Chapter I :

EARTHWORKS

Dr. GOUDJIL Kamel

Department of Civil Engineering
Email : k.goudjil@univ-soukahras.dz

Mars 2024
1.0
 Table des
matières
Introduction 4

I - Site Clearance 5

1. The initial step of earthworks ......................................................................................................................... 5

II - Definitions 6

1. Parameters crucial of earthworks ................................................................................................................... 6

III - Foundations 7

1. Shallow Foundations ....................................................................................................................................... 7

2. Deep Foundations ........................................................................................................................................... 8

IV - Excavations 10

1. Manual Excavation ........................................................................................................................................ 10

2. Mechanical Excavation ................................................................................................................................. 11

V - Mass Haul Diagram 12

1. Mass Haul Diagram ...................................................................................................................................... 12

VI - Rock excavatability 13

1. Factor in construction ................................................................................................................................... 13

VII - The timbering 14

1. Basic timbering excavation terminology ....................................................................................................... 14

VIII - Excavation safety 17

1. The reasons ................................................................................................................................................... 17

IX - Construction plant 18

1. Conditions construction plant ....................................................................................................................... 18

1.1. Construction plant ...................................................................................................................................................................... 18

2. Skimmer ....................................................................................................................................................... 19
 3. Faceshovel .................................................................................................................................................... 19

4. Backator ........................................................................................................................................................ 20

5. Dragline ........................................................................................................................................................ 21

6. Tractor Loader Backactor ............................................................................................................................. 22

X - Earth-moving plant 23

1. Bulldozer ....................................................................................................................................................... 23

2. Scraper .......................................................................................................................................................... 23

3. Graders .......................................................................................................................................................... 24

4. Tractor shovel ............................................................................................................................................... 24

5. Front-end loader ........................................................................................................................................... 25

6. Compaction plant .......................................................................................................................................... 25

6.1. Static weight rollers .................................................................................................................................................................... 26
6.2. Vibratory rollers ........................................................................................................................................................................ 26

7. Pneumatic rollers .......................................................................................................................................... 27

7.1. Others ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 28
 Introduction

Earthworks are the foundation (pun intended) for many construction projects. It's the process of preparing the land
to make it suitable for whatever structure will be built on it. This involves:

- Moving earth: This can include excavating (digging up) soil and rock, or filling in low areas.
- Shaping the land: This might involve creating slopes, leveling uneven ground, or building up specific areas.
- Ensuring stability: Geotechnical engineers will assess the soil conditions and make sure the ground can support
the weight of the planned structure.

Earthworks are crucial for various engineering disciplines:

- Geotechnical engineers: They rely on earthworks to create stable foundations for buildings and other structures.
- Structural engineers: The type of foundation created through earthworks will influence the design of the
building's structure.
- Roads engineers: They use earthworks to create the base for roads, ensuring proper drainage and support for
vehicles.
- Building contractors: They depend on properly prepared land to begin construction efficiently.

So, earthworks play a vital role in setting the stage for safe and successful construction projects.

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 Site Clearance

Site Clearance
I
1. The initial step of earthworks
Site clearance is the initial step of earthworks and involves the removal of existing vegetation, structures, and
debris from the construction site. This crucial process prepares a clean and level surface for further
construction activities. Site clearance can include different activities. The most important among them are:

- Demolition of buildings or other structures: If any existing structures are on the site, they will need to be
demolished in a controlled manner. This may involve using heavy machinery or manual labor,
depending on the size and complexity of the structures.
- Removal of trees, stumps, and other vegetation: Any trees, bushes, or other vegetation on the site will
need to be removed. This may involve simply cutting down the trees and hauling them away, or it may
also involve grinding down stumps and roots.
- Excavation of unwanted soil or rock: In some cases, it may be necessary to excavate soil or rock from the
site. This could be to level the ground, create basements or foundations, or remove unsuitable materials.
- Removal of any hazardous materials: If there are any hazardous materials on the site, such as asbestos or
lead paint, they will need to be removed safely and disposed of properly.

