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Indian Polity

- By Amit Kilhor
A Complete Guide on the Concepts of Indian Polity for
UPSC CSE and State PCS Examinations
Study IQ Education Pvt. Ltd.
Indian Polity by Amit Kilhor
Copyright Owner: Study IQ Education Pvt. Ltd.
© Copyright is reserved by Study IQ Education Pvt. Ltd.
Publisher: Study IQ Publications

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Dedicated to
Abhishek Jain
and
Coco (Vardhini)
Preface
Dear Aspirants,
Welcome to the world of Indian Polity, a comprehensive book meticulously crafted by StudyIQ
Publications in collaboration with the eminent Amit Kilhor, Director-Academics at StudyIQ and
a renowned Polity Faculty. Amit Kilhor, with his wealth of knowledge and experience, has played a
pivotal role in shaping this book. His commitment to providing aspirants with a holistic understanding
of Indian polity is evident throughout the pages. This book is not just an accumulation of information;
it’s a curated exploration incorporating key Supreme Court judgments, relevant constituent assembly
debates, essential constitutional articles & amendments, and contemporary political issues.
Key features of this book can be summarised as follows -
This book aims to make your preparation focused and relevant based on UPSC’s current trend and
pattern, it is revision-friendly, and up-to-date.
• Extensive coverage of contemporary issues: Key Current affairs issues have been included in the
chapters to provide aspirants with an integrated approach to their preparation.
•  onstituent assembly debates: These are integrated within chapters which will be helpful in
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providing different perspectives to aspirants.
• L ucid Language: Simple explanation of complex Supreme Court judgments would help aspirants in
utilising them for their Mains preparation.
• “ Remember This” boxes: The content in these boxes adds extra value to the preparation of Indian
Polity from a Preliminary exam point of view.
•  revious Year Questions of both the Preliminary and Mains examinations are provided at the end
P
of every chapter.
•  evision Friendly: The book is revision friendly as great care has been taken to highlight the
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important bits and provide the content in simple as well as clear language.
•  ne-stop solution: The book is designed in such a way that civil services aspirants would find it
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essential for all stages of the examination process i.e., Prelims, Mains, and Interview.
A special acknowledgment goes to Vishal Parmeshwar Jaybhaye, whose unwavering support in the
creation, review, and finalization of the content has been instrumental.
At StudyIQ, we continually strive to push the boundaries of excellence in the field of education. “Indian
Polity” is a testament to our commitment to providing every civil services aspirant with access to the
best resources. We believe that education is the key to empowerment, and this book is a significant
step in that direction.
With all sincerity and humility, the Study IQ team wishes you the best in your preparation, and we are
hopeful that this book will help you in your journey.
From,
The Editorial Board
StudyIQ Publication
Table of Contents
Section-A Philosophy of Constitution
1. Historical Underpinnings������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������2
2. Making of the Constitution������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16
3. Salient Features of the Constitution�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26
4. Preamble���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45
5. Indian Union and its Territories������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������54
6. Citizenship�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������62
7. Fundamental Rights�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������77
8. Directive Principles of State Policy�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������135
9. Fundamental Duties��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������157
10. System of the Government����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������165
11. Federal System����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������171

Section-B Legislature
12. Parliament�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������181
13. Parliamentary Committees����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������243
14. Parliamentary Forums and Groups�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������257
15. State Legislature��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������263

Section-C Executive
16. President�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������283
17. Vice-President�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������298
18. Prime Minister�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������304
19. Council of Ministers���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������310
20. Cabinet Committees��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������317
21. Governor�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������322
22. Chief Minister������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������337
23. Council of Ministers���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������341

Section-D Judiciary
24. Supreme Court����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������347
25. Judicial Review����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������373
26. Judicial Activism��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������379
27. Public Interest Litigation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������392
28. Separation of Powers�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������399
29. High Courts����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������402
30. Subordinate Courts����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������412
31. Tribunals��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������420
32. Lok Adalats����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������425
33. National Legal Services Authority of India������������������������������������������������������������������������������431
34. Gram Nyayalayas�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������436
35. Alternate Dispute Resolution�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������439

Section-E Federalism
36. Union-State Relations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������446
37. Inter-State Relations��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������466
38. Inter-State Council�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������474
39. Zonal Councils�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������478
40. Emergency Provisions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������480

Section-F Amendment and Basic Structure


41. Amendment to the Constitution��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������488
42. Basic Structure Doctrine��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������494

