National University

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE

ABUTLI3S - ACOUSTICS & LIGHTING SYSTEMS

Compiled By:
Joffrey C. Chung, MEM; UAP / PIEP

I. Lighting Fundamentals

A. Introduction

“Space and light and order.....Those are the things that men need just as much as they need bread or a place
to sleep.” – Le Corbusier

“Buildings, too, are children of Earth and Sun.” – Frank Lloyd Wright

Figure 01: Light & Architecture

1. Role of Lighting
Lighting plays an important role more than illumination. Beyond efficiency and functionality, lighting has
emotional attachment / influence to our daily living. It is considered to be science and art, combining design,
engineering, physics, physiology, and even psychology.

2. History
The history of lighting goes back as early as human civilization itself. Excluding aside the natural sources of
light like the sun, moon, and even living organisms, the earliest known man-made light sources were fire &
torches. During the ancient period, the Egyptians used hollowed-out stones filled with fat and plant fibers as
wicks. This was the first form of candle. Later on, tallow, beeswax, or paraffin was used.

The use of torches and candles as a form of naked flame source encountered problems like the method of
production of flame, means of keeping the flame burning for long period, and potential hazard. With this, the
Greeks and Romans made lamps from bronze or pottery which burned olive oil or other vegetable oils in
their spouts. During the Middle Ages, these lamps were further improved with the addition of reflectors while
fish oil and whale oil were used for Betty lamps during the Early American Colonial period.

The early 18th to 19th century brought about the invention of kerosene lamps and the use of gas lamps for
street lighting, together with the development of arc lamp by Sir Humphrey Davy for public lighting, including
for lighthouses. In 1879, the first practical incandescent filament lamp was developed by Joseph Swan (UK)
while Thomas Edison had independently developed his own version of incandescent lamp (Edison lamp)
and retained its patents within the United States in 1880. By then electric lamps became popular and
eventually replaced the gas lamps.

In 1901, Peter Cooper-Hewitt (US) introduced the first mercury-arc lamp. This was followed by several
lighting inventions during the 1930's like the mercury vapor lamp, the reflector lamp, and notably the
fluorescent lamp.
 After WW II, the high pressure sodium and metal halide lamps were introduced, the latter of which is also a
form of high intensity discharge lamp (HID) but an improvement of the mercury vapor lamp. In 1960's, the
first practical visible spectrum LED's was developed and first used as indicator lights. The compact
fluorescent lamp or CFL was introduced during the 1980's, becoming as a good alternative for high-power
consuming incandescent lamps.

The Millennial age saw the development of LED not only as mere indicator lights but as good alternatives or
replacements to existing fluorescent lamps. This is due to the fact that LED lights consume less electricity
but produce higher level and quality of lighting.

B. Sources of Visible Light

1. Natural Emission: This refers to radiation of light spectrum from the Sun and other stars, reflection of
sunlight off the moon, sky, clouds, and light emission from photons like Aurora
Borealis and Aurora Australis.

2. Incandescence: This is also known as temperature radiation. It occurs when an object is heated at a
very high temperature that infrared wave progressing to visible light is produced.

3. Luminescence: The production of light without the use of heat; also known as cold-body radiation
a. Photoluminescence : ex. fluorescent lamp, "glow-in-the dark"
b. Electroluminescence : LED lamps, EL lamps
c. Bioluminescence : Fireflies, Planktons, Jellyfish

4. Laser: A special kind of light source that produces a very regular waves that permit light to
be very tightly focused; emits light in a narrow, low-divergence beam and with a well
defined wavelength (monochromatic & corresponding to a particular color); acronym
for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Figure 02: Different Types of Light Source

II. Light and Human Vision

A. Light

1. Definition
Light is a form of energy manifesting itself as electromagnetic (EM) radiation and is closely related to other
forms of similar radiation like radio, radar, microwave, and ultraviolet radiations. It is a form of energy wave
and thus has frequency and wavelength. A band or range of all possible frequencies of EM radiation
including light wave is called the electromagnetic spectrum. Light provides the stimulus which allows
recognition, organization, and evaluation of visual information perceived within an environment. It defines
form, color, creates mood, atmosphere, and emphasizes direction and movement.

2. Properties / Characteristics
Similar to sound, light has velocity and size in the form of its wavelength. Light travels much faster than
8
sound at the rate of approximately 3.00 x 10 m/s. It can exhibit the properties of both waves and particles,
this being referred to as wave-particle duality. The particle-like features of light are called photons.
 Meanwhile, the wavelength of light ranges from 380 to 780 nanometers (nm), and forms the visible part of
the EM spectrum and determines the color of light. Visible white light is actually but composed of seven (7)
colors - red orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo (ROYGBIV). Red has the longest wavelength while violet is
the shortest. Green has the average length of between 490 – 570nm.

Figure 03: Electromagnetic Spectrum

B. Vision

1. Human Eye
The human eye is a spherical organ capable of swivelling under muscular control with the eye socket of the
skull. The different parts of the eye are as follows:
a. Retina: light-sensitive inner back surface consisting of more than a 100 million light sensitive nerve
endings which transmit signals to the brain as it interprets visual information
b. Lens: part of the eye where light enters; a biconvex structure in the eye which, along with the
cornea, helps to refract light to be focused on the retina
c. Iris: that part of the eye that opens or closes to help control the light entering the eye
d. Pupil: the hole in the eye thru which light enters

Figure 04: Human Eye

2. Visual Adaption
Visual adaption is the mechanism by which the eye changes its sensitivity to light. Such is done in three (3)
ways:
a. Adjustment of iris to alter the pupil size
b. Adjustment of the sensitivity of the nerve endings in the retina
c. Adjustment of the chemical composition of the photo-sensitive pigments in rods and cones (nerve
endings)

Adaption form dark to light takes less than a minute while adaption from light to dark is between 10 to 30
minutes.
 3. Visual Contrast
Visual contrast expresses the differences in luminance (brightness) between closely spaced areas of a
scene. It takes two (2) types of forms: color and luminance contrast and depends on overall luminance of a
scene.

