as Toe British
Commonwealth of Nations'. It is an association
of sovereig n and in dependent states which
formally made up the British empire.
22 To promote eoonomic, sooial, poli1ical and
miliiary cooperation.
163 To promote the development of international
standards.
28 Mutual defenoe and cooperation
25 To promote economic development in South
and South-East Asia
8 To p rovide for oolleotive and economic
oooperation in South-East Asia
13 Attempts to set world prices by controlling oil
production and also pursues member interest
in trade and development
To save the wildliie from extinction.
To keep a watch over human rights violation
worldwide. Got Nobel Prize in 1977 fo r Peace.
120 Political oooperation and establishment of
separate identity from both USA and USSR On
the Cold-War era) .
36 To stimulate eoonomic progress and world
trade.
134 To promote eoonomic cooperation among
developing nations.
28 To oreate a Uniied Europe in which member
oountries would have such strong economic
and political bonds that war would cease to be
a recurring fact.
68 To promote sooio-economic development in
Asia.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge
Organisation and HQ
Assooialion of South-East Asian
Nations (ASEAN)
Estd in 1967 (Jakarta)
Group of 8 (G-8) on 24 Maroh.
2014, Russia was suspended , due
to association with crimean arises,
2014 su mmit took plaoe in
Brussels.
Organisation of Islamic
Cooperation (OIC)
Estd in 1969 (Saudi Arabia)
World Economic Forum (WEF)
Estd in 1971 (Geneva) Annuaf
meeting 2015- Davos, Switzerland
Gulf Cooperation Council
(GCC)Estd in 1981
Nordic Counoil Estd in 1952
South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
Estd in 1985 {Kathmandu)
Group of 15 (G-16)
Estd m 1989
Asia Pacific Eoonomic Cooperation
(APEC)
E:std in 1989 (Singapore)
Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS)
Estd in 1991
[Minsk (Belarus)]
Sanghai Cooperation Organisation
0
~~?d (n 1996 (Beijing, China)
Group of Twenty (G-20)
Estd in 1999
2014 su mmitaBrisbane
African Union
OAU charter-1963
AU founded-2002
BRICS (Brazil , Russia, India, China
and South Africa)
First iormal summit-Yekaterinburg,
2009
Arotic Counoil Estd. in 1996
BASIC Estd in 2009
International Solar Alliance (ISA)
(Estd in Paris (2016)
Bay of Bengal Initiative for
Multiasectoral Teohnical and
Eoonomic Cooperation (BIMSTEC)
(Estd in 1997, at Bangkok)
Member Objective
10 Regional eoonomic Sooial and oultural
oooperatino among the non-communist
ooun tries of South-East Asia
8 To promote Cooperation among major
non-communist economic power.
57 To promote Islamic solidarity among member
states and to consolidate oooperation among
members.
To im prove the state of the world by engaging
leaders in partnerships to shape global, regional
and industry agendas.
6 It is a political and economic union of the Arab
states.
8 Geo-political, inter-parliamentary forum for
oooperation among Nordic countries.
8 To promote eoonomic , sooial and oultural
oooperation in South Asia_
17 To promote eoonomic cooperation among
developing nations.
21 To promote trade and investment in the Pacific
basin.
9 To ooordinate inter-common wealth relations
and to provide a mechanism i or the orderly
dissolution of the USSR.
8 To develop mutual cooperation.
20 For cooperation and oonsultation or matters
pertaining to the International Financial System_
56 To accelerate the political and socioaeconomic
integration of the oontinenl
5 To improve the economical condition of the
oountry_
8 Try to keep Arctic area olean and safe.
4 To ooordinate the polioies of developing
ooun tri es regarding olimate change.
121 Promotion of Solar Energy among members
Coun tries
7 Multiasectoral Teohnical and Economic
Cooperation among members
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Sports
OLYMPICS Olympic Flag
• The Olympic Flag was created in 1913 at
• The Olympic Games were held for the the suggestion of Baron Pierre de
first time by the Greeks in 776 BC on Coubertin. It was adopted in Pads in
Mount Olympus, in honour of the Greek June, 1914, but it was raised over an
God, Zeus. They were stopped by a royal Olympic stadium for the first time at the
order of the Roman Emperor Theodosius Antwerp games (Belgiwn) in 1920.
in AD 394. There is also a second Olympic Flag,
• These games were revived in 1894 by the '"''rnch is used for the Winter games.
efforts of a French Baron Pierre de These flags ~ue made of wrute silk and
Coube11in and the fhst modern Olympic contain five interwined rings of the
GanJes were started in Athens the capital Olympic Emblem.
of Greece on 6th April, 1896. Separate • From left to right the 1ings are Blue
, 1vinter Olympic GanJes began in 1924. (Europe), Yellow (Asia), Black (Africa),
Women have been participating in the Red (America) and Green (Australia).
Olympics since 1912. Atleast one of these colours is found on
• The Olympic Games are organised after the flag of every country.
every 4-years. • The flag is 3 m long and 2 m wide. The
emblem placed in the center is 2.06 m
Founder and Governing Body by 60 cm.
• In 1894, Baron Pierre de Coubertin
founded the In ternational Olympic Olympic Motto
Committee (] OC) to govern the Olympic Olympic Motto 'Citius, Altius, Fortius' is
Movement (comp1ising International the Latin motto meaning 'Fas ter, Higher
Sports Federations (lSF's), National and Stronger' composed by Father Didon
Olympic Committees (NOCs) and in 1897.
Organising Committees for each speci£c
The motto was introduced in 1924 at the
games).
Olympic Games in Paiis.
• IOC chooses the host city and the games
to be contested organisation and funding Olympic Flame
is made by the host city. The Olympic :flanJe symbolises the
• International Sports Federation (]SF) continwty betv11een ancient and modern
determines the qualification ruJes for games. It was at the Amsterdam GanJes in
each Olympic. 1928 that for the first time an Olympic
• The Head office of In ternational Olympic flame was ceremorually lighted and burned
Committee (]OC) is at Lausanne in a giant torch at the entrance of the
(Switzerland). stachum. The modern version of the flanJe
was adopted in 1936 at the Berlin GanJes.
Olympic Symbol
• It contains five rings or circles lin ked Olympic Medals
together to represent the sporting Olympic cbanJpions are rewarded with
fdendship of all people. Each ring is of a medals and certificate. The winning
different colour i.e., blue, yellow, black, athlete or sports persons receive a Gold
green and red. The rings are meant to Medal which, is 60 mm in chanrnter and
represent five continents viz Africa 3 mm truck and is made of 92.5% silver
(Black), America (Red), Asia (Yellow), plated with 6 gm of gold.
Australia (Green) and Europe (Blue).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge
e
Olyinpic Mascot Swnmer and Winter Games on sepai-ate 4
year cycles in alternating even-nwnbered
• The Olympic Mascot(s) js/are a years, the next Winter Olympics after 1992
character, usually an animal native to was in 199 4_ In 20 14 Olympic games were
the area or occasionally hum an figures, held at Sochi, Russia.
\'l ho represents the cultural h eritage of
1

the place, where the Olympic and The 2018 winter olympic gan1es were held
Paraolympic Games are taldng place. in Pyeongchang County, South Korea .
• Since the 1968 Winter Olympics in Norway topped the medal tally by winning
Grenoble, France, the Olympic Games 14 Gold, 14 Silver and 11 Bronze.
h ave had a mascot. The :fiTst major The 2022 Winter Olympics were held in
mascot in the Olympic Games was Misha Beijing, China.
in the 1980 Summer Olympics in
Moscow. Summer Olympic Games
Olyinpic Gold Order Year Venue
• It is presented by the International 1896 Athenes, Greece
Olympic Committee for distingl.l.isbed 1900 Paris, Franoe
services in the development of the 1904 St Louis, Franoe
Olympie Movement. 1906 Athenes, Greece (Games were not
reoognised by IOC)
Olympics : Quick Digest 1908 London, Great Britain
■ 'Norman Pritchard' was the first Indian 1912 Sto □ kholm, Sweden
player to participate in Olympic (2nd 1916 Games not held due to World War I
Olympic Games in 1900) and won two 1920 Antwerp, Belgium
Silver Medals in athletics.
1924 Paris, Franoe
■ Marrie Lila Rao is 1st Indian woman
partioipant in the Olympics after 1928 Amsterdam, Netherlands
lndependenoe. 1932 Los Angele s, USA
■ India ofiioially participated in the 1936 Berlin, Germany
Olympics for the i irst time in the Sixth 1940 Games not held due to World War II
Olympic Games (1920) at Antwerp 1944 Games not held due to World War II
Belgium. 1948 London, Great Britain
■ The Indian Olympic Association was
1952 Helsinki , Finland
established in 1927. Sir Dorabji Tata was
its first President 1956 Melbourne, Australia
■ Sonia Denoncourt (Canada) was the 1960 Rome, Italy
1st woman referee in football in A'llanta 1964 Tokyo, Japan
Olympics. 1968 Me><ioo City, Mexico
1972 Munioh, West Germany
The Winter Olympic Games ai·e a major
international sporting event that occoms 1976 Montreal, Canada
once every 4 years. Unhke the Summer 1980 Mosoow, Russia
Olympics, the Winter Olympics feature 1984 Los Angele s, USA
sports practiced on snow and ice. The :fhst 1988 Seoul, Sou1h Korea
Winter Olympics, the 1924 Winter 1992 Barcelona, Spain
Olympics, was held in Chamorux, France.
The games were held every 4 years from 1996 Atlanta, USA
1924 until 1936, after which they were 2000 Sydney, Australia
interrupted by World War Il. 2004 Athene s, Greece
The Olympics resumed in 1948 and was 2008 Beijing, China
again held every 4 years. Until 1992, the 2012 London, Great Britain
Winter and Swnmer Olympic Games were 2016 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
held in the same yeai·s, but in accordance
·with a 1986 decision by the International 2021 Tokyo, Japan
Olympic Commmee (] OC) to place the 2024 Paris, Franoe (Soheduled)
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

India's Performance in Olympics

Discipline Year Performance
Wrestling 1952 KO Jadhav won Bronze Medal in men's 52-57 kg Freestyle
2008 Sushi! Kumar won Bronze Medal in men's 66 kg Freestyle
2012 Sushi! Kumar won Silver Medal in men's 66 kg Freestyle
2012 Yogeshwar Dutt won Bronze Medal in men's 60 Kg Freestyle
2016 Sakshi Malik won Bronze Medal in women's 58 Kg Freestyle
Hockey 1928 Won Gold Medal
1932 Won Gold Medal
1936 Won Gold Medal
1948 Won Gold Medal
1952 Won Gold Medal
1956 Won Gold Medal
1960 Won Silver Medal
1964 Won Gold Medal
1968 Won Bronze Medal
1972 Won Bronze Medal
1980 Won Gold Medal
2020 Won Bronze Medal
(Tokyo
Olympics)
Shooting 2004 Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore won Silver Medal in double trap
2008 Abhinav Bindra won Gold Medal in Men's 10 m air riile
2012 Vijay Kumar won Silver Medal in 25 Rapid Fire Pistol
2012 Gagan Narang won Bronze Medal in 1Om Air Rifle
Ath letics 1900 Norman Pritchard won two Silver Medals in (200 m) and (200 m
hurdle) events
1960 Milkha Singh-fourth in 400 m final Zora Singh- eighth in 50 km
walk
1964 Gurbachan Singh Randhawa -iifth in 100 m hurdles (final)
1976 Sriram Singh-seventh in 800 m iinal Shivnath Singh-eleventh in
the marathon
1980 Sriram Singh-Semifinalist in 800 m
1984 PT Usha-fourth in 400 m hurdles
2020 Neeraj Chopra won Gold Medal in men's javelin throw
(Tokyo (87.58 m)
Olympics)
Football (Soooer) 1956 Semi-finals
Tennis 1996 Leander Paes won Bronze Medal in men's singles event
Weightli fting 2000 Kamam Malleshwari won Bronze Medal in women's 69 kg
category
2020 Saikhom Mirabai Chanu won Silver Medal in the women's
(Tokyo 49 kg category
Olympics)
Bmcing 2008 Vijender Singh won a Bronze Medal (75 kg )
2012 Mary Korn won a Bronze Medal in Women's flyweight
2020 Lovlina Borgohain won Bronze Medal
(Tokyo
Olympics)
Badminton 2012 Saina Nehwal won a Bronze Medal in Women's singles
2016 PV Sindhu won a Silver in women's singles
2020 PV Sindhu won Bronze Medal in women's singles
(Tokyo
Olympics)
Gymnastics 2016 Dipa Karmakar 4th place in the vault Final.
Wrestling 2016 Sakshi Malik won bronze medal in 58 kg category
2020 Ravi Kumar Dahiya won Silver Medal in 57 kg freestyle and
(Tokyo Bajrang Punia won Bronze Medal in 65 kg freestyle wrestling.
Olympics)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge
Commonwealth Games
• The Commonwealth Games are a
festival of sports of the Commom1vealth
counb.·ies. The first Commomvealth
Games were held in 1930 in Hamilton,
Canada. The 2010 Commonweal th
Games were held in New Delm, India.
• Since 1930, the gan1es have been
conducted every 4-years except for
1942 and 1946.
• The Commonwealth Games
Federation (CGF) js the orgamsation,
, 1vhich js responsible for the direction
and control of the Commomivealth
Games.
• 20th Commonwealth Gan1es of 20 14
were held in Glasgow (Scotland, UK).
• The 2018 commonwealth Gan1es were
held on the Gold coast, Queensland,
Ausrr·alia. Australia won the most gold
medals, where as India ranked 3rd
,vith 26 golds.
• The 2022 Commom1vealth Gan1es , 1vere
held in Birmingham, England.
• 23rd Commomvealth Games (2026)
, 1vill be held in Vic tmia, Ausrr·alia.
Asian Games
• The Asian Games, also called the Asiad,
are a multisport event held every 4-years
among athletes from all mrer Asia.
• The gan1es are regulated by the
Olympic Council of Asia (OCA), under
the supervision of the International
Olympic Committee (IOC).
• The first Asian Games were held in
195 1 in New Delhi (India).
• The AGF (Asian Games Federation)
adopted 'Ever Onward' , given by
Pt Jawaharlal Nehru, as the motto of
the Asian Games, which continues till
today.
• The emblem js a bdght full rising Sun
, 1vith interlocking rings. The King of
Patiala presented the Torch and the
Flag for the first Asian Games and
since then they have been carded from
counb.-y to counb.-y.
• The Asian Games or Asia.cl 2018 , 1vere
held in J akarta-Palembang, Indonesia.
India firrished at 8th position with 15
Golds.
• The 2022 (19th) Asian Games will be
scheduled in Hangzhou, China.
• The 2026, Asian Games is Scheduled
to be held in Aichi-Nagoya, Japan.
South Asian Federation (SAF)
Games
• The governing body of these games is
South Asian sports Council formed in
1983.
• The first South Asian Federation Gan1es
were held at Kathmandu (Nepal) in 1984.
SAF Games, 2016 were held in India.
• The eight participating countries are India,
Pakistan, Sd Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal,
Bhutan, Afghanjstan and Maldives. The
games form a part of the SAARC
programme. The motto of the SAF Games
js 'peace, prosperity and progTess'.
• No SAF Game were staged in 1986 as it
was the year of commom1vealth and Asian
Games. The SAF Games have been
rechristened South Asian Gan1es on 2nd
April, 2004. Afghamstan joined the games
in 2006.
• SAF Games, 2019 was held in Nepal while
SAF Games, 2024 is scheduled to be held
in Lahore, Pakistan.
Afro-Asian Gan1es
• The first-ever Afro-Asian Games were held
in 2003 at Hyderabad (India) . 2007 in
Algiers (Cancelled).
• The offidal mascot of the 2003 gan1es was
'Sheroo' (a cartoon representation of the
Royal Bengal Tiger) and the message was
'two continents-one spilit'.
Cricket
• The first Clicket World Cup was orgarused
in England in 1975. A separate women's
Cricket World Cup has been held eve1-y
4-years since 1973.
• The Cricket World Cup Tomnanrnnt is
organfaed by the International Cricket
Council (ICC). The ICC was fow1ded
in 1909 and its headquarters is located in
Duba_j, UnHed Arab Emrrates.
• In 1877, the first Clicket Test Match was
played in Melbourne between England and
Ausb.·alia.
• The first One Day In ternational Cricket
Match was played in the year 1971
between England and Ausrr·alia in
Melbourne.
• The Board of Control for Cricket in India
(BCCI) was formed in 1927.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

