The Pastry Chef Handbook - Jean Michel Truchelut

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To Albane, Ghislaine, and Lucile, my three stars.
Jean-Michel Truchelut
To Anne, my children, and my mom.

Pierre-Paul Zeiher
The authors and BPI Editions would like to thank the following individuals for their contributions:
Christophe Meyer: Christian pastry shop, Strasbourg.
Jean-Michel Loessel: Head chef at Les Semailles restaurant, La Wantzenau.
Joëlle Lorentz: Head pastry chef at Mon Paris! restaurant, Paris 9.
Alexandre Haudenschild: Head chef at La Hache restaurant, Strasbourg.
Bartosh Salmanski: Photographer at 128Db.
Laurent Nadiras: Pastry-making teacher at the Camille Claudel vocational school at Mantes-la-Ville
(78); representative of the national and academic task force for the hospitality industry; and member
of the digital education development committee at the Académie de Versailles.
Philippe Salomon: Pastry chef consultant and former pastry-making teacher at FERRANDI Paris.
Alain Kleinbeck: Food-service manager at Sapam.
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This book is the translation of the original edition « La Pâtisserie de
Référence » published in France. The original content of this book has been
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especially regarding food hygiene, food handling and safety at work.
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FOREWORD
It’s impossible for me not to talk about pastry after being so happily
immersed in it for these short years! Yes, I say short years, because when
you’re passionate about your profession, you don’t notice the time pass.
Every day is an experience of sharing, discovery, associations, it’s
rediscovering everything about a product. Yes, baking is an eternal
challenge that we set ourselves, one that drives us to surpass ourselves
again and again.
You need a good measure of technique, as well as tenacity. Having a good
foundation and good reflexes is undeniably essential to enable you to finally
take the plunge, to take flight, be independent, and be able to fly with your
own wings so you can be yourself, as in life!
The Pastry Chef Handbook by Pierre-Paul Zeiher and Jean-Michel
Truchelut is one of those books that gets you off the ground, because of
its educational approach.
“When I was a young boy, I would review my lessons…” while baking! I
loved the sharing and the sense of passing on that I could already feel in the
kitchen of our family bakery in Alsace between my father and Jacky, who
had always been his right-hand assistant. I learned a lot from watching them
work, being that my sister and I were appointed expert tasters!
It didn’t take me long to realize that my answer to the question, “What do
you want to do when you grow up?” was that I wanted to be a pastry chef to
bring a little gratification to people’s everyday lives.
However, to achieve this, I also quickly learned that I needed discipline—a
great deal of discipline—and a willingness to put in a lot of hard work. My
years of training under professionals, without whom I wouldn’t have had
the chance to come so far, will forever remain in my memory; they are part
of me.
Something I find in The Pastry Chef Handbook, it is this precise,
didactic, and authentic side.
Precision is a must in this profession. Through the many illustrated step-by-
step indications, this book is a great tool. Pierre-Paul Zeiher and Jean-
Michel Truchelut are both passionate about teaching and never stop
explaining to young people the values of our profession in a very
sympathetic way, which is an important asset in winning them over.
It makes me proud of our profession to see such work being done. This
book is an important resource for passing on know-how and the passion that
drives each of us to further this wonderful profession of sharing and
gratification.
Just as I did by devouring each page of this book, I recommend you to
immerse yourself wholeheartedly into this master class on making pastry.
Christophe Felder
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HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
Making pastry requires acquiring the skills necessary to execute recipes

(Production worksheets). To do this, it is also essential to know the history
behind pastries and the context in which they were created and have been
appreciated (General information, history).
Pastries are created from ingredients (Products), purchased in sufficient
quantity (note the importance of weights and measures) and quality, then
transformed using equipment and utensils in specific places (General
information, Technical information) known as kitchens.
The authorities constantly check to ensure the proper use of products,
premises, and personnel to protect the health of consumers (General
information, Food safety and Good practice).
To make pastry professionally, some basic skills (Basic techniques and
base preparations: Basic techniques) must be learned and mastered.
These skills are subsequently applied to ingredients by combining and
assembling them (Basic techniques and base preparations: Base
preparations), following recipes. These base preparations are common to a
number of pastry creations, but when prepared and combined in different
ways, the resulting creations will be different.
To better understand these similarities and differences, they are put into
classifications (Technological approach), and certain physical and
chemical phenomena (Functional properties) are explained.
To understand these phenomena, in addition to the entire pastry-making
process, it is necessary to know the appropriate vocabulary (Terminology).
Scientific journals, chemists, and physicians focus on pastry using concepts
and terms that must be understood by the pastry chef. The pastry chef is
actively involved in everything discussed in the pastry-making process.
Throughout this book, you will find QR codes that provide fast and free
access to the BPI Campus platform (www.bpi-campus.com, the leading
free-of-charge platform for digital resources, which are updated daily).
These QR codes will let you view videos explaining the basic techniques
and base preparations to master. Nothing is more effective than a step-by-
step video to show you every skill you need to acquire. Once you have
mastered these skills and techniques, you will also find QR codes in the
Production Worksheets section. These videos will help you to perform all
the steps required to execute all the recipes and consequently to perfect the
previously acquired skills. Some chapters of this book will require updating
and extending. Thanks to the combination of paper and digital formats,
today you can have a paper book as a reference to consult throughout your
career, and new, updated content that keeps track of the developments
taking place in the profession. You will also be able to assess your progress
through quizzes (available on the BPI Campus website or by scanning the
“Assess Your Knowledge” QR codes).
This ebook version of The Pastry Chef Handbook is also available from the
BPI Books digital library (www.bpi-books.com, the leading digital library
with access to more than 40 books). All you have to do is scan a QR code
for direct access to all the digital resources of BPI Campus.
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CONTENTS
Foreword
How to use this book
Contents
GENERAL INFORMATION
Introduction
History
Technical information: materials and equipment
Food safety: good practice, HACCP, allergens, and food safety plan
Operating procedures
Preservation and production techniques
Weights and measures
Sustainability
PRODUCTS
Milk
Cream
Butter
Other fatty substances
Grains
Flour
Rising agents and leaven
Eggs and egg products
Sugar
Syrups
Sweeteners
Water
Salt and spices
Cocoa
Chocolate and couverture chocolate
Vanilla, coffee, and tea
Fruits and nuts, herbs and flowers
Alcohol, wine, and liquor
Convenience food, processed food
Additives
Contemporary ingredients
Functional properties of the ingredients used in pastry: experimental
workshops
TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACH
Sponge cake batters

Sweet and short pastry doughs
Basic pastry doughs
Puff pastry
Fritter batters
Leavened doughs
Soufflés
Choux pastry
Crepe batter
Leavened cake batters
Almond paste
Meringues
Basic creams
Ganaches
Sauces, coulis, and sabayons
Icing and pastillage
BASIC TECHNIQUES
Rolling dough with a dough sheeter

Making a template
Greasing a pastry ring with butter
Greasing a savarin mold with butter
Lining a cake pan
Lining an entremets ring with sponge cake
Lining a pastry ring
Crimping a pastry shell
Separating eggs
Making an egg yolk glaze
Making a paper cone
Writing with a paper cone
Drawing a pattern with a paper cone
Making pastillage decorations
Filling a pastry bag
Piping choux puffs and éclairs
Preparing poured fondant for use
Glazing éclairs
Icing religieuses
Blanching egg yolks
Cutting out parchment paper for blind baking
Blind baking tart shells
Making a parchment paper lid
Making puff pastry cassolettes
Splitting and scraping a vanilla bean
Preparing apricot glaze for use
Softening gelatin
Piping a strip of sponge cake
Making a syrup for soaking
Soaking sponge cake
Making an infused soaking syrup
Soaking babas or savarins
Sifting
Cutting a sponge cake into layers
Assembling entremets
Cutting orange zest into julienne
Removing peel and pith from citrus fruit
Supreming citrus fruit
Piping round meringues
Tempering chocolate (classic method)
Making a chocolate decoration
BASE PREPARATIONS
Genoise sponge cake batter

Chocolate sponge
Almond sponge
Joconde sponge
Basic shortcrust pastry
Basic shortcrust pastry in a mixer
Sweet pastry
Shortbread pastry
Almond shortbread pastry
Cigarette (wafer) batter
Sweet and flavored crumbles
Traditional puff pastry
Rough puff pastry
Inverse puff pastry
Brioche dough
Savarin batter
Choux pastry
Crepe batter
Pound cake batter
Fritter batter
Soufflé mixture
Almond tuile batter
French meringue
Swiss meringue
Italian meringue
Dacquoise
Traditional crème anglaise (custard)
Crème anglaise cooked sous-vide
Crème anglaise cooked sous-vide in a water bath
Crème anglaise cooked in a wok
Traditional pastry cream
Pastry cream made with custard powder
Frangipane
Mousseline cream
Other pastry cream derivatives
Setting custard
French buttercream
Chantilly cream
Almond cream
Lemon cream
Crémeux
Bavarian creams
Fruit mousses
Chocolate mousses
Chocolate ganache with melted chocolate
Chocolate ganache with cold chocolate
Sauces and coulis
Gelatin desserts and confectionery
Pastillage
Royal icing
Mirror glaze
Shiny chocolate glaze
Other glazes
Velvet spray mixtures
Nougatine
PRODUCTION WORKSHEETS
SPONGE DESSERTS
Genoise sponge with custard
Yule log using a mold
Traditional Yule log
Black Forest cake
Two-chocolate triangle entremets
Mocha cake
Ladyfingers
Savoy sponge cake
Almond-flavored Savoy sponge cakes
Pound cake
Genoa bread
Opera cake
Caramel and rum raisin entremets
Mascarpone, chestnut, and black currant entremets
Sacher torte
Fraisier cake
CHOUX PASTRY DESSERTS
Cream puffs
Coffee éclairs
Coffee and chocolate religieuses
Saint-Honoré with Chantilly cream
Croquembouche
Paris-Brest
Beignets
Bugnes or angel wing fritters
Chilled cream-filled choux pastries
CREPE BATTER DESSERTS
Crepes
Crepes normandes
Far Breton
FRITTER DESSERTS
Apple fritters
Acacia flower fritters
MERINGUE DESSERTS
Meringue Chantilly
Pavlova
Dacquoise with coffee mousse filling
Dacquoise with ganache filling
CAKE DESSERTS
Fruitcake
Almond pound cake
Madeleines
Gingerbread
PASTRY DESSERTS
Lemon tart
Fromage blanc tart
Mixed berry tart
Apple tart
Alsatian apple tart
Bourdaloue pear tart
Chocolate pear tart
Tarte Tatin
Chocolate tartlets
Lemon meringue tartlets
French custard tart
Cherry custard tart
Raspberry Linzer torte
Shortbread cookies
Other small baked goods
LEAVENED DOUGH OR BATTER DESSERTS

Savarin
Croissants
Pains au chocolat
Almond swirls
Kugelhopf
Flaky brioches
PUFF PASTRY DESSERTS

Millefeuilles
Millefeuilles with mixed berries
Pithiviers
Fruit tart
Apple turnovers
Palmiers
Apricot jalousies
CUSTARD DESSERTS
Crème brûlée
Crème caramel
Crème viennoise
Vanilla, coffee, and chocolate pots de crème
Îles flottantes
Rice pudding
Riz à l’impératrice
Strawberry gratin with champagne sabayon
ASSORTED COOKIES
Cigarettes russes
Chocolate macarons
Almond tuiles
Cannelés
Financiers
Coconut meringue rocks
Vanilla shortbread cookies
Other tuiles
SOUFFLÉS
Liqueur soufflé
Chocolate soufflé
ICE CREAMS AND SORBETS

Raspberry, blueberry, and orange sorbets
Vanilla and chocolate ice creams (custard base)
Apricot ice cream (cream and milk base)
Nougat ice cream
Meringue with ice cream and Chantilly cream
Baked Alaska
Oranges givrées
Vanilla vacherin
Poire Belle-Hélène
Strawberry sorbet
Lemon and coconut nitro sorbet
MOUSSE DESSERTS
Layered Bavarian cream
Strawberry charlotte
Dark chocolate mousse
SAVORY DISHES
Quiche comtoise
Cheese allumettes
Cheese puffs
Italian-style melon mousse
Choux puffs with smoked salmon
Saucisson brioché
Cheese soufflés
CONFECTIONERY
Chocolate-dipped candied orange
Liquor-filled chocolates
Caramel-dipped fruits déguisés
Nougat de Montélimar
Marshmallows
Vanilla truffles
PLATED DESSERTS
Recipes by Chef Jean-Michel Loessel (Les Semailles restaurant, La

Wantzenau)
Recipes by Chef Joëlle Lorentz (Mon Paris! restaurant, Paris 9)
Recipes by Chef Alexandre Haudenschild (La Hache restaurant,
Strasbourg)
PROFESSIONAL TERMINOLOGY
INDEX OF SEARCHABLE TERMS
INDEX OF WORKSHEETS
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GENERAL INFORMATION
© Adobe Stock
INTRODUCTION
Pastries, desserts, and entremets are part of France’s rich gastronomic
heritage. They are present in the country’s culinary culture, and their study
involves several dimensions. Making and eating a dessert are acts that
involve the concepts of pleasure and sharing. There is also a concern for
health (nutrition), collective responsibility, and inheritance.
Except where the identical reproduction of traditional desserts is concerned,
for artisans it entails offering an “artistic” result in terms of visual
composition (lines, shapes, volumes, colors), taste (kinesthesia, smell,
flavors), and of showcasing their knowledge and skills, products, dishes,
etc.
INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF HUMANITY

One of the most recent events of note in the history of French gastronomy is
the inclusion of the French meal on the list of humanity’s intangible cultural
heritages (UNESCO). The intentions behind this designation are completely
justified. However, there is also reason to analyze them. It is not a question
of promoting the quality of French products, but instead to recognize the
time devoted to eating as a strong social ritual. The French spend a great
deal of time eating, most often communally. While attention is drawn to the
family meal, it also includes meals taken outside of the home. In France,
meals are a time for exchange, sharing, listening, and education.
French meals are structured into several different parts: aperitif, appetizer,
fish or meat course, cheese, and. . . dessert. The last of these comes with
great expectation, particularly because it signals a break from the savory
and that the meal has come to its conclusion. In other words, it is the final
flourish! This role is all the easier to fulfill, because sweetness is the only
innate taste, whereas the other tastes are the result of cultural learning.
For consumers, dessert has an aesthetic dimension in terms of appearance,
taste, and the element of surprise. We go to pastry shops and restaurants
without any real nutritional concerns, and even less so when it comes to
dessert. The ultimate goal is indulgence!
However, dessert is a source of concern. It must not have too high a calorie
count or it may be rejected. Dessert alone embodies all the flaws in our food
intake: it is not really necessary biologically speaking (unlike: water,
vegetables, protein-rich foods); it is famously high in carbohydrates
(sugars) and fat, etc.
WE MUST NOT BE DEPRIVED OF DESSERT!

