CAKES/Nature of Cakes 751
CAKES
Contents
Nature of Cakes
Methods of Manufacture
Chemistry of Baking
Nature of Cakes
S P Cauvain, Campden and Chorleywood Food
Research Association, Chipping Campden, UK
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Definition
0001 The definition of cake will vary slightly in different
parts of the world but essentially the term refers to
products which are characterized by formulations
based on (wheat) flour, sugar and (whole) eggs and
other liquids (milk), to which fat or oil may be added.
The level of added liquids is such that a low-viscosity
batter is formed rather than a dough. A key difference
between cake and bread is that the former is most
commonly baked in a mold, pan, or tin in order to
contain the batter and to form a product of a given
shape. Minimal processing of the batter is required
before baking.
0002 There is no significant gluten formation in cake
batters and, indeed, cake-making technology exploits
positive steps to prevent gluten formation. Modern
cakes are produced by forming a complex emulsion
and foam – the batter – which is processed by being
heat-set. As a broad generalization, modern cake
batters can be considered as fat, or oil, in water
emulsion systems. The aqueous phase contains the
dissolved sugar and suspended flour particles. In
many batter systems air bubbles are incorporated by
entrainment in the solid fat and they are held there
rather than the aqueous phase. However, as the batter
warms during baking, the air bubbles transfer from
the fat to the aqueous-phase foam and expand. Later
in the baking process the foam sets to yield the cake
structure.
0003 The key structure-forming component of cakes is
the starch contributed by wheat flour and the modifi-
cation of its gelatinization characteristics through the
addition of sugars and high levels of liquids (egg,
milk, water).
0004 Cakes are characterized by being relatively high-
density products, typically 0.4–0.7 ml g3, with a
tender-eating, friable crumb, and sweet taste. Their
final moisture contents typically lie in the region of
18–28%, lower than that of bread but higher than
that of pastries, biscuits, and cookies. The organolep-
tic and mold-free shelf-life of cake products varies
according to their formulations.
A Brief History of Cake Making
Representations of products described as ‘cakes’ are 0005
known from the twelfth century bc in Egypt. To what
extent the products depicted equate to our modern
view of cake is uncertain. Baking molds appear to
have been used, since many of the products take the
form of animals of the time. For example, a fried
product resembling a snake is described. The first
likely use of sweet substances in cooking/baking
appears to belong to the ancient Greeks who knew
of the special properties of the ‘sackharon’ or ‘sweet
reed’ (sugarcane) from the Indian subcontinent. The
advance of cane sugar into the Middle East was com-
plete by about 700 bc. Sugar consumption continued
to rise and spread, first with the expansion of the
Roman Empire and later throughout medieval
Europe.
Early cake recipes were probably based on the use 0006
of honey and in Roman times such confections were
made for special occasions such as the Saturnalia and
the New Year’s fair. Recipe books of the time
record the addition of honey to dough to make such
cakes. In the medieval period cake recipes and their
production are recorded in many European contexts.
Access to sugarcane gradually improved with the
voyages of discovery to the east and the Americas
and the production of sweetened cakes increased
and their forms proliferated through the sixteenth,
seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries ad.
Types of Cakes
The term ‘cake’ is taken to include the forms listed in 0007
Table 1 and variants thereof. Cakes may be classified
into six arbitrary categories:
. Low-fat sponges, containing less than 5% fat. 0008
. High-fat sponges, containing more than 5% fat. 0009
 752 CAKES/Nature of Cakes

tbl0001 Table 1 Examples of cake formulations techniques. The aim of both methods of particle
Sponge cake High-ratio Chocolate Fruited cake size reduction is to free the starch granules from the
cake cake enveloping protein matrix. Ideally, the maximum
Flour 100 100 100 100
particle size of cake flours should be < 90 mm.
Sugar (sucrose) 105 115 130 120 . Postmilling treatment – the most common forms of 0017

Fat/oil 5 35 55 50 treatment are exposure to chlorine gas and dry-heat

Baking powder 3 5 5 3 treatment. Although the two treatment methods
Whole eggs 50 30 30 45 are quite different, the resulting change in flour
Milk solids 5 6 8 5
Water 65 100 120 65
properties is quite similar–notably, they cause
Cocoa powder 25 changes in the hydrophobicity of the starch gran-
Dried vine fruits 140 ules. The treatment makes the flours more suited to
the production of the high-ratio type of cake. (Note
Recipes are based on 100 parts (e.g., 100 g, 100 kg, 100 lb) of flour.
that treatment of cake flours with chlorine gas is
not now permitted in many countries.)
0010 . Low-ratio cakes, in which the levels of sugar and
Sugars and Sweeteners
liquids in the formulation are individually less than
the flour weight. Sugar provides sweetness in cakes but also plays a 0018

0011 . High-ratio cakes, in which the levels of sugar and
liquids in the formulation are individually greater
than the flour weight.
0012 . Fruited cakes, which have a proportion of dried
vine fruits, fresh fruit, nuts, or other particulate
materials in the formulation.
0013 . Chocolate cakes, containing a proportion of cocoa
solids.
Some examples of typical sponge and cake formula-
tions are given in Table 1.
The Nature and Roles of the Ingredients
Used
Flour
0014 Cakes can be manufactured with most types of wheat
flour. The most important contribution of the wheat
flour is the starch, the gelatinization of which forms
the major structural component of cakes. The hy-
drated wheat flour proteins form a significantly
weaker gluten structure in cake batters than in
bread dough because of the disruptive effects of the
recipe sugars and fats in the cake formulation. In
addition, the high levels of recipe liquids produce a
low-viscosity batter which reduces the ability of the
mixing action to impart the necessary energy for
gluten formation. A protein continuum may form in
the batter and this does make a small contribution to
cake strength and gives a firmer eating quality.
0015 Most commercial cake flours are characterized by
the following key features:
0016 . Particle size – improved cake quality is obtained
when the particle size is reduced below that nor-
mally obtained from a standard flour-milling pro-
cess. This is usually accomplished by regrinding the
flour or through the application of air-classification
significant role in batter aeration and structure for-
mation. The influence on structural formation comes
from the effect of the sugar solution formed in the
batter on the gelatinization temperature of the starch.
The higher the sugar concentration, the higher the
starch gelatinization temperature and therefore the
longer the time that the batter has to expand before
it sets. Figure 1 illustrates the effects of increasing
sugar level.
The most common sugar used in cake making is 0019
sucrose, though glucose and other sugars may be
used. If reducing sugars are used, there is a tendency
for discoloration of the crumb to occur at higher rates
of addition.
Eggs
Whole egg is a common component of cakes, provid- 0020
ing color, flavor, aeration, and structure-forming
properties. The aeration and structure-forming prop-
erties come from the proteins which are present in the
egg white. The addition of fat will interfere with the
aeration power of egg proteins.
Some cake types, e.g., angel cake, may be made 0021
without the use of egg yolks. Using only the egg
white confers a white color to the final product.
Milk
Milk products are commonly used to provide flavor 0022
and a source of water to dissolve the added sugar.
Dried-milk products may also be used, provided an-
other source of water is added in the recipe. Skimmed
milk powder can be used for color and flavor. The
powder should have been heat-treated before use,
otherwise it may adversely affect product volume.
The heat treatment is required to denature the globu-
lins which are present, otherwise they can interfere
with the stability of the gas bubbles in the batter and
cause loss of product volume.

