Physics

Energy Stores and Systems

Energy is transferred between stores

Energy stores are…
 Thermal (or internal) energy
 Kinetic energy
 Gravitational potential energy
 Elastic potential energy
 Chemical energy
 Magnetic energy
 Electrostatic energy
 Nuclear energy

Energy is transferred mechanically (by a force doing work), electrically (work done by moving
charges), by heating or by radiation (e.g. light or sound)

When a system changes, energy is transferred

 System = single object, or a group of objects
 When a system changes, energy is transferred. It can be transferred into or away from the
system between different objects in the system or between different types of energy stores
 Closed systems are systems where neither matter nor energy can enter or leave. The net
change in the total energy of a closed system is always zero

Energy can be transferred by heating…

Exp. – boiling water in a kettle (water is the system)
 Energy is transferred to the water (from the kettle’s heating element), by heating, into the
water’s thermal energy store (causing the temp of the water to rise)
 OR
 Kettle’s heating element and the water together as two object systems. Energy is
transferred electrically to the thermal energy store of the kettle’s heating element, which
transfers energy by heating to the water’s thermal energy store.
…or by doing work
 Work done = energy transferred
 Work can be done when current flows (work is done against the resistance in a circuit) or by
a force moving an object
 The initial force exerted by a person to throw a ball upwards does work. It causes an energy
transfer from the chemical energy store of the person’s arm to the kinetic energy store of
the ball and arm
 A ball dropped from a height is accelerated by gravity. The gravitational force does work. It
causes energy to be transferred from the ball’s gravitational potential energy store to its
kinetic energy store
 The friction between a car’s brakes and its wheels does work as it slows down.it causes an
energy transfer from the wheels’ kinetic energy stores of the thermal energy store of the
surroundings.
 In a collision between a car and a stationary object, the normal contact force between the
car and the object does work. It causes energy to be transferred from the car’s kinetic
energy to other energy stores. E.g. the elastic potential and thermal energy stores of the
object and the car body. Some energy might also be transferred away by sound waves

Energy LOST from the G.P.E STORE = Energy GAINED in the KINETIC ENERGY STORE
Kinetic and Potential Energy Stores

Movement means energy in an object’s kinetic energy store

 Anything that is moving has energy in its kinetic energy store
 Energy is transferred to an object when it speeds up and is transferred away when it slows
down
 Depends on – object’s mass (kg) and speed (m/s2)
 The greater the mass and the faster it is going, the more energy there will be in its kinetic
energy store

¿ mv 2
E 1
k 2
Exp.
 A car of mass 2500kg I travelling at 20m/s. Calculate the energy in its kinetic energy store
1
 Ek¿ ×2500 ×20 2 = 500 000J
2

Raised objects store energy in gravitational potential energy stores

 Lifting an object in a gravitational field requires work
 This causes a transfer of energy to the gravitational potential energy (G.P.E) store of the
raised object
 The higher the object is lifted, the more energy transferred to this store
 Depends on – object’s mass (kg), height (m) and strength (N/kg)

Ep ¿ mgh

Stretching can transfer energy to elastic potential energy stores

 Stretching or squashing an object can transfer energy to its elastic potential energy store
 So long as the limit of proportionality has not been exceeded, energy in the elastic
potential energy store of a stretched spring can be found

¿ ke 2
Ee 1
2
Specific Heat Capacity

Different materials have different SHC

 More energy needs to be transferred to the thermal energy store of some material to
increase their temp than others e.g.
o You need 4200J to warm 1kg of water by 1C, bot only 139J to warm 1kg of mercury
by 1C
 Materials that need to gain lots of energy in their thermal energy stores to warm up also
transfer loads of energy when they cool down again – they can ‘store’ lots of energy

SHC – the amount of energy needed to raise the temp of 1kg of a substance by 1C.