To understand the advent of the ingredients and dishes forming part of our
cultural history, we need to journey into the past. We will discover that
sugar, and other products such as chocolate, have been extolled at certain
times and absolutely demonized at others. The sin of gluttony has left its
trace on our Judeo-Christian cultures. Both saccharophobia and its opposite,
saccharophilia, have been studied by sociologists, historians, and
nutritionists.
A little patience is needed. We must trust that the campaign to end sugar’s
persecution will find a new champion. The time for its rehabilitation is sure
to come. Sugar will once again have a prominent place in our meals.
Different issues have arisen at different times. We explain the ones that are
most commonly encountered, which differ greatly from the anecdotes
popular with theorists.
A VITAL ROLE IN CULINARY EXCELLENCE

Other issues of concern to both artisans and consumers are also of great
interest. It should be noted that throughout culinary history, French pastry
professionals have risen to the challenges presented to them.
They have succeeded in ennobling their work and raising the standard of
their technical knowledge and culture, making them the envy of the world.
© Adobe Stock
HISTORY
Books on pastry encourage professionals and enthusiasts alike to become
familiar with the basic ingredients: sugar, butter, flour, eggs, fruits,
oleaginous plants, etc., which are the key components of the doughs,
batters, and creams that go into making cakes, entremets, and desserts. They
also provide knowledge on ice cream, chocolate, and confectionery. Why
and since when have these ingredients been used? For what types of
preparations? For what purpose? And under what conditions? To answer
these questions, a historical overview is required. Therefore, we invite you
to take a gastronomic journey back in time.
SUGAR
Today, when we refer to the dessert that is often enjoyed at the end of a
meal, we mostly call to mind its sweet flavor, typically provided by sugar.
In order to be used, sugar must be available. While the French are mainly
familiar with beet sugar (extracted from sugar beets), cane sugar (extracted
from what was known as “the reed that gives honey without the need for
bees”) was around before it, and the sweetener available long before that
was honey.1 We will discover the points in our history when sugar was
combined with salty and/or sour flavors. Humoral theory had something to
do with it.
ENTREMETS
This term comes from the French “entre les mets,” literally “between
dishes.” What does that mean? A particular time during a meal that
consisted of different stages and formats. Is an entremets a dessert? You can
see how difficult it is to understand what this term meant at different times
in French history.
DESSERT
Was dessert served when it was time to “desservir” (clear the table)? Before
or after?
CAKE
Did the term “cake” first appear in the Bible, in a text written about 1,000
years before our time (Genesis, 18:6)?
PASTRY
Were pastissiers people who wrapped both sweet and savory foods in
dough?
AT THE END OF THE MEAL

We will discover that this was not always the case. Dessert is now
understood as a predominantly sweet dish eaten at the end of a meal. Sugar
may be an essential element of a dish, but has it always been consumed in
desserts like it is today? For example, in his 1674 book, L’Art de bien
traiter, the cook LSR2 (initials) describes the process for “candying dried
flower buds of almost any kind and the way to make violet and jasmine
jams.” While the reference to sweetness (presumably sugar) is implicit, the
moment at which these foods were eaten is not recorded. It is difficult to
pinpoint the time in history when a clear separation was made between
savory and sweet foods.
ANCIENT HISTORY— THE BEGINNING OF HISTORY TO
THE FIFTH CENTURY: FROM WRITING UNTIL THE
FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

“The discovery of honey” by prehistoric humans. A wild beehive.
FIRST HUMANS, FIRST FORMS OF COOKING:
PHOENICIANS, SUMERIANS, EGYPTIANS, GREEKS
It is difficult to envision pastry actually existing before the discovery of
sugar, butter, and eggs. We can only imagine the use of a sweet product that
was naturally available: honey. Food historians offer an explanation of
cooking as the transformation to which food is subjected by humans. They
make a distinction between raw food3 (the food must be edible and/or
drinkable) and cooked food, which involves fire and, therefore, human
intervention. Raw food at the time comprised fruits, which were available
as found or dried (dates, figs). Eating them resulted in energy requirements
being satisfied, which led to a particular preference for this taste, now
associated with physiological well-being. Roots or a grain mixture that were
crushed, shaped into flatbread, and exposed to fire would produce the same
effects.
FERMENTATION, AN ESSENTIAL DISCOVERY4

After raw and cooked, a third distinction is made: “rotten,” referring to food
that has undergone a natural transformation that makes it no longer fit to be
eaten. Similarly, we can understand food that has undergone a
transformation through human intervention: fermentation. This dimension
is somewhat overlooked, but it is crucial. Fermentation can take place only
with the presence of ferments, better known as enzymes. For panary
fermentation (as well as alcoholic fermentation) to take place, a substrate is
required: sugar. Products with a high starch content would become
important raw materials. Enzymes controlled and/or added through human
genius would be put to work. Cooking would prolong the enzymatic effect,
because sugar reacts with proteins to develop aromas, colors, and flavors.
These biochemical reactions were studied much later by Maillard, a native
of Lorraine (see “Functional properties of ingredients used in pastry:
Experimental workshops,” this page). The final product would be
profoundly modified. They were the forerunners of our breads, entremets,
and other cakes made with leavened doughs and batters. At the time, sweet
foods were made using flour, oil (butter—the food of “barbarians”—did not
appear until the third century BC), and honey. Being endowed with
extraordinary qualities, they were offered to the deities during religious
rituals. Were not nectar and ambrosia the food of the Olympian gods?
HUMORAL THEORY
As far back as the fifth century BC, the ancient Greeks developed a dietetic
system known as humoral theory. The world was believed to comprise four
elements: earth, air, water, and fire. Each of them was assigned a quality:
hot, cold, moist, and dry. The food people ate was thought to contribute to
the development of humors, the body’s substances, which determined an
individual’s temperament: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, etc. Illnesses
were also characterized by these items. Foods were therefore chosen for
their different influences. For example, a hot and moist illness could be
countered by cold and dry foods. This approach endured until the
nineteenth century.. Mixing products with different qualities allowed them
to be eaten without major consequences. In 1577, when the New World had
just been discovered, a Spanish physician attributed qualities to all new
foods. Cocoa was, he wrote, “temperate in nature, but leaning to the cold
and dry.” It would be necessary to add “hot and moist” sugar. Food was
already considered a form of medicine. Dishes, cooking methods,
seasonings, and combinations would each play their part in optimizing a
certain quality or, on the contrary, minimizing or even neutralizing it.
Among starchy foods, bread was considered neutral and could be eaten
throughout the meal.
Food was therefore the first medicine. It could be complemented by
bloodletting, an enema, or a diet, in which a theriac might be recommended.
A theriac was a concoction that worked as an antidote, and it contained a
number of different substances (varying according to the time), including
the flesh of a viper, castoreum (which is still used today to make vanilla
flavoring), honey, numerous types of barks and gums. Theriac continued in
the French pharmacopoeia until its 1884 edition! Humoral theory had one
last advocate in the figure of Auguste Lumière (1862–1954).
The Phoenicians (inhabitants of present-day Lebanon), the Sumerians
(occupants of Mesopotamia, with their famous Hanging Gardens of
Babylon), and the Egyptians contributed to the early stages of pastry. Bas-
reliefs from the time show the cultivation of cereals and artisans in food-
related trades.
The first term used by the ancient Greeks to signify a cake was obelias,
meaning “offering.” By that time, food had become a social marker. The
Greeks were divided between the Spartan black soup and the Epicurean
culinary pursuits.
THE ROMANS
We know of the food of the ancient Romans, in a somewhat exaggerated
form, through Lucullus and Apicius (three Romans bore this name5). The
Roman orgy had yet to be deciphered. Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79) wrote an
encyclopedic work entitled Natural History. In it he revealed that “some
like to knead milk or eggs into the dough, or even butter.” Roman cooks
applied Hippocratic dietetics, which were revived by Galen (AD 129–216),
by adding different products to their dishes, including spices and seeds.
Patina (a word that also designates the dish in which food was prepared in
addition to the food itself) was a common dish, an example of which was
pear patina, a paste made with honey. Apricot minutal was a savory dish.
Sweet and savory flavors coexisted. Physicians recommended “sugar water
to cure or purge the kidneys, stomach, intestines, and bladder.” The first
“corporation” of the pastillariorum appeared in Rome in the fourth century
BC as makers of “preserves,” which were actually fruits cooked in honey
and spread on bread. The omnipresence of garum6 does not give us a true
idea of the tastes that characterized Roman gastronomy.
THE GAULS
Bread, which was relatively unpopular with the Romans, became a
specialty of the Gauls. Pride of place was also given to charcuterie. It is
probably when the first savory pies were made. Unlike the Romans, the
Gauls used butter.
MEDIEVAL HISTORY—THE FIFTH TO FIFTEENTH

CENTURIES: THE MIDDLE AGES
EARLY MIDDLE AGES (481 CLOVIS, KING OF THE FRANKS):
BARBARIAN CUISINE
The stereotypical “medieval” notion we have of the Middle Ages is false.
Human genius did not stop working in this thousand-year-long period.
People worked to improve their diet. For instance, civil and religious
authorities never ceased to promote ways of improving soil productivity
(three-year crop rotation and a fallow year) to increase yields.
ISLAMIC INFLUENCE
The influence of the Arabs and, more particularly, of the Persians, has been
largely underestimated. Their books, most often written by scholars and
physicians, were disseminated, gradually linking the Middle East with
Christian Europe. Arabs and Persians translated the ancient Greek and
Roman treatises, and improved them. Among them, Avicenna (980–1037),
a Persian philosopher and physician, translated the works of Hippocrates,
Aristotle, and Galen. At this time, the Tacuinum sanitatis in medicinam (or
Taccuinum sanitatis), a medieval manual on health, appeared. Its source is
said to be an Arabic treatise written around 1050 by Ibn Butlân, known as
Taqwīm al-Ṣiḥḥa ‫( ةحصال ميوقت‬Health Charts). There is mention of not
only cane sugar but also grape sugar. It was probably during this period that
the more easily marketable “sugar loaves” were invented. Arab conquests
during the seventh century made sugar known throughout the world. Sugar
was introduced into Europe via the Moorish kingdom of Al-Andalus in
southern Spain.
PERIOD OF THE CRUSADES (1095–1291) AND
PILGRIMAGES

Geoffrey of Villehardouin chronicled the conquest of Constantinople during the Fourth
Crusade. He described the food he encountered.
The pilgrimages led to new ways of supplying food. The routes taken by
pilgrims were arduous, and eating was seen by them as an opportunity to
glorify God’s creations. The monasteries focused on fermentation to
produce wine, beer, bread, cheese, etc. Monks were sometimes beekeepers,
and as members of the corporation of “oblayers,” or “waferers” (Les
métiers et corporations de la ville de Paris, 1270), they produced
communion wafers and oblées (or oublies), thin wafers flavored with honey
and spices, probably derived from the Greek obalias.
Easter, the Ascension, Pentecost, and Christmas (four major Catholic
holidays) were occasions for monasteries to offer sweet delicacies.
THE BEGINNINGS OF MASS CATERING
The Crusades’ success depended on effective logistics. Pilgrimages and
crusades became the setting for the first manifestations of mass catering. To
prepare for the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204), Geoffroy de Villehardouin
went to the Republic of Venice to arrange for the ships and food supplies
needed for an expedition.
Only a few new foods were brought back from the crusades, such as
Maltese figs, melons, dates, and plums (from Damascus). This meager
booty inspired the French expression “pour des prunes” (literally “for a few
plums”), meaning “for a pittance.” Nevertheless, the sugar from the
“honeyed reeds” and spices complete the contributions from the Saracens.
“The crusaders became familiar with the principles of our preserves and
confectionery, of which they had been completely ignorant.”7 A number of
authors suggest that the crusaders would have become familiar with burek,
the forerunner of puff pastry, which was eaten in the Islamic world. Even
more important was the discovery of distillation, used to produce essences,
aromas, essential oils, etc.
In 1256, Aldebrandin of Siena took the Latin versions of the Arabic texts
and translated them into French in his work Le régime du corps. In it, sugar,
which he referred to as cucre or chucre de canamiel (“sugar cane”), was
believed to play an important role in the fight against old age. Sugar
(considered “brown gold”) was imported via Venice to gradually supply
Northern Europe. All this knowledge had a lasting influence on Western
thought regarding food and nutrition: “What was good [to eat] did no harm,
the appetite whetted (craving) therefore guaranteed a healthy diet. Even
sweets benefited from a highly favorable medical discourse. Cane sugar
was sold by apothecaries and belonged to the therapeutic domain until the
seventeenth century.”8
FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES: UNDER