By removing these elements, site clearance prepares the construction site for the next stages of earthworks,
which may involve shaping the land, laying foundations, and installing utilities.

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 Definitions

Definitions
II
1. Parameters crucial of earthworks
Some key parameters crucial for developing an earthworks concept should be defined. These terms are essential
for understanding how much weight the ground can hold and how structures will interact with the soil.

- Bearing Capacity (kN/m²): This refers to the maximum safe load (weight) that a unit area of soil can
support without failure.
- Bearing Pressure (kN/m²): This is the pressure exerted on the ground by a structure's weight. It's
essentially the force divided by the area of the foundation in contact with the soil.
- Settlement (mm): This represents the amount the ground sinks or compresses vertically due to the applied
load.
- Backfill (soil): This refers to the excavated soil material from the construction site. If the soil is suitable
and meets engineering requirements, it can be reused as fill material in other areas of the project.
- Self-weight Loads (kN): These are the permanent loads that are always present on the structure due to its
own weight. This includes the weight of foundations, walls, columns, beams, and slabs.
- Imposed Loads (kN): These are the non-permanent or variable loads acting on the structure. This can
include the weight of people, furniture, equipment, vehicles, snow, wind, and other temporary use cases.
- Uneven Settlement: refers to the situation where different parts of a structure's foundation settle at
different rates or amounts. This can be caused by Uneven Load
- Distribution (If the weight of the structure is not evenly distributed across the foundation), and Poor Soil
Conditions (which means a Variations in the soil's strength, compressibility, or moisture content can
lead to uneven settlement.

Understanding these parameters is essential for designing safe and stable foundations for any construction
project. By considering the bearing capacity of the soil, the imposed loads on the structure, and the potential for
settlement, engineers can create an earthworks plan that ensures the stability of the entire structure.

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 Foundations

Foundations
III

Foundations are the crucial hidden element that supports all sorts of structures, like buildings, bridges, and
dams. Their main job is to spread the weight of the structure out evenly over the soil below. The two main
foundation categories are Shallow Foundations and Deep Foundations.

1. Shallow Foundations
These are generally used for lighter structures and are built up to about 1 meter deep. They come in different
forms depending on the situation, like spread footings for individual columns, strip footings for walls, or mat
foundations for large buildings.

Figure.2 Types of shallow foundation

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 Deep Foundations

Figure.3 Raft foundation

2. Deep Foundations
As the name suggests, these go deeper than 3 meters and are used for heavier structures or situations where the
soil conditions are poor near the surface. Pile foundations and drilled shafts (caissons) are common types of
deep foundations.

- Pile foundations

Pile foundations used for structures where the loads have to be transmitted to a point some distance below
ground level. This type of foundations is often used where ground conditions are poor or the bearing capacity is
very low. Piles are driven down to a level where conditions are more suitable, and are able to carry much higher
loads then other types of foundations. Bridges foundations are often constructed using piles. A pile cap is
formed, which then becomes part of the support, whether it is for a pier or an abutment.

Figure 4. Pile foundations

- Caissons

It is very similar to pile foundations; it is a box like structures that can be sunk through ground or in water to
install foundations or similar structures below the water table. The features of using these foundation types is
that they are constructed above ground or water level and then sunk as a single unit to the required depth.
Caissons are suitable for constructing foundations in water or through unstable shifting soil to depths greater
than 2.5m.

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 Deep Foundations

Figure 5. Caisson foundations

Choosing the right foundation type is crucial for safe and stable construction, and it depends on several key
factors. The most important factors are: Soil Bearing Capacity, Settlement and Total Building Load, which
refers to the overall weight of the entire structure, including everything from the building materials to the
furniture and occupants. The heavier the building, the stronger the foundation needs to be.