ΔE = mcΔθ
Exp.
 How much energy is needed to heat 2.00kg of water from 10C to 100C. the SHC of water is
4200J/kgC.
o First find the temp change… 100-10=90C
o Substitute the value along with the values of mass and SHC into the formula… 2.00 x
4200 x 90 = 756 000J

ΔE
m x c x Δθ
Conservation of Energy and Power

Power is the ‘rate of doing work’ – i.e. how much per second
Power – the rate of energy transfer or rate of doing work
 Measured in watts
 One watt = 1 joule of energy transferred per second

E W
P= P=
t t

 a powerful machine is not necessarily on which can exert a strong force. A powerful
machine is one which transfers a lot of energy in a short space of time

Exp.
 Two identical cars in every way apart from the power of their engines. Both cars race the
same distance along a straight track. The car with the more powerful engine will reach the
finish line faster than the other car (it will transfer the same amount of energy but over less
time)
Conservation of Energy and Power

Energy can be TRANSFERRED, STORED or DISSIPATED,

but can NEVER be CREATED or DESTROYED
 when energy is transferred, not all of the energy is transferred usefully – it is dissipated
 usually it is transferred to thermal energy stores

Exp.
 a phone is a system. When the phone is in use, the energy usefully transferred from the
chemical energy store of the battery in the phone. But some of this energy is dissipated in
this transfer to the thermal energy store of the phone

Energy transfers for closed systems

Exp.
 a cold spoon is dropped into an insulated flask of hot soup, which is then sealed. You can
assume that the flask is a perfect thermal insulator so the spoon and the soup form a closed
system. Energy is transferred from the thermal energy store of the soup to the useless
thermal energy store of the spoon (causing the soup to cool slightly). Energy transfers have
occurred within the system, but no energy has left the system – so the net change in energy
is zero
Reducing Unwanted Energy Transfers

Lubrication reduces frictional forces

 Whenever something moves, there is usually at least on frictional force acting against it.
This causes some energy in the system to be dissipated e.g. air resistance can transfer
energy from a falling object’s kinetic energy store to its thermal energy store

Insulation reduces the rate of energy transfer by heating

Prevent energy losses through heating…
 Thick walls made of material with a low thermal conductivity – thicker the walls and the
lower their thermal conductivity¸ the slower the rate of energy transfer will be (so the
building will cool more slowly.
 Thermal insulation
o Cavity walls – inner and outer wall w/ are gap. Air gap reduces amount of energy
transferred by conduction through the walls
o Cavity wall insulation – cavity wall air gap is filled w/ foam – also reduces energy
transfer by convection
o Loft insulation – laid out of loft floor and ceiling. Often fibreglass wool is a good
insulator as it has pockets of trapped air. Reduces energy loss by conduction and
helps convection current from being created
o Double glazed windows – same as cavity walls
o Draught excluders – around doors and windows reduce energy transfers by
convection

Conduction – process where vibrating particles transfer energy to

neighbouring particles
Convection – energetic particles move away from hotter to cooler regions
Efficiency

Most energy transfers involve some waste energy

 Some input energy is usually wasted by being transferred to a useless energy store – usually
thermal
 Less energy wasted = more efficient
 Improve efficiency by insulating, lubricating or making them streamlined

useful output energy transfer

Efficiency=
total input energy transfer
OR
useful power output
Efficiency=
total power input

Useful energy output isn’t usually equal to total energy input

 No device is 100% efficient
 Electric heaters are an exception – all the energy is transferred to useful energy stores
 Ultimately, all energy ends up transferred to thermal energy stores, e.g. an electric drill, its
energy is transferred to lots of different energy stores, but quickly ends up all in thermal
energy stores
Energy Resources and their Uses

Non-renewable energy resources will run out one day

Come from fossil fuels and nuclear fuels.
Fossil fuels are natural resources that form underground over million of years. They are typically
burnt to provide energy.
Three main fossil fuels…
 Coal  Will all run out one day
 Oil  Do damage to the environment
 But they are reliable
 (natural) Gas

Renewable energy resources will never run out

 Sun (solar)  Will never run out – energy can be ‘renewed’
 Wind  Do damage but not as bad
 Water waves  Trouble – don’t provide enough energy and sometimes unreliable
because they depend on weather
 Hydro-electricity
 Bio-fuels
 Tides
 Geothermal

Energy resources can be used for transport

 One of the main places where fuel is used

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

 Petrol and diesel powered vehicles use fuel created from oil
 Coal is used in some old-fashioned steam trains to boil water to produce steam
RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
 Vehicles that run on bio-fuels or a mix of bio-fuel and petrol or diesel

…and for heating

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

 Natural gas – most widely used fuel for heating the home. Gas is used to heat water, then
pumped into radiators
 Coal – commonly burnt in fireplaces
 Electric heaters – use electricity from non-renewable energy resources
RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
 Geothermal heat pump – uses geothermal energy to heat buildings
 Solar water heaters – work by the sun to heat the water which is then pumped to the
radiators in the building
 Burning bio-fuel or using electricity – generated from renewable resources can also be used
for heating
Wind and Solar Power