THE REIGN OF TAILLEVENT
Le Ménagier de Paris,9 written by a wealthy member of the bourgeoisie for
his fifteen-year-old young wife, lists recommendations and advice on how
to manage her household. Part of the book concerns food and cooking.
Foods mentioned include custards, wafers, étriers and portes (varieties of
wafers), sweet cakes, crespes, and bignets. This is referred to as paticerie.
Sugar is bought from the épicier (a spice merchant, who at the time also
sold medicines) in the form of a quarteron.10 The term blanc manger
(blancmange) could designate either a gelatin made with milk, almonds,
and sugar or a white meat in aspic. It also shows how to make clairet, a
wine mixed with honey and aromatic spices.
As a result of travel and aspirations, “new” products (particularly spices)
were attributed many virtues. Because they were expensive, they
contributed to social status, and they were claimed to have many medicinal
properties (some would offer eternal life). “Fruit and sugar are used to make
apple, quince, and green walnut pastes that have medicinal properties. Here
the confectioner meets the apothecary.”11
THE BEGINNING OF THE GUILDS
The catering trades were organized into guilds12 that established their rules
of operation. Food-related guilds included those for talmeliers (bakers) and
vinaigriers (vinegar makers). The obloyers (waferers) made oblées or
oublies, eulogies (communion wafers), and the ancestors of waffles known
as échaudés and nieules.13 The pastissiers (“those who wrapped things in
dough”) were a powerful corporation. Medieval pastés (pies), both savory
and sweet, made an appearance with the expanded use of the bread oven.
Their dough casing protected food and enabled it to be transported.
Excellent er Moult Utile Opuscule a tous necessaire qui desirent avoir connaissance de
plusieurs exquises recettes (Excellent and Useful Pamphlet for All Those Who Need or
Desire to Have Knowledge of Several Exquisite Recipes), by Michel Nostradamus,
Physician, 1555
LE VIANDIER
The meaning of the French word viandier (meat) has changed over time. In
the Middle Ages, it designated things that sustained life, including food—
and cakes.14 Medieval dishes used three basic flavors: strong, obtained with
spices; sweet, by adding sugar; and sour. Le Viandier (“The Victualler”),15 a
collection of recipes by Guillaume Tirel, known by his alias Taillevent
(1310–1395), calls for using an acidic agent (vinegar, verjus, etc.) in about
70 percent of its dishes. In it, a new ingredient is timidly introduced to
cooking: cream.16 These ingredients were reserved for the nobility, who
indulged in great banquets. Grande service à la française, or French
service, took shape at this time, reaching its height under King Louis XIV.
ENTREMETS AND (GRAND) FRENCH SERVICE
The dishes served in the homes of nobles and aristocrats were presented in
courses. Entremets were served between them. In the fourteenth century, the
word was used to describe both spectacular dishes and the performances
that enlivened aristocratic banquets such as dances, music, and plays. The
culinary dimension of this word became clearly defined in the nineteenth
century. A new guild, the regrattiers or regraters, appeared at this time.
They bought the leftovers from the tables of the rich to resell to the poor.
The way in which these leftovers were presented for sale led to the slang
terms arlequin17 (“harlequin”) and bijoux (“jewels”).
During the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, Christian dietary
laws were based on the Lenten practices of fasting and charnage, a division
of “fat”18 and “lean”19 days. These “rules” were extremely restrictive at the
beginning of the High Middle Ages, but became more flexible in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. At the time, it was a question of
making an inventory of which foods were allowed or not, the degree of
sophistication of dishes, and the pleasure involved in eating them. During
the nineteenth century, and more certainly in the twentieth century, the
relaxation of dietary rules has led to their lack of importance today.
MODERN HISTORY: 1492 AND THE FRENCH
REVOLUTION
© BNF
The Opera of Bartolomeo Scappi, 1570
FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES: THE
RENAISSANCE
RELIGION’S INFLUENCE
Bartolomeo Sacchi Platina (1421–1481), using the pseudonym Platina of
Cremona, wrote the gastronomic treatise De honesta voluptate ac
valetudine (1474), which is translated into English as On Right Pleasure
and Good Health. Its reflections go beyond gastronomy to describe the
moral and aesthetic rules to respect and their association with a concern for
health. It contained few recipes for cooking and baking, and those included
were of a medieval nature. Nevertheless, it made a substantial contribution:
the enjoyment of food without offending Christian morality, divided
between the glorification of the Lord’s blessings and the necessary
mortification that will enable one to go to heaven.20 A little later,
Bartolomeo Scappi (1500–1577) wrote Opera dell’arte del cucinare
(“Work on the Art of Cooking”), published in 1570. Although more
technical in nature, the work preserves the symbiosis between cooking and
health (physical and moral) that had been present in such works since the
ancient Greek authors and would only disappear by the end of the
nineteenth century.
The Opera of Bartolomeo Scappi, 1570
ITALIAN INFLUENCE SUPPOSEDLY ON COOKING, BUT
DEFINITELY ON PASTRY!
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With the marriage of Catherine de’ Medici to the French king Henry II in
1533, and that of Marie de’ Medici to Henry IV in 1600, French
gastronomy was enriched by Italian culture through the arrival of many
culinary techniques and confectioneries, including candied fruits, almond
paste, pâtes des fruits (dried preserves), nougats, sabayon, choux pastry
(perfected by Popelini, a cook in the service of Catherine de’ Medici),
macaroons, and meringues. The Franco-Italian aristocracy of the
Renaissance now raised pastry makers to the rank of artists in all of
Europe’s royal courts. Charles IX granted pastry makers the new title of
“master of the art of pastry making and waferer.” They were given the
exclusive privilege of making pâtés (meat, fish, cheese). Artisan
confectioners made figures in fruits and in sugar, gingerbreads was made in
molds of carved wood. “Sugar paste” would relegate honey to a position of
inferiority. Sugar and its transformation became elements of social
distinction. From being scorned in the fourteenth century, the sweet flavor
was now prized on its own. Dishes showed originality and incorporated
many ingredients, such as liqueurs, aromatics, and different essences (musk,
licorice).
In 1560, Bruyerin Champier, physician to King Francis I, confirmed the
elegance of pastries both in their making and in their taste: “Pastry makers
in the large towns and those forming part of the court staff make cakes of
this type with indescribable finesse and elegance. They show their great art
by making their pastries not only delicious to the taste but also to the eye.”
The physician, apothecary, and astrologer Nostradamus (1503–1566)
published a treatise on preserves in 1555. In addition to fruit and
vegetables, Nostradamus used many ingredients: sugar, honey, defrutum
(reduced grape must) and many spices, such as cloves and cinnamon. He
also candied and macerated different products for medicinal purposes:
sweet cherry jelly, candied fruits (limes, oranges, and quinces).
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY: THE BIRTH OF GOOD TASTE

Olivier de Serre (1539–1619) published his work Théâtre d’Agriculture et
mesnage des champs in 1600. The brilliant agronomist postulates that it
would be possible to extract sugar from the “beet root” (not yet called the
sugar beet). In the early seventeenth century, chocolate became a sensation
at the French court following the marriage of Anne of Austria to King Louis
XIII (1615).
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De l’usage du caphé, du thé et du chocolate (On the Use of Coffee, Tea, and
Chocolate), Lyon 1671
The Spanish friar Antonio Vázquez de Espinosa took part in the
evangelization. He gave a valuable account of his experience in South
America in the book Viaje y Navegación del año de 1622 que hizo la flota
de Nueva España y Honduras (“Voyage and Navigation Made in 1622 by
the Fleet of New Spain and Honduras”) published in 1624, in which he
described the sugar cane and sugar mills he encountered in Chile,
Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Paraguay. In 1688, Philippe Sylvestre
Dufour produced a book with a long name (in keeping with the conventions
of the time), Traitez nouveaux et curieux du caphé, du thé et du chocolate.
Ouvrage également nécessaire aux médecins et à tous ceux qui aiment leur
santé, (“New and Curious Treatise on Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate. A Work
also Necessary for Physicians and All Those Who Love Their Health”)
which highlighted the issues of his day. In it, he wrote: “It [chocolate] has
become so common in Europe, chiefly in Spain and afterward in England,
France, and Italy, that we must no longer consider it as a beverage particular
to America, where it originated, but as one that has become naturalized
among us.”
A dessert table in François Massialot’s Instruction pour les confitures (Instructions for
Preserves) of 1692
The cooks gradually freed themselves from both dietary and religious rules.
From then on, they followed “the rules of good taste” that became a
criterion for social distinction. “Grande cuisine” flourished in the homes of
the nobility.
One question concerned the consumption of chocolate and the observance
of Lent. When it was consumed hot in liquid form, the religious authorities
did not consider watered-down chocolate to break the Lenten fast and it was
therefore permitted. The different restrictions were gradually relaxed and its
consumption increasingly approached what we know today.
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Bon usage du thé, du caffé et du chocolat pour la préservation et la guérision des
maladies (Good Use of Tea, Coffee, and Chocolate for the Preservation and Cure of
Diseases), 1687
There were many protests at the time on moral, religious, and political
issues. Cafés became places for exchanging information and debate, which
led to authorities watching them. Café Procope,21 which opened in 1686,
was one of the first. Le Cuisinier royal et bourgeois,22 written by François
Massialot (1660–1733) and published in 1691, reflects the wish to make the
same culinary refinement available to both the aristocracy and the
bourgeoisie. The recipes mentioned pigeon (and sea duck) with chocolate,
crème brûlée, a crème “paticière” (like today’s pastry cream), a Savoy cake,
and meringues. “Chocolate warms and fortifies the stomach and chest; it
preserves and restores natural heat. It nourishes, dissipates ill temper, and
strengthens and protects the voice,” wrote Massialot, who published
Nouvelle instruction pour les confitures,23 les liqueurs et les fruits in 1692.
In the words of the physician Lémery: “It was the time of the hot chocolate
craze; the Louis XIV’s court loved it, because it aided him with his amorous
intrigues and drove women to be possessed by Venus.”24
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY (THE GOLDEN AGE AND COURT
DINNERS): THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
In 1493, Christopher Columbus introduced sugar cane plants from the
Canary Islands to the island of Hispaniola (present-day Santo Domingo).
This illustrious Genoese was followed by excellent Portuguese navigators.
The quest for spices and gold was not as successful as expected, but sugar
was a different story.
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La Paticierre
CANE SUGAR NO LONGER FROM THE EAST BUT FROM THE
WEST INDIES
The first sugar plantations were established in the French West Indies in
1643. Sugar mills quickly multiplied in Martinique, Guadeloupe, and
Sainte-Domingue (present-day Haiti). Thanks to the trading posts in West
Indies, the price of sugar fell, making it affordable. Policies introduced by
Jean-Baptiste Colbert allowed sugar refineries to flourish in Bordeaux and
Nantes, and in Marseille, Rouen, and La Rochelle, among others. The Age
of the Enlightenment was a period of French domination.
Philippe Sylvestre Dufour, 1688
Sugar became a major part of the economy and of European politics. The
pastry chefs serving in bourgeois homes constantly showcased their skills,
including techniques for caramelizing sugar (caramel), pies in colonnades,
and glazed croquants (see Le cuisinier moderne by Vincent La Chapelle,
1735). This knowledge and skill further fueled a desire to reduce the gap
between the bourgeoisie and nobility.
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Un cavalier et une dame buvant du chocolat (A rider and lady drinking chocolate),
Tables concernant la maison du roi et de la marine, Robert Bonnart (1652-1733),
printmaker, seventeenth century
Importance was given to using unambiguous culinary names, such as “à la
reine,” “à la royale,” “à la sultane,” and “jalousie.” These names were used
in the cookbook “La Cuisinière bourgeoise”, which was written by Menon
and published in 1746. It has been republished many times and would
contribute to the development of pastry in French gastronomic culture. The
expression “nouvelle cuisine” was used (for the first time) as the title of one
of his works. The systematic recourse to spices disappeared completely,
allowing for the use of fats. This “new cuisine” stressed the importance of
local products. In his book Les Dons de Comus (1739), Marin wrote:
“Butter is the soul of pastry.”
Great progress was made when Andreas Sigismund Marggraf, a German
chemist, published his work on the extraction of sugar from beets in 1745.
He was convinced that beets contained “real sugar, perfectly identical” to
that found in sugar cane.
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La Science du maître d’hôtel, confiseur à l’usage des officiers
In 1751, Joseph Gilliers published Le Cannaméliste français. His book
explained refined table settings and decoration, as well as the different ways
of working with sugar (sugar syrup cooked to the hard-crack stage, spun
sugar), making hot beverages, ice creams, and preparing fruit and salads.
© BNF
Le Cannaméliste français
The title is derived from the word cannamelle (cane à miel in modern
French, meaning “cane with honey”), the old name for sugar cane. A
“cannaméliste” was therefore an individual who was concerned with the
aesthetics of the dinner table and worked with sugar.
An ornamental style of pastry developed that respected the principle of
social distinction. Its purpose was to restore the distance between the
nobility and the bourgeoisie. Antonin Carême (1783–1833), known as “the
king of chefs and the chefs of kings,” was a pastry chef by trade who
undertook to study drawing and architecture in order to make pièces
montées (croquembouche/wedding cake),25 monumental decorative
centerpieces that were part of a movement that was both cultural and
political in nature. The different components were assembled using a paper
cone and “royal icing.” These creations were inspired by such things as
temples, ancient fountains, pavilions, rotundas, towers, castles, and mills.
His creations sometimes even showed the ravages of time, in keeping with
the aesthetics of the Romantic movement. His most majestic monuments
came to evoke the conquests and the glory of the French Empire. Such
creations were classified as “architectural pastries.”26
L’Almanach des gourmands, by Grimod de la Reynière
L’Art du cuisinier, by Anton Beauvilliers, 1814
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Antonin Carême declared:
“There are five fine arts, namely painting, sculpture, poetry, music, and
architecture, whose main branch is pastry.” His creations could rarely be
eaten in their original state, so they were accompanied by small individual
pastries, known today as mignardises or petits fours. This skill was put into
practice at events of great importance.27
These feats of culinary and architectural skill were created to be consumed
both indoors and outdoors. Certain liberties were taken with etiquette when
it came to their staging. The display tables and dining tables were in
keeping with the greenery of the French formal garden. There were
descriptions of improvisations and “extraordinary ambiguities”28 with
flourishes of foods wrapped in pastry crusts, croquembouches, croustades,
and vol-au-vents. The popularity of the Russian service until about 1870
consolidated these creations. Consequently, the sequences of hot dishes,
which could not be left too long on the table, meant that only the pastries
would be subjected to highly intricate decoration, because they could keep
for a longer time. Just as architects would test the resistance of materials,
pastry chefs investigated the properties of food to construct works that were
not so ephemeral. This magnificence would lead to the use of molds,
allowing for the large-scale production of pieces that were difficult to make.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
Noble privileges and the guilds29 were abolished by the French Revolution.
Any initiative that allowed people to engage in the trade of their choice
became possible. This freedom would allow different talents to be
manifested. The restaurant as we know it today came into existence.
Russian service grew in popularity alongside French service. The latter was
prevalent at the tables of the new holders of power, the bourgeoisie, or
middle class, who “finally” had access to the lifestyle of the aristocracy.
These new ruling classes encountered a problem of legitimacy. To be
recognized in their role, it was absolutely essential that they should at least
be identifiable, and therefore seen. Nobles and aristocrats had previously
exercised their roles in places of prestige, where they would eat according
to their rank. It suddenly became necessary to have the same culinary
practices and table manners (proof of refinement), but in a “neutral” place.
The goal was to prevent them from being accused of appropriating the
effects of the Revolution for their own gain. At the same time, the cooks
and pastry chefs that served in the houses of the aristocracy would have to
choose their fate. They could either accompany their masters into exile, or
stay and serve the new ruling classes.
The restaurant would take on a threefold role: taking in and allowing these
culinary specialists to demonstrate their talents, to provide the new masters
with visibility in a neutral public place, and to enable the perpetuation of
the table manners to which all individuals aspire. The legitimacy of power
was anchored by the excellence of the expertise shown in the gastronomic
arts. Most of the bourgeoisie had not been raised with a culinary culture.
The gastronomic press responded to the lack of information by publishing
numerous books and guides.
Le Pâtissier pittoresque, by Antonin Carême, 1842
These gourmet experts became the first generation of food writers. Grimod
de la Reynière30 (and his panels of tasters) and Brillat-Savarin31 are the
perfect illustration of this, with haughty opinions that are also amusing. In
regard to weight loss, the latter “is aware that fish is low in calories, and
that starchy and floury foods are high in them. He advises against soup and
beer, but recommends green vegetables, veal, poultry, and chocolate!”32 He
specified chocolat ambré (“ambered” chocolate, in reference to the
ambergris, a concretion formed in the intestines of the sperm whale, which
was used in making pastry). This was subsequently emulated by both pastry
chefs and other cooks.
CONTEMPORARY HISTORY: 1789 TO THE PRESENT