fig0001 Figure 1 (see color plate 14) Cakes with (left) 57.5, (middle) 86 and (right) 115% sucrose based on flour weight.
Water
0023 Water may be added to dissolve the recipe sugars,
especially if liquid milk products are not used.
Fats and Oils
0024 The addition of solid fat to a cake formulation is used
to provide tender eating qualities and restrict the
potential for gluten formation. The solid fat also
aids the incorporation and stabilization of air bubbles
in the batter. Polarization microscopy shows that,
when subjected to agitation, the fat crystals align
themselves around the air bubbles, thereby entrap-
ping and stabilizing them. This is possible because
the oil fraction in the fat allows the fat crystals to
move and at the same time adhere to one another like
links in a chain. It is apparent that in such a mechan-
ism the ratio of liquid to crystalline fat and the size of
the individual crystals are very important. If oil is
used in the batter, the bubble stabilization effects
will be absent and the cake will lack volume.
0025 The crystalline form of the fat is important in pro-
moting batter aeration. The three fat polymorphs of
concern are the alpha, beta-prime and beta. Air in-
corporation in cake batters is greatest with fats in the
beta-prime form, less with the alpha form, and least
with the beta form.
Emulsifiers
0026 Emulsifiers are used to aid the incorporation and
stabilization of air bubbles in the batter, especially in
the presence of fats or oils. The most commonly used
emulsifiers for this purpose are glycerol monostearate
(GMS) and polyglycerol esters, with the former being
the more effective of the two on a weight-for-weight
basis. Both emulsifiers are commonly used in a paste
CAKES/Nature of Cakes 753
form, i.e., dispersed in water with other ingredients
which promote gel stability. Emulsifiers like GMS
may exist in a number of forms when dispersed in
water and it is important it is in the active alpha-gel
form when used for cake making.
Without GMS the egg protein will largely stabilize 0027
the air bubbles and the sponge will have a reasonable
volume, but often with an area of coarse open-cell
structure in the crumb. The addition of a small level
of GMS somewhat unexpectedly produces a worse
cake, with a dip in the top surface. It is apparent
from this result that the GMS and the egg proteins
do not combine their stabilizing power. At low levels
the GMS is able to stabilize the bubbles at low tem-
peratures, but it cannot continue to do so as the
temperature rises and the bubbles expand during
baking. Further increases in the level of added GMS
eventually provide a stable batter and improved cake
quality.
Baking Powders
A significant proportion of the final baked cake is 0028
air. This is a mixture of gases, partly air incorporated
during mixing, and partly carbon dioxide generated
from the action of sodium bicarbonate with a suitable
food acid. The production of carbon dioxide gas
and its release when the batter first enters the
oven is an important part of the cake expansion
mechanism. Without this extra release of gas the
batter can only expand from the temperature effect
on the air trapped in the batter and the cake will
remain small in volume. Providing an extra release
of gas produces a larger cake specific volume and
gives it a more tender eating quality. The relative
importance of mechanical and chemical aeration is
shown in Figures 2 and 3.
 754 CAKES/Nature of Cakes

fig0002 Figure 2 (see color plate 15) Cake (left) with and (right) without chemical aeration.

fig0003 Figure 3 (see color plate 16) Cake (left) with and (right) without mechanical aeration.

0029 The action of the baking acid on the sodium bicar- . Glucono-delta-lactone, 2.10, moderately fast reac- 0033

bonate normally proceeds to completion, i.e., to re- tion

lease all of the carbon dioxide gas from the mixture. . Sodium acid pyrophosphate, 1.33, slow reaction 0034

The flavor of the cake is influenced by the residual . Sodium aluminum phosphate, 1.00, slow reaction 0035

salt from the acid–base reaction. The rate at which

carbon dioxide is released from the baking powder Other Dry Ingredients
reaction is controlled by using acids of different types.
. Whey solids may be used for color and flavor. The 0036
The most commonly used baking acids and their rates
powder should have been heat-treated before use
of addition to achieve neutrality with one part of
otherwise it may adversely affect product volume.
sodium bicarbonate are:
. Cocoa powder is used in the production of choc- 0037

0030 . Tartaric acid, 0.89, fast reaction olate cakes. It can come in several different forms.
0031 . Potassium hydrogen tartrate (cream of tartar), . Salt may be used for flavor and improving product 0038

2.25, fast reaction mold-free shelf-life.

0032 . Acid calcium phosphate (monocalcium phos- . Humectants such as glycerol and sorbitol may be 0039

phate), 1.25, moderately fast reaction used to extend product mold-free shelf-life.