Wind power – lots of little wind turbines

Involves putting lots of wind turbines up in exposed places like on moors or coasts
1. Each turbine has a generator – rotating blades turn the generator and produce electricity
2. No pollution – except when they are manufactured
3. Spoil the view – 1500 wind turbines to replace one coal fired power station
4. Very noisy
5. Turbines stop when wind stops,
6. Impossible to increase supply in high demand – on average they produce electricity 70-85%
of the time
7. High initial costs – but no fuel costs and minimal running costs
8. No permanent damage

Solar cells – expensive but not much environmental damage

Generate electric currents directly from the sun
1. Often the best source for calculators and watches
2. Often used in remote areas and to power electric road signs and satellites
3. No pollution – a lot of energy to manufacture the cells
4. Sunny countries = reliable (only in daytime)
5. Cloudy countries too
6. Can’t increase supply in high demand
7. High initial costs – after free running costs
8. Only generate electricity in small scale
Geothermal and Hydro-electric Power

Geothermal power – energy from underground

Uses energy from underground thermal energy
1. only possible in volcanic areas where the hot rocks lie close to the surface
2. the source of much of the energy is the slow decay of various radioactive elements deep
inside the earth
3. free energy – reliable
4. very few environmental problems
5. can generate electricity or to heat building directly
6. aren’t many suitable locations for power plants and that the cost of building power plants is
high compared to the amount of energy it produces.

 Cold water pumped down

 To hot rocks
 Steam pumped up to power turbine
 Condenses into water
 Pumped back down

Hydro-electric power uses falling water

Transfers energy from the kinetic store of falling water
1. Requires the flooding of a valley by building a dam – rainwater is caught and allowed out
through turbines – no pollution
2. Big impact environmentally – due to flooding (rotting vegetation releases methane and
carbon dioxide)
3. Possible loss of habitats
4. Reservoirs not pleasant to the eye
5. Putting hydro-electric power stations in remote valleys tends to reduce the impact on
humans
6. Provides immediate response to high demand
7. no problem with reliability except in times of drought
8. high initial cost
9. no fuel costs and minimal running costs
10. useful way to generate electricity in small scale areas

Water stored > dam > turbines > generator > national grid
Wave Power and Tidal Barrages

Wave power – lots of little wave powered turbines

1. lots of small wave powered turbines located around the coast.
2. Connected to a generator
3. No pollution
4. Disturbs the seabed and habitats
5. Spoils the view
6. Hazardous to boats
7. Fairly unreliable – since waves tend to die out when the wind drops
8. High initial costs
9. No fuel costs and minimal running costs
10. Wave power is never likely to provide energy on large scale, but can be useful in small
islands

Tidal barrages – using the sun and moon’s gravity

 Are big dams built across river estuaries with turbines in them
 As tide comes in it fills up the estuary
 Water then allowed out through turbines at a controlled speed
 Tides produced by the gravitational pull of sun and moon
 No pollution
 Prevents free access by boats
 Spoils view
 Alters habitats
 Reliable – happen twice a day, always near predicted height
 Height of tide is variable – lower tides = less energy
 High initial cost
 No fuel costs
 Minimal running costs
 Generate a significant amount of energy
Bio-fuels

Bio-fuels are made from plants and waste

 Renewable energy resources
 Created from either plant products or animal dung
 Can be solid, liquid, gas
 Can be burnt to produce electricity or run cars – like fossil fuels

Bio-fuel > boiler > turbine > generator

Pros…
 Carbon neutral, but debatable as it is only true if plants keep growing at the same rate as
they are being burned
 Fairly reliable – crops take a short amount of time to grow, however cannot respond to
immediate energy demands. Bio-fuels are continuously produced and stored when they are
needed

… and cons
 Cost to refine bio-fuels so they are suitable – V. High
 Some people worry that growing crops specifically for bio-fuels will mean there is not
enough space or water to meet the demands for the crops that are grown for food
 Large areas of forest have been cleared to make room to grow bio-fuels, resulting in lots of
species losing their natural habitats. The decay and burning of this vegetation also increases
carbon dioxide and methane emissions
Non-Renewable Resources