List of Cricket World Cup

1975 Lord's, England West Indies beat Australia
1979 Lord's, England West Indies beat England
1983 Lord's, England India beat West Indies
1987 Kolkata, India Australia beat England
1992 Melbourne, (Australia) Pakistan beat England
1996 Lahore, Pakistan Sri Lanka beat Australia
1999 Lord's, England Australia beat Pakistan
2003 Johannesburg, South Africa Australia beat India
2007 Bridgetown, West Indies Australia beat Sri Lanka
2011 Mumbai, India India beat Sri Lanka
2015 Australia/New Zealand Australia beat New Zealand
2019 England and Wales England beat New Zealand
2023 India Scheduled

Wo1nen's Cricket World Cup

The ICC Women's Cricket Wodd Cup js the prem1er international championsrnp of
women's One Day International Cricket. The event is organised by the sport's governing
body, the International Clicket Council (ICC). lt was oliginally admin.istered by the
International Women's Clicket Council until the two associations merged in 2005. The
first tournament was held in England in 1973, 2-years before the first men's tournament.

Women's Cricket World Cup Venus Important Facts

Year Place Won Administfator lnternaUonaJ Cricket
1982 New Zea land Australia Council
1988 Australia Australia
1993 England England Format Women's ODI
1997 India Australia First tournament 1973, England
2000 New Zealand New Zealand
Last tournament 2017, England
2006 South Africa Australia
2009 Australia England Current champion England
2013 India Australia Most successfu l Australia (6 titles)
2017 England England
2022 New Zealand Australia

Twenty-20 World Cup

• It js organfaed by the International Cdcket Council (ICC). lt is held every 2-yea..rs.

ICC Twenty-20 Cricket World Cup

Year Host NaUons Final Venue Winner Runner-up
2007 South Africa Johannesburg India Paki stan
2009 England Lord's, London Pakistan Sri Lanka
2010 West Indies Barbados England Australia
2012 Sri Lanka R Premdasa Stadium, Colombo West Indies Sri Lanka
2014 Bangladesh Sher-e Bangla Cricket Stadium , Dhaka Sri Lanka India
2016 India Eden Garden Kolkata, India Westlndies England
2021 India Dubai Australia New Zealand
2022 Australia Melbourne England Paki stan
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

• 2026 FIFA World Cup is scheduled to

Wmnen's Twenty-20 Cricket
• In June, 2009, the ICC held the first
Women's World Twenty-20 in England,
the hos ts became the fast World
Twenty-20 champion.
• Ausb.'alia ,,.,on their third consecutive tittle
in Women's World Twenty-20 after H ockey W orld Cup
defeating England.
• In 2016, West Indies won the T-20
Women's World Cup after defeating
Ausb:alia.
• Tbe 2018 ICC women's ,,vorld Twenty 20,
was hosted in the ,,vest Indies from 9 to 24
November 2018. Women team of Australia
captured the world T20 2018 title.
• The 2020 ICC Women's T-20 World Cup
was played in Australia. Ausrr·alia defeated • The 14th Women's Hockey World Cup,
India by 85 runs to win their fifth title .
Football World Cup
• The Football World Cup js organised by • The 14th Men's Hockey World Cup was
FIFA (Federation of International Football
Association) .
• Tbe headquarters of FrFA js located ill
Zurich, Switzerland.
• The World Cup is called 'Jules Rimet Cup'
named after the name of FIFA President
Jules Rime t.
• The first Football World Cup was
organised in Uruguay in 1930.
• In 1942 and 1946, the Football Wodd Cup
was not played because of the Wodd
War 11.
• Brazil js the only nation to have
participated in every World Cup so far.
• 20th FIFA World Cup 20 14 held in
Brazj]_ Germany defeated Argentina in
the final.
• The 2022 Football World Cup was held at
Qatar. Argentina has won by defeating
France.
be held at Canada, Mexico.
• 21st FIFA World Cup, 2018 was held ill
Russia where France became
champion defeating Coatia by the score
4-2.
• The Hockey World Cup js organised by
the International Hockey Federation
(FIH) once in 4-years. The
headquarters of FIH is loca ted ill
Lausanne, Switzerland. The first
Hockey World Cup was organised ill
Barcelona (Spain) ill 1971 and winner
js Pakistan. Women's Hockey World
Cup has been held sillce 1974.
2018 was held ill London where
Netherland emerged champion
defeating Ireland .
held at Kalinga Stadium,
Bhubaneshwar India in 2018. Belgium
became champion defeating
Netherland.
Lawn Tennis
• It was invented in 1870 by Major Wing
Field in Wales. Wimbledon champi-
onsWp started ill 1877 for men only.
For women it was introduced in 1884 .
• The four Grand Slam tournaments are
considered to be the most prestigious
tenrus tournaments ill the world. They
are held annually and include, ill
chronological order, the Ausrr·alian
Open, the French Open, Wimbledon
and the US Open. Apart from these
tournaments Olympic Games, Davis
Cup, Fed Cup and Hopman Cup are
also regulated by the International
Tennjs Federation (lT F).

Grand Slam Tournaments

Tournament Date LocaUon Surface First Held
Australian Open January Melbourne Hard (Plexioushion) 1905
Frenoh Open May-June Paris Clay 1925
Wimb ledon June.July London Grass 1877
US Open AugustaSeptember New York City Hard (Decoo Turf) 1881
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Other Sports
Table Tennis Badminton
Table Tennjs was introduced in the The modem name in 1873 of Badm.mton came
Olympic Games in 1988 at Seoul from the Badminton House, the International
(South Korea). Badminton Fed.ration was establismentin 1934,
the new name is Badminton World Federation.
Billiard
Cue sports also Jmown as billiard Cycling
sports, are a wide valiety of games of • The Tour de France toU1·nan1ent is an annual
sldll generally played with cue stick, bicycle race held in France and nearby
whkh is used to sbike billiard balls, counmes. First staged in 1903, the race
moving them around a cloth-covered covers more than 3600 Jan and Jast three
billiards table bounded rubber weeks. This is organfaed every year in month
cushions. of July.
• The 2002 Summer Olympics will be the first,
Polo at whkh men and women complete in the
Polo (Chowgan) is a team sport played some number of events in all cyding
on horsebac k, in which the objectives disciplines.
is to score goals against an opposing
team. Sometimes called, 'The sport of Swin1n1ing
kings' it was highly popularised by the • S\Jvimmmg js a wa ter based sport governed by
Biitish. It js not an Olympic sport. the Federation In ternationals de Natation
(FINA) and js formed in 1908. FINA is the
Wrestling In ternational Federation (IF) recogrused by
Wrestling is a form of combat sport the lnternationa.1 Olympic Col]]J]]ittee (I OC)
involving grappling types techniques for adminfatering international competition
such as clinch fighting, thrnws and in the aquatic sports.
talc.e downs, joint locks, pins and other • Its headquarters js at Lausanne, Switzerland.
grappling holds.
Shooting
Formula One (Fl) Race • Shooting sports have been contested at eve11'
• Formula one, also knmiv-n as Summer Olympic Games since the birth of
Formula 1 or Fl and referred to the modern Olympic Movement at the 1896
officially as the FIA Formula One Summer Olympics except at the 1904 and
World Championship, is the highest 1928 erntions.
class of single seater auto racing
sanctioned by the Federation Marathon
International Automobile (FIA). The marathon is a long-distance runing event
• It was started in 1950. with on official rnstance of 42. 195 km (26 miles
• The first Formula One World and 385 yards), that is usually run as a road
Championshlp was won by Italian race.
Giuseppe Farina in Alfa Romeo in The event was instituted in commemoration of
1950. The first Fl race in India , 1vas the fabled run of the Greek Solrner
he]d at the Buddha International Phedippiddes, a messenger fro m the Battle of
Circujt in Greater Naida, UP (201 1). Marathon to Athens.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Specific Names of Playing Areas

Sport Name of Playing Area Sport Name of Playing Area
Badminton Court Golf Link, Green**
Baseball Diamond Lawn Tennis Court
Brn<ing Ring Ice Skating Rink
Cricket Pitoh* Wrestling Ring, Arena

* Pitch in fact is the space between the wickets and not the entire cricket field_
** It is the area around the hole only.
Important Sport Terms
Sport Terms
Basketball Dunk. front oourt. lay up, held ball, pivot. rebound. steal
Cricket Bye, draw, googly, topspin, over throw. duck, hit wioket
Football Bend dribble, dissent, dummy, iein~ free kick, header, re d card . throwins
Hocke y Bully, striking, oirole , p ost back
Chess Castle, diagonaes, file s, pawns, peices, prom ote, gambit. pawn
Boxing Jab. laying on knook, second out habbit punoh. upper out
Badminton Loab, let, drive, drop, love
Polo Chuker, bunker
Baseball Diamond, home run , put out, strike, ant-rubber.
Rifle Shooting Target. muzzle fulb. bulls eye
Wrestling Hali, nelson, hold sager, rebuts
Golf Fore some. stymie. T. put hole. caddy, nib liok. iron. the green. bunkeer
Billiards Jigger, p o~ break pot, in off, cans, bolting, long. hazard, oue
Swimming Breast stroke. twist, butterfly, orawl. spring board
Volle y Ball Antennae, attack hi~ libero, service , set-up, blocking, dribbling
Lawn Tennis Advantage, aoe, denoe, volley, foot fault, smash. grand-slam, slioe. love
Table Tennis End line, flat hit, foil , service, phnholder grip, reverse, top-spin , couter-hitting ,
let

Important Cups and Trophies

Sport Cup and Trophy
Cricket Irani Tro[JhydJilip Trophy, Ranji Trophy, Vijay Hazare Trophy, Asia Cup , Deodhar
Trophy, CK 1\Jaidu Trophy, Cooch-Behar Trophy, Gandhi-Mendela Senes, the
Ashes Series, etc
Football Durand Cup, Ni~am Gold 9up, Rovers Cup , San,1 ·ay Gold Cup , Santosh Trophy,
Subroto Mukheqee Cup, Wtal Trophy, Nehru God Cup
Hockey Agha Khan Cup, Azlan Shah Cup , Nehru Trophy, Dhyanohand Trophy, Beighton
Cup, Soindia Gold Cup, Modi Gold Cup, Indira Gandhi Gold Cup, Rangaswami
Cup, Khan Abdul GaHar Cup
Golf Canada Cup, Muthian Gold Cup, Ryder Cup, Walker Cup
Table Tennis Corbillion Cup (women), Jayalaxmi Cup (women), Swaythling Cup (men)
Lawn Tennis Davis Cu~, Hamlet Cup, Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon, US Open,
Hopman Cup
Badminton Thomas Cup (men) . Uber Cup (women) . Narang Cup , All England Open
Boxing Aspy Adjania Trophy
Rowing Wall ington Trophy
Bridge Ruia Trophy
Polo Ezra Cup, Winchester Cup, Radha Mohan Cup
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Sports Organisations
FIDE Federation International Des Eohecs Chess
(World Chess Federation)
FIFA Federation International de Football Assooialion Football
IHF Indian Hockey Federation Hockey
ICC International Cricket Counoil Cricket
ITTF International Tab le Tennis Federation Table Tennis
BWF Badminton World Federation Badminton