Contrasting colors have mutual effect on each other. Under the influence of a strongly saturated color, other
surfaces will take on the hue of the complement of that color. For example, yellow appears livelier in blue
background than a grey. Red surfaces appear more saturated with a green background, as in the case of
red meat on beds of lettuce.

4. Eye Defects
It is inevitable that with age come eye defects. This is due to aging of tissues in the optical pathway,
including loss of transparency of eye liquid, and hardening & yellowing of eye lenses. The hardening of the
lenses results in difficulty in accommodation, leading to difficulty in reading. Meanwhile, yellowing of the
lenses affects overall sensitivity, visual acuity, and contrast sensitivity. Thus, a 60 year old person may need
up to 15 times more light than a 10 year old.

C. Color

1. Definition
Color is the way we distinguish different wavelengths of light. Light source producing energy over the entire
visible spectrum or equal of it will produce white light (ex. sun) while light source producing energy over only
a section of the spectrum produces its characteristics colored light (ex. blue-green mercury lamp, yellow
sodium lamp). The apparent color of a light-reflecting surface is determined by two (2) characteristics: (a)
spectral composition of light by which it is illuminated (b) spectral reflectance characteristics of the surface.
An example of this would be that a red paint shows it is red as it reflects high percentage of red wavelength
and little or no of other wavelength. However, it can only appear red if light falling on it has sufficient red
radiation.

2. Color Mixing
There are two (2) theories that support the concept of color mixing: the additive mixing, and the subtractive
mixing. When he was 23 years old, scientist Isaac Newton made a revolutionary discovery. Using prisms
and mirrors, he combined the red, green, and blue (RGB) regions of a reflected rainbow to create white light.
This is thus called the additive mixing, as such combination led to the brightening or “adding” of lights, with
the three (3) colors identified as the primary colors. An application of additive mixing would be the lights
emitted by our color TV.

On the other hand, "subtractive mixing" will result in darker colors than the original colors. Right proportions
of color will give color black, or the absence of color. An example of subtractive mixing is in the application
of materials color, like in painting, printing, textile coloring, etc. Contrary to the primary colors in additive
mixing, the primary colors for subtractive mixing are cyan, magenta, and yellow (CMY).

To understand color mixing further and the relationships between additive and subtractive mixing, below is a
simple guide:

Blue = M + C; Green = C + Y; Red = Y + M

R Y

G B M C

Figure 05: Color Mixing

 3. Color Temperature

Not all white light are the same as they depend on their constituent colors. White light with higher proportion
of red will appear warmer than one with blue. However, if based on the physics of light, red light wave has
the lowest temperature while blue has the highest one. This is evident in various light sources where candle
lights being near the red light wave have temperature of 1900 - 2500°K while the overcast sky being near
the color blue light wave have temperature of 6000 - 6900°K.

III. Photometry and Physics of Light

A. Photometry (illustration)
1. Luminous Flux (Φ) : total quantity of light radiated per second of light source, as measured in lumen (lm);
rate of flow of light through a surface

2. Luminous Intensity (I) : flux of light emitted in a certain direction, measured in candela (cd); luminous flux per
unit angle in a specific direction from a point source of light
2 2
3. Illuminance : quantity of light falling on a unit area of surface, measured in lux (lm/m ) or foot-candle (lm/ft );
density of luminous flux incident on a surface

4. Luminance : describes the light emitted from a unit area in a specific direction, measured in candela per
2
square meter (cd/m )

Figure 06: Relationship between Luminous Flux, Luminous Intensity, Illuminance, & Luminance

B. Unit of Measure
1. Luminous Flux (Lumen or lm)
a. 75W incandescent lamp : 900 lm
b. 250W high pressure sodium lamp: 30,000 lm

2. Luminous Intensity (Candela or cd)

Since light radiance is considered spherical in form, the luminous intensity measured one (1) foot distance
2 2
away from one (1) candle light source covers a spherical surface area of 4πr or 12.57 ft . This is then equal
to a candle power of 1.00 cd.
a. 5W bicycle lamp : 2.50 cd
b. 120W incandescent lamp : 10,000 cd
 3. Illuminance (Lux or Foot-candle)
a. summer noon, clear sky : 100,000 lux
b. artificial light (office): 800 lux
2
4. Luminance (cd / m )
2
a. fluorescent lamp : 5000 - 15,000 cd/m
2
b. road surface under street lighting : 0.50 - 2.00 cd/m

Figure 07: Luminous Intensity (Candela)

C. Fundamental Laws of Light

Design of lightning installations is possible because light is predictable and exhibits certain fixed characteristics.

1. Absorption
When a composite light such as white falls on a surface (other than black), selective absorption occurs. The
component colors are absorbed in different proportion so that the reflected of transmitted light is composed
of new combination of the same colors as had impinged on the surface. Thus, a white light reflected from a
red wall has a red tint since the component color of the whole light other than red were absorbed in greater
proportion than the red. The ratio of the light absorbed by a material to the light falling upon it is called
absorptance.

2. Reflection
When light falls upon an opaque material, it is reflected. When the material has a polished surface, the light
will be reflected at an angle equal to the angle of incidence. This is called specular reflection. When the
material has an unpolished surface, however, the reflected light is spread in all directions by multiple
reflections on the unpolished surface. This is called diffuse reflection. The ratio of reflected light to incident
light is called reflectance (also called reflection coefficient or reflectance factor.)

3. Transmission
When light falls upon a transparent material, it is transmitted through it, refracted (bent) as it enters the
material, but emerges at the same angle that it entered. Upon translucent material, however, such as
plastic, the emerging light will spread in all directions. This is called diffuse transmission.

4. Diffusion
This occurs when the reflected light rays are distributed in all directions with maximum intensity normal to
the surface.
 5. Refraction
This is the property of a material to change direction of light at the interface between two different materials,
such as air and glass.

6. Polarization
This phenomenon occurs when the waves vibrates only in one plane.

Reflection Diffusion Refraction Polarization

Figure 08: Characteristics / Behavior of Light

D. Inverse Square Law

The Inverse Square Law in light states that the illumination E at a point on a surface varies directly with the
intensity I of the surface and inversely with the square and the point of the distance “d” between the source and
the point.