Non-renewables are reliable…

 fossil fuels and nuclear energy are reliable
 there is enough fossil and nuclear fuels to meet current demand
 and are extracted from the earth at a fast enough rate that power plants have fuel in stock
 means the power plants can respond quickly to changes in demand
 however, these fuels are slowly running out
 if no new resources are found, some will run out within 100 years
 set up cost is high – the running costs is cheap. Combined with fairly low fuel extraction
costs, using fossil fuels is a cost-effective way to produce energy

…but create environmental problems

 coal, oil and gas release CO2 when burnt – adds to the greenhouse effect and contributes to
global warming
 releases sulphur dioxide, causes acid rain – can be harmful to trees and the ecosystem
 acid rain can be reduced by taking the sulphur out before the fuel is burned, or cleaning up
the emissions
 spoilt views
 oil spillages cause serious problems – affecting mammals and birds
 nuclear power is clean but nuclear waste is very dangerous and difficult to dispose of
 nuclear fuel is cheap but the overall cost of nuclear power is high die to the cost of the
power plant and final decommissioning
 nuclear power always carries the risk of a major catastrophe

Currently we depend on fossil fuels

o electricity use has hugely increased as the population grew
o since the beginning of the 21st century, electricity use in the UK has been decreasing as we
get better at making appliances more efficient
o some of our electricity is produced using fossil fuels and from nuclear power
o generating electricity isn’t the only reason we burn fossil fuels – oil (diesel and petrol) is
used to fuel cars and gas is used to heat homes and cook food
Trends in Energy Resource Use

Aim  increase renewable energy use

This move towards renewable energy resources has been triggered by…
1. burning fossil fuels is very damaging – use renewable energy to do less damage to
environment
2. people and gov becoming aware non-renewable energy are running out
3. pressure from other countries and public – gov has begun to introduce targets, in turn put
pressure on energy providers to build new power plants that use renewable energy
resources to make sure they do not lose business and money
4. car companies – electric cars and hybrids are becoming more popular

Not very straightforward

The use of renewables is limited by reliability, money and politics
1. building new renewable power plants costs money, energy providers are reluctant
2. costs of switching renewable power will have to be paid, either by customers in their bills,
gov and taxes – people cannot afford to pay
3. arguments for where to put new ones – e.g. many people don’t want to live next to a wind
farm, whether it is ethical to make people put up with wind farms built next to them when
they may not agree
4. some energy resources are not reliable, others cannot increase their power output on
demand - would mean to use a combination which would be expensive, or researching ways
to improve reliability
5. research on improving the reliability and cost of renewables takes time and money – may
be years even w/ funding
6. making personal changes may be expensive – hybrid cars are generally more expensive
than petrol cars. Solar panels for the home are expesive.
Current and Circuit Symbols

Current is the flow of electric charge

Electric current – the flow of electric charge round the circuit.
o Current will only flow around a complete (closed) circuit if there is a potential difference
o UNIT OF CURRENT – ampere, A

In a single, closed loop, the current has the same value everywhere.

Potential difference (or voltage) – driving force that pushes the charge around
o UNIT OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE – volt, V

Resistance – anything in the circuit which slows the flow down

o UNIT OF RESISTANCE – ohm

The current flowing through a component depends on the PD across it and the resistance of the
component

The GREATER THE RESISTANCE across a component, the SMALLER THE CURRENT that
flows through it (for a given PD across the component)

Total charge through a circuit depends on current and time

Size of current = rate of flow of charge
When current (I) flows past a point in a circuit for a length of time (t) then the charge (Q) that has
passed…

Charge (C) = Current (A) x Time (s) Q = IT

Current = amperes (A)
Charge = coulombs (c)
Time = seconds (s)
o More charge passes around the circuit when a bigger current flows
Resistance and V=IR

PD (V) = Current (A) x Resistance (Ω)

Factors affecting resistance
o E.g. if components are in series or parallel, length of wire

The Ammeter
o Measures the current in amps, flowing through the test wire
o Must always be placed in series

The Voltmeter
o Measures the PD across the test wire in volts
o Always be in parallel

1. Attach crocodile clip to the wire level with 0cm on ruler

2. Attach second clip to the wire e.g. 10cm away – write length of wire between the clips
3. Close the switch, record the current and PD
4. Open switch and move second clip
5. Close switch again and record new length current and PD
6. Repeat
7. Plot a graph of resistance against wire length and draw line of best fit
8. should be a straight line through the origin – resistance is directly proportional to length
(longer the wire, greater the resistance)
Resistance and I-V Characteristics