Section-G Local Government


43. Panchayati Raj Institutes��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������503
44. Urban Local Bodies����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������525
45. Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������543
46. Union Territories��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������551
47. Special Provision for Some States������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������561

Section-H Constitutional Bodies


48. Union Public Service Commission������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������569
49. State Public Service Commission��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������573
50. Election Commission of India�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������577
51. State Election Commission (SEC)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������583
52. Attorney General of India�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������587
53. Advocate General of the State�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������592
54. Comptroller and Auditor General of India������������������������������������������������������������������������������594
55. Finance Commission��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������600
56. Goods and Services Tax Council���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������605
57. National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC)����������������������������������������������������������������610
58. National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST)�����������������������������������������������������������������614
59. National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC)����������������������������������������������������������������618
60. Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities����������������������������������������������������������������������������������622

Section-I Non-Constitutional Bodies


61. Central Information Commission (CIC)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������626
62. State Information Commission (SIC)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������631
63. National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)��������������������������������������������������������������������������634
64. State Human Rights Commission (SHRC)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������639
65. Central Vigilance Commission (CVC)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������641
66. Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������645
67. Lokpal and Lokayukta in India������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������650
68. National Investigation Agency (NIA)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������659
69. National Commission for Women (NCW)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������662
70. National Commission for Protection of Child Rights���������������������������������������������������������������667
71. National Commission For Minorities (NCM)���������������������������������������������������������������������������671
72. Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities�������������������������������������������������������������������674
73. National Green Tribunal���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������676
74. National Disaster Management Authority������������������������������������������������������������������������������681
75. National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (NCDRC)������������������������������������������������685
76. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)������������������������������������������������������������688
77. Competition Commission of India (CCI)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������691
78. NITI Aayog�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������694
79. Law Commission of India�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������701

Section-J Constitutional Dimensions


80. Official Language�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������707
81. Cooperatives Societies in India�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������714
82. Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes and Vulnerable Sections����������������������������������722
83. Public Services�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������729
84. Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within the Territory of India����������������������������������������������736
85. Rights and Liabilities of the Government�������������������������������������������������������������������������������739
Section-K Political Dynamics
86. Election Laws�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������747
87. Anti Defection Law����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������761
88. Criminalisation of Politics������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������767
89. Electoral Reforms�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������771
90. Pressure Groups��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������780
91. Political Parties����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������787
92. Regional Parties���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������798
93. Voting Behaviour�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������801
94. Coalition Government�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������806
SECTION-A
PHILOSOPHY OF
CONSTITUTION
CHAPTER
Historical
1 Underpinnings

In 1600, the British arrived in India as traders in and the British administration. The evolution can
the form of the East India Company (EIC). Under a be studied under two broad phases:
Charter granted by Queen Elizabeth I, the company • The Company rule (1773-1858)
had exclusive rights to trading in India. Initially, they • The Crown rule (1858-1947)
only engaged in trading and were not motivated by
political gains. However, this scenario changed after THE COMPANY RULE (1773-1858)
their victory in the Battle of Buxar in 1764.
The EIC, which until then was only engaged in REGULATING ACT OF 1773
trade, gained Diwani rights (rights over revenue) of
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. This marked the rise of The Regulating Act of 1773 was enacted by
EIC as a territorial force. The company went on to the British Parliament to regulate the EIC’s Indian
administer India till 1858 when the British Crown territories, mainly in Bengal. This legislative
directly assumed control of India’s affairs in the act represented the initial involvement of the
wake of the ‘Revolt of 1857’. The British government British government in the company’s territorial
went on to rule India till its independence on August administration and signaled the commencement of
15th, 1947. a gradual takeover process that culminated in 1858.
The British government passed various acts, Background
initially to regulate East India company and later
for the governance of India. However, none of The Act was passed because of the following
these met Indian expectations mainly because reasons:
they were brought by a foreign power and their • Financial Distress: The East India Company
ultimate aim was to fulfil their own interests. All the was in dire financial stress. The company was
constitutional developments prior to independence important to the British Empire as the EIC had
were imposed upon Indians and Indian opinion in trading monopoly in India and in the east.
these developments was constantly ignored. The Company paid £40,000 annually to the
The company rule from 1773 – 1858 was followed government to maintain its monopoly but it
by the direct rule of the crown (1858 to 1947). had been unable to meet its commitments
Various constitutional and administrative changes since 1768. In 1772, the company had asked
were introduced by the British through these acts. for a loan of 1 million pounds from the British
Although they were brought with the objective of government. Thus, the British government
serving British Imperial ideology, they eventually decided to take steps to regulate the affairs of
became responsible in introducing various elements the company.
of democracy and modern state into the Indian • Inefficient Dual System: After winning
political and administrative system. The evolution of the Diwani rights of Bengal, Robert Clive
the Indian Constitution can be traced back to such introduced Dual system of administration. In
acts and policies undertaken during the Company this system, Nawab of Bengal was responsible