Measurements of Sports Fields and Instruments

Cricket Ball 156.9 gm to 163 gm in weigh t
Bat 96.5 cm in lengi h and 10.8 om width (Maximum)
Pitch 20.12 m
Length of the Stumps 71.1 om (28 inch)
Length of the Crease 1 .22-1 .83 (4 ft)
Football Field 100 x 64 m to 110 x 75 m
Hockey Field 100 yards x 60 yards
Weight of ihe Ball 155-163 gm
Colour of the Ball White
Weight of Hockey Slick 280 gm
Lawn Tennis Court 23.77 m x 8.23 m (Singles)
Ball 6.35 cm to 6.67 om (in diameter)
56. 7 gm to 2.53 gm (Weight)
Volley Ball Field 18 m x 9 m
Net 1 m deep and 9.50 m long 2.43 m (for men)
and 2.24 m ior women (Height)
Ball Circumference 66 om + 1 om
Weight 270 gm + 10 gm
Badminton Court 13.40 m x 5.18mor44 x 20ft.
Net Top 1.524 m in height from the floor
ShuttJe 4.73 to 5.50 gm in weight and shall have 14 to 16
feathers fixed in Court
Kabadd i Field 13 mx 10 m
(According to Kabaddi Federation of India)
Kho-Kho Field 34 X 16 m
Derby Course Length 1.5 mfles
Marathon Race Length 26 miles, 385 yards
Polo Field Length 300 yards
Field Width 150 yards
Distance between the Goals 250 ya rds
Distance between the Goal post 8 yards
Chess 64 Squares on chessboard
Colour Blaok and White
Nos. of same colour chess 16
Baseball Distance of each case 90 fl
Base distance along with hypotenuse 127 ft
Boxing Length and Width of the Ring 4.9 X 4.9 rrf to 6.1 X 6.1 rrf
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Famous Sports Stadiums

Stadium Sports Place
Brookland Football England (UK)
Twickenham Rugby Football England (UK)
Putney Mart Lake BoatRaoe England (UK)
Yankee Stadium Boxing New York (USA)
Brooklyn Baseball New York (USA)
Forest Hill Tennis USA
Sendy Lodge Golt Scotland
Flemington Horse Racing Melbourne (Australia)
Headingley Manchester Cricket England (UK)
Lords, Oval. Leeds Cricket England (UK)
Black Heath Rugby Football London (UK)
Wimbledon Lawn Tennis London (UK)
Wembley Stadium Football London (UK)
Shivaji Stadium Hockey Delhi
Nalional Stadium Hockey Delhi
Nalional Stadium Hockey and others Mumbai
Wankhede Stadium Cricket Mumbai
Brabourne Stadium Cricket Mumbai
Eden Garden Cricket Kolkata
Green Park Stadium Cricket Kanpur
Keenan Stadium Cricket Jamshedpur
Trent Bridge Cricket England (U K)
White City Dog rac e England (UK)
Hurling ton Polo England (UK)
Henlay RegaHa Regata England
Brisbance, Melbourne, Perth, Sydney Cricket Australia
lndraprastha Stadium Indoor Games Delhi
Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium Athletics Delhi
Sardar Patel Stadium (Matera) Cricket Ahmedabad
Ambedkar Stadium Football Delhi
Nehru. Chepauk Stadium Cricket Chennai
Barabati Stadium Cricket Cuttaok
Aintree, Doncaster Epsom Horse Racing England (UK)

Players and their Associated Games

Players Game Country Players Game Country
Pankaj Advani Snooker India Sania Mirza Tennis India
Saina Nehwal Badminton India Deepa Malik Shot Put India
Shikha Tandon Swimming India rara
thletics)
Ignace Tirkey Hockey India
Novak Djokovic Tennis Serbia
Hima Das Athletics India
Pooja Dhanda Wrestling India
Tiger Woods Golt USA Gaurav Singh Gill Motorsports India
Andi Murray Tennis Scotland Bajrang Punia Wrestling India
Caroline Wozniaciki Tennis Den Simone Biles Gymnastic USA
Mark
Brooks Koekpa Golf USA
Victoria Anzarenka Tennis Belarush
Poonam Yadav Cricket India
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Nickname of Players Player Book

Player Nickname Yuvraj Singh The Test of My Life
VV S Laxman 281 and Beyond
■ Major Dhyanchand Hockey ka
Jadoogar Saurav Ganguly A Century is not Enough
• Milkha Singh Flying Sikh
• PT Usha Payyoli Express, National Games of India
Golden Girl
It was in 1924, in erstwhile Punjab, that the
■ Shoaib Aktar Rawalpindi Indian chapter of the Olympic movement was
Express born. The same year, the counb.y's first
■ Aahul Dravid The Wall Olympic Gan1es, now christened as National
■ Harbhajan Singh Bhajji, The Gan1es, were organised in Lahore, the then
Turbanator capital of undivided Punjab. National Games
■ Javagal Srinath Mysore Express are generally held once in 2 years, but these are
frequent delays.
■ Paes and Bhupati Indian Express
■ Hima Das Dhing Express List of National Games from 1985
YeaI Host Duration Top Placed
National Sports Team
CountJy NaUonaJ Sport 1985 New Delhi 19-26 Maharashtra
November
■ Australia Crioket
■ Canada Lacrose (loe 1987 Cannanore, Calicut, 20-28 Kerala
Hockey) Triohur, Quiton & December
Allepey
■ China Table Tennis
1994 Mumbai & Pune 16-25 Maharashtra
■ England Crioket January
■ India Hockey
1997 Bengaluru and 31 May- Kamataka
■ Japan Sumo Mysura 11 June
■ Malaysia Bad minton 1999 Imphal 14-25 Feb Manipur
■ Scotland Ring by Football 2001 Ludhiana, Patiala, 19 Nov- Punjab
■ Spain Bull Fighting Jalandhar, 1 Dec
Chandigarh,
■ USA Baseball Anandpur Sabih,
Mohali

Players and their Books 2002 Hyderabad, 13-22 Dec Andhra

Seounderabad, Pradesh
Player Book Visakhapatnam

Balvir Singh Golden Hatriok 2007 Guwahati 9-18 Feb Servioes

Viswanathan My Best Game of 2011 Aanohi . 12-26 Feb Servioes
Anand Chess Jamshedpur &
Dhanbad
David Beckham My Side
Major Dhyanohand Goal 2015 Thiruvananthapuram 31 Jan- Servioes
, Kallam , Alapuzha, 14 Feb
Sunil Gavaskar Sunny Days, Idols Ennabulam,
Tiger Woods How I Paly Golf Kozhikode, Thrissur,
Kannur
Kapil Dev Cricket My Style
2020 Goa (PostVoned
Saohin Tendulkar Playing It My Way due to CO 10-19
pandem ic)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Kn owledge

Principal Languages of India

India has 22 languages which have been given the offficial language status
As s amese It 1s an Inda-Aryan language and is the official language of Assam.
Be ng ali It 1s one of the leading Inda-Aryan language and 1s the official language
of West Bengal.
Gujarati It 1s an Inda-Aryan language and is the official language of Gujarat.
Hindi The largest spoken Inda-Aryan language .
It 1s the official language of the Government of lndia.
Various clialects of Hindi are Kbaiiboli, Brajbhasha, Bundeli, Awadhi,
Mai,vai·i, Maithili and Bhojpuri.
In 6 states and UTs, Hincli 1s the officia.J language .
Kannada It belongs to the Dravirnan fan:rily and is the official language of
Karn a talca.
Kashmiri It 1s an Inda-Aryan language.
It 1s often mfa talmn as the officia.J language of Janmm and Kashmir.
Konkani It is the official language of Goa and is spoken by thousands of Konkarns
in Mahai·ashtra, Karnataka and Kerala. It was added in 1992 by 71st
Amendment. It is an lndo-Aryan language.
Malayalam Belong to the Draviclian family and 1s the officia.J language of Kerala.
Manipm·i It 1s the official language of Manipur. lt was added in 1992 by 71st
Amendment. It is a sino-Tibetan language.
Marathi It is an Indo-Ai)'an language and is the officia.J language of Maha.rash b.-a.
Nepali It is spoken in pai-ts of Uttar Pradesh, Bibai·, West Benga.J, AssanJ, e tc. It
was added in 1992 by 71st Amendment. It 1s an Inda-Aryan language .
Oriya It 1s an Inda-Aryan language and is the official language of Ornsha.
Punjabi It 1s an Indo-Ai)'an language and is the official language of Punjab.
Sanskrit It is one of the earliest languages of the ,,vorld. Eai·ly Sansla1t 1s lmown as
Vedic Sanskrit and covers the period between 2000 and 500 BC.
Sindhi Itis an Indo-Ai)'an language. It was added in 1967by2lstAmendment.
Tamil It is the oldest of the Dravirnan languages and is the official language of
Tanill Nadu.
Telugu It is n unJerically the biggest of the Draviclian languages and is the officia.J
language of Andhra Pradesh.
Urdu It 1s the official language of JanJmu and Kashmir. l t 1s an Indo-A.ryan
language.
Modern Urdu developed due to the efforts of Sir Sayyed Ahmed Khan
(1817-1898).
Dogri It 1s generally spoken in HinJachal Pradesh and Jammu . It is a
combination of ancient Sanskrit and Pahai·i Dogri languages.
It bas been added by the 92nd Constitutional Amendment Ac t, 2003.
Maitbili It is chiefly spoken in the Maitbilianchal region of Bihai·. It is the second
state language of Bibar.
It bas been added by the 92nd Constitutiona.J Amendment Ac t, 2003.
Santbali It is chiefly spoken in the area of Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand
and Bibar. lt has been added by the 92nd Constitutional Amendment
Ac t, 2003.
Bodo It 1s chiefly spoken in Assam and its adjoining North-East States.
It has been added by the 92nd Constitutiona.J Amendment Ac t, 2003. It
belongs to the Sino-Tibe tan fan:rily oflanguages.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

National Insignia of India

Emblem The National Emblem of India is h uge tree towers over its neighbolll's and
an adaptation of the Buddhist Llon h as the widest trunk.
Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath, near Sport Field Hockey, in wWch India has an
Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. jmpressive record with eight Olympic
Animal The Tiger js the National Animal of medals, js considered as the National
India. It is the symbol of India's wealth of Sport. However, Home Minisb.}' has said
,,vi.ldlife. The magnificent tiger, Panthera that officially, no sport has been
tigris, is a striped an.imal. accorded, the status of National Sport.
Bi1·d The Peacock (Pavo cristatus), is the Anthem Jana-Gana-Mana ... . The song was
National Bird of India. It js symbol of composed odg:inally in Bengali by
qualities like beauty and grace . Rabindi-anath Tagore, adopted in its
Hindi version is our National Anthem.
Flag The National Flag is a hodzontaJ
tricolour of deep saffron (kesaii) at the Song The song Vande Mata.ram, composed
top, white in the middle, daclc green at in Sanslait by BanJdmchanclra Chatte1:ji,
the bottom and a blue wheel ( cbaha) js our National Song.
with 24 sticks at the centre. Calendru· The National Calendar based on
Fruit The Mango (Mangiferra indica) is the Salca Era \'l'lth Chaitra as its first
the National Fruit. It has been cultivated month and a norm al year of 365 days
in India since time immemmial. was adopted from 22nd Mai·cb , 1957.
Tree The National Tree of India is The Flower Lotus scientifically Jmown as
Banyan (Ficus bengalensis) Tree. Thjs Nel'llmbo nucifera is the National Flower
of India

Other National Symbols

National Sentence Satyamev Jayate
National Language Hindi in Devnagiri Script
Father of the Nation Mahatma Gandhi
National Foreign Polioy Non-Alignment
National Information Letter White Letter
National Currency Rupee(~
National Festivals - Republic Day (26th January)
- lndependenoe Day (15th August)
- Gandhi Jayanti (2nd October)
National River Ganga
National Aquatic Animal Ganga Dolphin (Platanista gangelica)
National Heritage Animal Elephant
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Indian Defence
Indian Army Commands Indian Air Force Commands
Command HQ Looation Command (Operational) HQ Location
Central Command Luoknow Central Air Command Allahabad
Eastern Air Command Shillong
Eastern Command Kolkata
Southern Air Command Thiruvanan-
Northern Command Udhampur thapuram
Southern Command Pune South Western Air Command Gandhi Nagar
SW Command Jaipur Western Air Command New Delhi
We stern Command Chandigarh Command (Funotional) HQ Loaotion
Training Command (ARTRAC) Shimla Training Command Bengaluru
Maintenance Command Nagpur

Indian Navy Commands

Command HQ Location
Western Naval Command Mumbai
Eastern Naval Command Visakhapatnam
Southern Naval Command Cochin

Indian Defence Training Institutions

Training Institution Plaoe Estd in
Rashtriya Indian Military College (RIMC) Dehradun 1922
Indian Military Academy (IMA) Dehradun 1932
High Altitude Warfare School (HAWS) Gulmarg 1948
National Defenoe Academy (NOA) Khadakwas la 1949
National Defenoe College (NOC) New Delhi 1960
Offioers Training Academy (OTA) Chennai 1963
Counter-Insurgency and Jungle Warfare School Vairengte (Mizoram) 1970
College of Defenoe Management Secunderabad 1970
College of Combat/Army War College Mhow (MP) 1971
Army Cadet College (ACC) Dehradun 1977
Army Air Def enoe College (AADC) Gopalpur (Odisha) 1989
Army Sohool of Physical Training (ASPT) Pune

Ranks of Commissioned Officers

Army AirForoe Navy
General Air Chief Marshal Admiral
Lt General Air Marshal Vioe Admiral
Major General Air Vioe Marshal Rear Admiral
Brigadier Air Commodore Commodore
Colonel Group Captain Captain
Lt Colonel Wing Commander Commander
Major Squadron Leader Lt Commander
Captain Flight Ueutenant Lieutenant
Lieutenant Flying Offi oer Sub-Lieutenant

Note In Decem ber 2019, Cabinet Com_mj ttee on secU1ity has established the post of
Chfof of Defence Staff to bring coordination between the thl'ee services i.e. Army, Navy
and Air Force.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Internal Security of India