0040 . Dried vine fruits are used in the production of
fruited cake varieties.
0041 . Candied orange and lemon peel and glacé cherries
may be used in the production of fruited and speci-
ality cakes.
0042 . Dried nuts may be added to fruited and speciality
cakes.
The Importance of Recipe Balance
0043 The final quality of cakes is strongly influenced by
the proportions of the ingredients that are used in the
recipe. Since the wheat flour provides the main struc-
ture-forming component – the starch – it is common
practice to construct the recipe based on the flour
weight and express the mass of other ingredients as
‘percentage flour weight’. This method of determining
ingredient levels has the advantage that it is possible to
deduce a series of ‘rules’ by which any cake recipe can
be constructed and the causes of quality losses rectified.
0044 Typical of the rules which are applied to cake
making include the following:
0045 . The level of sugar will lie between 95 and 135%
flour weight for high-ratio cakes and 65 and 95%
for low-ratio cakes.
0046 . The level of water should be equal to and not
exceed 1.25 times the sugar weight.
0047 . The level of fat should not exceed the level of total
egg used (i.e., solids and water combined).
0048 . The level of fat should not exceed the level of sugar.
Imbalances in ingredient ratios will manifest as qual-
ity losses in the baked product. Many more
specialized rules exist whereby the level of other func-
tional ingredients, e.g., baking powder, may be deter-
mined. The range of acceptable ingredients ratios
varies according to the type, size, and shape of cake
being made.
Cake Shelf-Life
Water Activity
0049 Cakes are commonly referred to as intermediate-
moisture food products because the moisture content
of typical cake products (approximately 18–28%) is
high enough to confer soft and tender eating proper-
ties. At such moisture contents cakes are susceptible
to microbial spoilage within a few days or weeks.
However, it is the water activity of a cake product
that controls the products microbial shelf-life rather
than the moisture content alone. Examples of water
activity in cakes are given in Table 2.
0050 The formulation of the cake recipe is the main
factor which affects its water activity and thus
CAKES/Nature of Cakes 755
Table 2 Examples of water activity in cakes tbl0002
Cake product Water activityrange
High-moisture cakes, such as carrot cake 0.9–0.95
Yellow, white, chocolate, and layer cakes 0.8–0.89
Fruited cakes 0.7–0.79
Celebration cakes 0.6–0.69
Table 3 Sucrose equivalent of some bakery ingredients tbl0003
Ingredient Sucrose equivalent
Salt 11.0
Glycerol 4.0
Sorbitol solids 2.0
Dextrose monohydrate 1.4
Sucrose 1.0
Flour 0.2
its microbial shelf-life. Particularly important in con-
trolling water activity is the ratio of recipe water
to the soluble materials. The latter will include salt
and sugars. In addition, some other ingredients
which do not go into solution but which have the
ability to hold water and reduce its availability for
microbial activity may be present. An example of the
latter is flour which hydrates during mixing because
of the presence of proteins and damaged starch. On
baking, the flour proteins coagulate and the starch
gelatinizes.
When soluble materials like salt and sugar dissolve 0051
in water they both reduce the vapor pressure of the
solution. The potential effect of a particular ingredi-
ent depends on its individual chemistry. For example,
salt is ionic and has a great affinity for water. Sucrose
and other sugars (e.g., glucose) do not possess that
same affinity of water and so for a given weight is less
effective than salt at locking up water. The sucrose
equivalent of an ingredient is often used to identify its
likely affect on cake water activity. Some typical su-
crose equivalents for cake ingredients are given in
Table 3. The sucrose equivalent is based on a method
which assigns a value of 1 to sucrose and compares all
ingredient effects on an equal-weight basis. Thus, in
Table 3 the value for salt is 11, which indicates that,
weight for weight, salt is 11 times more effective at
lowering product water activity than sucrose. Other
materials worthy of note are glycerol four times more
effective, sorbitol twice, and dextrose monhydrate
1.4. Many ingredients are much less effective than
sucrose and therefore have values of less than one.
Spoilage Inhibitors
Where the microbial shelf-life of cake products is 0052
insufficient it is common practice to add a suitable
mold inhibitor to add to the effect of product water
 756 CAKES/Methods of Manufacture
tbl0004 Table 4 Approximate increases in mold-free shelf-life with
1340 p.p.m. potassium sorbate in cake (pH 6.5)
Water activity Extra days at 21 C
0.92 2.5
0.86 8.0
0.80 40.0
activity. Commonly used mold inhibitors are sorbic
acid and its salts (e.g., potassium sorbate). Levels of
addition will vary according to the shelf-life require-
ments, with upper limits being controlled by legisla-
tion. In practice, high levels of addition will lead to
changes in product flavor which may make the prod-
uct unacceptable to consumers.
0053 The effect of mold inhibitors in cake making is
enhanced by the effect of water activity. An example
of this relationship is given for potassium sorbate in
Table 4.
See also: Cakes: Methods of Manufacture; Chemistry of
Baking; Eggs: Use in the Food Industry; Emulsifiers:
Uses in Processed Foods; Flour: Dietary Importance;
Leavening Agents; Milk: Dietary Importance; Powdered
Milk: Characteristics of Milk Powders; Sweeteners:
Intensive; Others
Further Reading
Bent AJ (ed.) (1997) Technology of Cakemaking, 6th edn.
London: Blackie Academic & Professional.
Cauvain SP and Cyster J (1996) Sponge cake technology.
CCFRA Review No. 2.
Cauvain SP and Young LS (2000) Bakery Food Manufac-
ture and Quality: Water Control and Effects. Oxford,
UK: Blackwell Science.
Cauvain SP and Young LS (2001) Baking Problems Solved.
Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
Cauvain SP, Hodge DG, Muir DD and Dodds NJ (1976)
Improvements in and Relating to Treatment of Grain.
British patent no. 1 444 173. London, UK: HSMO.
Cauvain SP, Gough BM and Whitehouse ME (1976) The
role of starch in baked goods: part 2. The influence of
purification procedure on the surface properties of the
granule. Die Starke 41: 461–467.
Doe CAF and Russo JVB (1968) Flour Treatment Process.
British patent no. 1 110 711. London, UK, HSMO.
Gough BM, Whitehouse ME and Greenwood CT (1978)
The role and function of chlorine in the preparation of
high-ratio cake flour. CRC Critical Review in Food Sci-
ence and Nutrition 10: 91–113.
Grover DW (1947) The keeping properties of confectionery
as influenced by its vapour pressure, Journal of the Soci-
ety of Chemistry and Industry 66: 201–205.
Kent NL and Evers AD (1994) Kent’s Technology of
Cereals, 4th edn. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science.
Sahi SS (1999) Influence of aeration and emulsifiers on
cake batter rheology and textural properties of cakes.
In: Campbell GM, Webb C, Pandiella SS and Niranjan K
(eds) Bubbles in Food, St Paul, USA: AACC. pp.
263–271.
Spies RD and Hoseney RC (1982) Effects of sugar on starch
gelatinisation. Cereal Chemistry 59: 128–131.
Street CA (1991) Flour Confectionery Manufacture.
London, UK: Blackie Academic & Professional.
Young LS, Davies PR and Cauvain SP (1998) Cakes –
getting the balance right. In: Milne R, Macintosh A
and Bramer M (eds) Proceedings of ES98, the Eight-
eenth Annual International Conference of the British
Computer Society Specialist Group on Expert Systems,
pp. 42–55. London, UK: Springer.
Methods of Manufacture
S P Cauvain, Campden and Chorleywood Food
Research Association, Chipping Campden, UK
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Aims of Mixing
As discussed above, gluten formation is undesirable in 0001
cakes and is limited, in part, by the formulation, most
notably high levels of sugar, liquid, and fat. Gluten
formation may also be limited by the methods used to
mix cake batters and the avoidance of any processing
steps that may induce gluten formation. As a broad
generalization, cake batters can be considered as fat,
or oil, in water emulsion systems. The aqueous phase
contains the dissolved sugar and suspended flour par-
ticles. In cake-batter systems, air bubbles are incorpor-
ated and held in the fat phase rather than the aqueous
phase. However, as the batter warms during baking,
the air bubbles transfer from the fat to the aqueous
phase foam and expand. Later in the baking process,
the foam sets to yield the familiar cake structure.
The aims of cake-batter mixing can be summarized 0002
as follows:
. to uniformly disperse the ingredients; 0003
. to incorporate and stabilize the necessary air 0004
bubble nuclei; and
. to minimize gluten formation. 0005
The main manufacturing methods for cakes are
mostly based on the mixing process that is used.
There are two main types:
. Multistage, in which various ingredients are mixed 0006
together as subcomponents before blending into
the final batter. The aims of multistage mixing
methods are to minimize gluten formation and to
aid with the incorporation and stabilization of air
 756 CAKES/Methods of Manufacture
tbl0004 Table 4 Approximate increases in mold-free shelf-life with
1340 p.p.m. potassium sorbate in cake (pH 6.5)
Water activity Extra days at 21 C
0.92 2.5
0.86 8.0
0.80 40.0
activity. Commonly used mold inhibitors are sorbic
acid and its salts (e.g., potassium sorbate). Levels of
addition will vary according to the shelf-life require-
ments, with upper limits being controlled by legisla-
tion. In practice, high levels of addition will lead to
changes in product flavor which may make the prod-
uct unacceptable to consumers.
0053 The effect of mold inhibitors in cake making is
enhanced by the effect of water activity. An example
of this relationship is given for potassium sorbate in
Table 4.
See also: Cakes: Methods of Manufacture; Chemistry of
Baking; Eggs: Use in the Food Industry; Emulsifiers:
Uses in Processed Foods; Flour: Dietary Importance;
Leavening Agents; Milk: Dietary Importance; Powdered
Milk: Characteristics of Milk Powders; Sweeteners:
Intensive; Others
Further Reading
Bent AJ (ed.) (1997) Technology of Cakemaking, 6th edn.
London: Blackie Academic & Professional.
Cauvain SP and Cyster J (1996) Sponge cake technology.
CCFRA Review No. 2.
Cauvain SP and Young LS (2000) Bakery Food Manufac-
ture and Quality: Water Control and Effects. Oxford,
UK: Blackwell Science.
Cauvain SP and Young LS (2001) Baking Problems Solved.
Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
Cauvain SP, Hodge DG, Muir DD and Dodds NJ (1976)
Improvements in and Relating to Treatment of Grain.
British patent no. 1 444 173. London, UK: HSMO.
Cauvain SP, Gough BM and Whitehouse ME (1976) The
role of starch in baked goods: part 2. The influence of
purification procedure on the surface properties of the
granule. Die Starke 41: 461–467.
Doe CAF and Russo JVB (1968) Flour Treatment Process.
British patent no. 1 110 711. London, UK, HSMO.
Gough BM, Whitehouse ME and Greenwood CT (1978)
The role and function of chlorine in the preparation of
high-ratio cake flour. CRC Critical Review in Food Sci-
ence and Nutrition 10: 91–113.
Grover DW (1947) The keeping properties of confectionery
as influenced by its vapour pressure, Journal of the Soci-
ety of Chemistry and Industry 66: 201–205.
Kent NL and Evers AD (1994) Kent’s Technology of
Cereals, 4th edn. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science.
Sahi SS (1999) Influence of aeration and emulsifiers on
cake batter rheology and textural properties of cakes.
In: Campbell GM, Webb C, Pandiella SS and Niranjan K
(eds) Bubbles in Food, St Paul, USA: AACC. pp.
263–271.
Spies RD and Hoseney RC (1982) Effects of sugar on starch
gelatinisation. Cereal Chemistry 59: 128–131.
Street CA (1991) Flour Confectionery Manufacture.
London, UK: Blackie Academic & Professional.
Young LS, Davies PR and Cauvain SP (1998) Cakes –
getting the balance right. In: Milne R, Macintosh A
and Bramer M (eds) Proceedings of ES98, the Eight-
eenth Annual International Conference of the British
Computer Society Specialist Group on Expert Systems,
pp. 42–55. London, UK: Springer.
Methods of Manufacture
S P Cauvain, Campden and Chorleywood Food
Research Association, Chipping Campden, UK
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Aims of Mixing
As discussed above, gluten formation is undesirable in 0001
cakes and is limited, in part, by the formulation, most
notably high levels of sugar, liquid, and fat. Gluten
formation may also be limited by the methods used to
mix cake batters and the avoidance of any processing
steps that may induce gluten formation. As a broad
generalization, cake batters can be considered as fat,
or oil, in water emulsion systems. The aqueous phase
contains the dissolved sugar and suspended flour par-
ticles. In cake-batter systems, air bubbles are incorpor-
ated and held in the fat phase rather than the aqueous
phase. However, as the batter warms during baking,
the air bubbles transfer from the fat to the aqueous
phase foam and expand. Later in the baking process,
the foam sets to yield the familiar cake structure.
The aims of cake-batter mixing can be summarized 0002
as follows:
. to uniformly disperse the ingredients; 0003
. to incorporate and stabilize the necessary air 0004
bubble nuclei; and
. to minimize gluten formation. 0005
The main manufacturing methods for cakes are
mostly based on the mixing process that is used.
There are two main types:
. Multistage, in which various ingredients are mixed 0006
together as subcomponents before blending into
the final batter. The aims of multistage mixing
methods are to minimize gluten formation and to
aid with the incorporation and stabilization of air