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Historical Underpinnings 3

for “Nizamat” i.e. Judicial and political • Accountability of EIC: It mandated that the
functions and the Company had “Diwani’ rights Company’s governing body, the Court of
i.e. Revenue Collection rights. The company Directors, disclose all its official affairs to the
had no responsibilities and enjoyed power. British Government, including revenue, civil,
Whereas the Nawab was burdened with the and military matters.
responsibility of administration without the
Remember this
resources i.e. responsibility without power. As
a result, farmers and the general population The then Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II granted
suffered as their welfare was neglected. ‘Diwani’ rights of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the
• Poor administration: There were many East India Company in 1765.
allegations of corruption and nepotism against
the company officials. The misadministration Significance of the Act
of Bengal was one of the major reasons for
the Great Bengal famine of 1770. Also, during • Regulation of company affairs: It was the first
the famine, the company did not take any step by the British parliament to regulate and
meaningful mitigation efforts to provide relief control the affairs of the East India company.
to the people like reduction in taxation etc. • Centralised administration: It laid the
• Defeat against Mysore: The company forces foundation of centralised administration in
were defeated by Hyder Ali in the 1st Anglo – India by making the Governors of Bombay
Mysore war (1767 to 1769). and Madras presidencies subordinate to the
Governor-General of Bengal.
Provisions of the Act • Official recognition: For the first time ever, the
• Designation: The Act changed the designation political and administrative functions of the
of the Governor of Bengal as the Governor company in India were officially recognised.
General of Bengal. Warren Hastings was
Issues with Act
appointed as the first Governor General of
Bengal. • The Governor General didn’t have any veto
• Executive Council: Constituted a four-member power in the Executive council.
Executive Council to assist the Governor • Powers of the Supreme court were not well
General of Bengal in his role. defined.
• Centralisation: The Governors of Bombay • Lack of coordination: Governors of Madras and
and Madras were made subordinates to the Bombay restrained themselves from following
Governor-General of Bengal. With this, the the orders of the Governor-General of Bengal,
autonomy of the Governor of Bombay and whose significant example was the First Anglo-
Madras was diminished. Maratha war (1775-82).
• Supreme court: A Supreme court in Calcutta • Turned out to be ineffective: There was
was established in 1774 comprising one chief no mechanism to study the reports sent by
justice and three other judges. Its first Chief the Governor-General in Council. Thus, the
Justice was Sir Elijah Impey. parliamentary control that was sought in
• Restriction on private trade: The Act barred the activities of the company proved to be
the officials of the company from engaging in ineffective. The act was also unable to stop
private commerce or receiving bribes and gifts corruption among company officials.
from the native population.

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4 Indian Polity by Amit Kilhor