Organisation Established
Assam Rifles (AR) ■ It was established in 1835 called Cachar Levy_ It is the oldest paramilitary
foroe in the country_
• Its main objective is to keep vigilance of international borders in North-East
and countering insurgency operations in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Mizoram and Nagaland_
Intelligence ■ It was set-up in 1920_
Bureau (1B) ■ Its objective is to collect secret information relating to country's security_
■ It was originally set-up as Central Special Branch (CSB) in 1887 and
rename d 1B in 1920_
Central Reserve ■ It was set-up in 1939_
Police Force Its main objective is to assist the State/Union Territory Police in
(CRPF) maintenance of law and order_
National Cadet ■ It was established in 1948_
Corps (NCC) ■ Its main objective is to stimulate interest among the youth in the defence of
the country in order to build up a reserve manpower to expand armed
foroes_

Territorial Army ■ It was established in 1948_

(TA) ■ It is a voluntary, part-time foroe (between 18 and 42 years), not of
professional soldiers, but civilians , who wish to assist in defence of the
country_
In do-Tibetan ■ It was established in 1962, after the Chinese attack_
Border Police
■ It is basically employed in the Northern borders for monitoring the borders
(ITBP)
and also to stop smuggling and illegal immigration_
Home Guard ■ It was established in 1962, to assist the police in maintaining security, to
help defence forces and to help local authorities in case of any eventuality_
Border Security ■ It was established in 1965_
Force (BSF)
■ It keeps a vigil over the international borders against the intrusion in the
country_
Central Industrial ■ It was set-up in 1969 after the recommendations of Justice B MukherjL
Security Force • Its objective is to monitor the industrial complexes of Central GovernmenL
(CISF)
Indian Coast ■ It was set-up in 1978_
Guard ■ Its objectrve is to protect the maritime and other national interests in the
maritime zones of India_

National Security ■ It was established in 1984 to counter the surge of militancy in the country_
Guards (NSG) ■ It is a highly trained force which deals with the militants effectively_
Rapid Action ■ It was established in 1991 _
Force (RAF) ■ Under the operationaJ command of CRPF, 10 battalions of the CRPF have
been reorien ted for tackling communal riots in the country_
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Defence Research in India

Defence Research and
Development Organisation
(DRDO)
It is an agency of the Republic of India,
responsible for the development of
techn ology for use by the mili tary,
headquartered in New Delhi, India.
It was fo rmed in 1958, by the merger of
Techrucal Development Establishm ent and
the Directorate of Technical Development
an d Production with the Defence Scien ce
Organisation.
Integrated Guided Missile
Development Programme
(IGMDP)
The IGMDP was launched in 1983, for the
developmen t of a comprehensive range of
mfasiles including the intermediate range,
Agni Missile (surface-to-surface) and short
range missiles such as the Pdthvi Ballistic
Missile (swface-to-swface) , Akasb Missile
(surface-to-air), Astra Missile (air-to-air),
Trisbul Missile (surface-to-air) and Nag
Missile (anti-tank).

Indian Missiles
Name Range
Agn i-I Ir is a medium-range ballistic missile with a range of 700-800 km .
Agn i-II Ir is an intermediate-range ballistic missile with a range of 2000-3000 km.
Agn i-Ill Ir is an intermediate-range ballistic missile with a range of 3000-6000 km.
Agn i-IV Ir is an intermediate-range ballistic missile with a range of at a distance upto
4000 km .
Agni-V It is an intercontinental ballistic missile with a range of 5000-8000 km.
Prithvi Prtthvi is a tactical surface-to-surface Short-Range Ballistic Missile (SRBM) _
It has three versions.

Prithvi-1 (SS-150) Army Version (150 km range with a payload of 1ODO kg) .
Prithvi-11 (SS-250) Air Faroe Version {250 km range with a payload of 500 kg).
Prithvi-111 (SS-350) Naval Version (350 km range with a payload of 1000 kg) _
Astra Astra is Beyond Visual Range (BVR) air-to-air missile. Astra is designed to be
capable of engaging targets at varying range and altitudes allowing for both
short-range targets (upto 20 km) and long-range targets (upto 80 km) using
alternative propulsion modes.
Akash ■ Akash is a medium range surface-to-air missile defence system developed
by DADO and BEL as part of t he IGMDP. The missile can target aircraft up to
30 km away, at altitudes of 18000 m. Akash can be fired from both tracked
and wheeled platforms.
■ Akash is said to be capable of both oonventional and nuolearwarheads, with
a reported payload of 60 kg .
Trishul Trishu l is a short range surfaoe-to-air missile. The range of the missile is
12 km and is fitted with a 15 kg warhead _The weight of the missile is 130 kg_
Nag Nag is India's third generation 'Fire-and-Forget' anti-tank missile. It is an all
weather, top attaok missile with a range of 3 to 7 km.
Sagarika K-15 Sagarika is a nuolear-capable submarine launched ballistic missile with
a range of 750 km . It belongs to the K Missile family. The latest test of the
K-15 Missile was done on 11th March , 2012_
Agni VI It is an intercontinental ballistic missile with a range of 8000-12000 km .
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Name Range
Brahmas ■ Brahmas is a stealth supersonic oruise missile that can be launched from
submarines, ships , aircraft or land. It is a joint venture between Republic of
India 's DADO and Ru ssian Federation's NPO Mashinostroyeniya, who have
together formed Brahmas Aerospace Private Limited.
■ It is the world's fa stest cruise missile in operation _ The missi le travels at a
speed of m ach 2.8 to 3.0. It has a range of 290 km. It can carry 300 kg of
conventional or nuolear warhead.
• It is a hypersonic cruise missi le with a rang e of 290 km. It is under
developmenL

Shaurya ■ The Shaurya Missile is a short-range surface-to-surf aoe ballistic missile

developed by DADO for use by the Indian Army capable of hypersonic
speeds , it has a range of 600 km and is capable of carrying a payload of
one-tonne oonventional or nuolear warhead _
■ Shaurya Mi ssile is a land version of the under-water launched K-1 5 Missile,
Sagarika _

Nirbhay ■ Nirbhay is a long range, subsonic cruise missile being developed in India.
The missi le will have a range of 1ODO km. The m issile will have a speed of
0.8 maoh. The Nirbhay will be able to launohed from multiple platforms on
land, sea and air_
Rudram ■ It is air to surfaoe anti-radiation missile with an operational range of 100-250
km. The missile will help in detecting, neutrali sing the adversary's rada rs and
communication assets.
Agni P ■ DADO suooessfully tested the new generation nuoleur capable ballistic
m issile 'Agni P' from Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Island_ The missile is capable of
striking 5000 kms way.

Indian Military Aircrafts

Akoraft Origin Type Versions
11-76 Pha lcon Ru ssia Airborne Early Warning 11-76

Sukhoi Su-30 MKI Ru ssia, India Multirole Air Superiority Fighter Su-30 MKI

Antonov An-32 Cline Soviet Union Cargo Aircraft An-32

HAL Tejas India Fighter Mark I

SEPECAT Jaguar Franoe, United Ground-Attaok SI

Kingdom
Mikoyan-Gurevich Mig-27 Soviet Union Ground-Attaok MIG-27 ML

Mil Mi-35 Hind-E Soviet Union Attaok Helioopter Mi-35

Mi-17 Soviet Union Transport Helioopter Mi-17

HAL Dhruv India Utility Helicopter Dhruv

Nishant India (DADO) Unmanned Aerial Vehioles (UAV)

HTT40 India (HAL) Replacement of HPT-32

Chinook USA (Boeing) & Multi-mis sion Helicopter
Helicopters

Rafale France Fighter Plane

(Dassault
Aviation)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

List of Combat Vehicles

Name Type Origin
■ Arjun MBT mk-1 Main Battle Tank India
■ T-90 S 'Bhishma'/ T-90 M Main Battle Tank Russia, India
■ T-72 M1 'Ajeya ' Main Battle Tank Soviet Union
■ T-55 Main Battle Tank Soviet Union
■ Muntra Armoured Vehiole India

Sub-marines of the Indian Navy

INS Chakra ■ The INS Chakra II (K-152 Nerpa) is a 8140 tonne project 518 (NATO Akula II)
type nuclear-powered attack submarine.
• Constituted in 1993, but suspended due to lack of funding.
• K-152 Nerpa was launched in October 2008 and entered service with the
Russian Navy in late 2009.
■ The submarine was leased to th e Indian Navy in 2011 and was forma lly
commissioned into servioe as the INS Chakra II at a oeremony in
Vishakhapatnam on 4th April, 2012.
INS Arihant • It is a olass of nuclear powered ballistic missile submari nes.
■ It is India's first indigenously designed and built nuclear submarine.
■ It is currently under sea-trial.

INS Kalvari ■ It is the iirst of Indian Navy's six Kalvari class sub-marine being build in India. It
is a diesal-electric attack sub-mari ne, which is designed by French naval
defence and energy oompany DCNS and being manufactured at Mazagon
Dock Umited in Mumbai.
INS Arighat ■ It is the second Arihant-olass submarine and the second nuolear-powered
ballistic missile submarine being built by India It was launched on 19th
November, 2017.
INS Khanderi ■ It is the second of the Indian Navy's six Kalvari-olass submari nes being built in
India. It is a diesel-electric attack submarine. It was launched on 12th January,
2017.
INS Karanj • Third submarine of the iirst batch of six kalvari class submarine.
■ It is a diesel-electric attack submarine, that was launohed on 31th January,
2018.
INS Vela ■ It is the fitth submarine of the firs t batoh of six Kalvari-olass submarines for the
Indian Navy.
■ It is a diesel-electric attack submarine based on the Scorpene olass, designed
by French naval defence and manufactured by Mazagon Doak Umited .
■ The submarine inherits its name from INS Vagir (S41) which served in the Navy
from 1973-2001, and was named after a species of sandtish.

Warsh ips/Base of the Indian Navy

INS Vikrant ■ The first Airoraft carrier of Indian Navy was INS VikranL
■ India purohased the INS Vikrant from the United Kingdom in 1967
(Now deoommissioned).
INS Viraat ■ INS Viraa t is a oentaur olass aircraft carrier ourrently in service with the Indian
Navy.
■ The Viraat was completed and commissioned in 1959, as the Royal Navy's
HMS Hermes and transferred to India in 1987 (Now Decommissioned).
INS Prahar ■ It is world's fastest missile ship oommissioned in 1997. It is a veer-class
Corvette (Now Decommissioned) .
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

INS Delhi ■ It is India's largest and m ost sophisticated indigenously built warship _
(Destroyer) ■ It was launohed in 1991 at Mazgaon Docks and Commissioned in 1997_
■ It is the leadship of her □ lass of guided Missile destroyers.

INS Mysore ■ It is a Delhi □lass guided missile destroyer ourrently in aotive servioe wi1h the
(Destroyer) Indian Navy_ INS Mysore was built at Mazgaon Dock Umited in Mumbai and it
was commissioned in 1999_
INS Prabal ■ It is a veer □lass corvette , ou rrently in aotive service with the Indian Navy_
(Corvette) ■ It was built at Mazgaon Doak Umiled and Commissioned in 2002.
INS TaJwar • It is the leadship of the Talwar olass frigates of the Indian Navy_
(Frigate) • Its name means 'Sword' in English _
■ It was built in Russia and oom missioned into th e Indian Navy in 2003.

INS Beas ■ It is a Brahmaputra olass frigate of the Indian Navy_

(Frigate) ■ It was built at the Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers (GASE) Kolkata ,
and it was oom missioned in 2005.
INS Kadamba • It is India's largest naval base located near Karwar in Kamataka_
(Naval Base) ■ It was commissioned in 2005, under the project Seabird.

INS ■ It is India's biggest ship, airoraft carrier.

Vikramaditya ■ It was aoquired from Russia_
(Surface Fleet) ■ It entered into Service with the Indian Navy in 2013.

INS Kolkata ■ It is the lead ship of the Kolkata olass guided missile destroyers of Indian Navy_
(Destroyer) ■ It was handed over to the Navy on 10th July, 2014.
INS ■ It is the lead ship of the Visakhapatnam-class stealth guided-missile
Visakhapatnam destroyers of the Indian Navy_
(Destroyer) ■ It is being constructed at Mazagon Dock Limited (MDL) and has been launched
on 2oth April, 2015 _The ship is expected to get oommissioned by 2018.
INS Kavaratti ■ It is an anti-submarine warfare corvette of the Indian Navy_
(Anti-submarine ■ It is the last of fou r komodo class corvettes under various stages of induction
Warfare w ith the Indian Navy_
Corvette) • The ship was built by Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers, Kolkata and
launched on 19th May, 2015 _
INS Kochi ■ It is the second ship of the Kolkata-olass destroyers built for the Indian Navy_
(Destroyer) ■ It is built at Mazagon Dock Umiied, Mumbai. She was oommissioned to Indian
Navy on 30th September, 2015.
■ It has been built under th e code name of project 15 Alpha.