The nature and bearing capacity of the soil can be determined by

- Trial Holes and Pits: These are essentially exploratory digs that allow engineers to visually examine the
soil layers and get a basic understanding of its composition and strength.
- Boreholes and Core Analysis: These involve drilling narrow holes into the ground and extracting soil
samples (cores) for detailed analysis in a laboratory. This provides more precise information about the
soil type, strength, and moisture content.
- Local Knowledge: Experienced engineers and builders familiar with the area can provide valuable insights
into the typical soil conditions at the construction site.
- Soil Testing Methods: These are standardized tests performed on soil samples in a lab to determine
specific properties like the California Bearing Ratio (CBR). The CBR is a measure of a soil's relative
strength and suitability for supporting weight.
- In-situ Field Tests: These tests are conducted directly on the construction site without taking soil samples.
The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) is a common example, where a cone-shaped tip is pushed into
the ground to measure its resistance. This provides quick data about the soil's density and strength
variations at different depths.

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 Excavations

Excavations
IV

Excavation is the next step after site clearance and foundation selection. It involves removing soil or rock to
create the space needed for the building's foundation, basement, or other underground structures. The method
used for excavation depends on the size of the site and the volume of material to be removed.

1. Manual Excavation
This is typically used for smaller projects or delicate work where precise control is needed. It involves using
hand tools like shovels and pickaxes.

Figure 6. Manual Excavation

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 Mechanical Excavation

2. Mechanical Excavation
For larger projects or deeper excavations, heavy machinery like bulldozers, excavators, and backhoes are used
for faster and more efficient soil removal.

Figure 6. Mechanical Excavation

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 Mass Haul Diagram

Mass Haul Diagram

V
1. Mass Haul Diagram
A Mass Haul Diagram is a continuous curve representing the cumulative volume of earthwork along the linear
profile of a roadway or airfield the vertical coordinate is a plot of the cumulative earthwork from the origin to
that point upward sloping curves indicate (rising left to right) indicate a cut.

Mass Haul Diagram

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 Rock excavatability

Rock excavatability
VI
1. Factor in construction
Rock excavatability is a crucial factor in construction projects involving rock removal. Understanding how rock
strength and layer thickness affect excavation methods helps engineers choose the most efficient and cost-
effective approach.

Rock excavatability

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 The timbering

The timbering
VII

The timbering is the stuff used into excavation to support the soil. The type and amount of timbering depends
on the nature of soil, depth of excavation, ground water presence, proximity of building, and duration of the
project.

1. Basic timbering excavation terminology

The poling boards are placed vertically to support soil at the sides of excavations.

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 Basic timbering excavation terminology

The waling are a longitudinal members that run the length of the trench to support the poling boards.

The struts is a members used to support the waling as shown in the figure. Then, there is sheeting, which is
continuous barrier against the loose material. The sheeting can be made by steel or wood; it depends on the
length of construction.

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 Basic timbering excavation terminology

Puncheons are a vertical supports wedged between the walings and near the ends of the struts. They are
necessary in deep excavations to avoid that the walings drop or fall off.

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 Excavation safety

Excavation safety
VIII
1. The reasons
The reasons which lead the trench to collapse are as follows:

- Material too close to trench sides

- Excavating equipment too close to the edge
- Unstable subsoil material
- Variation in the nature of soil
- Change in soil moisture content (Drying out or rain)

Excavation safety

Trench excavation regulations

- Where trenches are close to the public, the following precautionary measures must be taken:

- All trenches must be protected with a fence

- Red warning lights must be placed at regular intervals to warn the public.

- No workers are allowed in trenches deeper than 1.5 m without the sides being protected or braced.

- All bracing must be strong enough to support the soil walls

- No materials other than those required for the execution of the work are allowed in the trench and they
are only allowed when required.

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 Construction plant

Construction plant
IX
1. Conditions construction plant
The construction plant used in the project depends on several conditions, the most important points considered
are:

- The site conditions;

- The activities that need to be carried out;
- The volume of work; and
- The economics of hiring equipment.

The different construction plants used generally in earthworks are shown in the figure below.