bubbles in batter. Such methods are traditional
and probably derive from days when ingredient
qualities were less reliable than today.
0007 . All-in, in which all of the ingredients are placed
in the mixing bowl at the same time and beaten
together. All-in or single-stage mixing relies on
standardized ingredients being available.
Mixing Methods
Sugar–Batter Processes
0008 The essential features of this process are:
0009 1. Creaming of the fat and sugar together. The sugar
crystals aid the incorporation of air bubbles into
the mixture, and the density falls as the mixing
continues. This will be seen as a progressive
‘whitening’ of the mixture. The ideal creaming
time depends on the type of fat being used,
with higher-melting-point fats requiring longer
creaming times. A medium speed, about 150 rpm,
is typically used.
0010 2. The addition of egg to the fat–sugar mixture in
four to six individual portions with some blending
between the addition of each portion. The aim
should be the uniform dispersion of the egg with-
out de-aeration of the mixture. It is important that
the egg should not be at a lower temperature
than the mixture, otherwise separation of the fat
from the mixture may occur – this is known in the
baking industry as ‘curdling.’ Additions of egg are
usually made at low speed, typically around
50 rpm, with subsequent blending on a medium
speed for short lengths of time.
0011 3. The addition of the flour and other ‘dry’ ingredi-
ents with subsequent blending. The mixing time at
this stage will be short and only sufficient to blend
in the flour. A low speed is used.
0012 4. The addition of final liquids, e.g., milk and water,
blended in at low speed.
0013 5. The addition of dried fruit, if required.
Flour–Batter Process
0014 1. The fat and a portion of the flour (typically three-
quarters of the flour mass) are creamed together at
low speed for about 10 min, during which time, air
is incorporated into the mixture, and the density
falls.
0015 2. The egg and sugar are whisked separately at high
speed.
0016 3. The fat–flour and egg–sugar are blended at low
speed.
0017 4. Any water or other liquids are blended into the
mixture at low speed.
CAKES/Methods of Manufacture 757
5. The remaining flour and other dry ingredients 0018
(e.g., skimmed milk powder, salt, and baking
powder) are blended into the mixture at low
speed.
Egg-separated Process
1. The fat, a portion of the flour (typically three- 0019
quarters of the flour mass), salt, and other dry
ingredients are creamed together at low speed.
2. The egg is separated into its white and yolk com- 0020
ponents.
3. The egg white and sugar are whisked together at 0021
high speed to form an aerated foam.
4. The egg yolk and additional water or milk are 0022
blended into the egg white foam before being
blended with the fat cream.
5. The remaining flour is blended into the mixture at 0023
low speed.
Boiled Process
1. The egg and sugar are whisked at high speed to 0024
form a foam.
2. The fat is heated. 0025
3. The flour and other dry ingredients are blended 0026
into the hot fat.
4. The egg foam and the fat-flour blend are mixed 0027
together.
The final batter temperature is around 35–40  C.
The method is not usually considered suitable for
recipes that contain baking powder because the
high temperature causes premature release of carbon
dioxide.
All-in Process
Using this method, all of the ingredients are placed 0028
into the mixing bowl and blended together at low and
medium speed. The all-in method is particularly suit-
able for use with recipes that contain an emulsifier.
Sponge Cakes
Sponge cakes may be made with a simple formulation 0029
of flour, whole eggs, and sugar. The eggs and sugar
are whisked together at high speed, typically 200–
300 rpm. During this whisking process, large
numbers of minute air bubbles are incorporated into
the batter. Without some form of stablization, the air
bubbles occluded during mixing would rapidly
coalesce, rise to the surface of the batter, and be lost.
In this sponge system, the surface-active proteins of
the egg white and the lipoproteins migrate to the
interface with the air occluded during beating, and
form a protective film around the nascent gas bubbles
and prevent them coalescing. When a stable foam has
 758 CAKES/Methods of Manufacture
40
Bubble size (µm)
30
20
10
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25
Level of GMS (%)
fig0001 Figure 1 Effect of glycerol monostearate on gas-bubble size in
sponge cake batter.
been formed, the flour is added carefully, trying not to
de-aerate the foam. After depositing, the bubbles
expand as the batter temperature rises in the oven,
and eventually, just as the mass of the batter begins to
set, the bubbles burst into one another to form the
porous cake structure.
0030 The addition of a small level of fat or oil to the
recipe disrupts the interfacial films and prevents
the egg proteins from stablizing the air bubbles. The
result is a less well-aerated batter and restricted cake
volume. To overcome this potential loss of volume,
the fat can be melted and carefully added at the end of
the mixing process once a stable foam had been
formed. More commonly fat-enriched sponge cakes
are made with the addition of glycerol monostearate
(GMS), which displaces the egg proteins at the gas-
bubble interface and provides the stabilizing role.
0031 GMS controls not only the size of the air bubbles
(see Figure 1) but also the quantity of air mixed into
the batter. High levels of GMS allow large quantities
of air to be incorporated into the batter in the cold,
but unless there is a sufficient amount to stabilize the
bubbles during baking, the sponge inevitably will
collapse. Measurement of bubble sizes in cake batters
at ambient temperatures shows that this property is
governed, in part at least, by the amount of GMS
present. However, an excess of GMS above an opti-
mum restricts bubble coalescence during baking so
that the foam remains intact and tends to shrink back
on cooling. This gives the cakes an unacceptable
wrinkled surface.
Delayed Soda Process
0032 In some more traditional sponge making processes
using fast-acting baking acids, the addition of the
sodium bicarbonate in the recipe may be delayed to
the end of the mixing cycle. This delayed addition of
sodium bicarbonate insures that losses of carbon
dioxide before baking are minimized.
Mixing Equipment
Planetary Mixers
The most common form of cake batter mixer is the 0033
vertical form that comprises a removable bowl in
which the mixing tool describes a planetary motion.
Typically, the mixing tools are removable, with the
most common forms being a flat beater or a wire
1.5 1.75 whisk. The former is commonly used with batters
containing higher fat levels in the recipe, whereas
the latter is mostly used with sponge batters. Planet-
ary mixers can operate over a range of mixing speeds
(usually three).
Horizontal Mixers
The mixing chamber of this type of mixer is fixed 0034
within the mixer frame but can be rotated through a
limited arc to allow for the discharge of the cake
batter. The mixing tools revolve around a horizontal
axis within the mixing chamber. The chamber com-
prises two U-shaped sections with a single mixing
blade operating in each section. Two mixing speeds
are usually possible with this type of mixer. Ingredi-
ents are fed in from the top of the mixer.
Pressure Whisks
In this type of machine, the mixing is based on a 0035
rotating whisk, vertically mounted, and moving
within a sealed mixing chamber. Since the chamber
is sealed, it is possible to vary the pressure of the air
within the mixer headspace during the mixing cycle.
This increases the quantity of air that can be incorpor-
ated into the batter and so reduces batter density.
Pressure whisks are most commonly used in the pro-
duction of low-density sponge batters. The pressure
whisk may be operated over a range of mixing speeds.
Discharge of the batter from the mixing chamber may
be under pressure direct to a depositor.
Continuous Mixers
Continuous mixers are most commonly used in 0036
larger-scale cake-batter production. The mixing
chamber is small compared with other cake mixing
machines, because the batter residence time for
mixing is in the order of 10–20 s. The mixing tool
comprises a form of round-sectioned, double-sided
rotor covered in small, rectangular pins able to rotate
in a round-shaped mixing chamber with similar-
shaped pins projecting from the inner walls. The
effect is to create a series of very narrow gaps through
which the batter can pass, and the action provides an
intimate mix. At the same time as being thoroughly
mixed, the batter is aerated by the injection of air
under pressure. The high shear of the mixing action
 CAKES/Methods of Manufacture 759