AMENDING ACT OF 1781 inhabitants of Calcutta. Hindus were to be tried


according to the Hindu law and Muslims were
Background to be tried according to the Mohammedan law.
This act was passed by the British Parliament Significance of the Act
on 5th July 1781 to remove the defects of the
The Amending Act of 1781 was the first attempt
Regulating Act of 1773. It is also known as the Act
in India towards the separation of the executive
of Settlement, 1781. The biggest problem created
from the judiciary by defining the respective areas
by the Regulating Act was the tussle between
of jurisdiction.
the Supreme Court and the Governor General in
Council.
PITT’S INDIA ACT OF 1784
In the year 1777, a complaint was made by the
directors of the company against the Supreme Court Background
as for them it was difficult to run the administration.
To address this complaint, the House of Commons Britain’s increased possessions in India made
(Lower house of the British Parliament), appointed it necessary for the administration there to be
a committee known as Touchet Committee to do an supervised by the government rather than be left
inquiry about the administration of Bengal, Bihar, in the hands of the commercial East India Company.
and Odisha. The report of this committee led to The aim of the act was to bring the rule of EIC in
the enactment of the Act of Settlement of 1781. India under the control of the British government.
This act resulted in dual control of British
Provisions of the Act possessions in India by the British government and
Many provisions of the act curtailed the power the Company. However, the final authority rested
of the court by providing for exemptions and with the government.
restricting the jurisdiction of the court: Provisions of the Act
• Official function: Acts done by the Governor
• Double Government: It introduced the system
General, its Council and the servants of
of double government. A Board of Control
the Company in their official capacity were
was created for managing political affairs and
exempted from the jurisdiction of the Supreme
the Court of directors was entrusted with
court.
managing the commercial affairs and day-to-
• Revenue matters: All the matters related day administration of the company.
to revenue were also exempted from the
• Representation: In this system, the British
jurisdiction of the court.
government was represented by the Board of
• Appellate Jurisdiction: The Court’s appellate Control and the company was represented by
jurisdiction was also curtailed. The appeals the Court of Directors.
from the Provincial Courts could be taken to
• Change in composition: The Governor-
the Governor-General-in-Council and not to
General’s council’s strength was reduced to
the Supreme Court.
three members. One of the three would be
• Regulations: The act empowered the Governor- the Commander-in-Chief of the British Crown’s
General-in-Council to frame regulations for the army in India.
Provincial Courts and Councils.
• Disclosure of Property: It was made mandatory
• Defined territorial Jurisdiction: Court’s for all civil and military officers to disclose
territorial jurisdiction was applicable to all

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Historical Underpinnings 5

their property in India and Britain within two Remember This


months of their joining.
The Board of Control established by the Pitt’s India
Significance of the Act Act, 1784 had 6 members appointed by the British
Government.
• Demarcation of Functions: The act made
a distinction between the commercial and Pitt’s India Act is called so because it was enacted
political activities of the East India Company. by the British Parliament during the Prime
Ministership of William Pitt, the Younger.
The Board of Control was to look after political
affairs while the Court of Directors was
endowed with commercial functions.
ACT OF 1786
• British possessions: The Company’s territories Background
in India were for the first time called the ‘British
possessions in India’. The Act was passed to fulfil the demands made
by Lord Cornwallis to accept the post of Governor-
• Direct control: The British government was
General.
given direct control over Indian administration.
Thus, the company became subordinate to the Provisions of the Act
British government.
• Empowerment of Governor-General: The
• Crown’s Authority: British Crown’s authority
act empowered the Governor-General with
was established in the civil and military
powers of both the Governor-General and the
administration of its Indian territories.
commander-in-chief.
However, the Commercial activities were still a
• Exceptional Power: Lord Cornwallis was given
monopoly of the Company.
the power to override the council’s decision in
• By reducing the Governor-General council’s
special cases. Later, this power was extended
members to three, it removed any chance of
to all Governor Generals.
there being a tie and the Governor-General
would have the final say. CHARTER ACT OF 1793
Shortcomings of the Act
Background
Despite bringing many changes to overcome
the defects of the Regulating act, the Pitts’ act had It was passed by the British Parliament to renew
many shortcomings of its own: the charter of the East India Company. This act
authorised the trade monopoly of the EIC in India
• Lack of clarity: The margins between
for the next 20 years.
government control and the company’s powers
were unclear. Also the boundary between Provisions of the Act
responsibility of the board of control and that
• Overriding power: The overriding power
of the British crown was unclear.
given to Lord Cornwallis over his council was
• Dual accountability: The Governor-General extended to all future Governors-General and
had to serve both the East India Company and Governors of Presidencies.
the British Crown.
• Centralisation of power: The Act gave
Governor-General extensive powers over
the subordinate presidencies of Madras and
Bombay.

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6 Indian Polity by Amit Kilhor

• Mandatory approval: Royal approval was punishing people in case of non-payment of