𝑰
𝑬=
𝒅𝟐

Figure 09: Inverse Square Law

IV. Lamp and Luminaire

A. Principles

1. Light Output
a. Initial Lumen : quantity of light output of a lamp measured after its first 100 hours of operation
b. Average Lumen : the average of initial lumens of a given lamp type at the end of its rated life
c. Mean Lumen : light output of a lamp at 40% of its rated life
d. Beam Lumen : the initial lumen output of a lamp within the central beam

2. Luminous Efficacy : light output per unit of power (electrical), measured in SI unit as lm/W; also called as
luminous efficacy by source

3. Luminous Efficiency: also called luminous efficacy by radiation; refers to the ratio of luminous flux over the
radiant flux or the amount of radiant energy emitted by a light wave, measured in
watts (W). A source radia
radiating
ting a power of 1.0 W of light for which the eye is most
efficient (green wavelength) has a luminous flux of 683 lumens.

B. High Intensity Discharge Lamp (HID)

1. Operation Principle
The high intensity discharge lamp is known as the first generation of electric
ctric lamp and uses electric arc
through vaporized mercury or metallic gas contained in a high pressure tube inside a glass envelope to
produce light. The metallic gases may be mercury, argon, sodium, etc. HID lamps are good for both indoor
and outdoor use.

2. Type
a. Mercury: the earliest type of HID lamp developed; bluish in color; preferable for
outdoor industrial use
b. Metal halide: contains halides (fluorine, bromine, chlorine, iodine, astatine) to improve
efficacy and color rendering character; has lower life and lumens
maintenance, thus becoming widely used
c. High pressure sodium: uses sodium in excited state to produce light at wavelength of around
589nm, and is almost 100 lm/W illumination (twice that of mercury lamp) but
has poor color rendering (similar to that of incandescent)
d. Xenon arc lamp: uses xenon gas to produce light; commonly used for movie and screen
projectors

Figure 10: HID Lamp Figure 11: Incandescent Lamp

C. Incandescent Lamp

As popularly claimed and known to have been invented by Thomas Alva Edison, the incandescent lamp or Edison
lamp operates on the principle of converting electrical energy into heat at a temperature that causes the filament
to be incandescent, thus called incandescent lamp, or the common light bulb.

The typical incandescent lamp has the following parts and their functions:

1. Filament coil: wire that is heated until it glows; commonly uses tungsten
2. Bulb: Soft glass is commonly used, with hard glass used in some lamps to
withstand higher bulb temperature and also protection from weather.
3. Lead-in / Contact Wire: made from base to stem press and nickel from press to filament carries
current to filament
4. Support Wire: uses molybdenum wires for support
5. Bottom Glass / Glass Support: This is heated during manufacturing and support wires stuck into it
6. Bottom Rod: Glass rod support bottom
7. Gas (Inert): usually a mixture of nitrogen and argon; used in most lamps of 40W or higher
to retard evaporation of filament

The following are the common bulb shapes of incandescent lamps:

Figure 12: Bulb Shapes

 The most popular among the shapes are the General Service (GS) use, which includes the A (Arbitrary) and the
PS (Pear-Shape). Other popular shape includes the G (Globe), and the PAR (Parabolic Aluminium Reflector),
which is a directional lamp commonly
only used for as headlights, theatrical lamps, and commercial recessed lamps.

The standard nomenclature or naming of the light bulb consists of a letter prefix, which denotes the shape of the
bulb (A, PAR, B, R, etc.), and followed by a number which repr
represents
esents the bulb diameter and equals to eighths of
an inch. Thus, the common A-15 15 incandescent light bulb is Arbitrary or standard in shape, with diameter of 15/8”
or 1 7/8”.

Below are the common base ends of light bulbs.

Candelabra Intermediate
termediate Medium Prefocus Prong (End)

Mogul Disc Bayonet Bayonet

(Double Contact) (Single Contact)

Figure 13: Bulb Base Types

D. Fluorescent Lamp

1. Operation Principle

The fluorescent lamp followed the invention of incandescent lamp as it follows the principle of luminescence to
produce light. It uses electrical arc passing thru a tube containing low
low-pressure
pressure mercury vapor to produce
ultraviolet radiation. The UV radiation absorbed by phosphor coating (white colored) on the inside of the tube
produces the visible white light. The mercury vapor lamp patented by Peter Cooper-Hewitt
Cooper served as the
prototype of the fluorescent lamp, which was developed by Andre Claude (French physicist) in the 1930's.He
was also the inventor of the neon lamp.

Figure 14: Fluorescent

cent Lamp Figure 15: Fluorescent Fixture
2. Parts

The following are the parts of a typical fluorescent lamp and a typical fluorescent fixture:

Fluorescent Lamp (Figure 14)

a. Tube: usually straight glass tube, may also be circular or U-shape
b. Base (Pin): of several different types; used to connect the lamp to the electric circuit and to
support the lamp in the lamp holder
c. Cathode: located at each end of the lamp; coated with emissive materials which emit electrons;
made usually of coiled or single coil tungsten wire
d. Lead-in Wire: connects to the base pins carrying the current to and from the cathodes and the
mercury arc
e. Stem Press / Pinch: seals the lead-in wire and assures the same coefficient of expansion in the glass
f. Exhaust Tube: exhausts air during manufacture, where gas is then introduced into the bulb
g. Gas: usually argon or a mixture of inert gases at low pressure, at times Krypton
h. Phosphor Coating: transforms ultraviolet radiation into visible light color of light
i. Mercury: conducts electricity from one end of the lamp to another to produce UV light

Fluorescent Fixture (Figure 15)

a. Fixture Channel / Base: contains or carries the entire lamp
b. End Socket / Holder: connects and holds the ends of the fluorescent lamp to the fixture body
c. Starter: used in conjunction with ballast to start the lamp
d. Ballast: device used to provide the starting required voltage and operating current for
the lamp
e. Fixture Cove: for protecting the lamp and fixture

3. Type (by Operation)

a. Pre-heat: requires starter to energize the cathodes and is limited to lower voltages
b. Rapid Start: starts in less than 1.00 second; uses ballasts with separate winding to provide
continuous heating
c. Instant Start: operates without starters, with ballasts providing high voltage (680V) to strike the arc
instantly; also called slimline lamps and available from 21 to 75W; has only one (1)
pin at the end which acts as a switch to break the ballast circuit when the tube is
removed; more applicable for outdoor use