aids the dispersion of the air and the formation of Secondary Processing
smaller and more uniformly sized gas bubbles in the
While many cake types may be eaten in their baked 0043
batter.
form, a large number of cake products are combined
0037 Mixing and batter aeration in continuous mixers
with other food products to present consumers with a
are far more controlled than with any other type of
wide variety of products. Examples of other food
cake mixer. All of the ingredients must be blended to
products that may be used as a filling or topping
form a slurry on a separate mixer before being fed to
with cakes include, dairy and nondairy creams, choc-
the holding tank of the continuous mixer. Aeration of
olate, icing and fondants, jams, and jellies.
the slurry is avoided. The residence time of the batter
in the mixing head is a function of the throughput
rate. The speed of the rotor may be varied. Levels of Packaging
aeration can be varied by adjusting the air flow rate
Some form of packing is required to hold cakes, pro- 0044
into the mixing chamber.
tect them from microbial contamination, and prevent
0038 Continuous mixers may be used with most forms of
moisture losses that would have an adverse effect on
cake batter, except fruited varieties, and also for the
the cake-eating qualities. Product packs take many
aeration of creams, meringue, and some forms of
forms, but most often, the material used will be
sugar confectionery.
impermeable to moisture to prevent drying out of
High-speed, Vertical Mixers the product. Wrapping composite cake products in
moisture impermeable film may lead to problems of
0039 High-speed, vertical mixers are most commonly used
moisture migration between components, unless steps
in the production of bread and other fermented
are taken to adjust the water activities of individual
doughs. However, they may be used in the production
components.
of pastes and cake batters. Mixing times are very
short, typically less than 3 min, and the levels of
aeration are lower than those achieved with most Storage
other mixer types.
The shelf-life of cake products is directly related to 0045