mandated for the appointment of the taxes.
Governor-General, the Governors, and the • Education: A sum of Rs 1 lakh was granted for
Commander-in-Chief. the education of the Indians.
• Financial responsibility of EIC: The company
was now made responsible for the payment of Significance of the Act
the employees and that of the Board of Control Historian Gauri Viswanathan in her book “Masks
from the Indian revenues. Also, the company of conquest” has identified two major changes
was required to pay the British government which came about as the result of the act in the
Rs.5 lakhs from Indian revenue each year. relation between Britain and India:
• Separation of Functions: The act separated 1. assumption by the British of a new
the company’s functions into the revenue responsibility for Indian people’s education;
administration and the judicial functions. and,
2. the relaxation of controls on missionary
CHARTER ACT OF 1813 activity.
The impetus for the new educational
Background responsibilities was attributed to the mood in the
Napoleon Bonaparte’s Continental System in English Parliament. According to Viswanathan,
Europe had caused great suffering for British traders the Parliamentarians were concerned with the
and merchants. Continental system prohibited the extravagant lifestyles of East India Company
import of British goods into territories of the French officials and the company’s ruthless exploitation
allies in Europe. Due to this, there was a growing of natural resources. They felt that the British
demand by British merchants to be given share in should lead by example and work to remedy the
the British trade in Asia and dissolve the monopoly perceived injustices by seeking Indians’ welfare and
of the East India Company. The company had been improvement.
objecting to this. Finally, the Charter Act of 1813
allowed British merchants to trade in India. But in CHARTER ACT OF 1833
trade with China and the tea trade, the company
still retained its monopoly. The act also renewed the Background
company’s charter for another 20 years. The Act was passed by the British Parliament to
Provisions of the Act renew the charter of the East India Company (EIC)
for the next 20 years. The Act of 1833 was later
• Partial Trade Monopoly: It ended the trade retitled as the Saint Helena Act 1833. It deprived
monopoly of the company except for trade in the company of its commercial privileges and also
tea and trade with China. took steps to restructure the governance of British
• Sovereignty: It asserted the Crown’s India.
sovereignty over British possessions in India.
• Religious Activities: It granted permission to Provisions of the Act
the Christian missionaries to come to India and • Administrative body: EIC became purely an
engage in religious activities. administrative body. The Act provided that the
• Empowering local government: It empowered company’s territories in India were held on
the local governments to tax people including behalf of the British crown.

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Historical Underpinnings 7

• Designation: It made the Governor General the abo­lition of slavery and improvement of
of Bengal the Governor General of British the condition of the slaves. This provision was
India. All financial, administrative and military acted upon in 1843.
powers were centralised in the hands of the • Section 87 of the Act declared, “that no
Governor General-in-Council. Lord William native or natural born subject of the crown
Bentinck became the “First Governor General resident in lndia should be by reason only of
of British India”. his religion, place of birth, descent, colour or
• Centralisation: It deprived the governors any of them be disqualified for any place in
of Bombay and Madras of their legislative the company’s service.” This was not of much
powers. The Governor-General of India was practical importance, since nothing was done
given exclusive legislative powers for the entire and Indians remained excluded from higher
British India. posts in civil and military service.
• Expansion of Executive Council: The Act added
one more member to the Executive council of CHARTER ACT OF 1853
the Governor General. This new member was
to be called Law Member, whose work was Background
fully legislative. This Act was primarily passed to renew the
• Law Commission: It provided for the charter of the East India Company. Besides this there
establishment of an Indian Law commission were concerns raised about the Governor-General
for the codification of laws. Lord Macaulay was of India’s role as Governor of Bengal because it led
made the Chairman of the Law Commission. to some decisions in favour of Bengal. There was
• Open Competition: It attempted to introduce a also a call for decentralisation of the power and
system of open competition (including Indians) inclusion of Indians in administration.
for the selection of civil servants but couldn’t
be implemented due to opposition from the
Provisions of the Act
Court of Directors. • No specific time period: The act extended
• Resident rights: It allowed the British to freely the Company’s rule and allowed it to retain
settle in India. the possession of Indian territories on trust
for the British Crown. But it did not specify
Significance of the Act any particular period, as provided for in the
• Peak of Centralization: Centralization of the previous Charters.
Indian administration reached its zenith after • Separation of functions: The legislative and
the elevation of the Governor General of executive functions of Governor-General’s
Bengal as the Governor-General of India. Council were separated for the first time.
• Trustee of crown: EIC was made a trustee of • Expansion of Legislative council: A separate
the British crown in the field of administration. Indian (Central) legislative council was
• 1st Law commission: India’s first Law constituted, to which 6 new members were
commission was constituted which was added as legislative councillors.
responsible for drafting the Indian Penal Code • Expansion of executive council: The law
(IPC) which was enacted later in 1860. member was promoted as a full member of the
• The Act of 1833 also en­joined upon the Governor General executive council.
Government of India to take measures for • Open competition: The Government required
meritorious civil servants to draft and

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