INS ■ It is first totally indigenously-designed and built torpedo launoh and recovery
Astradharani vessel , commissioned on 6th Ootober, 2015.
(Torpedo ■ The unique design of the ship was a oollaborative effort of Naval Soienoe and
Recovery Technological Laboratory, IIT Kharagpur and shaft shipyard.
Vessel) • It is the advanced replacement of the INS Astravahini which w as
deoom missioned on 17th July, 2015.
INS Vibhuti ■ It was India's first indigenously bum missile boat launohed at Mazgaon Docks
(Corvette) in Mumbai.
■ It is a veer □ lass corvette_

INS Savitri ■ It was India's first warship fabricated at Hindustan shipyard Umiled in 1990_
(Offshore petrol ■ It is a Sukanya olass patrol vessel of the Indian Navy_
Vessel)
INS Shakti ■ It was India's first indigenously built submarine.
(Auxillary Fleet) ■ The ship is one of the largest in the Indian Navy as it is 175 min length and 32 m
in wid th_ It is a Deepak-class i leet tanker_
INS Dhruv ■ It is India's first nuoleur missile.
■ The ship wi1h its anti ballistic missile capabilities will act as an early warn ing
system for enemy missile headed toward Indian oities and military
establishments.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

India's Atomic Research

In dia's atomic energy research started with the establishment of the Atomic Energy
Comn:ussion on 10th August, 1948. Deparb:nent ofAton:uc Energy (DAE) was established
in 1954, for implementation of atomic energy programmes.
Bhabha Atomfo Research Centre (BARC) It was set up in 1954, as the Atomic
Energy establishment at Trombay, near Mumbai and in 1967, was ren amed as BARC in
the memory of its founder Dr Homi Bhabha. It is the premier nation al centre for
Research and Development (R & D) work in nuclear energy and related disciplines. At
present, BARC houses three research rea ctors
1. Apsara, a one MW Swimming pool type reactor.
2. Cin.1s, a 40 MW reactor.
3. Dhn1va, a 100 MW high power nucleaJ.· research reactor.
Earrlie,~ there were two more research reactors at BARC
1. Zeiliana (zero energy, natmal uranhun)
2. Pumima I-ID (fuel: plutonh1m/ manium-233)
The centre has built two Synchrotron Radiation Sources (SRSs) called Indus I and Indus II
and developed versatile lasel's for various applications.
lndfra Gandhi Centre for Atomk Research (1GCAR) It was set-up in 1971, at
Kalpakkam in Chennai for research and developmen t of fast breeder technology. IGCAR
designed Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR), which uses indigenous mixed fuel , 1vith a
plutonium and natmal maniunJ base. HGCAR also developed the country's first neutron
reactor, Ka.mini, ,,vhich is a 30 MW reactor and uses uranium fuel.
Atomic Mineral Directorate (AMD) It is loca ted in Hyderabad and caJ.·lies out surveys,
exploration and evaluation of the resomces required for the aton:uc energy progranJIDes
of the country.
Variable Energy Cyclotmn Centre (VECC) It was set-up in 1977, at Kolkata as a
national centre for advanced ,,vork in nucleaJ.· chem.isb.)', nucleaJ.· physics , production of
isotopes for various applications and radiation damage studies on reactor matelials.
Centre for Advance Technolog-y (CAT) It was establlshed in 1984, at In dore to
coordinate research in high technology fields like lasers, fusion and accelerators.
Nuclear Power Stations At a Glance
Looation State Number of Reactors
L Functional
1. Tarapur Maharashtra 4
2. Kaiga Karnalaka 4
3. Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu 2
4. Kakrapar Gujarat 3
5. Aawalbhala Rajas than 5
6. Narora Uttar Pradesh 2
7. Kudankulan Tamil Nadu 2

IL Under Construction
1. Kudankulam Tamil Nadu 2
2. Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu
3. Aawalbhala Rajas than 2
4. Kakrapar Unit 344 Gujarat
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

There are now 22 operating nuclear power reactors (two boiling water reactors and
twenty PHWRs (Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors) , 1vith a total installed capacity of
6780 MW (1.8% of total installed base).

Heavy Water Production

1. Nangal (Punjab) First heavy water plant in the country
2. Baroda (Gujarat)
3. Talchar (Odisha)
4. Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu)
5. Thal (Maharashtra)
6. Hazira (Gujarat)
7. Manuguru (Andbra Pradesh)
8. Rawatbhata (Rajasthan)

India's Nuclear Test

• On 18th May, 1974, lnma conducted her first underground nuclear explosion at
Pokhran (Rajasthan) in the Thar desert at a depth of 100 m. The code name used to
convey the success of the test to the then Prime Minjster, Indira Gandhi, , 111as 'Buddha
:is Smiling'.
• For the second time, India conducted on 11th May, 1998 thrne underground nuclear
e>...1Jlosions at the same place i.e, Pok.ln·an in the Thar desert of Rajas than at a depth of
100 m. The test were code nan1ed 'Operation Shakti '.

Space Programme of India

• The Inman Space Programme was launched :in 1962, when the Inman National
Commjttee for Space Research was formed. To this were added the Indian Space
Research Organisation in 1969 and the Space Commjssion and Deparbnent of Space
:in 1972. The Inman Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is responsible for the
planning, execution and management of space research activities and space
appncat:ion progran1mes.
• The ISRO has headquarters at Bengaluru.
• lnma's fhst satellite communication Earth station was set-up at Arvi near Pune. The
first Indian Satellite Aryabhatta was law1ched on 19th April, 1975 from Baikonur
(erstwhile USSR). The first Indian Remote Sensing Satellite was launched on
17th March, 1988.
• The fast Inman Communication Satellite, APPLE was launched on 19th June, 1981
from Kow-ou in French Guyana (South An1eLica). It was the first Inman satellite that
was placed in geostationary orbit.

ISRO Establishments
SHAR Cenb·e, Sriharikota
• It :is located on the East coast of Andhra Pradesh, SHAR :is the main launch centre of
ISRO. Thjs centre also undertalces large scale production of sand rocket propellant and
ground testing of sand fulled rocket stages of the Indian launch vehicles. In September
2002, the SLibarikota Space CentTe was renan1ed as Professor Satish Dhawan Space
Centre.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

ISRO Telemetiy, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC)

• It has headquarters and Spacecraft Control Cenb."e at Bengaluru and a net'work of
ground stations at Sriharikota, Thiruvananthapmam, Bengaluru, Lucknow, Car
Nicobar and Mauritius. The ISTRAC provides Telemenb.-y, Tracking and Command
(TTC) support for the 1aunch vehicles and satellite mfasions of ISRO and for other
space agencies.

Master Control Facility

• It js located at Hassan in Kamataka and Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, js responsible for
all post Jauncb operations of INSAT satellites induding orbital manoeuvn~s, station
keeping and in-orbit operations on the spacecraft.

ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU)

• It is located in Thiruvananthapmam, cardes out development of inertial systems for
both satellites and launch vehicles.

Space Applications Cenb·e (SAC)

• It is located in Ahmedabad, js ISRO's research and development centl'e for conceiving,
organising and building systems for practical applications of space technology. The
major fields of activity cover satellite communication, remote sensing, meteorology and
geodesy.

Physical Research Laboratory (PRL)

• It js located in Ahmedabad under Department of Space and js the premier national
centre for research in space and allied sciences.

National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA)

• It is located in Hyderabad under the Depar1TI1ent of Space, has facilities for slll'veying,
identifying, classifying and monitoring Earth resources using serial and satellite data.

Development and Educational Commllllication Unit (DECU)

• It's headquarters is located in Ahmedabad it, is involved in the conception, definition,
planning and socio-economic evalu ation of space application programmes.

Vik.Tam Sarabhai Space Centr e (VSSC)

• It is located in Thiruvananthapuram, is the leading centre for launch vehicle
development and it pioneers in rocket research and planning and execution of launch
vehicle development projec ts.

ISRO Satellite Cenb·e (ISAC)

• It is located in Bengaluru, js responsible for the design, fabrication, testing and
management of satellite systems for scientific, technological and application missions.

National Atmospheric Resear ch Laboratory

• At Gadanld near Tirupathi, is used by scientists for carrying ou t a1TI1ospheric research.

Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systems (LEOS)

• It js loca ted in Bengalurn and js engaged in design, development and production of
Elecb.·o-Optic sensors and camera optics for satellites and launch vehicles. The sensors
include star trackers, Earth sensors, Sun sensors and processing electronics.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Liquid Propulsion Systems North-East states to adopt space

Cenb·e (LPSC) technology inputs for their development.
• It is located at Thirnvananthapuram an d Regional Remote Sensing
Bengaluru. The LPSC undertakes Service Cenb·es (RRSSCs)
research, development and testing of
• Five RRSSCs have been established by
hq uid propulsion systems for lSRO's
the DoS at Bengaluru, Jodhpur, Kalka.ta
launch vehicle and satellite programmes.
and Nagpur. RRSSCs support the
The Indian Institute of Remote vaiious remote sensing tasks specific to
their regions as well as at the national
Sensing (IIRS) level.
• It js located in Dehrndun, js a premier
training and education institute dealing Navik
, 1vith Rem ote Sensing, Geoinform ation
Science and GPS Techn ology and their • Navigation with Indian Constitution is India's
Applications. indigenous global navigation satellite
system_
North Eastern-Space Applications • The Constiuation consists of 3 geostationary
Cenb·e (NE-SAC) and 4 geosynchronous satel lites.
• It is located at Umiam (near Shillong), • It is designed as a replacement of U.S. based
Meghalaya. The centre has the mandate GPS and to provide posirion information in
to develop high technology the Indian region and 1500 km around the
:infrasb.-uctw:e support to enable Indian mainland.

Indian Space Prog ramme At a Glance

Satellite Date Launch Vehicle Place Type

Aryabhatta 19th April, 1975 Cosmos Baikonur Experimental

Bhaskara I 7th June, 1979 Cosmos Baikonur Earth Observation

Rohini 10th August, 1979 SL V-3 Sriharikota Experimental

Rohini 01 31st May, 1981 SL V-3 Sriharikota Earth Observation

Apple 19th June, 1981 Ariane Kourou Commun ication

Bhaskara II 20th November, 1981 Cosmos Baikonur Earth Observation

INSAT-IA 10th April, 1982 Delta America Communication

IRS-1B 29th August, 1991 Vostok Baikonur Earth Observation

INSAT 2A 10th July, 1992 Ariane-4 Kourou Communication

INSAT 2B 23rd July, 1993 Ariane-4 Kourou Communication

INSAT-3B 22nd Maroh, 2000 Ariane•S Kourou Communication

GSAT-1 18th April, 2001 GSLV-O1 Sriharikota Communication

INSAT-3A 10th April, 2003 Ariane•S Kourou Communication

GSAT-2 8th May, 2003 GSLV-O2 Sriharikota Communication

EDUSAT 20th September, 2004 GSLV-F01 Sriharikota Communication

CARTOSAT 1 5th May, 2005 PSLV-C6 Sriharikota Earth Observation

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge
G
Satellite Date Launoh Vehicle Plaoe Type

HAMSAT 5th May, 2005 PSLV-C6 Sriharikota Com munication

AGILE 23rd April , 2007 PSLV-C8 Sriharikota Astronomy

Teoh SAA 21st January, 2008 PSLV-C10 Sriharikota Surveillance

IMS-1 28th April , 2008 PSLV-C9 Sriharikota Earth Observation

CHANDRA- 22nd Ootober, 2008 PSLV-C11 Sriharikota Moon Mis sion

YAAN-1

OCEANSAT-2 23rd September, 2009 PSLV-C14 Sriharikota Earth Observation

CARTOSAT-28 12th July, 2010 PSLV-C15 Sriharikota Earth Observation

GSAT-5P 25th Deoember, 2010 GSLV-F06 Sriharikota Communication

AISAT-1 26th April , 2012 PSLV-C19 Sriharikota Radar Imaging

YOUTHSAT 20th April , 2011 PSLV-C16 Sriharikota Experimental/Small

Satellite

AESOURCESAT-2 20th April , 2011 PSLV-C16 Sriharikota Earth Observation

Satellite

GSAT-8 21st May, 2011 Ariane-5 VA-202 Kourou Com munication

GSAT-12 16th July, 2011 PSLV-C17 Sriharikota Com munication

Jugnu 12th October, 2011 PSLV-C18 Sriharikota Student Satellite

AISAT-1 26th April , 2012 PSLV-C19 Sriharikota Earth Observation

Satellite

GSAT-10 29th September, 2012 Ariane-6 VA-209 Kou rou Communication

SARAL 26th February, 2013 PSLV-C20 Sriharikota Earth Observation

Satellite

IRNSS-1A 1st July, 2013 PSLV-C22 Sriharikota Navigation Satellite

INSAT-3D 26th July, 2013 Ariane-5 VA-214 Kourou Com munication

Disaster
Management, Earth
Observation
Satellite

GSAT-7 30th August, 2013 Ariane-6 Kourou Com munication

VA-215

MOM 5th November, 2013 PSLV-C25 Sriharikota Geo-Stationary

Satellite

GSAT-14 5th January, 2014 GSLV-D6 Sriharikota Com munication

IRNSS-18 4th April, 2014 PSLV-24 Sriharikota Navigation

IRNSS-IC 16th October, 2014 PSLV-C26 Sriharikota Navigation

GSAT-16 7th December, 2014 Ariane-5 VA-221 Kourou Com munication

GSAT-16 11th November, 2015 Ariane-5 VA 227 Kourou Com munication

GSAT-18 5th October, 2016 Ariane-5 ECA Kourou Com munication

-
Satellite Date
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Launch Vehicle Place Type

Resouroesat-2A 7th Deoember, 2016 PSLV-C16 Sriharikota Remote Sensing

Cartosat-2 15th February, 2017 PSLV-C37 Sriharikota Remote Sensing

Satellite

GSAT-9 (also 5th May, 2017 GSLV Mark-2 Sriharikota Communication

called Souih Asia Satellite
Satellite)

Cartosat-2 23rd June, 2017 PSLV-C38 Sriharikota Remote Sensing

Satellite

GSAT-17 29th June, 2017 Ariane-5 Kourou Communication

Satellite

Cartosat-2 12th January, 2018 PSLV-C40 Sriharikota Remote Sensing

Satellite

GSAT-7A 19th December, 2018 GSLV-F11 Sriharikota Communication

Satellite

Kalamsat V2 25th January, 2019 PSLV-C44 Sriharikota Communication

Satellite (lightest
satellite to be ever
launohed)

Chandrayaan-2 22nd July, 2019 GSLV MK-III-M1 Sriharikota Lunar Mission

Rocket

GSAT-30 17th January, 2020 Ariane-SVA-251 Kourou Communication

Satellite

EOS-01/RISAT 7th November, 2020 PSLV-DL C49 Sriharikota Earth Observation

-2BR2

CMS-01 /GSAT 17th December, 2020 PSLV-XL C50 Sriharikota Communication

-12R

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UNITY Sat and 28th February, 2021 PSLV-C51 Sriharikota Earth Observation
Satish Dhawan
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EOS-06 26th November, 2022 PSLV-C54 Satish Dhawan Ooean Studying