the storage conditions: the warmer the storage tem-

Batter Handling and Depositing perature, the shorter the microbial shelf-life and the
greater the problem with moisture migration between
0040 The low viscosity and fluidity of most cake batters
the cake and other components (e.g., cream). Low-
make them relatively easy to handle. However, batter
temperature storage is particularly important for
handling should be kept to a minimum, because,
dairy cream-filled cakes because of their susceptibility
while in motion, there is the potential for de-aeration
of the batter, especially the loss of carbon dioxide gas to bacterial growth. Refrigerated storage does not
accelerate cake staling (unlike the situation with
from the baking powder reaction.
bread). Cake staling proceeds fastest with cake at
0041 Individual portions of many cake batters are
temperatures around 25  C.
deposited into some form of container for baking.
Typically, the baking container will be lined with
See also: Cakes: Chemistry of Baking; Celiac (Coeliac)
greaseproof or silicone paper to provide easy release
Disease; Emulsifiers: Uses in Processed Foods
of the product after baking. Product shapes can vary,
though round or rectangular are the most common.
Some cake batter types, e.g., Swiss roll and sponge Further Reading
drops, may be deposited directly on to the oven band Bent AJ (ed.) (1997) Technology of Cakemaking, 6th edn.
or sheet for baking. London: Blackie Academic & Professional.
Cauvain SP and Cyster J (1996) Sponge cake technology.
In: CCFRA Review No. 2, Chipping Campden, UK:
Cake Baking
CCFRA.
0042 Cake batters may be baked in most oven types, e.g., Cauvain SP and Young LS (2000) Bakery Food Manufac-
deck, rack, and continuous. The baking temperatures ture & Quality: Water Control and Effects. Oxford:
are lower than used for bread baking and vary Blackwell Science.
according to the type and size of cake. In many Street CA (1991) Flour Confectionery Manufacture.
London: Blackie Academic & Professional.
ovens, heat input will be greater at the bottom of
the product than at the top. High heat inputs directed
on to the top of the baking product commonly lead to
problems with product shape and surface color.
 760 CAKES/Chemistry of Baking
Chemistry of Baking
J L DesRochers, K D Seitz and C E Walker, Kansas
State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Principal Ingredients in Cake Batter
0001 Flour is the most important ingredient in cakes, func-
tioning primarily to establish crumb structure. Cake
flour is milled from soft white or red wheat with
low protein and ash (mineral) levels and has a fine
particle size. In the USA, cake flour is commonly
treated with chlorine gas, causing hydrolytic depoly-
merization of the starch molecules, which increases
the water-holding capacity of the flour. During
mixing, proper gluten development is critical, to
insure a fine foam structure without excessive
toughening. Protein level and type and mixing pro-
cedure are key factors for producing cakes with
desirable crumb texture. The optimal specifications
for a typical cake flour are: protein content
8.5 + 0.5%, ash content 0.36 + 0.04%, pH
4.7 + 0.2, and average particle size 10 + 0.5 mm.
(See Flour: Roller Milling Operations; Analysis of
Wheat Flours; Dietary Importance.)
0002 Shortening performs three basic roles in cakes.
First, it aids in aeration or leavening of the batter
and finished cake by entrapping air during the
creaming process. These minute air cells provide the
nucleus for bubble expansion via steam and carbon
dioxide during baking. Second, shortening coats the
protein and starch particles, preventing hydration
and formation of a continuous gluten–starch net-
work. Third, it emulsifies liquids in the batter, which
increases the moisture of the crumb. The last two
functions contribute to a soft, tender crumb texture.
(See Fats: Uses in the Food Industry.)
0003 Eggs perform a variety of functions in cake pro-
duction, providing structure, volume, tenderness,
and nutritional quality to the product. They act as a
binding agent due to their high protein content
tbl0001 Table 1 Acidic agents used in leavening
Acid
Monocalcium phosphate (MCP)
Anhydrous monocalcium phosphate (AMCP)
Sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP)
Sodium aluminum phosphate (SALP)
Monopotassium tartrate (cream of tartar)
Sodium aluminum sulfate (SAS)
Dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DCP)
Glucono-d-lactone (GDL)
and ability to form a complex network with gluten.
They contribute to cake volume and structure by
their ability to be whipped into a relatively stable
foam. Upon heating, the proteins are denatured,
thus setting and stabilizing the crumb structure. The
yolk portion of the egg imparts an emulsifying
and tenderizing effect because of the high lipid and
lecithin content. Eggs help stabilize the emulsion,
retain gas generated by the leaveners, and prevent
air cell coalescence in the batter, resulting in a uni-
form crumb grain and desirable texture. Eggs also
add a mild but distinctive flavor and color (from the
yolk) and enrich cake’s nutritive value. (See Eggs:
Dietary Importance.)
Chemical leavening agents are added to aerate the 0004
batter and produce a light, tender, porous product. The
porosity of the batter directly translates into good
volume, uniform cell structure, bright crumb color,
tender texture, and overall eating quality of the finished
cake. In lieu of yeast, chemically leavened cakes utilize
sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) plus an acidic agent
to generate carbon dioxide (CO2) gas when combined
in the presence of water. (See Leavening Agents.)
Baking powders are a combination of sodium 0005
bicarbonate and the salt of a weak acid (see Table 1
for examples). Baking powder should yield no less
than 12% carbon dioxide based on the weight of the
product. Starch or flour may be added as a diluent to
standardize the baking powder’s strength.
Baking powders are classified by their reaction 0006
rates as fast, slow, or double-acting. The fast-acting
types release most of their available carbon dioxide
within the first few moments of contact with liquid. If
these batters or doughs are not processed very
quickly, the gas will be lost before the structure is
set and the volume will decrease significantly.
Slow-acting baking powders do not react at low 0007
temperatures and therefore require oven heat to re-
lease gas. Double-acting types react partially at low
temperature, but need higher temperatures to com-
plete the reaction. The double-reacting powders are
most commonly used in commercial cake production.
Formula Neutralization value
Ca(H2PO4)2  H2O 80
Ca(H2PO4)2 83.5
Na2H2P2O7 72
NaH14Al3(PO4)8  4H2O 100
KHC4H4O6 45
Al2(SO4)3  Na2SO4 100
CaHPO4  2H2O 33
C5H10O6 50

0008 The neutralization value (NV) is used to give the
proper balance of the alkaline and acidic agents. The
NV indicates the amount of sodium bicarbonate re-
quired to release all the available carbon dioxide from
100 units of the acid leavener (Table 1). NVs enable
the formulator to achieve the desired batter pH,
which is important to crumb structure and grain,
color, and flavor.
0009 Sugar acts primarily as a sweetener in cakes and aids
in air incorporation during creaming. In the mid-
1900s, emulsified shortenings enabled bakers to pro-
duce richer cakes with higher sugar and liquid levels.
These high-ratio cakes generally contain 120% sugar
based on flour weight, and have an extended shelf-life
and tender texture. The type and form of sugar used
are also important; liquid sugar or syrup acts as a
moistener whereas crystalline or granular sugar func-
tions as a drier. Granulation affects how quickly the
sugar dissolves and generally increases cake volume as
granulation becomes finer. Invert or reducing sugars,
e.g., high-fructose corn syrup, honey, or molasses, can
affect the crust and crumb color, and texture.
0010 Milk, either in fluid or dry powdered form, is a
source of protein and lactose, which aid in crust
development and browning reactions. Milk also
stabilizes the foam and contributes to cake structure.
0011 Finally, salt is added as a flavor enhancer.
0012 Formula balance of the major cake ingredients –
flour, shortening, sugar and eggs – is important to
produce a cake with good volume, grain, texture,
and eating properties. Some general guidelines for
high-ratio cakes are as follows:
0013 . The weight of the sugar should be greater than the
flour weight
0014 . The weight of the eggs should exceed the weight of
the shortening
0015 . The weight of the total liquids (milk, eggs, and/or
water) should be slightly greater than the sugar weight
0016 Some exceptions to these rules include foam-type
cakes, i.e., angel food or sponge which contains little
or no shortening. In these cakes, whipped egg whites,
sugar, and flour are the primary ingredients, along
with some minor ingredients. In a typical angel food
cake formulation (Table 2), the weight of the sugar is
usually equal to the weight of the egg whites, and the
flour is approximately one-third the weight of the
sugar. Figure 1 shows the relationship between basic
ingredient composition and cake type.
0017 Sponge cakes use whole egg instead of only egg
whites. To minimize the toughening effect of the
eggs, an equal or slightly higher amount of sugar is
added. The liquid and flour levels are balanced
around the eggs and sugar. In general, the total liquids
should be 25% greater than the weight of the sugar.
CAKES/Chemistry of Baking 761
Table 2 Angel food cake formula tbl0002
a
Ingredient Baker’s %
Flour 100
Sugar 280
Egg white 280
Salt 4
Cream of tartar 4
Vanilla 5
a
Baker’s % based on 100 parts flour.
Flour level should be less than the weight of either the
sugar or eggs. Combined, the weight of eggs plus
flour should exceed the weight of sugar plus nonegg
liquids (milk or water). A typical sponge cake formula
is listed in Table 3.
Pound cake is one of the oldest types of cake, 0018
deriving its name from the original recipe which
called for 1-lb (0.45-kg) increments each of flour,
butter, eggs, and sugar. The expense of butter and
eggs prompted commercial bakers to modify the for-
mula, producing a lighter cake with improved volume
and eating quality (Table 4).
The modified pound cake formula led to the basic 0019
yellow or white layer cake (Table 5). Unlike yellow
layer cake, no yolks are used for white layer cake.
These layer cakes adapt readily to many formula
variations by the addition of fruits, nuts, spices,
cocoa, etc. In chocolate layer cakes, the sugar level
appears higher, which is due to a reduction in the
flour level when cocoa is added. Functionally, low-
fat cocoa acts much like flour. High-ratio cakes
evolved from layer cakes through the use of emulsi-
fied shortenings and may contain as much as 140%
sugar (based on flour weight).
Chemical and Physical Changes during
Mixing
Mixing plays an important role in the production of 0020
quality of batter-type cakes. The objectives of mixing
are to disperse the various ingredients uniformly, and
to incorporate air into the batter while minimizing
gluten development. There are four different basic
methods of mixing: creaming, blending, single-
stage, and foam-type methods.
In the creaming, or conventional method, fat and 0021
sugar are mixed at low to medium speeds until thor-
oughly blended and aerated. Large volumes of air are
incorporated into the fat phase in the form of small air
cells and the sugar crystals are encased in the
shortening. Next the eggs are added with continuous
beating until the mixture is fluffy and well aerated.
Last, the flour and milk are added. The main advan-
tages of this method are: (1) the large number of small
 762 CAKES/Chemistry of Baking