4. Type (by Form)

(a) Tubular (b) U-Bent (c) Circular (d) Compact

Figure 16: Types of Fluorescent Lamps

Similar to incandescent lamps, the specs and nomenclature of fluorescent lamps also use letters and numerical
prefixes, following the format of Fxx Tyy XXXX, with the following:

F: Represents type of fluorescent lamp

xx: Lamp wattage or size
T: Shape
yy: Diameter in eighth of an inch
XXXX: Description code of the lamp
Thus, a fluorescent lamp with code F20 T8 WW would mean Fluorescent 20W Tubular 8/8 or 1” diameter, Warm
White. Similarly, FC32 T8 12 D would mean Fluorescent Circular Lamp, 32W, 8/8” diameter, 12” circular diameter
in size, Daylight.

Of the different types of fluorescent lamps, the compact fluorescent (CFL) is considered to be the latest innovation.
It is a twist on traditional fluorescent technology as it is more energy efficient compared to the traditional
incandescent lamp, but at the same time compact and easy to install unlike the standard tubular fluorescent, thus
making it a “compact”. The CFL came only by 1960’s, as the big challenge in developing this type of lamp is on
creating smaller and more compact ballasts, especially when integrating it with the lamp itself.

Figure 17: Parts of Compact Fluorescent Lamp

There are basically two (2) types of CFL per operation, the non-integrated ballast and the integrated or self-ballast
CFL. The non-integrated is what is commonly referred to as “plug-in”, and where the ballast is purchased and
installed separately, similar to the traditional tubular fluorescent lamp. On the other hand, the integrated CFL is
installed same as how a traditional incandescent or halogen bulb is installed and replaced, usually with the use of
a medium base screw socket.

Adding to above, there are eight (8) shapes of CF, as listed below:
a. Spiral: most familiar type of CFL, with same efficiency as the traditional incandescent lamp but uses
less energy
b. A-Shaped: combines the efficiency of spiral CFL, but with the look of the traditional incandescent bulb;
can be used a replacement where traditional incandescent bulb is used, as in lamp shades
c. Globe: ideal for bathroom vanity bars and ceiling pendant lights, mimics incandescent globe bulbs
d. Tube: first CL available to consumers; comes in quad, twin, and F lamps tubing; works well in
fixtures that have slender covers such as wall sconces
e. Candle: ideal for use in decorative fixtures where you can see the light bulb
f. Circular: used commonly for reading lamps
g. Posts: for outdoor fixtures and designed to withstand wind, rain, and other outdoor conditions
h. Reflector: provides directional light and is used to replace bulbs in recessed or track lighting; indoor
type used in kitchens or ceiling fans and can be used in dimmer control, while outdoor types
being larger and sealed to withstand rain and snow

(a) Spiral (b) A-Shaped (c) Globe (d) Tube (e) Candle / Torpedo
 (f) Post (g) Circular (h) Reflector

Figure 18: Shapes of CFL

5. Base Type

(a) Bipin (b) Four Pin (c) Single Pin (d) Recessed

Figure 19: Base Types of Fluorescent Lamps

E. LED Lamp

1. Operation Principle

A LED lamp is that type of lighting which uses multiple diodes arranged together to produce light, thus it is
called LED or light emitting diode. A diode refer
refers
s to a device which allows the passage of electric current in one
direction only. LED light produces light thru the flow of current in a semiconductor instead of thru a vacuum or
gas, thus is also called the SSL, or "solid state lighting."

Red colored LEDD lamp was developed by Nick Holonyak, Jr. in the 1960's at General Electric (GE) and was
improved by Dr. Shuji Nakamura in 1993 thru the development of the blue colored LED light, which later
became the basis for white LED light. Also known as the 4th generation
eration of lighting after the HID,
HID incandescent,
and fluorescent types, LED lights are fast becoming popular as it is claimed to be "green" due to low energy
consumption, non-emission
emission of UV radiation, and the non
non-use of mercury vapor.

2. Comparative Analysis
Table 04: Lighting Comparative Analysis

Item Incandescent Fluorescent HID LED

Lumens (mean) 860 750 775 800
Efficacy (lm / W) 14.30 17.40 55.40 84.20
Color Temp. (K) 2,700 2,900 2,700 2,700
CRI* 100 100 82 80
Lifespan (hrs) 1,000 1,000 10,000 25,000

* CRI - refers to color rendering iindex,

ndex, a quantitative measure of the ability of light source to reveal the colors
of objects faithfully in comparison with an ideal or natural light source. The higher the value of CRI, the better
the quality is (100 as highest index with temperature of aro
around 5,000°K).

Figure 20: CRI Comparison

3. Limitation
a. CRI of LED light is low compared to incandescent lamps.
b. Efficiency and lifespan of LED drop at higher temperature.
c. LED lamps are sensitive to heat.
d. LED lamps are also sensitive to power surges.
e. LED lamps may flicker based on quali
quality of DC power supply.

Figure 21: LED Lamp

Figure 24: Mercury Vapor Lamp Figure 25: Low Pressure Sodium
S Lamp

Figure 26:
26
Cool White Light VS. Warm White Light

Figure 22: Metal Halide Lamp Figure 27:

Differences in Effect between Warm White
& Cool White Lighting

Figure 23: High Pressure Sodium Lamp

F. Luminaire

1. Parts

Figure 28: Luminaire

Type
a. Recessed f. Wall Mounted
b. Spot / Projector g. Batten
c. Surface Mounted h. Waterproof / Clean Room
d. Free Standing
e. Suspended / Pendant

(a) (b)
(c)

(d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 29: Type of Luminaire

V. Quality of Lighting

A. Required Lighting Level

Table 05: Required Illumination for Different Spaces

Required Illuminance Required Illuminance

Spaces / Areas 2 Spaces / Areas 2
(lux or lm/m ) (lux or lm/m )
1. Office e. Meeting room 240
a. Filing 240 f. Reception 320
b. Writing / Typing 320 2. Warehouse 150
c. Technical Drawing 600 / 1000 3. Supermarket 750
d. CAD workstation 160 / 240 4. Residences 150
B. Glare Control

Glare is a visual sensation produced by brightness levels within visual field which are considerably greater
than the brightness to which the eye can adapt. It can lead to reduced visual performance, discomfort, eye
strain, and even headache. There are two (2) types of glare, namely:

1. Direct / Discomfort Glare

The direct glare is affected by two (2) factors - the eye being attracted to the highest luminance in a given
scene and the eye adapting rapidly to the average brightness of overall scene. The amount of discomfort
a direct glare produces is inversely proportional to the brightness of background. As a rule of thumb, large
luminance source should not exceed 2500cd and 7500cd for small luminance source to prevent glare.