Anand 27th November, 2022 PSLV-C54 Sriharikota Earth Observation

Gaganyaan Mission
• It is the first indigenous human space mission designed by ISRO_
• Under this mission, three Indian asronauets (Gaganyatris) will be taken to space on board
Gaganyaan spacecraft _The launch has been delayed and is expected to take its first flight by 2023_
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Awards and Honours

INTERNATIONAL av,,ards the prize in Medicine
(Physiology) .
AWARDS 3. The Bank of Sv,,eden av,,ards the prize
in Economfos.
Nobel Prize
4 . The Committee of the Norwegian
• The Nobel Prizes are given under the
ParlianJen t, awards the prize for
v,ill of Alf1·ed Bernhard Nobel~ who med Peace.
in 1896. He was a noted Swedish
chemist and engineer, ,,vho discovered • Each recipient or laureate, receives a gold
medal, a diploma and a sum of money,
Nib.'oglycerine and its use in the
\ "i hich depends on the Nobel Foundations
1
manufactme of dynam_jte.
income that year. The Noble Prize
• Nobel Prizes are given each year in the anJount for 20 14 js set at SEK (Swedish
six fields. The Nobel Prizes for Peace, Krona) 8.0 million .
Physics, Chennstry, Medicine and
Llterature ,,vere started in 190l. The • The awards are presented in Stockholm
Nobel Prize for Econ omics was started in in an annual ceremony on 10th
1968. The prize awarding bodies are December, the anniversary of Nobel's
death .
l . The Swedish Academy of Literatme
av,,ards the prize in Literattll'e. • The awards can be given to maxim um
three persons in the sanJe field at the
2. The Royal Swedish Academy of
same tinJe. The Nobe) Prize was not
Sciences awards the prize in Physics
awarded behveen 1940 and 1942 due to
and Chemistry. The Nobel Assembly of
the outbreak of World War II .
Karolinska Chirugical (Swedan)
Indian Nobel Laureates
Name Field Year
• Rabindranath Tagore Literature (Gitanjall) 1913
• CV Raman Physics (Raman Effect) 1930
• Har Gobind Khorana (of Indian Descent) Medioine (Genetic Code) 1968
• Molher Teresa Peace 1979
■ Subramaniyan Chandrasekhar (of Indian Descent) Physics (Chandrasekhar's Umit) 1983
• Amartya Sen Economics 1998
(Welfare Economics)
■ Sir VS Naipaul (of Indian Descent) Literature 2001
■ Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (of Indian Descent) Chemistry (Ribosomes) 2009
■ Kailash Satyarthi Peace (Struggle against Child 2014
Labour)
• Abhijir Banerjee (of Indian Descent) Economics (Welfare Economics) 2019

lrnpmtant Facts related with Nobel Prize

Unique Winners Posthumous Winners
Pierre Curie Father Erik Axel Karlieldt (Uterature) 1931
Marie Curie, Mother
Dag Hammarskjold (Peace) 1961
Irene loliot Curie Daughter
Ralph Steinman (Medicine) 2011
Person Refusing Nobel Prize (Died three days before
announcement)
Jean-Paul Sartre (Uterature) 1964
Le Due Tho (Peace) 1973
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Award to American Presidents

Theodore Roosevelt (Peaoe) 1906
Woodrow Wilson (Peaoe) 1919
Jimmy Carter (Peace) 2002
Baraok Obama (Peaoe) 2009

Winners of Nobel Prize More than Once

■ John Bareteen 1956 (Transistor) , 1972
(Superoonduotivity) Both in Physics
■ Marie Curie 1903 (Physics), 1911 (Chemistry)
• Linus Pauling 1954 (Chemistry), 1962 (Peaoe)
■ Frederiok Sanger 1958, 1980 (Chemistry)
■ International Committee of Red Cross 1917, 1944, 1963 (Peaoe)
■ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 1954, 1981 (Peaoe)

Women Nobel Peace Prize Winners

■ Bertha Von Suttner 1905 ■ Rigoberta Menohu 1992
■ Jane Addams 1931 ■ Joddy Williams 1997
■ Emily Greene Balch 1946 ■ Shirin Ebadi 2003
■ Betty Williams 1976 ■ Wangari Maathai 2004
■ Mairead Coarrigan 1976 ■ Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Ley mah 2011
Gbower Tawakkol Kormor
• Mother Teresa 1979 • Malala Yousafzai 2014
■ Alya Myrdal 1982 ■ Nadia Murad 2018
■ Aung San Suu Kyi 1991

Nobel Peace Prize Winning Organisation

■ lnstitu1e of Interna tional Law 1904
■ Permanent International Peaoe Bureau 1910
■ International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) 1917, 1944, 1963
■ Nansen lnternalional ottice for Refugees 1938
■ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 1954, 1981
■ United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) 1965
• International Labour Organisation (ILO) 1969
• Amne sty International 1977
■ International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War 1985
■ United Nations Peaoe-keeping Foroes 1988
■ Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs 1995
■ International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) 1997
■ Medioins Sans Frontiers 1999
■ United Nations 2001
■ International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 2005
■ Grameen Bank (Bangladesh) 2006
■ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007
■ European Union 2012
• Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) 2013
• Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet 2015
■ International Campaign to Abolish Nuolear Weapon (ICAN) 2017
■ World Food Programme 2020
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Oscar Awards or Academy Pulitzer Prize

Awards Awarded for Exoellenoe in newspaper
Awarded for Exoellence in oinematic journalism , literary achievements
aohievements and musical oomposi1ion
Presented by Academy of Motion Presented by Columbia University
Picture Arts and Sciences Country United Stales
Country United Stales First awarded 1917
First awarded 16th May, 1929
Indians Winning Pulitzer Prize
The Oscar statuette 1s officially named Gobind Behari Lal (for 'Reporting') 1937
'The Academy Award of Meci.t'. Jhumpa Lahiri (for her book 2000
The Indian films nominated for Oscarrs 'Interpreters of Maladies')
are Geeta Anand (for 'Journalism') 2003
l . Mother lndfa (1957) Dr Siddhartha Mukherjee (for his 2011
2. Sa.Jam Bombay (1988) book on The Emperor of all
3. Lagaan (2001) maladise; 'A Biography of Canoer')
Vijay Seshadri (for 3 sections) 2014
• The Oscar award is given every year in (Poet Category)
the mon th of February at Hollywood
Dar Yasin, Mukhtar Khan and 2020
Kodek Theatre.
Channi Anand (Photography)
• Bhanu .Athaiya was the first Indian to
,,.fu an Oscar Award in 1982 for Man Booker Prize
costume design in film Gandhi.
Awarded for Best full-length English Novel
Grammy Awards Presented by Man Group
Awarded for Ou1slanding aohievemenls Country Commonwealth of Nations,
Ireland and Zimbabwe
in ihe music industry
First awarded 1968
Presented by National Academy of
Recording Arts and
Sciences Indians Winning Man Booker Prize
Country Uniied States Arundhali Roy 1997
(Novel-The God of Small Things)
First awarded 1959
Kiran Desai 2006
(Novel- The lnheriianoe of Loss)
Grammy Awards Winner Aravind Adiga 2008
Indians (Novel-The White Tiger)
Pandit Ravi Shankar 1967, 1972, Man Booker International Prize
(3 times) 2001
Awarded for Best English (or available for
Zakir Hussain 1992 and 2009 translation into English) fiction
Vikku Vinayak 1991 Presented by Man Group
Vishwa Mohan Bhatt 1993 Country United Kingdom
AR Rehman 2009 First awarded 2005
Rioky Kej, Neela Vaswani 2015 • The award is worth £50000 and an author
can \/\'Ill only once. It is av,,arded for best
Golden Globe Awards English (or avaiJable translation m to
Awarded for Excellenoe in film and English) fiction.
ielevision • Albanjan novelist Ism ail Ka.dare was nanJed
Presented by Hollywood Foreign Press the inaugural International Booker Pdze
Assooiation winner m 2005.
Country Uniied States • In 2021 , it is given to David Diop and Anna
First awarded 1944 Moschovakis.
• In 2022, Tomb of Sand wlitten by Geetanjali
• AR Rehman is the first Indian to ,,.fu Shree and translated by Dajsy Rockwell, has
Golden Globe Award.
won the International Booker Plize for
'lranslated fiction .
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Women's Prize for Fiction ■ Shantha Sinha 2003

(Orange Prize for Fiction) ■ Dr Prakash Amte and
Dr Mandakini Amte 2008
Awarded for Best full- length novel ■ Deep Joshi 2009
written in English by a ■ Kujandel-Franois 2012
woman of any nationality • For Peaoe and lntemational Understanding (PIU)
Presented by Orange, A Telecom ■ Mother Teresa 1962
Company ■ Jookin Arputham 2000
Country Uniied Kingdom ■ Laxminarayan Ramdas 2004
First awarded 1996 • For Emergent Leadership
■ Sandeep Pandey 2002
• The v,IDner of the prize receives
■ Arvind Kejriwal 2006
$ 30000, along with a bronze culture
■ Nileema Mishra and 2011
called the 'Bessie' created by artist Harish Hands
Glizel Niven, the sister of actor and ■ Bezwada Wilson 2016
, 1v1iter David Niven.
• For Journalism, Uterature and the Creative
Ramon Magsaysay Award Communication Arts (JLCCA)
■ Amitabh Chaudhary 1961
Awarded for Ou1standing oonlributions ■ Satyajit Ray 1967
in six categories of
■ Boobli George Verghest 1975
government. Service, public
■ Sombhu Mitra 1976
servioe and other fields
(Given to Asian Individuals) ■ Gour Ki shore Ghosh 1981
Presented by Ramon Magsaysay Award ■ Arun Shourie 1982
Foundation ■ AK Laxman 1984
■ KV Subbanna 1991
Country Philippines
■ Ravi Shankar 1992
First awarded 1957
■ Mahasweta Devi 1997
■ P Sainath 2007
Indians Win ning Ramon
■ Sanjiv Chaturvedi and Anshu Gupta is awarded
Magsaysay Award Magsaysay Award ior 2015.
• For Government Service (GS) ■ TM Krishna 2016
■ CD Deshmukh 1959 ■ Bharat Vatwani 2018
■ Kiran Bedi 1994 ■ Sonam wangohuk 2018
■ TN Seshan 1996 ■ Ravish Kumar 2019
■ James Michael Lyngdoh 2003
• For Public Service (PS) World Food Prize
■ Jayaprakash Narayan 1966 The prize was created ill 1986 by Nobel Peace
■ MS Subbulakshmi 1974 Prize Lameate Norman Borlaug. The prize
recognises conrributions ill alJ fields illvolved
■ Manibhai Desai 1982
ill the world food supply. First award was
■ Baba Amte 1986
given to Professor MS Swannnathan (India)
■ Lakshmi Chand Jain 1989
ill 1987. ln 2014 Dr Sanjaya Rajaram (Indian
■ Banoo Jehangir Coyaji 1993 Odgin American) won th.is awa.l'd.
■ Mahesh Chandra Mehta 1997 lndian-AmeLican soil scientist Rattan Lal
■ V Shanta 2006 won the 2020 World Food Prize.
• For Community Leadership (CL)
■ Vinoba Bhave 1958
The Right Livelihood Award
Awarded for -Practical and e><emplary
■ Veghese Kurien , Dara Khu rodi
solutions to the most urgent
and Trfbhuvandas Patel 1963
ohallenges faoing the world today"
■ Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay 1966
Presented by Right Livelihood Award
■ MS Swaminathan 1971 Foundation
■ Ela Bhatt 1977 Country Sweden
■ Pramod Karan Sethi 1981 First awarded 1980
■ Chandi Prasad Bhatt 1982 Prize Money 2 Lakh Euro
■ Pandurang Shastri Athavale 1996
The PJght Livelihood Award is also referred
■ Aruna Roy 2000 as the 'Alternative Nobel P1ize'. It was
■ Rajendra Singh 2001 established by Jakob von Uex.kull in 1980.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge
Indian Laureates
Laureates Years
- - - - - - - - - - - - Miss World
Self-Employed Women's 1984
Association/Ela Bhatt
_L_o_k-ay_a_n-/R- a-jn_i_K_o_th_a_ri-------1-98_5_ surviving international beauty pageant. It
Ladakh Ecological Development Group 1986
_C_h~ip_k_o_M_o _v_e_m_e_n_t- - - - - - --1-98- 7-
_N_a_rm_ a_ da _ B_a_ oh_a_o_A_n_d_o_la_n_ _ _ _ _
_V_a_n_d _
an_a_S _h_iv_a_ __ _ _ _ _ __ 1_
Vevekananda Girijana Kalyana Kendra 1994
People's scienoe Movement of Kerala 1996
~(_K_er_a_la_S_a_tt_h_ra_S_a_h_it_h~ya_ Pa_r_is_h_a~d)~ - - - crowned the Miss World title for 2016.
Swami Agnivesh/Asghar Ali Engineer 2004
Ruth Manorama
Krishanammal Jagannathan and
_S_a_n_ka_r_a l_in~g_a_m_J_a~g_an_n_a_th_a_n_LA_F_ I _ _ _ _ Toni-~i\.nn Singh from Jamaica won the Miss
_C_o_li_n_G_o_n_s_ al_ve_s_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
UNESCO Peace Prize
It js presented by United Nations as Miss World 2022.
Educational, Scientific and CuJturnl Miss Earth
Organisation (UNESCO) for e>..irn- ordinary
con □-:ibutions for international peace.
UNESCO Hwnan Rights Award
It is also presented by UNESCO for
contributions in the field of Human Rights
Awareness. It is given every alterna te year
created in 1978.
UN Human Rights Award
It js presented by UnHed Nations (UN) for
personal contribution for the cause of
human rights. Bt is presented every 6th years.
BEAU1Y CONTESTS
Miss U Iliverse
• It is an annual international beauty
contest that is rllll by the _Mj ss Universe
Organisation . The contest was founded
in 1952, by Califomfa Clothing
Company Pacific Mills. Its headquarters
is at New York City (US) .
• Sushmita Sen is the first Indian ,11,oman
to ,11rio the M_jss Universe contest in 1994 .
• Catriona Gray of Philippines has been
crowned as miss universe 2018 _
• Zoz ibi.n.i Tunzi of South Africa has won
Miss Universe 2019 title. The 2020
event has been postponned due to
COVID-19 Pandemic.
• Harnaaz Sandhu of India has won M_jss
Universe 202 1 title.
• R' Bonney Gabriel of USA, has won Miss
Universe 2022 title.
The Miss World pageant is the oldest
was created in the Urnted Kingdom by Eric
Morley In 195 1. Since ms death in 2000,
Morley's wife, Julla Morley, co-chairs the
99_1_ pageant. Its headquarter is at London (UK).
1_
99_3_ Reita Faria Powell becan1e the :fi.l'St Indian
to win the Miss World title in 1966. Miss
Stephanie Del Valle of Puerto Rico is
India's Manushi ChbjJJar won the Miss
2006 World 2017 contest. Vanessa ponce ofmexico
2008 has been crm'l'Tied as miss world 2018.
01_7_ World title, 2019. The 2020 event has been
2_
postponed due to COVlD-19 pandemic.
Karolina Bielawska of Poland was crowned
. .
• Miss Earth is an annual in ternational
beauty pageant promoting environn1ental
awareness. Miss Earth is also one of the
most publicised beauty contest in the
,,vorld. It was formed in 2001 and its
headquarters is at Manila, Philippines.
Catharina Svensson of Denmark is the
first v,rinner of Miss Earth con test (2001).
M iss India
■ Miss India or Femina Miss India is a national
beauty pageant in India. It is organised by
Femina, a women's magazine published by
Bennett, Coleman and Co Ltd.
■ Its headquarters is at Mumbai and it was
formed in 1963. Miss India beauty contest
started on 1947 _
■ Pramila was the first woman to win the Miss
India contest in 1947.
,
INDIA S INTER-
NATIONAL AWARDS
Mahatma Gandhi Peace Prize
It was instituted in 1995 and awarded by
Government of India to encomage and
promo te Gandhian values worldwide .The
award can-:ies n Crore in cash convertible
in any cmrency in the world, a plaque and a
citation.
• First recipient (1995) ]'lllius Nyerere
• Last recipient (2018) Yohei Sasahawa
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Indira Gandhi Peace Prize J awaharlal Nehru Award