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
Angel food High-ratio Rich fruit Chocolate
% Sugar 280 110 73 190
% Shortening 0 50 73 65
% Liquid 214 110 59 150

fig0001 Figure 1 Relationship between cake type and basic composition based on 100 parts flour.

tbl0003 Table 3 Sponge cake formula Table 5 Ordinary yellow cake formula tbl0005

a a
Ingredient Baker’s % Ingredient Baker’s %

Flour 100 Flour 100

Sugar 95 Sugar 85b
Corn syrup 12 Shortening 45
Eggs 105 Whole eggs 50
Water 12 Milk 50
Vanilla 3 Baking powder 2.5
Baking powder 1.5 Salt 2
Salt 0.75 Flavor 1.5
a a
Baker’s % based on 100 parts flour. Baker’s % based on 100 parts flour.
b
In the USA, sugar would run to 120 or more.

air cells in the batter; and (2) gluten development is

limited due to delayed hydration and solubilization of
the fat-coated flour and sugar particles.
tbl0004 Table 4 Commercial pound cake formula The blending method consists of two separate 0022

Ingredient Baker’s %a mixing steps. The shortening and flour are beaten
until fluffy in one bowl and the eggs and sugar are
Flour 100
Sugar 100
whipped separately in a second bowl. These two mix-
Shortening 50 tures are blended together followed by slow addition
Whole eggs 50 of the milk. This method produces a cake with a very
Milk 50 fine grain and uniform texture. Compared with the
Vanilla 2 creaming method, aeration is lessened, thus reducing
Salt 1.5
cake volume, but higher sugar and liquid levels are
a
Baker’s % based on 100 parts flour. possible.
 CAKES/Chemistry of Baking 763

0023 The single-stage mixing method was devised to
reduce the number of steps and shorten the mixing
time requirements. All the major ingredients are
mixed together at once. Although the procedure is
simple, the texture and stability are sacrificed some-
what. This method is generally used for premixed box
cakes, but not by the wholesale trade.
0024 Unlike shortening-based cakes, foam cake mixing
depends on air incorporation in an egg–protein
matrix for volume and structure development. Egg
Between 60 and 70  C, the starch granules absorb
several times their weight in water, increasing the
batter viscosity considerably. Major swelling of
the gelatinized starch granules insures that the cake
structure will not collapse. The amount of sugar and
some emulsifiers in the formula control the tempera-
ture at which the starch gelatinizes. The cake normally
sets into a solid system well below the boiling point of
water (100  C).
As the batter temperature reaches about 80  C, the 0028

whites plus sugar are whipped into a stiff foam, into
which the flour and other dry ingredients are gently
folded. In angel food cake batters, the egg whites
must be fat-free to achieve maximum volume; how-
ever, in sponge cakes where whole eggs are used, a
lower-volume, emulsified foam is formed.
0025 The batter specific gravity is a measure of how
much air has been incorporated into the batter during
mixing. It is defined as the ratio of the weight of a
known volume of batter to the weight of the same
volume of water, at a given temperature. Batter spe-
cific gravity is directly related to the volume, texture,
and grain of the finished cake. In general, the lower
the specific gravity, the higher the finished cake
air bubbles enlarge rapidly, causing the cake to rise.
The liberation of carbon dioxide, the expansion of air
cells, and the formation of steam all contribute to the
leavening effect. Heat causes the gas to expand and
the pressure inside the gas cells to increase. Resistance
to expansion results from protein coagulation and
starch gelatinization. Timing is critical for the protein
film to enlarge with the expanding gases, prior to
protein denaturation and starch gelatinization,
which set the structure. Emulsifiers, whether occur-
ring naturally in eggs or added, improve the elasticity
of the protein film surrounding the gas bubbles,
enabling them to increase without rupturing.
Moisture evaporates from the cake surface during 0029

volume, but optimal ranges for different types of
cake batters have been established.
Chemical and Physical Changes during
Baking
0026 Air bubbles, creamed in the fat, are released into the
aqueous phase as the fat is melted at approximately
40  C. Carbon dioxide is generated by the baking
baking, keeping it cool. However, as most of the water
is removed, the surface gets hot enough to brown.
Lower baking temperatures should be used for richer
(high sugar and fat content) cakes, as the sugars can
cause excessive browning of the crust before the
interior is set. The baking time for all cakes should
be kept as short as possible to avoid too much color
development and formation of a thick crust.
A summary of common cake faults and possible 0030

powder and collects in these air bubbles. As the batter ingredient, mixing, or baking-related causes is given
heats, the batter begins to flow due to natural convec- in Table 6.
tion currents, as the batter temperature next to the
sides and bottom of the pan increases first and that in
Role of Additives
the center heats last.
0027 The batter viscosity decreases initially upon heating One of the main additives in cake production is added 0031

as the fat melts and before the starch gelatinizes. to the flour itself. In the USA, cake flour is made by

tbl0006 Table 6 Troubleshooting guide for cakes

Common cake faults

Possible causes Low Toughness Lacking Poor crust Irregular grain Peaked center Undesirable
volume resilience appearance color