Ohmic conductors have a constant resistance

For some components, as the current through them is changed, the resistance of the component
changes as well…
 resistance of ohmic conductors (e.g. wire or resistor) doesn’t change w/ current
 at a constant temp the current flowing through an ohmic conductor is directly proportional
to the PD (R is constant in V=IR)
 the resistance of some resistors and components does change (e.g. a diode, or a filament
lamp)
 when an electrical charge flows through ta filament lamp, it transfers some energy to the
thermal energy store of the filament which is designed to heat up.
 Resistance increases w/ temp, so as the current increases, the filament lamp heats up more
and the resistance increases
 for diodes, the resistance depends on the direction of the current. They will let the current
flow in one direction, but have a v. high resistance if it is reversed
Circuit Devices

A light dependent resistor (LDR)

 Dependent of the intensity of light
 In bright light, the resistance falls
 In darkness, the resistance is highest
 Lots of applications inc automatic night lights, outdoor
lighting and burglar detectors

Thermistor resistance decreases as temp increases

 Is a temp dependent resistor
 Hot conditions = resistance drops
 Cold conditions = resistance increases
 Make useful temp detectors e.g. car engine temp sensors
and electronic thermostats

Use of LDRs and thermistors in sensing circuits

Sensing circuits can be used to turn on or increase the power to components depending on the
conditions that they are in
o The fixed resistor and the fan will always have the same PD across them because they’re
connected in parallel
o The PD of the power supply is shared out between the thermistor and the loop made up of
the fixed resistor and the fan according to their resistances – the bigger a component’s
resistance, the more of the PD it takes
o As the room gets hotter the resistance of the thermistor decreases and it takes a smaller
share of the PD from the power supply. So the PD across the fixed resistor and the fan rises
making the fan go faster

Can connect the component across the variable resistor

o Instead of the fixed resistor
o E.g. if you connect a bulb in parallel to an LDR to PD across both the LDR and the bulb will be
high when its dark and the LDRs resistance is high
o The greater the PD across a component the more energy it gets
o So a bulb connected across an LDR would get brighter as the room got darker
Investigating Resistance

The Ammeter
o Measures the current in amps, flowing through the test wire
o Must always be placed in series

The Voltmeter
o Measures the PD across the test wire in volts
o Always be in parallel

1. Attach crocodile clip to the wire level with 0cm on ruler

2. Attach second clip to the wire e.g. 10cm away – write length of wire between the clips
3. Close the switch, record the current and PD
4. Open switch and move second clip
5. Close switch again and record new length current and PD
6. Repeat
7. Plot a graph of resistance against wire length and draw line of best fit
8. should be a straight line through the origin – resistance is directly proportional to length
(longer the wire, greater the resistance)
Series Circuits

Current is the same everywhere

o same current flows through all components
o e.g. I1 = I2…
o size is determined by the total PD of cells and total resistance of circuit (I=V/R)

Resistance adds up
 total resistance of two components is the sum of their resistances
 because adding a resistor in series, the two resistors have to share the total PD
 The PD across each resistor is lower, current through each one is lower
 Current is the same everywhere – total current in circuit is reduced when a resistor is added;
this means the total resistance of the circuit increases
 Bigger a component’s resistance, the bigger its share of the total potential difference.
Parallel Circuits

Independence and isolation

 Each component is separately connected to +ive and -ive fo the supply
o Except ammeters – always connected in series
 Removing or disconnecting – hardly affects the others
 How most things are connected i.e. homes, cars etc

PD is the same across all components

 All components get the full source PD
o So voltage is the same across all components
 V1=V2=V3
 Means identical bulbs connected in parallel, will have the same brightness
Current is shared between branches
o total current flowing around = total of all current through the separate components
o I (TOTAL) = I1+I2+…
o Current – where current splits or rejoins
o Total current going into junction has to equal the total current leaving it
o If two identical components are connected in parallel, then the same current will flow
through each component

Adding a resistor in parallel reduces the total resistance

o two resistors in parallel = total resistance is les than the resistance of the smaller of the two
 both resistors have the same PD across them
 ‘pushing force’ makes the current flow = the source PD for each resistor added
 Adding another loop, current has more than one direction to flow in
 Increases the total current that can flow around the circuit
 Using V=IR, an increase in current, means a decrease in the total resistance of the
circuit
Electricity in the Home