1.1. Construction plant

The different construction plant used in earthworks

The construction plant can be divided in three general types as shown in the figure 1. In the next section, the
three types are described on details.

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 Faceshovel

2. Skimmer
A skimmer consists of a bucket sliding along horizontal jib. The power unit is usually mounted on tracks. The
bucket slides along the jib, digging away from the machine. Skimmers are used for very shallow excavations
and especially where level accuracy is required. To discharge the load, the boom or jib is raised and the power
unit rotated until the raised bucket is over the haulage vehicle where it will dispose of its load.

Skimmer

3. Faceshovel
This machine can be used as a loading shovel or for excavating into the face of an embankment. It can be used
in hard soil and in soft rock. The track-mounted power unit is available with a range of bucket sizes and
capacities. The discharge operation is similar to that of the skimmer.

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 Backator

Faceshovel

4. Backator
This piece of plant is probably the most common form of excavating machinery. Contractors use it for
excavating basements, trenches and pits. The power unit is normall mounted on tracks and the bucket size and
capacity can vary. To disharge excavated material the bucket is raised into a tucked position until the boom is
positioned over the haulage vehicle and material is emptied through the open front end. The haulage vehicle is
usually parked alongside the excavation.

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 Dragline

Backator

5. Dragline
This type of excavator is essentially a crane with a long jib or boom to which a drag bucket is attached. The
drag bucket excavates loose and soft soil below level of the machine. It is usually used in marshy areas where
plant would become bogged down. These machines are also used for dredging rivers, canals and harbours. They
are mounted on tracks and have a very long reach and a wide dumping range. Accurate use depends on the
operator's skill. The bucket is cast out and drawn back by cables towards the power unit. Discharge of the
collected spoil is similar to that of the backactor through the open front end of the bucket. This machine can
also be fitted with a grab bucket for excavating loose material.

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 Tractor Loader Backactor

Dragline

6. Tractor Loader Backactor

These machines are based on a tractor power unit and are very popular among small to medium-sized
contractors because of their versatility.

The tractor is usually a diesel-powered, wheeled vehicle, although tracks are available. It is fitted with a
backacting bucket at the rear and a loading shovel at the front. During excavation, it is essential that the weight
of the machine is removed from axles. It achieves this through jacks at rear of the power unit and inverting the
bucket in the front.

Tractor Loader Backactor

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 Earth-moving plant

Earth-moving plant
X
1. Bulldozer
These machines are primarily high-powered tractors on tracks, fitted with a blade in the front for stripping and
topsoil excavation up to a depth of approximately 0.4 m(depending on the machine's specification). It does this
by pushing the loosened material ahead of the machine. However, by changing the blade or mould board of the
machine, it can be used in hard and rocky ground. This machine can be used for backfilling operation by simply
setting the blade on the angledozer. A relatively level site can be obtained depending on the skill of the
operator. These machines can be very large with blades of between 1.2 m and 4.0 m in width and 0.6 to 1.2 m
in height.

Bulldozers have other important uses, like ripping, grading and leveling, but sometimes these operations are
done by plant specially equipped for this type of work.

Bulldozer

2. Scraper
This piece of machinery consists of a power unit and a scraper bowl. It is used to excavate and transport
materials where surface stripping, site leveling and cut-and-fill activities are planned, particularly where large
volumes of soil are involved. Scrapers are capable of producing a very smooth and accurately finished surface.
The three basic types of this machine are: crawler-drawn; two axles and three axles.

The design and basic operation of the scraper bowl is similar in all three types. Consisting of a shaped bowl
(capacity vary from 5 to 50 m3) with a cutting edge that can be lowered to cut the top surface of the soil to a
depth of 0.3 m. As the bowl moves forward, the loosened earth is forced into the container. When full, the
cutting edge is raised to seal the bowl. Sometimes it is necessary to use a bulldozer as a pusher to ensure a full
load.