2. Indirect / Reflected Glare

This is caused by the mirroring of source on a task. The brighter the source, the more troublesome the
reflected glare is.

C. Illumination Method
1. General Lighting: for uniform lighting on the horizontal / working plane; not necessarily
diffused lighting; used where illumination is of primary concern

2. Local / Supplementary: provides small, high level area of lighting but not necessarily contributing
to general lighting; supplementary being similar to local except it
supplements general lighting

3. Combined General & Local: used when general visual task is low, but supplementary lighting is
required in a limited area for a particular task

D. Lighting System
1. Indirect: requires a minimum of 3.00m ceiling height with the lights being suspended 300 to
450mm from the ceiling level; has a maximum of 750 lux illuminance on horizontal
plane; gives a quiet, cool ambience suited for office, private rooms, and lounges;
inherently inefficient though has almost 0% veil reflection (indirect glare)

2. Semi-Indirect: 60 to 90% light directed upward

3. Indirect-Direct: equal light above and below luminaire with center point of walls not lighted well
and principal light coming from luminaire

4. Semi-Direct: 60 to 90% of light directed downward

5. Direct: 90 to 100% of light directed downward, causing dark upper walls and ceilings and
causing glare difficulties; mostly seen in office general lighting

6. Diffuse: light is well distributed throughout a room or space

Figure 30: Indirect Lighting

Figure 31: Indirect Lighting at Church Figure 32: Semi-indirect Lighting

Figure 33: General Diffuse Lighting

Figure 34: Semi-Direct Lighting

Figure 35: Direct-indirect Lighting

 Figure 36: Direct Lighting

Figure 37: Indirect Lighting Figure 38: Semi-Indirect

Indirect Lighting

Figure 39: Semi-Direct

Direct Lighting Figure 40: Direct Lighting

Figure 41: Diffused Lighting Figure 42: Direct-Indirect

Indirect Lighting
 Table 06: Lighting System

Distribution of Light Emitted by Luminaire

Type
Upward (%) Downward (%)
1. Indirect 90 - 100 0 - 10
2. Semi-Indirect 60 - 90 10 - 40
3. General Diffuse 40 - 60 40 - 60
4. Semi-Direct 10 - 40 60 - 90
5. Direct 0 - 10 90 - 100

E. Lighting Application
1. Ambient : used to set the mood / ambience of a living or work space; commonly a combination of
general-architectural-task-accent lighting to create specific atmosphere

2. Accent highlights specific features within a room (ex. art object in a museum, merchandise
display, etc.)

3. Task: to illuminate specific work areas like desk, countertops, etc.; mostly directional and local,
reducing reliance on general overhead lighting

4. Architectural: aims to accentuate features / elements of spaces like walls, space, ceiling, floors, etc.
instead of objects; produces modest amount of illumination coupled with complementary
luminaires to provide the room's general / task lighting

Figure 43: Ambient (Mood) Lighting Figure 44: Accent Lighting

Figure 45: Task Lighting Figure 46: Architectural Lighting

VI. Illumination Calculation

In order to properly design the luminaire layout of a room or space that meets the illuminance and uniformity
requirements of its users, two (2) types of information are generally needed: the average illuminance level and
illuminance level at a given point. Calculation of illuminance is often done to help designers evaluate lighting
uniformity, especially when information on the maximum spacing of luminaires are not available, or when task
lighting must be checked against the ambient.

For average illuminance levels, the Lumen Formula is used where the coefficient of utilization (CU) value is
applied, as obtained either by the Zonal Cavity Method (ZCM) for indoor lighting conditions, or simply thru direct
readout from the CU curve for outdoor lighting applications. On the other hand, there are two (2) methods which
can be used to calculate required illuminance at one point. They are: the use of isofootcandle chart to readily
read the required illuminance level from a chart curve, or the computation of required illuminance level using
Point-to-Point Method / Point Source Method formula. In both the cases of average illuminance and illuminance
at one point, this study will simply focus on obtaining the required illuminance by calculation.

A. Average Illuminance

In computing for average illuminance, there are simple assumptions or estimates taken, as follows:
a. It is assumed that space is empty. This is not normally the case.
b. It is assumed that all surfaces are perfect diffusers.
c. All surface reflectance are estimates. (±10%).
d. Maintenance conditions are estimates, at best ±10%.
e. No allowance is made for deviation of the performance of an individual product from its specifications.

B. Lumen Formula

As mentioned above, the Lumen Formula is used to compute for the average illuminance of a room or
space. It is primarily derived from the illuminance formula being the amount of luminous flux (in lumens) over
the amount of surface area illuminated, with the following formula:

Illuminance (E) =

Where
Illuminance (E): Computation of average illuminance (foot-candle or lux) on a
working plane
Coefficient of Utilization (CU): Coefficient of utilization; the ratio between lumens reaching a work
plane and lumens generated by a source
Area (A): Area of the work plane considered

Since in reality, the operation and output performances of lighting are affected by several factors like
temperature change, voltage variations, dirt accumulation, room surfaces, lamp output depreciation, etc.,
which oftentimes, would cause a decrease in such, another factor is taken into account and included in the
Lumen Formula. This factor is called the Light Loss Factor (LLF), and is further divided into two (2) kinds, the
recoverable and the non-recoverable losses. Recoverable losses include Lamp Lumen Depreciation (LLD),
Luminaire Dirt Depreciation (LDD), Lamp Burnout Factor (LBO), and Room Surface Dirt Depreciation
(RSDD) while the non-recoverable losses include Heat Extraction Thermal Factor, Voltage to Luminaire
Factor, Ballast Factor, and Equipment Operating Factor. Thus, this now gives us the Maintained Illuminance
(ME), with the formula below:

𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝐶𝑈 𝑥 𝐿𝐿𝐹

ME =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Lamp Lumen: No. of fixtures x lamp per fixture x lumen per lamp

𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑥 𝐶𝑈 𝑥 𝐿𝐿𝐹

Therefore, ME =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
C. Zonal Cavity Method

Sometimes called as the Lumen Method, the Zonal Cavity Method is currently the accepted method for
calculating average illuminance levels for indoor areas, unless the light distribution is radically asymmetric. It
takes into account the effect that inter-reflectance has on the level of illuminance, and is based on the concept
that a room is made up of three (3) cavities. The space between the ceiling and the lighting fixture, especially if
suspended, is called the “ceiling cavity”, while the space between the work plane and the floor is called the
“floor cavity”. Lastly, the space between the lighting fixtures and the work plane is referred to as the “room
cavity.” Using the dimensions & measurements of these cavity spaces, numerical relationships between and
among such can be derived of which are then called as “cavity ratios.” The cavity ratios are then used to
determine the Effective Cavity Reflectance of the ceiling (ρcc) and floor (ρfc) cavities to eventually find the
Coefficient of Utilization (CU).

There are four (4) basic steps in the calculation of average illumination level. They are as follows:
1. Determine the Cavity Ratios.
2. Determine the effective cavity reflectance.
3. Select the Coefficient of Utilization (CU).
4. Compute the average illumination level.

Step 1: Cavity ratios for a given room or space may be calculated using the following formula:

( )
Ceiling Cavity Ratio (CCR) =

( )
Room Cavity Ratio (RCR) =

( )
Floor Cavity Ratio (FCR) =

Where:

hcc = Distance from luminaire to ceiling

hrc = Distance from luminaire to work plane
hfc = Distance from work plane to floor
L = Length of room
W = Width of room

An alternate formula for calculating any cavity ratio is:

.
Cavity Ratio =

Figure 47: Room Cavity Heights & Ratios

Step 2: Effective Cavity Reflectance (ECR) for the ceiling (ρcc) and floor (ρfc) must be determined. This
refers to the idea that light reflectance on the upper and lower portion of a room are taken into
account as they add up to the total illuminance of said space. With the word “effective”, this refers
to the actual reflectance of the room in conjunction with its cavity ratios.

ECR for ceilings and floors are obtained by first using Assumptive Reflectance values for ceiling
(ρc), floor (ρf), and wall (ρw). Commonly, zero percent (0%) are used for ceilings and floors if they
are colored black or matte. Reflectance ranges from 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90%. For
white surfaces (acoustic ceiling tile), 80% reflectance is commonly assumed, while 30% and 10%
are for light and dark colored surfaces respectively, and 70% for wall reflectance (ρw) of white
walls.

The ρcc and ρfc values are derived by identifying the intersecting value between the column of
Ceiling / Floor Cavity Ratio (CCR, FCR) and the rows of Percent of Ceiling, Floor, and Wall
Reflectance (ρc, ρf, & ρw) as shown in the Table 07 below. It should be noted that if the luminaire
is recessed or surface mounted, or if the floor itself is the work plane, the CCR or FCR will be
equal to zero (0). Thus, in this case, the assumed percentage of reflectance for the ceiling or floor
will then be the effective cavity reflectance (See the first row of Table 07)

Table 07: Percent of Effective Ceiling & Floor Reflectance

Step 3: Identifying the Coefficient of Utilization (CU) of the luminaire types to be used follows after
identifying the effective ceiling & floor cavity reflectance. This is done with the use of the Table on
the CU of Luminaires. Similar to deriving the effective cavity reflectance values, the CU is obtained
by identifying the intersecting value between the column of Room Cavity Ratio (RCR) and the rows
of ρcc and ρw within a selected type of luminaire. (See Table 08 as shown below.)

It should be noted, however, that the provided CU values on Table 08 are for rooms with effective
floor reflectance (ρfc) of 20% or 0.20. Should the ρfc of the room or space be different, then a
correcting factor from Table 09 shall be used by method of interpolating the values.
Step 4: Compute for the average illuminance using the Lumen Formula, substituting all the values as
available. Should the required illuminance be given already, then the number or lamps and fixtures
are to be computed instead. For the Light Loss Factor (LLF), the most common factors used for
such are as listed:

a. Recoverable Factors
Lamp Lumen Depreciation (LLD) – 0.90
Lamp Burnout Factor (LBO) - 1.00
Luminaire Dirt Depreciation Factor – 0.94
Room Surface Dirt Depreciation Factor (RSDD) – 0.96

b. Non-recoverable Factors
Ballast Factor – 0.93
Other Non-Recoverable Factor - 1.00

Table 08: Coefficient of Utilization of Luminaires

(Continued)
(Continued)
(Continued)

Table 09: Multiplying Factor for other than 20% Effective

Floor Cavity Reflectance
 Table 10: Required Illumination for Various Activities
Illuminance Average Illuminance
Activity Type
Category Lux Foot-Candle
A. General Lighting
1. Public spaces with dark surroundings A 35 3.50
2. Simple orientation for short temporary 7.50
B 75
visits
3. Working spaces where visual tasks are 15.0
C 150
only occasionally performed
B. Illuminance on Task
1. Performance of visual tasks of high 35.0
D 350
contrast or large size
2. Performance of visual tasks of medium 75.0
E 750
contrast or small size
3. Performance of visual tasks of low 150.0
F 1500
contrast or very small size
C. Illuminance on Task, obtained by combination
of general & local lighting
1. Performance of visual tasks of low
contrast and very small size over a G 3,500 300.0
prolonged period
2. Performance of very prolonged and
H 7,500 750.0
exacting visual tasks
3. Performance of very special visual tasks
I 15,000 1500.0
of extremely low contrast and small size

Example

Problem No. 1
A high school classroom 6.0m x 8.0m x 3.70m in height is to be installed with luminaires, with the following
givens:

a. Initial Reflectance: ceiling, 80%; wall, 50%; floor 20%

b. Light Loss Factor: LDD, 0.94; LBO, 1.00; LLD, 0.90; RSDD, 0.96; Ballast Factor 0.93; Other non-
recoverable, 1.00
c. Cavity heights: hCC, 1.00m; hFC, 0.75m; hRC, 1.95m
d. Type of Luminaire: No. 44 Troffer Lighting w/ radial batwing distribution, 2-40W fluorescent lamps for
fixture at 2.325 lumens for each lamp

Solution:

STEP 01: Identify the required illuminance level of the classroom. Referring to Table 10, illuminance level
could either be Category D or E, of either 350 or 750 lux. On the average, required illuminance
could be the average of 550 lux.