DAY
NINETEENTH CENTURY: THE EMPIRE COMES TO THE TABLE,
GRANDE CUISINE, THE CLASSICAL PERIOD, THE BELLE
ÉPOQUE
DESSERT, GRADUALLY FINDING ITS PLACE
The two major styles of service coexisted until the middle of the nineteenth
century. Grimod de la Reynière gave a description of the grand style of
French service.
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Le Livre du pâtissier, by Jules Gouffé, 1873
In his Almanach des Gourmands, he wrote: “A grand dinner typically
consists of four courses. The first comprises soups, hors d’œuvre (by-
dishes), relevés (removes), and entrées (regular first course dishes); the
second comprises roasts and salads; the third comprises cold pâtés and
entremets (relishing dishes) of all kinds; the fourth, finally, comprises
dessert, and under this name are included raw fruits, compotes, sponge
cakes, macarons, cheeses, all manner of chocolates, and petits fours that it
is customary to include in a meal, preserves, and ice creams.”33
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Le Nouveau Pâtissier-glacier, by Pierre Lacam, 1805
At the time, entremets referred to dishes made up of a wide variety of
components that were eaten between the roast and the dessert. “These
entremets could be made from organ meats, large poultry, game birds, or
meats; there were plenty made from eggs; many were vegetable dishes; cold
meats, pies, etc.”
Foie gras and its derivatives occupied this niche and was served practically
at the end of the meal until the 1950s. In the kitchen brigade devised by
Auguste Escoffier, the “entremetier” would be the chef in charge of cooking
eggs and vegetables for garnishing dishes.
Pharmacists did a lot to further the techniques and technology available to
pastry chefs. Antoine Baumé (1728–1804),34 a pharmacist and chemist,
played a particularly important role in the application of sweet substances
(for example, syrup) through his book Éléments de pharmacie. These
products, developed for the purpose of health, were embraced by cooks and
pastry makers. The chemist Jean-Antoine Chaptal (1756–1832) later
continued this approach. Different forces, particularly of a political nature,
would lead to a succession of technological advances.
BEET SUGAR
Napoleon imposed a continental blockade (1806), preventing the entry of
sugar from the British colonies. It became essential for France to find its
own internal sources of sugar. Research progressed, led by Jean-Antoine
Chaptal and the industrialist Benjamin Delessert (1773–1847). In 1812,
Delessert’s factory produced an intense white beet sugar with the same taste
as cane sugar. Franklin Delessert was rewarded by Napoleon in 1812 for the
“industrial” production of beet sugar.
By 1814, Napoleon’s France was no more. The Congress of Vienna, held
between November 1, 1814, and June 9, 1815, brought together diplomats
from different European nations to sign peace agreements and set out new
borders. French gastronomy played a key role by contributing “a dizzying
array of festivities and banquets.” It took all the talent of the great diplomat
Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord (1754–1838) and Antonin Carême
to preserve the nation.35 As King Louis XVIII (Napoleon’s successor) was
giving him recommendations, Talleyrand explained that he needed “pots
more than written instructions,” adding, “give me good cooks and I will
take care of the rest.” In response, Metternich, Austria’s representative at
the congress, and his pastry chef Franz Sacher created the Sacher torte.
The needs for food products began to change. The invention of margarine
by the chemist and pharmacist Hypolyte Megés-Mouries (1817–1880) was
a response to a need for a good, inexpensive fat that could be used and
preserved in the best conditions. Transportation conditions and research into
the practical use of products gave rise to technological innovations. In 1828,
the Dutchman Konrad Van Houten manufactured the first cocoa powder.
Political developments affected supplies. With the end of the French Empire
(1814), cane sugar reappeared. The abolition of slavery (1817) became an
opportunity for beet sugar to gain in importance.
In this time of change, there was a succession of great chefs who were also
superb technicians and writers of note, including Émile Bernard (1826–
1897), Urbain Dubois (1818–1901),36 and Joseph Favre, who published his
Dictionnaire universel de cuisine in 1902. Jules Gouffe (1807–1877)
published Le livre de pâtisserie in 1873, with superb multicolored
lithographic prints. Pierre Lacam (1836–1902), a particularly inventive
pastry chef, devised a large number of entremets. In 1865, he also published
Le Nouveau pâtissier-glacier français et étranger and worked on improve
pastry-making equipment by inventing the pastry crimper. At the end of his
career, he published Le Mémorial historique et géographique de la
pâtisserie (1900). Émile Darenne and Émile Duval published Traité de
pâtisserie moderne in 1909 with a chapter on “industrial pastry,” which
placed emphasis on using dried egg albumin flakes to replace egg whites
and on alum37 as an acidity regulator and anticaking agent. Pasteur showed
the importance of heat treatment. Other inventions contributed to
technological innovations.
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Mémorial de la pâtisserie, by Pierre Lacam
THE IMPORTANCE OF COLD: CHARLES TELLIER AND
FERDINAND CARRÉ
Pastry chefs had a difficult job: egg whites were beaten by hand,38 sugar
and almonds were crushed in a mortar. The lack of refrigeration posed
problems. To overcome the problem, the products made differed by the
season. Charles Tellier and Ferdinand Carré pioneered refrigeration (1875).
All the innovations of the period (canning, pasteurization, margarine, the
arrival of gas in commercial kitchens, beet sugar, refrigeration, combining
chocolate with sugar and milk to make chocolate bars 39 à croquer) were
the beginnings of the food industry.
In his 1888 book La Cuisine artistique, Urbain Dubois recommended
organizing professional kitchens into four divisions (parties or stations):
cooking division, the rotisserie, the garde-manger or cold food division, and
the pastry division. “It is in the pastry division that these elegant ornamental
pieces are made, using sugar, such as the bases, the pièces montées, the
sultanes, the aigrettes, it is there that the beautiful pieces of substance are
made: large sponge cakes, nougats, croquembouches, the delicate
entremets, and finally, those darling little cakes that everyone loves or
admires.” The French would excel in the pastry industry. Serendipity40
would play its part, as evidenced by the famous tarte Tatin, invented by the
Tatin sisters at La Motte-Beuvron (in the Sologne region) in the late
nineteenth century.
Hôtel Tatin
French excellence would also be evident in the agricultural sector.
Specialists, such as Louis de Vilmorin, would contribute to the production
of sugar beet varieties of increasingly higher quality. The sugar industry
was the focus of all attention, from the production of sugar to the marketing
of sweet delicacies. Cookie makers Pernod, in Dijon, and Lefèvre-Utile
(LU), in Nantes, packaged their Neapolitan wafers in beautiful tin boxes to
sell in Parisian grocery and department stores (Le Bon Marché, Félix
Pontin, etc.), where they were successful. This led to the democratization of
pastry products, which had previously been reserved for a wealthy clientele.
By the end of the century, French service had been replaced by Russian
service. This meant that the pastry shops, fine food stores, and restaurants
would become the places where sweet delicacies were showcased.
TWENTIETH CENTURY

Menu from the Kunschthafe restaurant (Schiltigheim, north of Strasbourg) dated
January 31, 1901. Note the particular position of the foie gras and pudding.
1900–1918: THE BELLE ÉPOQUE AND THE ADVENT OF
CLASSIC FRENCH PASTRY
Codification of French cuisine came about through Auguste Escoffier and
his Guide culinaire (1902). As with other culinary preparations, the
mysteries of culinary designations that had begun in the sixteenth century
applied to desserts. The famous “Peach Melba” was no exception to the
rule. Escoffier wanted to pay tribute to the opera singer Nellie Melba by
naming a dessert after her. Eating riz Condé, a rice pudding created by
François Vatel (1631–1671) in honor of the Prince of Condé, was no trivial
matter for the bourgeoisie. All banality was removed from the rice and in a
way “ennobled” its eaters. A wide range of references were used. Both
fantaisie Léda41 and peach Melba were presented on a swan made of
sculpted ice, a way of incorporating or assimilating ancient Greek myths.
The book Répertoire de la cuisine by Théophile Gringoire and Louis
Saulnier, known simply as the Gringoire & Saulnier, played its part in this
system. It should be noted that entremets in the book come before the
savouries (savory dishes). In practice, however, sweet entremets kept their
name of entremets but were moved to dessert, after the cheeses:
“Everything that is sweet is moved to dessert. Nothing that is savory stays
there.”42
In Paris, the restaurants of the fashionable Champs-Élysées and the Opéra
district, such as Le Fouquet’s, Ledoyen, Le Café de la Paix, Lucas,
Maxim’s, and Lipp…, were assiduously frequented. Desserts were a must,
and it became common to refer to “desserts” in the plural rather than
“dessert” in the singular. Dessert was a time during the meal, whereas hors
d’oeuvre (appetizer), soups, and roasts, etc. referred to several dishes.
Courses were served after removing the dishes from the previous course,
without anything being left on the table. Once the table was bare, the
components of the dessert would then be arranged on it. This “ritual” has
been preserved in the restaurant business, requiring that the table is
“crumbed.”
1918–1945
The war had resulted in a decline in sugar production. More than ever, it
was considered a delicacy, a symbol of well-being and pleasure. The
croissant came into fashion. In 1929, Clarance Birdseye (1886–1956) filed
a patent for his freezer. The first hotel and catering schools were established
in this period. The teaching they offered was adapted to professional
practice. As a result, they were extraordinarily successful.
1945–1968
The postwar period saw a new technological boom. Cold rooms, ice cream
makers, refrigerated prep tables, dough sheeters, and electric ovens, among
other appliances, encouraged creativity.
Freezing had many uses for both professionals and the industry as a whole.
Health and safety regulations led to inventions to facilitate organization and
hygiene, such as the pasteurizer, disposable bags, stainless steel equipment,
and parchment baking paper, among others. The first guide to Good Food
Safety Practices was published in France in 1953.
The CAP Pâtissier-Confiseur-Glacier vocational diploma in pastry,

confectionery, and ice cream was created in 1955 (changed in 1979 with the
addition of chocolate to CAP Pâtissier-Confiseur-Chocolatier-Glacier),
followed since then by other diplomas: technical diploma, professional
baccalaureate, and complementary specialization certificates. Recipe
worksheets, which are more detailed than simple recipes, began to be used
during this time.
Allons chez le boulanger (Let’s go to the baker), by Hansi
1968–1980: “NOUVELLE PÂTISSERIE”
Henri Gault and Christian Millau (creators of the Gault & Millau guide,
founded in 1972) were instrumental in disseminating a new culinary
movement that emerged at this time: “nouvelle cuisine.” Pastry was not
neglected and even became active. The lighter and more creative “nouvelle
pâtisserie” (“new pastry”) would break the rules and revolutionize certain
practices. What stood out was its emphasis on mousses and fruit and its
rejection of desserts that were too sweet or high in fat.
Its success also lay in the indignation it caused. National and international
competitions would also emerge in the wake of this phenomenon. A number
of important chefs, such as Gaston Lenôtre43 and Yves Thuriès, became
involved in the modernization of sweet creations.
Yves Thuriès
The full figure was no longer in fashion and skinniness was idealized.
Michel Guérard (with his cuisine minceur) championed the cause. Desserts
were “plated,” adding to the prevailing individualism. The tasting menu and
its array of desserts were a modern take on the old French service. This was
evidenced in the account of a restaurant given in Maurice Guégan’s 1976
book Le sens du goût est preuve d’esprit: “Two plates are served
simultaneously. The first one, cold, is covered with a raspberry coulis. In
the center are three sorbets—mango, lemon, and black currant—and spread
around in the shape of stars are two prunes in wine, three sections each of
orange and grapefruit, two strawberries, three grapes, mint leaves, and a
few red currants. The second, warm and covered with warm crème anglaise
(custard), features two small pancakes, a tarte fine without a raised border,
and an île flottante (island of meringue floating in vanilla sauce)… With
each bite, you are assailed by a new flavor. Sweet, bitter, sour in succession,
calling to each other, answering each other, and echoing each other. The
meal ends with a pastry explosion.”
Boutique pastry chains, such as Ladurée, Fauchon, and Lenôtre, flourished.
1980–1990
The advent of design
As the fashion for “nouvelle pâtisserie” abated, consumers regained a taste
for old-fashioned and regional desserts. However, because these were often
seen as too sweet and/or too high in fat, professionals conceived them in a
new way. They had to keep their classic ingredients and taste, but in a way
that was more in keeping with the times. The functional properties of the
ingredients (physical and chemical properties) were studied as building
blocks. Designers44 were brought in, and their approach became an
opportunity for pastry to evolve. As a result, classic desserts were
“revisited”: tarts, macarons, éclairs, madeleines, and gingerbreads45 were
given new flavors and shapes. Such an undertaking required knowledge of
the chemical makeup of ingredients. The chemist Hervé This made an
important contribution.
Les motifs décoratifs (Decorative patterns), by Urbain Dubois, 1883
Molecular pastry
Much has been written about the term “molecular gastronomy,” a term
coined by Hervé. It refers to the use of new ingredients and new equipment.
Making pastry suddenly became a part of this movement. It underwent
constant improvement through the use of new ingredients, including
additives, and other technological aids. Those additives were often natural
ingredients that had long been in use, such as gum arabic, tragacanth, and
gelatin. Pastry books for educational purposes used these products in a
variety of ways. This seemed to be a proof, if not of modernism, at least of
seriousness and professionalism of their authors. The need to return to
nature, which accompanied concerns about the use of additives, emerged
during this ten-year period. As for equipment, it continued to be developed
and improve. Fermentation chambers, the siphon, juice extractors, freeze-
dryers, the Pacojet®, the ultracentrifuge, the ultrasonic bath, sous-vide
cooking and low temperature cooking,46 rotary evaporators, silicone molds,
etc. became features of commercial pastry kitchens. However, according to
its inventor, Hervé This, this molecular pastry must give way, in part, to
“note by note” pastry using pure compounds.
© Le Journal du Pâtissier
1990–2000
The trends observed in previous decades were consolidated. According to
Alain Ducasse, they “favored clean lines and simple and refined decoration:
decals, modeling, little calligraphy or piping, verrines, ‘strip’ desserts,
colored and airy creations.” A large number of books appeared containing
many recipes and a wealth of photographs and images. There was never any
uncertainty of their success and their publication has remained constant.
Like the “old” books, they preserve the work of legendary figures and
enable it to be passed on to younger generations.
TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
La très belle et très exquise histoire des gâteaux et des friandises, © Flammarion 2018
Professionals from the industry along with authors from different
backgrounds have become a part of the scene.47 They include scientists:
Modernist Cuisine. The Art and Science of Cooking,48 published in 2011 is
an example. Sociologists and/or historians, includeing Jean-Pierre Poulain,
in particular, and also Claude Fischler, Jean-Pierre Corbeau, Florent
Quellier,49 regularly deal with the subject.
Ma petite pâtisserie, by Christophe Felder and Camille Lesecq, © La Martinière, 2019
A new vocational diploma in pastry, the CAP Pâtissier, was introduced in
France in 2019, reflecting the concern of professionals to keep abreast of
the realities of the field.
TURNING PASTRY CHEFS INTO STARS!