It , 11as instituted in 1986 and av,,arded by
1 It was instituted in 1965 and awarded by
Indira Gandhi Memmial Trust. It js
awarded for peace, clisarman1ent and
development. The prize cardes a cash
award of 25 lakh Inclian rupees and a
cHation .
• First recipient (1986)
Parliamentarians for Global Action
• Last recipient (2022) was Inclian
Meclical Association and the 'frained
Nurses Organisation of Inclia.
Government of lnclia for international
understanding, goodwill and friendsWp.
The money constituent of t:ms award is 25
Lakh lnclian rupees.
• First recipient (1965) U Thant
(3rd UN Secretary -General)
• Last recipient (2015) Fonner President of
Egypt-Hosni Mubarak

National Awards
BHARAT RA1NA • The reverse side of the decoration
SatzJamev ]ayate has been , 1vritten in
• Bharat Ratna js lnrna's Wghes t Civilian Hindi with an inscription of state
Award. It was first awarded in 1954. The emblem. The emblem, the Sun and the
actual av,,ard is designed in the shape of rim are of platinum. The inscriptions are
a Peepal leaf with Bharat Ratna in burrnsbed bronze.
inscdbed in Devanagri script in the Sun
Note The Pad ma Awards were suspended
Figme. between 1977 and 1980 as well as
between 1992 and 1998.
Winners of Bharat Ratna
2019 ■ Pranab Mukherjee, Bhupen Hazarika*, 1990 ■ Dr Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela
Nanaji Deshmukh*
1990 ■ Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar *
2015 ■ Madan Mohan Malaviya*
1988 • Marudur Gopalan Ramaohandran *
■ Atal Bihari Vajpayee
1987 ■ Khan Abdul Ghattar Khan
2014 ■ Saohin Tendulkar, CNR Rao
1983 • Acharya Vinoba Bhave *
2008 ■ Pandit Bhimsen Joshi
1980 ■ Mother Teresa
2001 ■ Ustad Bismillah Khan
2001 ■ Lala Dinanath Mangeshkar 1976 ■ Kumaraswamy Kamraj *
1975 ■ Varahagiri Venkata Giri
1999 ■ Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi *
1999 ■ Professor Amartya Sen 1971 ■ Indira Gandhi
1966 ■ Lal Bahadur Shastri *
1999 ■ Loknayak Jayprakash Narayan *
1999 ■ Pandit Ravi Shankar 1963 ■ Dr Zakir Hussain
1998 ■ Madurai Shanmukhavadivu 1963 • Dr Pandurang Vaman Kane
Subbulakshm 1962 ■ Dr Rajendra Prasad
1998 ■ Chidambaram Subramaniam 1961 • Dr Bidhan Chandra Roy
1997 • Dr APJ Abdul Kalam 1961 ■ Shri Purushottam Das Tandon
1997 • Aruna Asaf Ali * 1968 ■ Dr Dhonde Keshav Karve
1997 ■ Gulzari Lal Nanda * 1967 ■ Pt Govind Ballabh Pant
1992 ■ Maulana Abul Kalam Azad * 1965 ■ PandltJawaharl~Nehru
1992 ■ Satyajii Ray 1955 ■ Dr Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya
1992 ■ Jehangir Ratanji Dadabhai Tata 1955 ■ Dr Bhagwan Das
1991 ■ Rajiv Gandhi * 1954 ■ Dr Chandrashekhar Venkala Raman
1991 ■ Sardar Vallabhbha i Patel * 1964 ■ Dr Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan
1991 ■ Morarji Ranohhodji Desai 1954 • Chakravarti Rajagopalachari

Note * Posthumous Reoipient

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

PADMAAWARDS
There are three Padma Awards given on Republic D{ljy (26th January) every yem:

1. Padma Vibhushan
• This is the second highest National Av,,ard .
• Instituted on 2nd January, 1954 by the Government of lnma.
• It is awarded to recog:rrise exceptiona.1 and distinguished service to the nation in any
field.

2 . Padma Bhushan
• This is the third largest Nationa.1 Awards.
• Instituted on 2nd January, 1954 by the Government of lnma.
• It :is awarded to recognise distinguished service of a b_jgh order to the nation , in any
field.

3 . Padma Shri
• This :is the fourth highest Nation a.1 Award instituted on 2nd January, 1954 by
Government of lnma.
• In 1960, Dr MG Ramachandran refused to accept the award as the wordings of the
award is in Hindi.
• It recognises the contribution of Inman citizens (generally) in various spheres of
activity inducting Arts, Education , industry, Literatme, Science, Sports, Socia.1 Service
and Public life.

MILITARY AWARDS
To be given on Republic Day (26th J anuary)

Wartime Valour Awards

(Awarded to officers or enlisted personnel from all branches of the Indian Military).
Award Year of lnstftution Awarded by Awarded for
Paramvir Established on 26th January, Government of Most conspicuous bravery or
Chakra 1950 wef 15th August, 1947 India some daring or pre-eminest
valour or self-sacrilioe.
Mahavir Established on 26th January, Government of Acts of gallantry in the
Chakra 1950 wef 15th August, 1947 India Presence of the enemy on land,
at sea or in the air_

Vir Chakra Established on 26th January, Government of Acts of bravery in the battle
1950 wef 15th August, 1947 India field

Note All the three awards are also given posthumously_

• Subedar Major Bana Singh of the 8th JanJmu and Kashmir light infantry was the only
serving personnel of the Inman defence establishment with a Param Vir Chalaa till the
Kargil operations.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Recipient of Param Vir Chakra

Name Regiment Date Plaoe
■ Major Som Nath Sharma 4th Battalion, Kumaon 3rd November, Badgam, Jammu
Regiment 1947 and Kashmir
■ Lanae Naik Ka ram Singh 1st Battalion , Sikh 13th October, Tithwal, Jammu and
Regiment 1948 Kashmir
■ Second Lieutenant Bombay Sappers Corps 8th April, 1948 Naushera, Jammu
Rama Raghoba Rane of Engineers and Kashmir
• Naik Jadu Nath Singh 1st Battalion , Rajput February 1948 Naushera, Jammu
Regiment and Kashmir
■ Company Havaldar 6th Battalion, Rajputana 17th July, 1948, Tithwal , Jammu and
Major Piru Singh Rifles 18th July, 1948 Kashmir
Shekhawat
■ Captain Gurbachan 3rd Battalion , 1st Gorkha 5th December, Elizabethville,
Singh Salaria Rifles (The Malaun 1961 Katanga, Conga
Regiment)
■ Major Ohan Singh 1st Battalion , 8th Gorkha 20th October, Ladakh, India
Thapa Rifles 1962
• Subedar Joginder Singh 1st Battalion , Sikh 23rd October, Tongpen La,
Regiment 1962 North-East Frontier
Agency, India
■ Major Shailan Singh 13th Battalion, Kumaon 18th November, Rezang La
Regiment 1962

■ Company Quarter 4th Battalion, Grenadiers 10th September, Chima, Khem Karan
Master Havaldar Abdul 1965 Sector Pakistan
Hamid
■ Lieutenant-Colonel 17th Poona Horse 15th October, Phillora, Sialkot
Arde shir Burzorji 1965 Sector, Pakistan
Tarapore
■ Lanae Naik Albert Ekka 14th Battalion, Brigade of 3rd December, Gangasagar,
the Guards 1971 Agartala Sector
• Flying Offioer Nirmal Jit No. 18 Squadron, Indian 14th December, Srinagar, Kashmir
Singh Sekhon Air Faroe 1971
■ 2Jlieutenant Arun 17th Poona House 16th Deaember, Barapind Jarpal ,
Khetarpal 1971 Shakargarh Seator
■ Major Hoshiar Singh 3rd Battalion, The 17th December, Basantar River,
Grenadiers 1971 Shakargarh Seator
■ Naib Subedar Bana 8th Battalion , Jammu and 23rd May, 1987 Siachen Glaoier,
Singh Kash mir Light Infantry Jammu and Ka shmir
■ Major Ramaswamy 8th Battalion, Mahar 25th November, Sri Lanka
Parameshwaran Regiment 1987
■ Captain Manoj Kumar 1st Battalion, 11th 3th July, 1999 Khaluber/Juber Top,
Pandey Gorkha Riiiles Batalik Sector, Kargil
area, Jammu and
Kashmir
■ Grenadier Yogendra 18th Battalion, The 4th July, 1999 Tiger Hill, Kargil Area
Singh Yadav Grenadiers
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Name Regiment Date Plaoe

■ Riileman Sanjay Kum ar 13th Battalion. Jammu 5th July, 1999 Area Flat Top, Kargil
and Kashmir Rifles Area

■ Captain Vikram Batra 13th Battalion, Jammu 6th July, 1999 Point 6140. Point
and Kashmir 4875, Karg.ii Area

Peace Time GallanhJ7 Awards

Awarded Either to Military or Civilian Personnel
Award YeaI of lnstftution Awarded by Awarded for
Ashoka 4th January, 1962 with eHect-from Government Most conspicuous bravery
Chakra 15th August, 1947 of India or some act of daring or
preeminent act of valour or
self-sacrifioe otherwise than
in the iaoe of the enemy_
Kirli Chakra 4th January, 1962 with eHect-from Government Conspiouous gallantry
15th August, 1947 of India otherwise than in face of the
enemy_
Shaurya 4th January, 1962 with eHect-from Government National bravery generally
Chakra 15th August, 1947 of India for counter insurgency
operations and actions
against the enemy during
peace time
Note All the three awards are also given posthumously.

Other Military Awards

Category
Wartime/ Peacetime Service and
Gallantry
Wartime Distinguished Servioe
Peacetime Distinguished Service
Award
Sena Medal (Army), Nao Sena Medal (Navy),
Vayusena Medal (Air Faroe)
Sarvottam Yudh Seva Medal, Uttam Yudh Seva
Medal, Yudh Seva Medal
Param Vishish t Seva Medal, Ali Vishisht Seva Medal,
Vishisht Seva Medal

Sports Awards
Rajiv Gandhi Khel RatnaAward
• The Rajiv Gandhi KheJ Ratna Award (renamed as Major Dbyan Chand KheJ Ratna
Award) is lnrua's highest bonom given for achievemen t in sports. The ,,vords 'Khel
Ratna' li terally means 'Sports Gem ' in Hinru. The award is named after late Rajiv
Gandhi, former Prime Minister of India.
• The award was instituted in the year 1991-1992 and was awarded by the minjsb.-y of
youth affairs and sports.
• The prize money in thjs award h as been rncreased from t 7.5 lakb tot 25 lakh.
• First Awardees-199 1-92 Viswanathan Anand (Chess).
• In 2020, Romt Sharma (Cricket), Vrnesh Pbogat (Wresiling), Ram Ran1paJ (Hockey),
Monika Batra (Table Tenms) and Mariyappan Thangavelu (Para athlete) were awarded
Rajiv Gandm Khel Raina Award.
e GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

AijnnaAward
• The Aijuna Awards were institu ted in 1961 by the Mirusb.'y of youth affairs and
sports, Government of India to recognfae outstanding achievement in National
Sports. The award carries a cash prize of~ 15 ]akb, a bronze statuette of Aijuna and a
scroll_.
• From the year 2001, the av,,ard is given only in disciplines falling under the following
categories
■ Olympic Games
■ Asian Games
■ Commonwealth Games
■ World Cup
■ World Championship Disciplines and Cricket
■ Inrngenous Games
■ Sports for the physically challenged

Dronacharya Award
Dronacharya Av,,ard js an award presented by the minjsb.)' of youth affairs and sports,
Government of India for excellence in sports coaching. The award comprises a bronze
statuette of Dronacharya a scroll of honour and a cash prize of~ 10 la.kb. The award was
instituted m 1985.