STEP 02: Compute the cavity ratios using the given cavity heights and room dimensions

RCR = 5 hRC

. .
RCR = 5 (1.75)
. .

RCR = 5 (1.75) (0.29)

RCR = 2.84
 CCR = 5 hCC

. .
CCR = 5 (1.00)
. .

CCR = 5 (1.00) (0.29)

CCR = 1.46

FCR = 5 hFC

. .
FCR = 5 (0.75)
. .

FCR = 5 (0.75) (0.29)

FCR = 1.09

STEP 03: Find the Effective Cavity Reflectance (ECR) of ceiling (ρcc) and floor (ρfc) using the Effective
Reflectance table and the computed cavity ratios.

Using Table 07, ρcc with CCR of 1.46 falls between 0.60 and 0.62. By interpolation, ρcc is 0.61.
Similarly, the resulting ρfc value with ρf of 20%, ρw of 50%, and FCR of 1.09, lies in between the
interpolations of 27% & 26% (between 1.00 & 1.20), and 11% & 12% (between 30% & 10%.) The
resulting interpolated ρfc is 19.0.

Figure 48: Effective Floor Cavity Reflectance

FCR ρf ρf ρf
30% 20% 10%
1.00 27 19 11
1.09 26.55 ? 11.45
1.20 26 12

STEP 04: Having already derived the ρcc value, we refer to Table 08 No.44 Troffer Lighting type using the
computed RCR value of 2.84 to obtain the Coefficient of Utilization (CU) of said luminaire. The
intersecting RCR column and ρcc row gives us the following values shown below. By interpolation,
the resulting CU value is 0.5177 or 51.77%.

Figure 49: CU Value for No.44 Luminaire at ρfc = 20%

RCR ρcc ρcc ρcc

ρw = 50% 70% 61% 50%
2.00 58 56.35 55
2.84 52.96 ? 50.8
3.00 52 50

Take note, however, that the CU values under Table 08 are for luminaires in rooms with effective
floor cavity reflectance of 20% or 0.20. Since the actual ρfc value obtained is 0.19 or 19%, another
interpolation for Multiplying / Correction Factor will be made using Table 09 to get the actual CU
value for ρfc of 0.19 or 19%. Initially, the resulting Correction Factor if ρfc is at 10% is 0.9615 or a
resulting CU of 0.4977 (0.5177 x 0.9615.)
 Figure 50: Multiple Factor for 10% Effective Floor
Cavity Reflectance

RCR ρcc ρcc ρcc

ρw = 50% 70% 61% 50%
2.00 0.949 0.956 0.962
2.84 0.956 ? 0.966
3.00 0.957 0.967

Interpolating the Multiple / Correction Factor as shown, below, we therefore get the factor of
0.99615. Therefore, the actual CU value for No.44 Troffer Lighting at ρfc of 19% or 0.19 is 0.5157
(0.5177 x 0.99615.)

Figure 51: Multiple Factor for Effective Floor Cavity

Reflectance (ρfc) of 19% or 0.19

ρfc Correction Factor CU

20 1.00 0.5177
19 ? ?
10 0.9615 0.4977

STEP 05: Compute for the Light Loss Factor (LLF). This is done by multiplying the recoverable factor with the
non-recoverable factor. The resulting LLF therefore is equal to 0.7553.

LLF = Recoverable x Non-recoverable

LLF = (LDD x LLD x LBO x RSDD) x (Ballast Factor x Other non-recoverable)

LLF = (0.94 x 0.90 x 1.00 x 0.96) x (0.93 x 1.00)

LLF = 0.812 x 0.93

LLF = 0.7553

STEP 06: Compute for the number of luminaire using the Lumen Formula and with all the previously
computed and given values as applicable.

𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑥 𝐶𝑈 𝑥 𝐿𝐿𝐹

ME =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

, . .
550 Lux =
. .

.
N=
, . .

,
N=
, .

N = 7.5168 ~ 8.00 fixtures

Refer to Figure 47 below for the summary process of Zonal Cavity Method in computing average illuminance.

Data
hcc, hrc, hfc
ρc, ρw, ρf

Calculate
RCR, CCR, FCR

No Yes
CCR = 0?

Calculate ρc = ρcc
ρcc

No Yes
FCR = 0?

Calculate ρf = ρfc
ρfc

Calculate
CU1

No Yes
ρfc =20%

Calculate CU = CU1
CU

Figure 52: Zonal Cavity Method Flowchart

D. Point Source Method

Calculating illuminance from a point source is based from the inverse square law which states that illuminance
(E) is inversely proportional to the square of distance from the source of light, and varies directly with the
intensity (I) of the surface.
2 2
E = I / d or I = E x d

From the illustration below, light illumination is at point P measured from an angle θ which is equal to angle of
incidence as formed by an imaginary vertical with horizontal work plane (see illustration)

From the illustration, thus we derive the cosine law

as stated:
𝑰
E= 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝛉 for horizontal illuminance, and
𝒅𝟐
𝑰
Light Source E= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝛉 for vertical illuminance
𝒅𝟐

Where:
E = Illuminance on the surface
θ I = Luminous intensity of the light source in
Vertical Work Plane the direction of the surface
d = Distance from the source to the surface
cos θ = angle of incidence on horizontal
I illuminance
H sin θ = angle of incidence on vertical
Distance, d illuminance

Since cos θ = H/d and sin θ = R/d, we then

θ
substitute the Distance (d) and illumination from a
R Point P point source with an angle of incidence can be
computed by using the formula shown below:
Figur53: Illuminance
Horizontal Work
from Plane
Point Source
2 3
E = I / H (cos θ) for horizontal illuminance
2 3
E = I / R (sin θ) for vertical illuminance
Example

Problem No. 2

John is standing near a street lamp post with an installed HID lamp of 12,000 candelas (cd) luminous intensity,
mounted at 6.00m in height. If the light coming from the lamp post is falling on John at an angle of incidence of
30°, and with the lamp having an LLF of 0.95, compute for the total illuminance falling at John’s position.