Optical illusion cake, by Luke Vincentini on Instagram®: @lukevincentini
Pastry chefs gradually achieved a status that was previously held almost
exclusively by chefs.50 Without any other consideration, talent alone has
made it possible to achieve gender equality and diversity. Women enjoy a
great presence and are at the forefront of commercial pastry kitchens,
including those found in restaurants, particularly in French luxury hotels
with “palace” status.
Among other uses, 3D printing has made it possible to design molds for innovative
desserts. This one represents the structure of a chocolate mousse.
While the superiority of French cuisine is sometimes questioned, the same
cannot be said for French pastry. Excellence in this field remains French.
Prestigious competitions have taken over from the many television shows
devoted to pastry. Books, blogs, professional and amateur websites, and
social networks confirm this infatuation. French pastry plays a leading role
in the world.
This reputation is partly due to the passing on of skills and passion by the
professionals of the past. Many of those working today do so away from the
limelight, while others receive a great deal of media coverage
(nonexhaustive list): Christophe Adam, Christelle Brua, Pascal Caffet,
Philippe Conticini, Christophe Felder, Cédric Grolet, Amaury Guichon,
Claire Heitzler, Pierre Hermé, Jean-Paul Hévin, Laurent le Daniel, Camille
Lesecq, Christophe Michalak, Thierry Mulhaupt, Nicolas Paciello, François
Perret, Jessica Préalpato, Logan Seibert, Marie Simon, and Sébastien
Vauxion, etc.
May this journey back to the past encourage you to take up the torch and
raise it to the stars.
TECHNICAL INFORMATION:
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
© De Buyer
PROFESSIONAL UNIFORM
The wearing of professional apparel or uniform is dictated not only by
tradition but also by the laws governing the profession of pastry chef. It is
both a reflection of your performance and, more particularly, an essential
measure to ensure good hygiene.
Wearing a light-colored uniform is recommended so that any stains will be
visible at first glance. New uniform designs also ensure a good level of
cleanliness. Compliance with personal hygiene and dress code measures is
the joint responsibility of the employee and the employer.
The basic uniform may consist of the following:
- a head wrap, toque (chef’s hat), or cap (completely covering the hair)
- a jacket
- an absorbant neckerchief (recommended but sometimes no longer used)
- an apron (covering the knees)
- pants
- footwear that is comfortable and fully cover the feet.
JACKET
© Bragard
The jacket must provide effective protection against heat and any splashes
in the chest area.
The sleeves should have cuffs to protect the wrists, and the buttoning
system should allow for quick removal in case of burns.
It must be fitted to prevent the risk of catching in a machine.
PANTS
© Bragard
Pastry chefs traditionally wear blue-and-white houndstooth pants, but
today’s modern materials provide comfort and style.
HEAD COVERINGS
Head coverings are mandatory and are designed to cover the hair, which is a
major source of contamination. They should cover the hair entirely while
ensuring airflow to the scalp. They protect the hair from condensation,
grease, and smoke, as well as odors.
All head coverings must be light, comfortable to wear, adjustable (in
circumference and height), and absorb perspiration well.
© Bragard
NECKERCHIEF
© Bragard
A highly absorbent fabric triangle, its role is to absorb perspiration from the
neck and face.
APRON
A half or waist apron (no bib) that must be folded over at the waist to
protect the user from heat and worn at the appropriate length (below the
knees). It is held in place by two strings tied with a bow that is then covered
to keep it from snagging.
DISH TOWELS
© Bragard
Used only for handling hot utensils and dishes.
Under no circumstances are they to be used to wipe hands or to clean or
wipe down equipment.
FOOTWEAR
© Bragard
Covering the feet completely, footwear will provide greater protection in
case of burns or falling objects.
They must be nonslip, durable and comfortable, light-colored, and kept in
perfect condition.
Some workwear suppliers offer safety shoes.
FOOD-HANDLING GLOVES
For institutional food service and central pastry kitchens, additional
protection must be provided for food preparation.
Gloves should be ambidextrous and form a barrier against bacteria; they
must be microporous to prevent perspiration and, in addition, should be
waterproof, resistant, and flexible, while providing a good grip and tactile
sensitivity.
They must be disposable when using with microbiologically sensitive
foods.
FACE MASK
© Bragard
There are two types of face masks:
- The disposable mask, comprising a polyester microfiber filter coated with
nonwoven fabric, it forms a barrier to all particles that are 0.5 microns in
diameter or greater.
- The cloth mask can be reused a specific number of times. It must be
washed at a minimum temperature of 60 °C/140 °F for 30 minutes.
Regardless of type, the mask must be comfortable, practical, and fit well on
the face.
SMALL EQUIPMENT
KNIVES
© De Buyer
There are as many types of knives (and therefore types of blades) as there
are uses. Consequently, the choice of a suitable knife is essential to
guarantee quality, speed, precision, and safety for the tasks to be performed.
Knives for everyday use can be left to the individual pastry chef. However,
knives for more specific uses are supplied by the enterprise.
© De Buyer
A knife consists of a blade (stainless steel or carbon steel) and a handle
(beech, rosewood, or plastic).
The blade is extended by a part that is inserted into the handle: the tang.
There are two ways to attach the tang:
- Through-tang or hidden tang assembly: the tang is inserted through a
ferrule or guard into a hollow handle filled with cutler’s resin (do not soak
this type in hot water).
- Full-tang assembly: the tang is sandwiched between scales and riveted to
form the handle.
The handle must be long and thick enough to provide the professional with
a safe grip and ensure perfect control of the cut and the path of the blade.
PARING KNIFE
Mainly used for peeling and cutting fruit.
CHEF’S KNIFE
Mainly used for cutting and chopping/dicing.
SERRATED KNIFE
Mainly used for cutting bread, entremets, and cakes.
ROUND AND FLAT HONING STEELS

Used for maintaining the sharpness of a knife blade.
VEGETABLE PEELER
© Adobe Stock
Used exclusively for peeling certain fruits and vegetables.

CHANNEL KNIFE/CITRUS ZESTER
Available in right-hand and left-hand version. Used for decorating citrus
fruits, such as oranges and lemons.
V-CUT GARNISHING KNIFE

Used for decorating certain fruits and vegetables.
OTHER CUTTING UTENSILS
© De Buyer
MANDOLINE
Used for cutting vegetables and fruits in different ways, such as julienne
and paysanne cuts.
PINEAPPLE CORER AND APPLE CORER
Used for removing the central part (core, pericarp, seeds) of pineapples,
apples, and pears.
OTHER PASTRY-MAKING UTENSILS
© De Buyer
STRAIGHT AND OFFSET ICING SPATULAS

Used for mixing, masking, smoothing, and leveling.
© De Buyer
BOWL SCRAPER AND RUBBER SPATULA
© De Buyer
Used for efficient scraping.
© De Buyer
FINE CONICAL SIEVE AND CONICAL SIEVE

© De Buyer
Made of stainless steel. Used for straining (filtering) mixtures creams.
PISTON FUNNEL
© De Buyer
Used for controlling the direction and quantity of flow.

POWDERED SUGAR SHAKER
Used for sprinkling fine powder ingredients.
© De Buyer
LADLES, SKIMMERS, AND WHISKS
Made of stainless steel.
The balloon whisk (tin-plated steel wire, wooden handle) is used to beat egg
whites and sponge batter.
The French or sauce whisk (stainless steel) is used to mix or blend liquid or
unthickened mixtures.
© De Buyer
SPIDER SKIMMER
Used for removing food from a jus, cooking liquid, or deep-frying oil.
PASTRY CRIMPER
Used for customizing pastry.
PASTRY BRUSH
© De Buyer
Used for applying different liquid ingredients: egg yolk, egg wash, jam, etc.
© De Buyer
COOKIE CUTTERS
© De Buyer
Used for cutting out shapes.
PASTRY BAGS AND TIPS
© De Buyer
Also known as piping bags and nozzles, used for piping soft ingredients or
preparations. The shape and size of the tip regulates the flow of the
ingredient or preparation from the bag.
MOLDS/FLEXIBLE SILICONE MOLDS
© De Buyer
• Sheet cake pan

• Entremets frame
• Pastry ring
• Croquembouche cone
• Brioche mousseline and Nanterre brioche molds
• Charlotte mold
• Dariole molds
• Friand and amandine molds
• Bundt pan
• Cake pan
• Genoa bread (pain de Gênes) pan
• Loaf pan
• Petits fours mold
• Savarin mold
© De Buyer
• Tartlet molds
• Fluted sheet for tuiles
• Madeleine pan
© De Buyer
• Baking sheets
• Pie plates and pans
© De Buyer
ROLLING PIN
Used for rolling out dough.
ROLLER DOCKER
© De Buyer
Used for pricking pastry or dough quickly (instead of using a fork).
© De Buyer
PASTRY WHEEL: CUTTING, FRITTERS
Used for cutting out shapes.
MULTIWHEEL PASTRY CUTTER
© De Buyer
Used for efficient cutting.
WHIPPING SIPHON
Used for whipping creams and mousses without the need for whisking by
hand or with a mixer.
MEASURING DEVICES
THERMOMETER (CANDY THERMOMETER)
© De Buyer
Used for measuring the temperature of sugars, syrups, etc.

PROBE THERMOMETER
Used to measure temperature.
SYRUP HYDROMETER (DENSITY METER)
© De Buyer
Used for measuring the quantity of sugar in a solution by measuring its
density.
REFRACTOMETER
© ATC
Used for optical control of sugar concentration.
LARGE EQUIPMENT
Large equipment refers to all the equipment or utensils necessary for the
preparation and cooking of food.
It comprises two types of equipment:
- cookware (stewpans, skillets, sauté pans, etc.)
- the equipment used for preparing and transferring (trays, bowls, bahut
containers, bains-marie, gastronorm containers and trays, guitar cutters,
etc.)
COOKWARE
STEWPAN
© De Buyer
Used for cooking small quantities of food in a liquid.
SUGAR POT (COPPER)
© De Buyer
Utensil used specifically for cooking sugar.

SAUTÉ PAN
Deep skillet or frying pan with straight sides.
FRENCH SKILLET (SAUTEUSE PAN)

Deep skillet or frying pan with sides that flare outward.
RONDEAU PAN
Used for slow and even cooking.
SHORT STOCKPOT
Used for cooking in a liquid.
DEEP-FRYER POT
Used for deep-frying in small batches.
SKILLETS
© De Buyer
These come in different types: crepe pan, blini pan, etc.
EQUIPMENT FOR PREPARING AND TRANSFERRING
FOOD STORAGE TRAY

Used for storing, transporting, or transferring food.
GUITAR CUTTER
Used for precision cutting of chocolates, ganaches, and cakes.