Improper chemical leavening   

Low batter viscosity   
Excessive oven temperature      
Insufficient oven temperature  
Egg/milk protein level incorrect  
Incorrect sugar level or type   
Overmixed batter   
Undermixed batter  
 764 CAKES/Chemistry of Baking
adding chlorine gas to soft wheat flour at a rate of
0.5–2.5 oz per 100 lb (0.3–1.5 g kg1) of flour. This
lowers the pH and improves overall baking perform-
ance by increasing the volume, and improving grain,
texture, and symmetry. The optimal pH range is
between 4.5 and 4.8. The mechanism of chlorine on
flour is not completely understood: various research-
ers have shown that it affects the gluten, starch, and/
or lipid components of wheat flour.
0032 Overchlorinated cake flour will cause the batter to
set too quickly around the sides of the pan before full
expansion has been reached. The center continues
to rise, and the result is a cake with a strong peak. If
the flour is underchlorinated, the structure sets too
slowly, allowing the leavening gases to escape, and
the center of the cake collapses upon cooling.
0033 Emulsifiers promote air incorporation in the form
of fine bubbles and disperse the shortening into small-
sized particles. Emulsifiers’ unique behavior is due to
their ability to bridge the inseparable oil and water
phases at the interface. When their concentration
exceeds the solubility limit, they form an interfacial
membrane whose hydrophilic portions extend into
the aqueous phase. The membrane surrounds the dis-
persed oil and prevents the emulsion from breaking.
0034 Hydrogenated shortenings typically contain 3%
emulsifiers, with glycerol mono- and distearate being
the most common, although many others, including
blends, are also used. (See Emulsifiers: Uses in Pro-
cessed Foods.)
0035 Antioxidants are sometimes added to cake mixes to
retard the development of oxidative rancidity during
storage. All fats are subject to oxidative and hydro-
lytic rancidity, which causes objectionable odors and
flavors, but antioxidants delay these reactions from
occurring within the products’ shelf-life. Four com-
pounds commonly used as antioxidants are butylated
hydroxyanisole, butylated hydroxytoluene, t-butyl
hydroquinone, and propyl gallate. Citric and phos-
phoric acids have a synergistic effect when combined
with the antioxidants. The levels are limited by law,
economics, and functionality, and vary with the
additive and product application, but generally fall
between 0.005 and 0.1% of the product weight. Nat-
ural antioxidants, e.g. tocopherals, offer a desirable
alternative to synthetic varieties, but have other
usage issues such as heat lability. (See Antioxidants:
Synthetic Antioxidants.)
0036 Color additives are used in many baked products,
including cakes and their icings. Added color can help
the product fulfill consumer perceptions and expect-
ations regarding quality, richness, and overall visual
appeal. There are two types of color additives – certi-
fied and uncertified. The certified colors are synthetic
and strictly regulated, whereas the uncertified usually
come from natural sources and usage level varies
greatly. The certified colors used in the USA include
FD&C blue no. 1, FD&C red no. 3, FD&C yellow
no. 5 and FD&C red no. 40. Uncertified color
additives include annatto extract, b-carotene, beet
powder, b-apo-8-carotenal, xanthins, caramel, car-
mine, carrot oil, cochineal extract, toasted partially
defatted cottonseed flour, fruit and vegetable juices or
concentrates, paprika and paprika oleoresin, ribofla-
vin, saffron, titanium dioxide, tumeric, and tumeric
oleoresin. (See Colorants (Colourants): Properties
and Determination of Natural Pigments; Properties
and Determinants of Synthetic Pigments.)
Many flavoring agents are used in cake batters, 0037
icings, and/or fillings. Spices are processed from dif-
ferent parts of aromatic plants, including fruits, barks
or seeds. Some spices commonly used in cakes include
allspice, anise, caraway seed, cardamom, cinnamon,
cloves, coriander, ginger, mace, nutmeg, poppy seed,
saffron, and sesame seed. Some of these act as both
flavoring and coloring agents.
Alcohol extracts can also be used to enhance the 0038
flavor of cakes. The sapid and odorous volatile com-
ponents are extracted from aromatic plants or parts
of the plant and solubilized in ethanol or propylene
glycol. For example, vanilla extract is a ubiquitous
flavoring in cakes, derived from the vanilla bean.
Chocolate and cocoa from the cacao tree bean are 0039
also popular flavoring agents. However, defatted
cocoa powder also adds bulk to the cake, often
replacing up to 10% of the flour weight. Often in
chocolate cakes, the sugar level and leavening system
must be adjusted to compensate for the cocoa. (See
Cocoa: Production, Products, and Use.)
See also: Antioxidants: Synthetic Antioxidants; Cocoa:
Production, Products, and Use; Colorants (Colourants):
Properties and Determination of Natural Pigments;
Properties and Determinants of Synthetic Pigments;
Eggs: Dietary Importance; Emulsifiers: Uses in
Processed Foods; Flour: Roller Milling Operations;
Analysis of Wheat Flours; Dietary Importance; Leavening
Agents
Further Reading
Bennion M (1980) The Science of Food. San Fransisco:
Harper and Row.
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CALCIUM

Contents
Properties and Determination
Physiology

Properties and Determination practical reasons, 45Ca is the most commonly used
calcium radionuclide for biological investigations.
K A Cockell, Sir F.G. Banting Research Centre,
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada The electron configuration of calcium is 0003

1s22s22p63s23p64s2. Calcium thus has two valence

Calcium
0001 Calcium is an alkaline earth element and a mineral
nutrient essential for plant and animal life. This
article covers the basics of calcium chemistry, its
occurrence in foods, influences of food processing on
calcium content and bioavailability, and methods for
analysis of calcium in foods and biological samples.
Chemistry of Calcium
0002 The chemical element calcium, symbol Ca, atomic
number 20, is a group IIA metal (alkaline earth
metal), first isolated by British chemist Sir Humphry
Davy in 1808. The name is derived from ‘calx,’ Latin
for lime (calcium oxide), which was used by the
Romans in mortar for construction. Calcium has an
atomic weight of 40.08 and six stable isotopes, with
40
Ca predominating at over 96% relative abundance
(Table 1). There are several calcium radionuclides
electrons and commonly occurs as a divalent cation
(Ca2þ). Calcium does not occur as a free metal
in nature, being found rather in several common
mineral compounds including carbonates (e.g.,
limestone, marble, chalk), sulfates (e.g., gypsum, ala-
baster), fluorides (e.g., fluorite), phosphates, silicates,
or as ionic calcium in seawater (*400 mg l1). Cal-
cium is the fifth most abundant element, and third
most abundant metal, in the earth’s crust (comprising
almost 4%), and ranks seventh in terms of content in
seawater.
In living organisms, calcium occurs in the form of 0004
solid mineral salts as well as dissolved in solution, in
contrast to the other major alkali and alkaline earth
metals (sodium, potassium, and magnesium) where
solution chemistry predominates. Calcium in solution
has an affinity for oxygen-containing ligands such as
carboxy and phosphate groups.
Calcium as an Essential Nutrient
Calcium is an essential nutrient for all plants and 0005

available, including 41Ca, 45Ca, and 47Ca. For animals including man. It is the most abundant

tbl0001 Table 1 Stable isotopes and selected radioactive nuclides of calcium

Stable isotopes Radioactive nuclides (partiallist)

Isotope Relative abundance (%) Nuclide Decay Half-life Energy (MeV) Intensity (%)
40 41 5
Ca 96.941 Ca Electron capture 1.02  10 years 0.42 100
42
Ca 0.647 45
Ca b (no g emitted) 162.7 days 0.26 100
43
Ca 0.135
44
Ca 2.086 47
Ca b 4.536 days 1.98 16
46
Ca 0.004 0.68 84
48
Ca 0.187 g 1.30 75