DhyanchandAward
Dhyanachand Award is India's highest award for lifetime acmevement in sports and
games, given by the Government of Inrna. The award is named after the legendai)' Inman
hockey player Dhyanchand. The awards was instituted in 2002. The awai·d carries a cash
prize oft 10 la.kb. Kulmp Singh BhuJJai· (Athletics), Jincy Philips (Athletics), Pradeep
ShriJrrishna Gandbe (Badminton), Trupti Murgunde (Badmmton), N Usha (Boxing),
Lalcha Singh (Boxing), Sulchvinder Singh Sand.bu (Football), Ajit Pal Singh (Hockey),
Manpreet Singh (Kabadm), J Ranjith Kumai· (Pai·a Athletics), Satyaprakash Tiwari (Pai·a
Badmmton), Manjee t Singh (Rowing), Sa.chin Nag (Swimming), Nandan P Bal (Tenms)
and Netai~paJ Hooda (Wrestlmg) were awai·ded Dhyanchand Award for 2020.

Some Famous Awards by State Governments

Award Awarded/Instituted by Field of Honour
Mahatma Gandhi Madhya Pradesh Government To an institution working according to
Award Gandhi philosophy and ideology
Tansen Award Madhya Pradesh Government Indian classical music
Kalidas Award Madhya Pradesh Government Classical danoe and music, theatre,
painting , sculpture and plastic arts
Tulsidas Award Madhya Pradesh Government Folk and traditional tribal art
(only for male artist)
Lala Mangeskar Madhya Pradesh Government For music direction and playback
Award singing in iield of light music
Santhala Natya Karnataka Government Santhal dance (a tribal dance form)
Award
Konark Samman Odisha State Council of Cul1ure Literature, art sculpture, music, dance
and socio-cultural work
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Film Awards
National Film Awards
• The National Film Awards are the most Recipients Years
prominent film award ceremony in Satyajit Ray 1984
Inclia, established in 1954 and it is V Shanlaram 1985
admirristered, along with the B Nagi Reddy 1986
international film festival of India and Raj Kapoor 1987
the Inclian Panorama, by the Inclian Ashok Kumar 1988
Government's Directorate of Film Lata Mangeshkar 1989
Festivals since 1973. A Nageshwar Rao 1990
• Due to the national character of the Bhalji Pendharkar 1991
National Film Awards, it is considered to Bhupen Hazari ka 1992
be the equivalent of the American Majrooh Sullanpu ri 1993
Academy Awards. Dilip Kumar 1994
• The National Award for Best Actor was Dr Raj Kum ar 1995
jointly won by Suriya for Soorarai Pottrn Shivaji Ganeshan 1996
and Ajay Devgan for Tanhaji. Aparna Kavi Pradeep 1997
Balamw.-ali won the Best Acb.-ess Award BR Chopra 1998
for her role in Soora1·ai Potn·u . Tamil Hrishikesh Mukherjee 1999
featme Soora1·ai Potn·u was named the Asha Bhosle 2000
best film of the year at 68th National Yash Chopra 2001
Film Awards. Dev Anand 2002
Mrinal Sen 2003
Dada Saheb PhalkeAward Adoor Gopalakrishnan 2004
• The Dada Saheb Phalke Award is India's Shyam Senegal 2005
highest awa1·d in cinema given annually Tapan Sinha 2006
by the Government of Inclia for lifetime Manna Dey 2007
Contiibution to Inman Cinema. VK Murthy 2008
• It was institu ted in 1969, the birth D Ramanaidu 2009
centenary yea1· of Dada Saheb Phalke, K Balachander 2010
considered as the Father of Inclian Soumitra Chatterjee 2011
Cinema. Pran Krishan Sikand 2012
• Phalle Awa1·d carries a 'Swa1·na Kamal', Sampooran Singh Ka lra 2013
a shawl and a cash prize of~ I 000000. (Guizar)
Shashi Kapoor 2014
Recipients of Dada Saheb Phalke Manoj Kumar 2015
Award Kasinalhun i Viswanath 2016
Reoipients Years Vinod Khanna 2017
Mrs Devika Rani Roerioh 1969 (First) Amilabh Bachohan 2018
B N Sirkar 1970 Rajinikanth 201 9
Prithvi Raj Kapoor 1971 Asha Parekh 2020
Pankaj Mallick 1972
Mrs Ruby Myers 1973 Filmfare Awards
BN Reddy 1974 • The Filmfa1·e Awards are presented
Dhiren Ganguly 1975 annually by the Times group to honour
Mrs Kanan Devi 1976 both a1tistic and technical excellence of
Nilin Bose 1977 professionals in the Hincli language film
RC Baral 1978 indus b.-y of Inclia. The awa1·ds were first
Sohrab Modi 1979 in n·oduced in 1954, the same yea1· as the
P Jai Raj 1980 National Film Awa1·ds.
Naushad Ali 1981 • They were irrit::ially referred to as the
L V Prasad 1982 C]a1'e Awards after the editor of the
Mrs Durga Khote 1983 Times of Inclia, Clare Mendonca.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Literary and Cultural Awards

Sabitya Akademi Award
It is a literary honour in India instituted in 1954, by which Sahitya Akademi, lndia's
National Academy of Letters, annually confers on w1iters of outstanding works in
twenty-four major Indian languages.

JnanpithAward
• The Jnanpith Award is a literary award in Inma. The award was instituted in 196 1. It is
presented by the Bharatiya Jnanpith, a b:ust founded by the Sahu Jain family, the
publishers of the Times of lndia newspaper.
• It carries a check of~ 7 Jakh, a citation plaque and a bronze replica of Saraswati, the
Inman Goddess of lrnowledge, music and arts . First awarded in 1965 to Sankar Kurnp
(Malayalam).
Recipients of the Jnanpith Award
Recipients Years
G Shankar Kurup (Malayalam) 1965
TS Bandopadhyaya (Bengali) 1966
Uma Shankar Joshi (GujaratQ 1967
R S Firaq Gorakhpuri (Urdu) 1969
Sumitra Nandan Pant (Hindi) 1968
Vishwanath Satyanarayan (Telugu) 1970
Vishnu Dey (Bengali) 1971
Ram Dhari Singh Dinkar (Hindi ) 1972
Dr D R Bendre (Kannada) and Gopinath Mohanty (Oriya) 1973
V S Khandekar (Marathi) 1974
PV Akilandam (Tamil) 1975
Mrs Asha Purna Devi (Bengali) 1976
K Shiv Ram Karanth (Kannada) 1977
H S Vatsayan 'Ageya' (Hindi) 1978
V K Bhattaoharya (Assamese) 1979
S K Pottekat (Malayalam) 1980
Mrs Amrita Pritam (Punjabi) 1981
Mrs Mahadevi Verma (Hindi) 1982
M V Iyengar (Kannada) 1983
T S Pillai (Malayalam) 1984
Panna Lal Patel (Gujarati) 1985
Sachida Nanci Routory (Oriya) 1986
V V Shirvadkar (MarathQ 1987
C Narayana Reddy (Telugu) 1988
Qurtul-ain-Haider (Urdu) 1989
Vinayak Krishna Gokak (Kannada) 1990
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Reoipients Years
Subhash Mukhopadhyay (Bengali) 1991
Naresh Mehta (Hindi) 1992
Dr Sitakant Mahapatra (Oriya) 1993
U R Anantha Murthy (Kannada) 1994
M T Vasudevan Nair (Malayalam) 1995
Smt Mahasweta Devi (Bengali) 1996
Ali Sardar Jafri (Urdu) 1997
Girish Karnad (Kannada) 1998
Nirmal Verma (Hindi) and Gurdayal Singh (Punjabi) 1999
Dr Indira Goswami (Assamese) 2000
Rajendra Keshavlal Shah (Gujarati) 2001
D Jaya Kanthan (Tamil) 2002
Vinda Karandikar (Marathi) 2003
Rehman Rahi (Kashmiri) 2004
Kunwar Narayan (Hindi) 2005
Ravindra Kelekar (Konkani) and Satyavrat Shastri (Sanskrit) 2006
0 N V Kurup (Malayalam) 2007
Akhlaq Khan Shaharyar (Urdu) 2008
Amar Kant (Hindi) 2009
Shrilal Shukla (Hind i) 2009
Chandrashekhara, Kambara (Kannada) 2010
Pratibha Ray (Odiya) 2011
Ravuri Bharadhwaja (Telugu) 2012
Ke darnath Singh (Hindi) 2013
Bhalchandra Nemade (Marathi) 2014
Raghuveer Chadhari (Gujarati) 2015
Shankha Ghosh (Bengali) 2016
Krishana Sobti (Hindi) 2017
Amitav Ghosh (English) 2018
Akkitham Aohuthan Namboothiri (Malyalam) 2019
Nilmani Phookan (Assamese) 2021
Damodar Mauzo (Konkani) 2022

Bhasha Sam.man
Instituted in 1996, Sahltya AJcaderni gives these special awards to ,,.rriters for significant
con!J.:ibution to Indian languages other than the above 24 major ones and also for
contJ.jbution to classical and medieval bteratme.

Translation Awards
Established in 1989, Sahitya AJcademi annually gives these awards for outstanding
ITanslations of major works in other languages in to one of the 24 major Indian languages.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Anand Coomarswamy Fellowships

Named after the Indian Wii ter Ananda Coomarswamy, the fellowship was started in 1996.
It js given to scholars from Asian counb.ies to spend 3 to 12 months in India to pursue a
Ii terary project.
Pre111cband Fellowships
Named after Hindi \'lrdter Premcband, the fellowship was started in 2005. It is given to
persons of eminence in the field of cuJtme from SAARC counb.ies.

Sangeet N atak Akademi PuTaskar (Akademi Award)

Awarded by the Sangeet Natak Akademi, India's National Academy of Music, Dance an d
DranJa. This award was constitu ted in 1952. It is the highest Indian recognition given to
practising artists in the categmies of music, dance, thea□·e, other traditional/ folk/
tribal/dance/music/ thea □·e and puppeb.-y and contribution/scholarship in performing
arts.

Lal.it Kala Academy Ratna

Instituted in 1955 by the Government of India, is an honour for the fine arts given to
eminent artis ts for their lifetime achjevements in the field of visual arts. It is awarded by
the Lant Kala Academy, India's National Academy of Art. It js the rnghest honour in the
fine arts conferred by the Government of India.

Saraswati Samman
The Saraswati Sam.man is an arnmal award for outstanding prose or poe □-y literacy wades
in any Indian language listed in Schedule VIl of the Constitution of India. The Saraswati
Sam.man was instituted in 1991 by the KK Bi.rla foundation. The award consist oH' 10
la.kb , a citation and a plaque.

TansenAward
These awards are given by Government of Madhya Pradesh for the outstanding
conb.ibution in the field of music. This award was constituted in 1980 and compreses { 2
la.kb .

VyasSamman
The Vyas Samman is a literary award in India, first awarded in 1991. It jg awarded
annually by the KK Bir]a Foundation and includes a cash payout of { 2.5 la.kb.

Iqbal Samman
These awards are given by the Llterary Council of Madhya Pradesh for the outstanding
con □ibution in the field of mdu li teratme. Trus award was constituted in 1987 and
comprises { l la.kb and certificate.

Murtidevi Award
This award was constituted in 1984 and is given for extra ordinary performance in
literature. It is given by Indian Jnanpith Trust

Science Awards
Shanti Swarup BhatnagarA'ward
• Trns p1ize for science and technology in awarded annually by the Council of Scientific
& lndusrnal Research (CSIR) for notable and outstanding research, applied or
fundamental , in biology, chemjsb.-y, environmental science, engineering, mathematics,
medicine and physics under the age of 65 years.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge
• It is the highest award for science in
India. It , 111as first awarded in 1958.
• The Plize comprises a citation, a plaque
and a cash award oH'5 lakh.
DHANWANTARIAWARD
• It is given for Medical field. This award
comprises a certificate, Gold Medal and
~ l lakh Dhanvantari award.
• Instituted in 1971 and given for
'ExcelJence in Medical Services'.
• Thus, award is given by 'Dhanvantari
Foundation'.
Dr BC Roy Award
• Medical Coun cil of India instituted Dr
BC Roy Award in 1976, in memory of
Bharat Ratna Dr Bidhan Chandra
Roy. The awai·d is given annually in each
of the following categolies: statesmansmp
of the mghest order in India, Medical
man-cum- statesman, emment medical
person , emment person in philosophy
and ai-ts.
• It is presented by the President of India
in New Delhi on 1st July the National
Doctor's Day.
• This awai·d compLises a Silver Medal,
certi.ficate and { l lakh cash.
Jamnalal Bajaj Award
It is a prestigious Indian award, for
promoting Gandhjan values, social work
and social development. It is established in
1978 by the Janmalal Bajaj Foundation of
Bajaj Group. This award contains { 5 la.kb,
a certificate and a b:ophy.
Homi BhabhaAward
• Instituted in 1990, and given for
exce1Jence in field of Atomjc ene1·gy.
• Tbjs awai·d comprises { 50000 and a
certi.ficate.
Vikram SarabhaiAward
• Instituted in 1990 and given for excellence
in field of Space Research .
• Thjs award is given by 'Bida Foundation'.
• Thjs awai·d complises medals, certificate
and { _
50000
GD Birla Award
• GD Birla awai·d for scientilic reseai·ch is
conferred by KK Birla Foundation .
KK Bil"la Foundation was established in
199 1, by Krishna KunJai· Birla.
• Tbjs awai·d complises { 1.45 lakh and
certi.ficate.