GENERAL-PURPOSE BOWL
Used for transferring, transporting, or setting aside food; it can be used to
wash fruit.
MIXING BOWL
© De Buyer
Hemispherical bowl with a round bottom.
EGG WHITE BEATING BOWL
© De Buyer
A bowl specifically designed for beating egg whites.
BAHUT BOWL
Used for transferring, transporting, or setting aside food in a liquid; it can
be used to wash fruit.
BAIN-MARIE POT (SAUCE WARMER)
© De Buyer
Used for decanting and keeping sauces and liquid mixtures warm. A bain-
marie tray (deep tray with high sides) includes a grate.
GASTRONORM (GN) PANS AND GRATES
© De Buyer
Made of stainless steel, these are modular and stackable containers.
They can be used for transferring, cooling, transporting, reheating, or
cooking food (they can be inserted into servery counters).
Gastronorm refers to the standard interior dimensions of the appliances
used for cooking, storage, refrigeration, handling, etc. These specific
standards have been adopted by the main European appliance
manufacturers.
GN 1/1 (530 × 325 mm/21 × 12½ inches) is the basic format. There are
different sizes based on multiples of this, for example, GN 2/1 (530 × 650
mm/21 × 25½ inches), or fractions.
This standard is gradually replacing the European or Euronorm standard.
© De Buyer
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
PLANETARY MIXER AND DOUGH MIXER
IM25 MORETTI spiral dough mixer with stainless steel bowl © Eberhardt
The planetary mixer is an indispensable part of any commercial pastry

kitchen. This multifunctional appliance is versatile, because it combines
kneading with mixing and beating. With the addition of about ten
accessories (auxiliary equipment) it can be turned into a vegetable cutter,
meat grinder, food processor, food mill, cheese grater, etc. It also functions
as a dough mixer.
Different capacity mixer bowls are raised to the working position by means
of a geared mechanism operated by a lever or handwheel.
As well as the auxiliary equipment, each model can be fitted with a whisk
or dough hook.
The speeds are usually controlled by a variable-speed drive.
For safety, there may be an emergency stop button.
Some units can be fitted with an optional heating system, bowl dolly, and
bowl scraper. Their capacity, in general, can vary between 20 to 100 liters
(20–100 quarts).
VEGETABLE/FRUIT CUTTER
Used for a wide range of cuts: slicing, slivering, mincing, destringing, and
shredding.
RGI/G Varimat Gourmet ROTOR vegetable cutter, 100% stainless steel © Eberhardt
TURBO HOMOGENIZER
An appliance for large-scale production specifically for industrial pastry-

making settings.
IMMERSION BLENDER
Lightweight and practical appliances, also known as a stick blender, with
the advantage of direct use in cookware, reducing the need for handling and
transferring.
The blending speed can be programmed for different uses: beating egg
whites, mixing cake batter, etc.
Bermixer Pro Turbo portable mixer © Electrolux Professional

FOOD SLICER
Used for slicing quickly and evenly: bread for canapés, etc.
© Electrolux Professional
The thickness of the slices can be adjusted. Some machines are equipped
with an efficient and removable automatic blade sharpener and a slice
counter.
This appliance is particularly dangerous. Accidents occur during use and
cleaning of the machine, meaning that certain precautions must always be
taken:
- Always use the food pusher or tamper when slicing
- Stop slicing when the product is no longer thick enough
- Diagonal slicing is not permitted
- When cleaning, unplug the appliance and set the thickness to zero.
BOWL CHOPPER (CUTTER MIXER WITH ROTATING BOWL)
The bowl chopper is an indispensable, high-performance device.
The high rotation speed of the blade makes it possible to quickly knead
different pastries and doughs: plain pastry, shortbread pastry, water dough
for puff pastry, etc.
PROFESSIONAL FOOD PROCESSOR (CUTTER MIXER WITH
FIXED BOWL)
K45 food processor (cutter mixer) with special emulsifier © ElectroluxProfessional

These devices, which are now common, can be used in the same way as
bowl choppers (chopping, kneading, mixing).
Some models are multifunctional and can be fitted with different
accessories: vegetable cutter, lemon squeezer, juicer, etc.
Other models are equipped with a tilting bowl.
ELECTRIC BREAD SLICER
Cuts all types of bread into uniform slices.
Bread slicers must meet health and safety requirements:
- Safety cover over the bread insertion chute
- Safety curtain over outlet
- Blade guard to prevent hands from coming into contact
- Automatic motor cut-off when the hood is opened.
DOUGH SHEETER
© Sinmag Europe—All rights reserved

Used to roll out dough efficiently. It replaces the rolling pin. Dough sheets
are more uniform. Mostly powered by an electric motor, although it can be
hand operated. A dough cutter can be attached.
REFRIGERATED PREP TABLES
SPRING PLUS 803TN AFINOX 600*400 positive cold refrigerated prep

table with marble counter © Eberhardt
PROOFING CABINETS
Used for holding formed doughs overnight, leaving them ready to bake in
the morning at the scheduled time.
PASTEURIZER
© All rights reserved

Used for heating a preparation (such as an ice cream mixture) to a precise
temperature for a specific time for pasteurization.
ALMOND GRINDER

Used for grinding or blending dense raw materials (hazelnuts, almonds) by
adjusting the distance between the rollers.
CHOCOLATE ENROBER
A machine used for applying an even and homogeneous coating of an

ingredient, such as chocolate.
COOKING EQUIPMENT
SIMMER CONTROL
GIORIK Unika 900 6—10KW high performance gas stove © Eberhardt

GENERAL INFORMATION
Simmer control is a system that allows you to set the precise amount of heat
needed to cook delicate preparations and those needing long simmering
times. This system eliminates the “approximate” lowering of the heat from
the burners during simmering operations, replacing it with a firing sequence
suited to each dish with set periods in which the flame is ignited and
switched off, known as a pulsed flame sequence. This system has many
advantages:
- It saves energy, because the burner works intermittently.
- It provides better quality cooking, because the heat spreads evenly over
the bottom of cookware, preventing the appearance of areas that overheat
and stopping food from sticking.
- It reduces the need for constant checking, because even for longer cooking
times the heat is better distributed and the food is less likely to burn.
- It prevents deformation of cooking vessels by preventing areas of
overheating.
- By limiting excess fumes, it makes for a more comfortable environment
with less overheating.
- It makes cleaning of cookware and equipment much easier, because food
sticks less, while the precise setting limits possible boiling over.
POT RECOGNITION SENSOR

A pot recognitions sensor, such as Top Flam, detects that a cooking vessel is
placed over a burner before the flame is lighted.
When the pot is removed, it shuts the burner off, leaving only the pilot on.
Advantages of this system:
- Energy efficiency.
- Increased safety without the risk of burning when a lighted burner is left
uncovered.
- Ease of use.
- Improved working conditions.
The fully mechanical design of the Top Flam system guarantees full
reliability in all operating conditions.
INDUCTION COOKING
D3700-1 TECNOX single-burner induction cooktop © Eberhardt

Induction heating works by the creation of a variable magnetic field when
an electrically conductive body is placed in its proximity, thus inducing
electric currents in the body and causing it to heat up.
The cooking vessel is placed over an induction coil in the cooktop that is
powered by an alternating current source (25–30 kHz). High-frequency
currents are then induced directly into the vessel, generating the energy
required to cook the food.
This type of cooking requires suitable cooking vessels. It is necessary to use
a magnetic material, such as iron, cast iron, mild steel, or special stainless
steel. Aluminum, austenitic stainless steel, and tempered glass cookware
should not be used.
Some cooking vessels in traditional materials also work with this process:
- enameled cookware
- cast-iron cookware.
Induction cook tops react immediately and precisely to the different
settings.
Advantages of this system:
- Significant energy savings.
- Cleanliness, as spatters fall onto a cold surface and are not burned. The
smooth glass-ceramic surface can be cleaned with a sponge.
- Better working environment with less overheating, less steam and fumes.
- Increased safety as the cooking surface is practically cold, minimizing the
risk of burns.
Precautions for use:
- Use only induction-compatible cookware.
- Avoid impacts on the ceramic glass surface.
- Do not wash the cooktop with water and avoid all abrasive products.
- Turn off the power before cleaning.
- People with pacemakers should ensure that their device is not easily
affected by electromagnetic waves generated by cooktop operation.
GLASS-CERAMIC COOKTOP
GIORIK Unika 900 stainless steel stove glass-ceramic cooktops © Eberhardt

It has two radiant heating coils under the glass-ceramic surface that ensure
fast heating.
Glass-ceramic cooktops are easy to clean, because the surface is completely
smooth and waterproof.
FREESTANDING OVENS
GIORIK Steambox H combi oven with Symbiotic System® (boiler + injection)

Steambox 10 GN 1/1 © Eberhardt
GENERAL INFORMATION
There are several types of freestanding ovens:
• Conventional or natural convection ovens
• Forced convection ovens
• Combination forced convection and steam ovens
NATURAL CONVECTION OVENS

Convection occurs naturally as the natural movement of air induced by
differences in temperature and the resulting density of the air. As the lighter
hot air rises, the heavier cold air sinks.
The natural convection occurring in these ovens is so slow that they are
generally referred to as “static ovens.” Food is cooked mostly by radiation,
not convection, heat.
Principle of operation
It is necessary to preheat the oven before use.
Electric heat storage oven
The baking chamber is preheated from the top and bottom. This type of
oven works with the heat accumulated at different levels in the oven. The
heat is essentially stored at night and released during the day, taking
advantage of off-peak electricity.
Forced convection ovens
These are ovens in which the ambient air is moved by one or more high-
power fans that accelerate heat exchange. This system is known as
“dynamic heat transfer.”
There are different types of forced convection ovens:
- Fan-assisted oven
- Fan-forced oven
- Air impingement oven.
Simple forced convection ovens
The air is circulated directly inside the cooking chamber by a fan.
Air impingement ovens
Ambient air in the kitchen is drawn into the oven by a high-power fan and
is heated in contact with heating elements or a burner. It is then guided and
blown through nozzles distributed inside the oven. These nozzles are
directed toward the preparations and are designed so that the heat exchange
is identical in all areas of the oven. Air is again drawn in by the fan,
creating a continuous cycle.
Combination forced convection and steam ovens
These versatile appliances are used for several types of cooking:
- Conventional cooking in a dry atmosphere at temperatures between 50 and
300°C (120–575°F; for gratins, pastries, etc.)
- Wet-heat cooking at 180°C (355°F)
- Steaming up to 130°C (265°F).
GIORIK KORE B H compact combi oven with Symbiotic System® (boiler + injection),
6 levels GN 1/1 © Eberhardt
The programming of these appliances is extremely precise and often

electronic. They are used for:
- Low-temperature cooking
- Defrosting and cooking of frozen and deep-frozen foods
- Sous-vide cooking and cooking of foods packed under controlled
atmosphere
- Reheating of refrigerated, vacuum-sealed or frozen foods.
The advantages of using a forced convection oven compared to a natural
convection oven:
- Wide range of models
- Multipurpose appliances
- Fast heating.
- Energy efficiency
- Less fat burned
- Les fouling
- Less smoke
- Reduces weight loss through superficial dehydration (use of the
humidifier)
- Easy maintenance and cleaning due to removable stainless steel partitions
- Flexible regulation to enable precise power control
- Automatic control of cooking time
- Easy and quick to use
- Reduced occupation of floor space
- Better working conditions for users (forced convection ovens are
generally positioned on stands to enable loading or unloading at a suitable
height).
MICROWAVE OVEN
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
In a microwave oven, electromagnetic waves are produced by one or more
generators known as magnetrons.
Magnetrons convert electrical energy into high-frequency waves of energy.
These microwaves cause intermolecular agitation of up to 2.45 billion
vibrations per second. The resulting friction is able to rapidly increase the
temperature.
Microwaves are not a form of heat; they are a form of energy. The
microwaves are sent from the magnetron through one or more wave guides
to a stirrer fan, which circulates them inside the cooking chamber.
The microwaves are reflected by the metal walls and concentrate on the
food. This is usually placed on a turntable plate.
CHARACTERISTICS
Microwave ovens come in the form of a conventional oven or a tunnel
oven. They must not let electromagnetic radiation leak out. A safety device
stops the emission of microwaves in case of opening.
MICROWAVES AND MATERIALS
ASKO OM84645 microwave oven © Eberhardt

Electrically neutral materials are “transparent” to microwave energy; in
other words, they do not absorb the microwaves and generate heat.
Microwaves pass through air, plastic, paper, cardboard, ceramics,
earthenware, and porcelain. Therefore, the electromagnetic vibrations affect
the contents, not the container.
Microwaves are reflected by metal, and there is therefore no heat
generation. Some new models have magnetrons fitted with ceramic domes
and can accommodate metal containers without any problems, particularly
aluminum trays.
The microwaves are absorbed by food (most notably, foods high in water),
generating heat. The penetration depth of microwaves in foods is limited.
USES
Defrosting
Most microwave ovens have a special button that controls the defrost cycle.
Reheating
This is the main use for microwave ovens.
Reheating times depend on the mass, texture, compactness, and, more
specifically, the water content of the food. Butter, cheese, gelatin, chocolate,
fondant, or neutral glaze, for example, can be softened easily in a
microwave.
Reheating pastry (plain and puff pastry) is not recommended (softening).
Cooking
It is possible to cook in microwave ovens, but this is not their real purpose.
Unlike conventional ovens, they do not brown. However, food can be
browned in the traditional way in a skillet or sauté pan and finished cooking
quickly in a microwave. It is recommended for cooking egg whites.
Recommendations for use
• Keep the inside of the microwave perfectly clean.
• Do introduce food contained in airtight containers (jars, plastic bags) or
eggs in their shells, because they can explode when heated. Vacuum-
sealed bags containing previously cooked food must be perforated or
opened.
• Cover any food that can splatter with plastic wrap (clingfilm) or a
splatter cover.
• Do not operate the oven when empty.
• Take out a service contract.
• Do not make any unauthorized adjustments or repairs.
• Check the door seals frequently for leaks.
• Clean the air filter frequently.
Advantages of a microwave oven

• Fast and immediate use (no preheating).
• Improves working conditions and facilitates service:
- reduces the need to use traditional cooking equipment
- reduces problems of overheating in the kitchen.
• Improves food safety: quick defrosting and reheating. Operations can be
performed when the order is placed.
• Preserves the nutritional quality of food.
• Preserves the original taste, texture, and color of food.
• Reduces clutter.
• Easy to use and accessible to all staff.
DEEP FRYERS
DESCRIPTION
Deep fryers are vats or tanks filled with a bath of hot oil or fat in which
baskets containing the food to be fried are immersed.
HEATING EQUIPMENT
Older models use direct heating.
New models mostly have a cold zone. The oil or fat in the lower part of the
vat is kept at a temperature at least 60°C (140°F) lower than that of the
frying area. This feature lets food particles breaking off the food as it fries
fall (by gravity) into this zone, where the temperature is not high enough to
burn them. The oil or fat in the frying area is not tainted by the residues,
making it usable for longer.
VAT
Characteristics of a good vat:
- Round or parallel-piped-shaped with rounded corners
- Stainless steel
- Completely insulated
- Foam expansion area and a safety overflow
- A convenient and easy-to-reach drain valve.
FRYING BASKET
Certain deep fryers are equipped with an automatic basket lifting system
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
Temperature control is essential on this kind of appliance. A thermostat lets
the user select the most suitable frying temperature.
For greater accuracy, the thermostat settings should be in degrees
Fahrenheit or Celsius instead of numbers.
A second safety thermostat, known as a high-limit thermostat, stops the
operation of the fryer in case the temperature thermostat fails.
A timer is used to set cooking times.
OIL-COLLECTING CONTAINER
It must have a large capacity and be easy to access and clean. It may have
thermally insulated handles and a removable metal filter.
Some deep fryers are equipped with an automatic oil filtration system.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF DEEP FRYERS
GIORIK FE7217M Unika 700 twin-vat deep fryer with melt control © Eberhardt
• Direct-heating deep fryers.
• Deep fryers with cold zone.
• Deep fryers with high-performance cold zone.
• Continuous fryers.
• Pressure fryers.
• Air fryers.
USES
These appliances are used for all types foods cooked by immersion in oil,
such as croquettes, kromeskis, rissoles, fritters, etc.; and certain sweet
pastries, such as doughnuts.
SALAMANDER BROILER
GIORIK HI-Touch ST30 salamander with height adjustable boriler unit, 3 heating
elements © Eberhardt
DRYING OVENS AND HEATED HOLDING CABINETS
© Eberhardt
Drying ovens and heated holding cabinets are not actually cooking
appliances, because they are mainly used for keeping food warm. In pastry-
making settings, drying ovens are used for proofing leavened doughs and
batters (croissants, brioches, savarins, etc), drying meringues and petits
fours, or to hold certain entremets that are served warm.
STORAGE EQUIPMENT
COLD: PRINCIPLES
Cold is produced by removing heat from the air or from a solid body. Cold
is therefore the opposite of heat, it is the absence of heat. There are many
applications for cold in making pastry, from reception and storage to the
preparation and marketing of the pastry products made.
A wide range of equipment is used for artificially producing and
maintaining cold: refrigerated storage cabinets, refrigerated containers, blast
chillers, freezers and deep freezers, refrigerated counters, ice cream makers,
ice cream freezers, pasteurizer/batch freezers, refrigerated prep tables,
refrigerated display cabinets, and gondola shelving units, etc.
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLE OF VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION
Cold is not made, it is the result of heat being extracted by the evaporation
and compression of a refrigerant gas inside a closed circuit.
Liquefied gas from a fuel tank is circulated by a compressor, which is a
pump driven by an electric motor. The gas passes through a filter to remove
moisture before entering the appliance and reaching the thermostatic
expansion valve.
The liquefied gas expands into a gaseous state or vapor as it flows through
the evaporator. As it does so, it absorbs heat (i.e., it works as a heat
exchanger), resulting in the area being cooled.
The cycle is completed when the gas flows back into the compressor. The
compression increases the pressure and produces superheating in the
condenser. The “heat” is released into the ambient air outside the appliance.
The condenser is equipped with coils to increase cooling. This gradual
cooling causes condensation, or liquefaction of the gas. This gas then
returns to the tank and a new cycle of artificial cooling can begin.
Source: Eberhardt Frères/Liebherr documents