Solution:
E= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ 𝑥 𝐿𝐿𝐹

,
E= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (30°)𝑥 0.95
.

E = 333.333 x (0.866) 𝑥 0.95

2
E = 205.663 lux or lm / m

That means that John at the position of 3.46m horizontal distance (tan30° x 6.00m) from the street lamp post is
receiving an illuminance of 205.663 lux.
VII. Definition of Terms

1. Absorption
The ratio of light absorbed by a material to the light falling upon it

2. Ambient Lighting
Lighting throughout an area that produces general illumination

3. Ballast Factor
The ratio of the luminous output of a lamp when operated on a ballast to its luminous output when
operated under standardized rating conditions; the ratio of lamp lumens generated on commercial
ballasts to those generated on the test quality ballasts

4. Beam Angle
The angle between two directions for which the intensity is 50 percent of the maximum intensity, as
measured in a plane through the nominal beam canter line

5. Brightness
The attribute of visual perception in accordance with which a surface appears to emit more or less light

6. Candela
A unit of luminous intensity; international candle

7. Candle Power
The luminous intensity of a light source in a certain direction, expressed in candelas

8. Coefficient of Utilization (CU)

The ratio of the luminous flux (lumens) from a luminaire calculated as received on the work plane to the
luminous flux emitted by the luminaries’ lamp

9. Contrast
The difference in brightness between an object and its background; luminance difference between the
critical details of a task and its background

10. Critical Angle

The angle at which light undergoes total internal reflection

11. Efficacy
The ratio of the approximate initial lumens produced by a light source divided by the necessary power to
produce them

12. Foot-candle (FC)

A unit of illumination equal to 1 lumen per square foot; light flux density; 1fc = 10.76 lux

13. Foot-lambert (FL)

A unit of luminance equal to 1/π candela per square foot

14. Glare
The sensation produced by luminance within the visual field that is sufficiently greater than the luminance
to which the eyes are adapted.; Glare may cause annoyance, discomfort, or loss of visual performance or
visibility

15. Illuminance
The density of luminous flux incident on a surface; the quotient of the luminous flux divided by the area of
the surface when the latter is uniformly illuminated
16. Illumination
The luminous flux density incident on a surface, that is, the luminous flux per unit area, usually expressed
in lumens per square foot or foot candles, and lumens per square meter

17. Infrared Radiation

Non-visible light characterized by its relation to heat

18. Intensity
The luminous flux per unit solid angle, expressed in lumens per steradian (lm/Sr) or candela

19. Lambert
A unit of luminance equal to 1/π candela per square centimetre

20. Lamp Burnout Factor

Ratio of the number of lamps that would be burning to the total number of lamps in a system in a given
time

21. Lamp Lumen Depreciation (LLD)

Multiplicative factor in calculations of illumination for reduction in the light output of a lamp over a period
of time

22. Light
An artificial source of illumination

23. Lighting
The various processes, systems, forms, and/ or equipment used to provide light and illumination

24. Light Loss Factor (LLF)

A factor used on calculating illuminance after a given period and under given conditions; also known as
Maintenance Factor

25. Lumen
A unit of luminous flux

26. Luminaire
A complete lighting unit consisting of one or more lamps, together with components which are used to
distribute lights, to position and protect the lamps to the electric power supply; also called a lighting fixture

27. Luminaire Dirt Depreciation (LDD)

Multiplicative factor used in calculations of illuminance for reduced illuminance due to dirt collecting on
the luminaries

28. Luminaire Efficiency

The ratio of luminous flux (lumen) emitted by a luminaire to a total flux emitted by the lamp or lamps in the
luminaire

29. Luminaire Efficacy

A measure of the effectiveness with which a light source converts electric power into luminous flux

30. Luminance
The luminous intensity of any surface in a given direction per unit of project area of the surface, as
viewed from that direction, measured in candelas per square meter; a directional property of luminous
radiation

31. Luminance Contrast

The relationship between the luminance of an object and the luminance of the immediate background
32. Luminescence
The emission of light not directly ascribable to incandescence

33. Luminous Flux

The rate flow of light through a surface

34. Luminous Intensity

The luminous flux per unit solid angle in a specific direction from a point source of light; In design, an
interior source may be considered a point source if the distance exceeds 5 to 10 times the maximum
source dimension of the luminaire. The unit is expressed in candlepower (cp) or candelas or in lumens
per steradian.

35. Lux
A unit of illumination equal to 1 lumen per square meter (lm/m2)

36. Nanometer
A unit of measure equal to one (1) billionth of a meter (1,000,000,000nm = 1.00 meter)

37. Nit
A unit measure of luminance equal to one (1) candela / square meter

38. Point Source

A source of essentiality zero dimension that radiates light uniformly in all directions

39. Polarization
The process by which the transverse vibrations of light waves are oriented in a specific plane

40. Reflectance
The ration of reflected light to indirect light

41. Refraction
The processes by which direction of a ray of light changes as the ray passes obliquely from a medium to
another

42. Room Cavity Ratio (RCR)

A number indicating the proportions of a room cavity, calculated from the length, width, and height of the
room

43. Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)

Non-visible light that can have both harmful and beneficial effects

44. Veiling Reflection

A reflection that creates a luminous veil over a visual task

45. Visible Light

The combination of the colors of the visible spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet

46. Voltage to Luminaire Factor

The rate of change of lumen output of a light source due to the change in voltage supply (esp. for
incandescent lamp)

47. Zonal Cavity Method / Lumen Method / Flux Method

A procedure in lighting design used to determine the number and types of lamps or luminaries required to
provide average level of illumination on a workplace; takes into account both direct and reflected light flux