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 Graders

Scraper

3. Graders
These are a popular machines used for road construction. They have adjustable blades that are fitted either at
the front of the machine or slung under the centre of the machine's body. They are used to create the final
finishing surface by grading or cutting the soil until the required levels are obtained. Great skill and experience
is required of the operator. This is done of the more versatile machines available to the contractor as it can also
grade inclined surfaces by moving the blade away from the body to the desired gradient.

Graders

4. Tractor shovel
Also called a loading shovel, this machine is basically a power unit on tracks with a hydraulically controlled
bucket mounted at the front. Its primary function is to scoop up loose material or soil in the bucket, raise the
loaded spoil and monoeuvre into a position to discharge the load into the back of the truck. Bucket sizes range
from 0.5 to 4.0 m3.

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 Front-end loader

Tractor shovel

5. Front-end loader
Front-end loaders, together with graders, are the most versatile machines available on a construction site. A
front-end loader is a wheel driven, diesel-powered unit that is fitted with bucket at the front. It is more
commonly used than the tractor shovel. Its operations are similar to that of the tractor shovel in that it uses its
speed and momentum to force the bucket into the soil.

Bucket capacities also vary depending, on the machine's specifications. They are often fitted with teeth instead
of a straight cutting egde eo enable excavating activities in harder soil.

Front-end loader

6. Compaction plant

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 Static weight rollers

Compaction plant is designed to compact filling material and surface finishes, like premix for roads. Civil
engineering contractors use large compaction equipment specifically for road works whereas building
contractors use smaller versions. The type of compaction obtained depends on the soil type. The action can be
described as vibratory, dead-weight and kneading. Compaction plant is divided into static weight rollers,
vibratory rollers and pneumatic rollers.

6.1. Static weight rollers

- Smooth wheeled roller

These rely upon the dead-weight of the machine to carry out the compaction. They are usually diesel powered
and driven by seated operator in a cab. They distribute dead-weight loads to the ground through two large –
diameter steel wheels at the rear and one large steel drum into the front, which also acts as steering wheel.
Many of these rollers carry water tanks or have wheels that can be fitted with water to add to the dead-weight.
Some are also equipped with a steels tooth or scarifier at the rear of the vehicle for ripping up hard surface like
roads.

Smooth wheeled roller

6.2. Vibratory rollers

- Vibrating smooth wheeled roller

Vibratory rollers depend mainly on the vibrations produced by a petrol or diesel-powered engine and can be
self-propelled or towed behind another vehicle. The advantage of these machines over the static rollers is that
they are lighter, but produce the same or better compactive effort than their larger counterparts. They are also
available with combination of steel rubber-tyred wheels. Vibration is imparted to roll by means of rotating off-
centre weight situated inside the drum. Many models have the means to adjust both the frequency and the
amplitude of the wheel vibration and it should be noted that high frequency with low amplitude is required
when compacting a product like not mix asphalt.

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 Pneumatic rollers

Vibrating smooth wheeled roller

Vibratory rollers are particularly effective in granular soils. The two types of vibratory rollers usually used are:
smooth wheeled roller and Sheepsfoot roller.

Vibratory rollers

7. Pneumatic rollers
Pneumatic rollers knead or manipulate the soil structure. They can be distinguished from normal compaction
plant by their smaller wheels that are made of rubber. These wheels can also move independently. They are self-
propelled and using water for ballast can increase their weight.

Pneumatic-tyre rollers are used for rolling base courses and the final rolling of bituminous road surfaces. The
compactive effect of a roller is influenced by the following factors:

- Static weight;
- The number of vibrating drums;
- Roller speed;
- The ratio between frame and drum weight;
- Drum diameter;
- Driven or non-driven drum; and
- The number of passes.

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 Pneumatic rollers

7.1. Others
Other forms of compaction equipment include:

Mini-vibrating rollers that are hand operated.

Vibrating plates consist of a mechanism supported on a steel plate that is allowed to vibrate and compact the
soil. This method is used on small patches and is more suitable for granular soils. Vibrating plates are manually
operated by skilled labour. They are commonly known as plate compactors.

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