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
The use of refrigerant gases has become an issue from the perspective of
environmental protection. Consequently, their use is regulated by the
authorities. The trend is toward the use of “natural” refrigerants that do not
affect the ozone layer, among other things.
As of July 1, 2016, professional refrigerated storage cabinets in France must
bear an energy label (as is the case with refrigerators for domestic use).
Manufacturers will progressively be required to incorporate less “polluting”
gases. From 2022, the Global Warming Potential (GWP) of refrigerant
gases will have to be reduced. Hydrofluoro-carbons (HFCs) are being
phased out. Fluid hydrocarbon (HC) refrigerants, such as R290 (propane)
and R600a (isobutane), and synthetic fluid hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs), such
as R455a, are being used. Regulations are constantly evolving, particularly
because these hydrocarbons are flammable. Because R290 is of high purity,
it is classified as flammable. The European standard EN-378 and the
equivalent American AHRI standard should be consulted. These standards
will evolve over time, particularly in regard to conditions of use for
refrigeration appliances.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF COLD TECHNOLOGIES
Static cold Ventilated (forced-air) cold
Pros
Pros
• Low energy consumption
• Uniform temperature
• Silent operation
• Fast cooling after door opening (and
• Constant humidity
closing)
• Limited cold escaping
• Better operation in the “hot”
when the door is opened
environments of food preparation and
• Areas with different production areas
temperatures
Cons Cons
• Slower fall in temperature • Higher energy consumption
after prolonged door • Noisy operation
opening • Drying out of unprotected food
Household use Professional use
To increase performance, some manufacturers offer even more efficient

formulas, such as fan-assisted and no-frost models.
The climate class of an appliance indicates the ambient temperature ranges
for optimum operation.
The European standard EN 16825 specifies the tests and measurements to
conduct to determine the climate class of the appliance and its energy
rating. Energy consumption is rated by a system of letters from A to G (as
with domestic appliances). A designates the most energy-efficient
appliances and G the highest energy consumption. G-rated appliances have
been banned in France since 2018.
When choosing a refrigeration appliance, the ambient conditions of the
kitchen, such as temperature, humidity level, etc., must be taken into
account. These criteria make it possible to choose the appliance with the
appropriate climate class.
Source: (Translation) Eberhardt Frères/Liebherr documents
Few manufacturers can claim an A rating. However, they are all able to
offer appliances for operating in climate class 5. Climate class 5 appliances
are recommended for use in commercial pastry kitchens wherever possible.
Schema Influence of temperature on microorganisms
Cold slows down biological mechanisms but cannot guarantee a particular
level of food hygiene by itself. Microbial multiplication and/or toxin
formation are always possible.
Temperature requirements for refrigerated foodstuffs
Foodstuffs Storage temperature
Raw milk 0–4°C (32–40°F)
Pasteurized milk 0–6°C (32–43°F)
Sterilized milk and UHT sterilized milk Room temperature
Raw or pasteurized creams 0–6°C (32–43°F)
Sterilized or UHT sterilized creams Room temperature
Yogurts/cream cheese 0–6°C (32–43°F)
Packaged or sliced cheese 0–15°C (32–59°F)
Butter and other fats 0–6°C (32–43°F)
Unrefrigerated eggs in their shells Room temperature
Refrigerated eggs in their shells 0–8°C (32–46°F)
Tips:
• Store different types of products in separate compartments and at the most
suitable temperature.
• Store particularly strong-smelling food separately from others.
• Remove all products from their packaging: crates, boxes, cartons, etc.
• Arrange food without crowding on shelves that are kept clean.
• Do not obstruct the natural circulation of cold air.
• Do not store goods on the floor.
• Do not introduce hot food.
• Observe the “first in–first out” rule of stock rotation.
• Regularly check that the appliance is in good working order: free of frost
(if not automatic), door seals, alarm, thermometer display and/or
temperature monitor, emergency door-release button, etc.
PRINCIPLE OF FREEZING AND DEEP FREEZING
Food is said to be frozen when a large proportion of the water it contains is
in the form of ice. This definition applies to both freezing and deep
freezing. Freezing consists of lowering the temperature of the product, all
parts and internally, below its initial freezing point to a temperature of
between -10°C and -20°C (14°F and -4°F). This state must be maintained
until the product is used.
Deep freezing is linked to the technological process of freezing combined
with three main criteria:
- Rapid lowering of the temperature to preserve the cellular structure of the
foodstuff. This guarantees a good organoleptic properties when the food is
thawed.
- Food products must be very fresh.
- Storage at -18°C (-0.4°F) inhibits the development of most
microorganisms, including molds.
Frozen Recommended minimum Maximum shelf life

products temperatures for users
Whole eggs 4–6 months
Separated egg
8–10 months
whites -18°C (-0.4°F)
Separated egg
2–4 months
yolks
Industrial frozen and deep-frozen foodstuffs

These must be stored at the temperature indicated on the packaging.
Freezing and deep freezing on the premises
Cooling, freezing, and deep freezing requires the use of efficient,
professional equipment. The first criterion is the ability to lower
temperature of the food, followed by the ability to maintain the temperature
until the moment of its use and/or consumption.
Cooling
• Cooling capacity of 20–100 kg/h (45–220 lb
Mechanical (blast)
per hour).
chiller
• Using electricity.
• Cooling capacity of 50–200 kg/h (110–440 lb

Cryogenic chiller per hour).
• Mainly using nitrogen or carbon dioxide.
Freezing
Mechanical (blast) freezer Capacity to freeze 20–100 kg (45–220 lb)
Cryogenic freezer Capacity to freeze 20–100 kg (45–220 lb)
Storage
A mechanical refrigeration/freezing system is generally used. There are
different types of appliances that operate at positive temperature (above
0°C/32°F) for refrigerated foods, and at negative temperature (below
0°C/32°F) for frozen or deep-frozen foods.
DIFFERENT EQUIPMENT
REFRIGERATORS AND FREEZERS
Refrigerator and freezer units can be horizontal or vertical and in the form
of cold storage cabinets and refrigerators. Equipped with shelves,
compartments, drawers. Differing capacity.
LIEBHERR BGPV 6570 600*400 ventilated bakery freezer, stainless steel inner ©
Eberhardt
STORAGE FREEZERS
Liebherr GTL 3005 professional chest freezer © Eberhardt
STORAGE DEEP FREEZERS
BLAST CHILLERS
2-in-1 appliance (blast chiller to -40°C [-40°F] and steam oven to 100°C
[212°F] One Hundred AFINOX © Eberhardt
CONCLUSION
When it comes to refrigerating, freezing [and thawing], deep freezing [and
thawing], storing, and transporting, the choice must be made according to
several criteria:
- Expected use.
- Capacity and performance requirements.
- Cold technology, which depends on the needs [permanent or temporary]
for volumes to be processed, energy availability, geographical location,
etc.
- Energy rating, climate class, etc.
- Available kitchen space.
- The investment required when the above factors are taken into account.
Operating and maintenance costs must not be overlooked.
SETTING UP AND LAYING OUT
SPACES
The layout of a commercial pastry kitchen will not be the same as for a
boutique pastry shop, a catering company, or a restaurant.
A number of rules based on common sense are needed, based on
ergonomic, organizational, and food safety requirements. It is a question of
doing things correctly, with good conditions for the people involved and in
compliance with food safety regulations.
INTRODUCTION
A well designed and laid out commercial pastry kitchen must:
• Align with the brand image of the business
• Scrupulously comply with the three essential rules:
- Well-defined work areas or zones
- Shortest possible distances
- Forward flow
• Allocate surfaces and spaces in accordance with the size and nature of the
establishment
• Incorporate quality materials that comply with current laws
• Be on one level whenever possible
• Allow for the conditions of operation, control, and management to be
improved
• Have a good orientation and lighting
• Have efficient and quiet ventilation
• Enable large (fixed) equipment to be installed in a logical and rational
manner
• Enable working conditions to be improved (by limiting travel,
rationalizing actions, and reducing physical efforts).
DIFFERENT WORK SPACES/ZONES/AREAS
There are four main spaces to take into account:
1- Spaces for use by employees:
- Locker rooms
- Restrooms
- Dining room (lounge).
2- Spaces or areas suitable for receiving, checking, unpacking, storing, and
preliminary preparation of products:
- Loading dock, inspection point
- Receiving and unpacking area
- Pantry, cleaning product storage
- Cold rooms (walk-in coolers and freezers) by type of product.
3- Spaces suitable for processing foodstuffs:
- Pastry kitchen
- Ice cream room.
4- Spaces suitable for the storage, maintenance, and cleaning of the kitchen
and its equipment; space suitable for the cleaning and disinfection of
garbage cans and cleaning equipment.
FORWARD FLOW PRINCIPLE

This basic principle is based on preventing the crossing of products that do
not have the same degree of cleanliness. Packaging and its disposal follows
a specific route. Raw and finished products cannot share the same space.
Particular attention is paid to particularly susceptible products so that they
are not contaminated by other ingredients.
USE OF SPACES
The commercial pastry kitchen and its ancillary spaces must be used for
only their primary purpose. Moreover, situations that could lead to the
contamination of the kitchen or food products must be avoided (presence of
animals, insects, plants, or harmful products).
Precautions:
• Never store cleaning and hazardous products (bleach, degreaser, denatured
alcohol, etc.) with food products. They must be stored in a specific
cupboard under lock and key.
• People who are unauthorized or unsuitably dressed must not be allowed
into any food-preparation areas.
• Systematically check for insects and rodents.
TEMPERATURE
The temperature of the kitchen should be kept at between 12°C and 15°C
(54–59°F).
SOURCES OF EXTERNAL CONTAMINATION

Raw products are considered dirty. They must be prepared in a separate
room or an area sufficiently distant from clean products to prevent any risk
of contamination.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE PREMISES

The reglementery criteria used are: hygiene, safety, and durability.
Flooring materials must be:
- Nonslip
- Waterproof and rotproof
- Nonporous
- Resistant to mechanical impact and thermal shock
- Nonflammable
- Resistant to loads, cart traffic, and wear
- Easy to clean, disinfect, and maintain.
The materials on walls must be:
- Waterproof, rotproof, and nonflammable
- Resistant to mechanical impact and thermal shock
- Perfectly smooth and resistant to the aggressive chemical action of
detergents and disinfectants
- Easy to clean and disinfect.
Junctions between walls and floors and between walls must be covered.
A cleaning schedule (daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly) must be posted.
Cleaning and disinfection procedures and checklists should be created.
These documents can be consulted, for example, by the veterinary services
of the local food safety authority.
The thorough cleaning of floors reduces the risk of slipping and the
contamination of equipment and food. Dry sweeping and the use of sawdust
should be avoided, because they produce airborne particles that can settle
on work surfaces, utensils, etc. and contaminate food.
AERATION AND VENTILATION

Commercial pastry kitchen and their ancillary spaces must be laid out in
such a way as to ensure adequate aeration, ventilation, and air filtration, and
to ensure that the odors, smoke, fumes, or steam from cooking are
effectively extracted and rapidly eliminated from all preparation and storage
areas so they do not alter foodstuffs.
LIGHTING
Spaces must be provided with sufficient natural or artificial lighting without
significantly altering the perception of color.
WATER SUPPLY
Spaces must be supplied with only potable water, hot and cold, with
sufficient pressure.
If necessary, cold water pipes should be insulated to prevent steam
condensation.
Spaces must not be crossed by wastewater or stormwater drainage pipes, or
pipes leading to cesspools.
WASTE MANAGEMENT ROOM