Mains supply is ac, Battery supply is dc

 ac – alternating current
 dc – direct current
 ac – current is constantly changing direction
 produced by alternating PD (positive and negative ends keep alternating)
 UK mains supply – ac around 230V
 Frequency = 50Hz
 Cells and batteries supply direct current
 Direct current – current always flows in the same direction
 Created by a direct PD

Most cables have three separate wires

 Most electrical appliances are connected to the mains supply by three-core cables.
 Each with a core of copper and a coloured plastic coating
 Colour of insulation show the purpose
 Colours always the same for each appliance

Neutral Wire – BLUE

 Completes the circuit
 When appliance is operating, normally flows through live AND neutral
 Around 0V

Live Wire – BROWN

 Provides alternating PD
 About 230V from mains supply

Earth Wire – GREEN AND YELLOW

 Protects the wiring
 For safety – stops the appliance from becoming live
 Doesn’t usually carry a current – only when there is a fault
 0V

Touching the live wire gives an electric shock

 Body is 0V
 Touching a live wire, a large PD is produced across the body and a current flows through the
body
 Causes a large electric shock
 Even if a plug socket or a light switch is turned off (i.e. the switch is open) there is still danger
of an electric shock
 A current isn’t flowing but there still is a PD in the live wire
 If made contact with the live wire, the body would provide a link between the supply and
the earth so a current would flow through the body
 Any connection between live and earth can be dangerous. If the link creates a low
resistance path to earth, a huge current will flow, which could result in a fire.
Power of Electrical Appliances

Energy is transferred from cells and other sources

 A moving charge transfers energy
 Because charge does work against the resistance of the circuit
 Word done is the same as energy transferred
 Electrical appliances are designed to transfer energy to components in the circuit when a
current flows

Exp.
 Kettles transfer energy electrically from the mains ac supply to the thermal energy store of
the heating element inside the kettle
 Energy is transferred electrically from the battery of a handheld fan to the kinetic energy
store of the fan’s motor

No appliance transfers all energy usefully

Higher the current, more energy s transferred to the thermal energy stores of he components (and
then the surroundings)

Energy transferred depends on the power

 Total energy transferred by an appliance depends on how long the appliance is on for and
its power
 Power of an appliance is the energy that it transfers per second
So the more energy it transfers in a given time, the higher its power

 The amount of energy by electrical work is given by

Energy transferred (J) = Power (W) x Time (s)

 Appliances are often given a power rating – they are labelled with the maximum safe power
they can operate at.
 Power rating tells us the maximum amount of energy transferred between stores per
second when the appliance is in use
 Helps customers choose between models – lower the power rating, less electricity an
appliance uses, cheaper to run
 Higher power doesn’t mean it transfers energy more usefully. An appliance may be more
powerful but less efficient
More on Power

PD is energy transferred per charge passed

o When an electrical charge goes through a change in PD, energy is transferred
o Energy is supplied to the charge at the power source to ‘raise’ it through a potential
o The charge gives up this energy when it ‘falls’ through any potential drop in components
elsewhere in the circuit

E = QV
 E = energy transferred = (J)
 Q = charge flow = (C)
 V = potential difference (V)

A battery with a bigger PD will supply more energy to the circuit for every coulomb of charge which
flows around it

Exp.
 The motor in an electric toothbrush is attached to a 3V battery. 140C of charge passes
through the circuit as it is sued. Calculate the energy transferred.
1. 140 x 3 = 420J

Power also depends on current and potential difference

Power (W) = PD (V) x Current (A)

Exp.
 A 1.0kW hair dryer is connected to a 230V supply. Calculate the current through the hair
dryer. Give your answer to 2s.f.
1. Rearrange equation I = P/V
2. Unit are correct 1.0kW = 1000W
3. Substitute I = 1000/230 = 4.34 = 4.3A

You can also find the power if you don’t know the potential difference…

2
P=I R
The National Grid

Electricity is distributed via the National Grid

 Giant system of cables and transformers that covers the UK and connects the power
stations to consumers
 Transfers electrical power from power stations anywhere on the grid (The supply) to
anywhere else on the grid where it is needed (the demand) – e.g. homes and industry

Electricity production has to meet demand

 Throughout the day, electricity usage changes
 Power stations have to produce enough electricity for everyone
 They can predict when most electricity will be used
 Demands increase in the morning, coming home from school and work and when it gets
dark or cold outside
 Popular events like sporting final being shown on TV also causes a peak in demand
 Power station often run well below the maximum power output
 So there is spare capacity to cope with pair demand
 Lots of smaller power station can start up quickly and are kept in stand by just in case
Particle Model

Particle model can explain the three states of matter

Solid, liquid, gas

Solids…
 Strong forces of attraction hold particles close together in a fixed, regular arrangement
 Particles don’t have much energy
 Only vibrate in fixed positions
 Highest density

Liquids…
 Weaker forces of attraction
 Close together but can move past each other
 Irregular arrangement
 Will have more energy than soli
 Move in random directions at low speed
 Less dense than solids

Gas…
 Almost no force between particles
 More energy than solid and liquid
 Free to move
 Travel in random directions at high speeds
 Low density
Internal Energy and Change of State

Internal energy is stored by the particles that make up a system

 Particles in a system, vibrate or move around – kinetic energy store
 Also have energy in potential energy stores – due to their positions
 Energy stored in a system by its particles
 Internal energy of a system is the total energy that its particles have in their kinetic and
potential energy stores
 Heating the system transfers energy to its particles (they gain energy in their kinetic stores
and move faster), increasing thermal energy
 leads to change in temp or change in state
 if temp changes the size of the change depends on the mass of the substance, what it is
made of (its SHC) and the energy input
 change in state occurs if the substance is heated enough – the particles will have enough
energy in their kinetic energy store to break the bonds holding them together

A change of state conserves mass

o when a liquid is heated, it boils or evaporates and becomes a gas. When you heat a solid it
melts and becomes a liquid.
o The state can also change due to cooling. The particles lose energy and form bond

Solid > melting > liquid > boil/evaporate

Liquid > freezing > solid > sublimating > gas > condensing

- A change of state is a physical change – don’t end up with a new substance

- If you reverse a change of state, the substance will return to its original form and get back its
original properties
- The no. of particles doesn’t change – they’re just arranged differently. This means mass is
conserved – none of it is lost when the substance changes state
Density

Density is a measure of compactness

it relates the mass of a substance to how much space it takes up (i.e. it’s a substance’s mass per unit
volume).
The units of density are kg/m3

3
Density (kg/m ) = Mass(kg)
Volume(m3)

 The density of an object depends on what it is made of

 A dense material has its particles packed tightly together.
 The particles in a less dense material are more spread out – if you compressed the material,
its particles would move close together, and it would become more dense (you wouldn’t be
changing its mass, but you would be decreasing its volume)
 Means density varies between different states of matter
Specific Latent Heat

A change of state requires energy

o When a substance is melting or boiling, you’re still putting in energy and so increasing the
thermal energy, but the energy’s used for breaking bonds between particles rather than
raising the temp.
o These are flat spots on the heating graph where energy is being transferred by heating but
not being used to change the temp

o When a substance is condensing or freezing bonds are forming between particles, which
releases energy. This means the internal energy decreases but the temp doesn’t go down
until all the substance has turned to liquid or a solid. The flat parts of the graph shows this
energy transfer.

Specific latent heat is the energy needed to change state

SLH – amount of energy needed to change 1kg of it from one state to another
without changing temp
 Cooling, SLH is the energy released by a change in state
 SLH is different for different materials and for changing between different states
 The SLH for changing between a solid and a liquid (melting or freezing) is called SLH of
fusion.
 SLH for changing between a liquid and a gas (evaporating, boiling or condensing) is called
SLH of vaporisation

Energy (E) = Mass (m) x SLH (L)

 Energy = joules (J)
 Mass = (kg)
 SLH (J/kg)
Particle Motion in Gas

Average energy in kinetic stores is related to temp

 Particles in mass constantly moving w/ random directions and speeds
 If you increase the temp of gas, you transfer energy to the kinetic energy store of its
particles
 Temp of a gas is related to the average energy in the kinetic energy stores of the particles in
the gas
 The higher the temp, the higher the average energy
 As temp is increased of a gas, the average speed of its particles increases.

Colliding gas particles create pressure

1. As gas particles move about at high speeds, they bang into each other. When they collide
with something, they exert a force (and so a pressure)
2. In a sealed container the outward gas pressure is the total force exerted by all of the
particles in the gas on a unit area of the container walls
3. Faster particles and more frequent collisions both lead to an increase in net force and so
gas pressure
4. One way of increasing speed of the particles is to heat them up. If the volume is kept
constant then increasing the temp will increase the speed of the particles, and so the
pressure
5. if temp is constant increasing the volume of a gas means the particles get more spread out
and hit the walls of the container less often. The gas pressure decreases
6. pressure and volume are inversely proportional – at a constant temp, when volume goes
up, pressure goes down (and when volume decreases, pressure increases)
7. for a gas of fixed mass at a constant temp the relationship is…

pV = constant
 p = pressure = pascals (Pa)
 V = volume (m3)
Isotopes and Nuclear Radiation

Isotopes are different forms of the same element

1. Atoms of each element have a set number of protons (so each nucleus has given positive
charge)
2. The no. of protons in an atom is its atomic no
3. Mass number (mass of nucleus) is the no. of protons + the number of neutrons in its nucleus
4. Isotopes of an element are atoms with the same no. of protons the same atomic no. and so
the same charge on the nucleus but a different no. of neutrons
5. All elements have different isotopes but there are usually only one or two stable ones
6. Other unstable isotopes tend to decay into other elements and give out radiation as they
try to become more stable – radioactive decay
7. Alpha, Beta, Gamma
8. can also release neutrons when the decay, as they rebalance their atomic and mass no.
9. ionising radiation is radiation that knocks electrons off atoms, creating positive ions. The
ionising power of a radiation source is how easily it can do this

Alpha…
 when an alpha particle is emitted from the nucleus
 an alpha particle is two neutrons and two protons like a helium nucleus
 don’t penetrate very far into materials and are stopped quickly
 can only travel a few cm in air and are absorbed by a sheet of paper
 strongly ionising because of size
 used in smoke detectors – ionises air particles, causing a current to flow. If there is smoke
in the air, it binds to the ions – meaning the current stops and the alarm sounds

Beta…
 fast moving electrons released by the nucleus
 no mass
 charge = -1
 moderately ionising
 penetrate moderately far into materials before colliding and have a range in air of few
metres
 absorbed by a sheet of aluminium (around 5mm)
 every beta particle emitted, a neutron in the nucleus has turned into a proton
 used to test the thickness fi sheets of metal as the particles are not immediately absorbed
by the material like alpha radiation would be an do not penetrate as far as gamma rays

Gamma Rays…
 waves of electromagnetic radiation released by the nucleus
 penetrates far into materials without being stopped and will travel a long distance through
 weakly ionising – tend to pass through, eventually hit something and do damage
 can be absorbed by thick sheets of lead or metres of concrete
Half Life

Radioactivity is a total random process

 radioactive substances give out radiation from the nuclei of their atoms no matter what
 can be measured using a Geiger muller tube and counter – records the count rate, the no of
radiation counts reaching per second
 radioactive decay is random
 can find the time it takes for the amount of radiation emitted by a source to halve – half life
 half life can be bused to find the rate at which a source decays – its ACTIVITY
 Activity is measured in becquerels, Bq (where 1Bq is 1 decay per sec)

The radioactive of a source decreases over time

 Each time a radioactive nucleus decays to become a stable nucleus the activity as a whole
will decrease. Older sources emit less radiation
 For some isotopes it takes just a few hours before all the unstable nuclei have decayed
 Problem – the activity never reaches zero which is why we use the idea of half life

Half-life - time taken for the no. of radioactive nuclei in an isotope to halve

 Short half life = quick activity fall because the nuclei are very unstable and rapidly decays
 sources w/ a short half life can be dangerous – high amount of radiation they emit at the
start but they quickly becomes safe
 long half life = falls more slowly because most of the nuclei don’t decay for a long time
 source just sits there – releasing small amounts of radiation for a long time
 can be dangerous because nearby areas are exposed

The radioactivity of a source decreases over time

Exp.
 the initial activity of a sample if 640Bq. Calculate the final activity as a percentage of the
initial activity after two half-lives
1. find the activity after each half life 1 half life: 640/2 = 320
2 half life: 320/2 = 160

2. divide the final activity by the initial activity then multiply by 100 to make it a percentage
(160/640) x 100
=0.25 x 100
25%