This room must be large enough to store various waste containers. Ideally, it
should be kept cool, and access to it should not encroach on the clean flow
of products.
RESTROOMS
© Adobe Stock
The establishment must have adequate restrooms for the staff (handwashing
sinks, locker rooms, flush toilets, not directly accessed from production
areas).
The sinks must have hands-free faucet operation, hot and cold water supply,
and it must be equipped with a nail brush and automatic dispensers for
cleaning and disinfecting hands. Hand dryers or single-use towels must be
placed next to the sinks.
Do not use kitchen towels.
STANDARDS AND ERGONOMICS
• Minimum ceiling height: 2.5 m (8¼ feet).
• Minimum height of tiled wall surfaces in splash zones above floor: 1.8–2
m (6–6½ feet).
• Standing height for work tables: 85–90 cm (33½—35½ inches).
• Work table depth: 60–70 cm (23½—27½ inches)—any deeper will require
stretching.
• Sink depth: 45 cm (17½ inches) maximum—any deeper will require
stooping.
• Width between the tables and the stove: 1.2 m (4 feet) minimum.
• Cart clearance width: cart width 25 cm (9¾ inches) on each side.
• Work surface per person: 1.2 m2 (13 square feet).
• Exhaust hood height above floor: 1.9 m (6¼ feet).
• Exhaust hood overhang 20 cm (8 inches).
DESCRIPTION OF A COMMERCIAL PASTRY KITCHEN
THE PASTRY KITCHEN EXPLAINED
Source: La Rpf Cuisine Pro #3, October 2014,

www.lacuisinepro.fr
THE PASTRY KITCHEN EXPLAINED
1 COLD ROOMS FOR SEMIFINISHED AND FINISHED
PRODUCTS
In commercial pastry-making settings, cold rooms (CR) for storage must be
correctly sized according to the volumes produced and the processes used.
A catering kitchen usually requires the walk-in freezer (CR-) to be two to
three times larger than the walk-in cooler (CR+). Lionel Lallement offers
advice for the catering kitchen: Design the walk-in freezer as a continuation
of the walk-in cooler to serve as an airlock before final storage of the
products.
Note: This setup requires no obstructions in the walk-in cooler to enable a
smooth flow of carts.
2 DEEP FREEZERS
These are freezer cabinets that regulate temperature in addition to humidity,
preventing products made from cooked sugar or chocolate from becoming
fragile. The advantage of this appliance is that it allows for products to be
cooled, frozen, and stored.
3 ICE CREAM ROOM
This is an air-conditioned room. It contains a work station with cold
storage, a water supply point, and the ice cream maker. Depending on the
production volume, the capacity of the ice cream maker will vary. A 5-quart
(5-liter) ice cream maker is often enough to make ice cream timbales
(caterers/banquets) or quenelles to complete the plating process. Fine-
dining restaurants often use a Pacojet®, a device capable of producing ice
cream instantaneously.
4 MARBLE COUNTERTOP-WATER SUPPLY POINT-
WAREWASHING MACHINE
A marble or granite worktop is recommended, because the properties of
these types of stones allow for them to stay cold and food does not stick to
them. Having a cold surface is useful for working with chocolate or making
nougatine, although with the arrival of Silpat® mats and similar,
refrigerated stainless steel surfaces are also suitable. As in all kitchens, a
water supply point, a hand sink, and a utility sink are required.
5 COUNTERTOP FOOD PROCESSOR
This is an essential complement to large capacity planetary mixers. Because
it is portable, it offers pastry chefs greater versatility and is suitable for both
heavy and light mixtures.
6 PORTABLE INDUCTION COOKTOP
Like the countertop food processor, a small, portable induction cooktop
offers pastry chefs greater flexibility. It complements the commercial
kitchen equipment and enables making last-minute preparations, because of
its almost immediate heating. Its magnetic field heats cookware without a
flame or burning surface. It is the only heat source with 95 percent energy
efficiency, with an ultrafast heating, precision temperature control, and heat
settings to within half a degree Celsius, about one degree in Fahrenheit.
7 PLATING STATION/REFRIGERATED PASTRY PREP TABLE
Their length depends on the type and volume of pastry products made in the
kitchen. If a lot of individual pieces are prepared, it is useful to add mobile
stainless steel work tables with casters to increase the plating area.
8 GAS BURNERS OR INDUCTION COOKTOP
Depending on the pastry chef’s normal practice, there will be gas stove or
induction cooktops in a pastry kitchen.
9 BUILT-IN OR MOBILE STEAM TABLES
Steam tables play an important part in making pastry. When set up as a
bain-marie, a large number of preparations can be available to use at all
times, including fondant, frostings, glazes, and gelatin. Steam tables can be
built-in or be equipped with casters to make plating easy.
10 11 DOUGH MIXER AND PLANETARY MIXER: BEATING,
KNEADING, MIXING
Dough can be kneaded using either a dough mixer (7–40-liter/7–40-quart
capacity) or a planetary mixer (usually 5–20 liters/5–20 quarts). There are
three types of dough mixers: oblique-shaft, spiral, and diving arm. The
paddle beater and/or dough hook are used for making firm and elastic
doughs (bread or brioches), cakes, etc. as well as to prepare creams, sponge
cakes, sweet pastry, etc. The whisk is used for beating egg whites to stiff
peaks, for making creams, meringues, etc. It is recommended that these
appliances are set up together in a specific space along with a sifter and
dough sheeter, according to needs. Equip the mixer with a flour dust hood.
12 DECK OVEN AND CONVECTION OVEN
Most ovens used in pastry-making kitchens are electric to offer more
flexibility. A deck oven is used to bake tarts, flans, and sponge cakes, with
the advantage that the products do not dry out when they are later
transported by refrigerated truck. It takes longer to heat up than a
convection oven, which should be reserved for pastries and laminated
dough products for crispy results. A deck oven can have levels of heat
accumulation, making it possible to organize the production (for example,
brioches, followed by sponge cakes and then meringues). A convection
oven can be equipped with a drying oven function.
13 PROOFING CABINET/DRYING OVEN
These appliances are used for making pastries. The quality of a proofing
cabinet depends on its ability to regulate temperature and humidity.
14 CHOCOLATE TEMPERING MACHINE
This appliance is designed to melt or keep chocolate at a set temperature.
Depending on the customary practices of each pastry chef, the appliance
can be installed in either the cold food or hot food preparation area.
15 CONFECTIONERY DEPOSITOR
This appliance is used in commercial pastry kitchens that produce large
volumes and do not always have skilled staff. It can automatically shape
different products with impressive yields per hour, freeing staff from having
to perform repetitive tasks.
© Adobe Stock
FOOD SAFETY: GOOD PRACTICE,
HACCP, ALLERGENS, AND FOOD
SAFETY PLAN
REGULATIONS
EUROPEAN UNION REGULATIONS AND FRENCH LAW
European Union regulations are binding in France. Nevertheless, each
member state is free to legislate to ensure their proper application.
The French Ministerial Decree of December 21, 2009, was issued in this
respect. Industry guidelines have been drawn up by professionals and the
government.
A guide to good food safety practices and the application of the HACCP
system is being studied. There are plans to standardize the guide at the
European level.
THE GUIDES TO GOOD HYGIENE PRACTICES (GBPH)
The guides to good hygiene practices currently in force in the pastry-
making industry in France are:
- “GBPH pâtisserie,” 2nd edition published in November 1999, produced
by the French National Confederation of Baking and Pastry
- “GBPH spécifique aux GMS (large and medium retail establishments)
pâtisserie et viennoiserie,” 1st edition published in May, 2002, produced
by the French Trade and Retail Federation (FCD)
ORIGIN
Produced by the French National Confederation of Baking and Pastry (27
rue d’Eylau—75782 Paris Cedex 16) and the National Confederation of
Artisan Pastry Chefs, Confectioners, Chocolatiers, Ice Cream Makers, and
Caterers of France (31 rue Marius Aufan - 92309 Levallois-Perret), the
Guide de bonnes pratiques d’hygiène en pâtisserie (Guide to Good Hygiene
Practices in Pastry) helps professionals to meet current regulatory
requirements (most recent is No. 5902 dated November 1999, 2015
edition). It presents simple methods, drawn from professional practice and
adapted to small business. It is not intended to revolutionize production
methods, but to help bakers and pastry makers as they work to always take
into account the basic hygiene rules to meet their customers expectations of
safe and quality products. This guide is the result of a collaboration between
the two national confederations. It has enabled constructive and trusting
relationships to be built up with the supervisory authorities. It is published
by the publishers of Les Nouvelles de la Boulangerie-Pâtisserie periodical.
The guide is divided into several parts:
- “Good Production Practices” worksheets: Crème anglaise (custard),
buttercream, etc.
- “Operations” worksheets: Reception, storage, etc.
- “Work environment” worksheets: Work surface, utensils, water, etc.
- “Raw materials” worksheets: Flour, shell eggs.
Some points are particularly interesting, such as recommendations on the
maturation of crème anglaise (custard), its cooking process, and the concept
of pasteurization value (PV).
OBJECTIVES
The guides aim to help professionals control food safety and comply with
their regulatory obligations, particularly under the European Union
Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004.
Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004 of April 29, 2004, on the hygiene of
foodstuffs came into force on January 1, 2006, encouraging the creation of
GBPHs and the application of the principles of Hazard Analysis
Critical Control Points (HACCP).
These guides are particularly useful for SMEs, because they let
professionals share the first steps of the HACCP approach by developing
precise control elements that are specific to the food sector to which they
belong and adapted to their company structure.
The validated and integral version of a GBPH is also of interest as a
reference document to be taken into consideration during official controls of
professionals in the food chain, as referred to in Article 10 of the European
Union Regulation (EC) No. 882/2004. While a nonvalidated guide or an
abridged professional version may be of interest to the professional sector,
it will not be recognized by the authorities as meeting the regulatory
requirements.
TOWARD EUROPEAN GUIDES TO GOOD PRACTICE
The use of guides is voluntary, as is the application of certain ISO
standards.
Series:
- ISO 9000 Quality management
- ISO 14000 Environmental management systems
- ISO 22000 Food safety management
- ISO 26000 Social responsibility.
Pastry chefs who do not want to follow the GBPH to the letter must
perform their own risk analysis. They must demonstrate that their approach
complies with both the methods and results required by the health
authorities. They may also refer to an ISO standard. These standards
include the HACCP system where food safety and hygiene are concerned.
IN CONCLUSION
Older guides (those in force for the pastry industry) do not offer the same
guarantees as more recent guides, particularly in regard to regulatory
changes. These guides often stop at good hygiene practices without
addressing the application of HACCP. Professionals in this situation will
have to go beyond the guide, particularly in relation to hazard analysis and
HACCP plan, where good practices do not control all hazards.
GOOD TO KNOW: HAZARDS AND RISKS
PHYSICAL, MICROBIOLOGICAL, AND CHEMICAL HAZARDS
These hazards are mentioned in the GBPH. Professional periodicals help to
inform practitioners. Hazards, like the perception of risk, are constantly
evolving, which is why a list is not provided here.
A list of hazards is a valuable aid for drafting the Risk Assessment Sheet
(DUER) which is part of the Food Safety Control Plan.
The DUER is a mandatory document in France. For employers, it meets the
health and safety obligation toward employees, regardless of their number.
It deals with occupational risks that must be reassessed at least once a year
and whenever an unforeseen event affects the normal operation of the
company. For example, a new plan for the flow of goods and/or individuals,
a modified cleaning plan, the introduction of barrier measures, such as the
wearing of masks and/or gloves, etc. This assessment leads to the design
and implementation of specific preventive measures suited to each work
unit. It is advisable to involve occupational medicine and employees and
their representatives in this process. Employers are obligated to inform their
staff, as well as to also train them and to be able to provide proof of this to
the French Labor Inspectorate.
Find out more about the DUER
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
THE HACCP SYSTEM: DEFINITION
The systematic approach taken by the HACCP method identifies and
assesses the hazards and risks associated with the production, distribution,
and use of food, and establishes the means required in order to control
them.
7 principles and 12 steps
7 principles:
- Conduct a hazard analysis.
- Determine the critical control points (CCPs).
- Establish critical limits.
- Establish monitoring procedures.
- Establish corrective actions to be taken when monitoring reveals that a
CCP is not under control.
- Establish verification procedures to confirm that the HACCP system is
working effectively.
- Establish record-keeping and documentation procedures concerning these
principles and their application.
12 steps for the application of the 7 principles:
Be aware that the HACCP system is not a standard. It is a tool for food
safety. It is a reference, particularly for the creation of the GBPHs.
The implementation of the HACCP system entails some constraints. The
concept of flexibility has been adopted by lawmakers to take the reality of
operating a small business into consideration. This has led to the concept of
“simplified HACCP procedures.” The aim of this approach is to allow for
the implementation of control measures adapted to the nature and size of
the establishment. The text specifies: “In particular, it should be recognized
that, in certain food businesses, it is not possible to identify critical control
points and that, in some cases, good hygiene practice may replace
monitoring of critical control points.”
The application of HACCP-based procedures is therefore limited to the first
principle, namely hazard analysis based on the concept of risk.
THE FOOD SAFETY PLAN (PMS)
When it comes to food safety and hygiene, the regulations offer three
alternatives:
- Application of the HACCP system
- Implementation of the GBHP (it should be noted that the GBPH was
created by applying the HACCP approach),
- Implementation of the GBPH, enhanced by the HACCP method.
In all cases, the regulations require the implementation of a set of
documents. These are grouped together in a file called the Food Safety Plan
(PMS).
This plan should be based on:
- The GBPH
- The HACCP system
These documents help pastry makers to think about their organization:
forward flow principle, organization of the work day, etc.
The PMS includes documents to be completed and updated:
- Goods reception and storage: Stock rotation.
- Traceability: Monitoring of raw material purchases and organization of
production by batches.
- Temperature logs: Monitoring the temperatures of the different storage
facilities.
- Procedures for cooling, freezing, thawing, and reheating.
- Cleaning plan for the different spaces and equipment.
- Pest control plan.
- Water quality.
- Maintenance logs for different equipment.
- Health monitoring for employees.
- All documents pertaining to the control and monitoring of the application
of measures and recording their effectiveness (following HACCP work).
- Crisis management in the event of major incidents.
MICROBIOLOGICAL TESTING
Good hygiene practices are validated by microbiological testing.
Applicable microbiological criteria are defined in the European Union
Regulation (EC) No. 2073/2005 by food category.
PRODUCTS TO BE TESTED
• Finished products. Preferential testing of food containing sensitive
ingredients and/or products that require extensive handling.
• Intermediate products. Testing makes it possible to validate the safety of
basic preparations when selected in a pertinent way.
• Raw materials at reception if there are major doubts.
THE TESTS TO BE PERFORMED
There are two criteria:
• Food safety criteria. These are defined by the regulations. In case of
noncompliance: recall, withdraw, destroy. Noncompliance may jeopardize
the safety of consumers. These criteria must be fulfilled throughout the
shelf life of the products.
• Process hygiene criteria. Tests are defined by the professional
organizations. They provide information on general process hygiene. They
are not mandatory and are performed on a voluntary basis. These criteria
must be met throughout all stages of production to the point of sale.
IMPORTANCE OF TESTING
Bacteriological testing is a good way of evidencing the conformity of
products as well as the control over the production process.
The aim is to ensure that production does not impact the health of
consumers in any way. Risk analysis ihelps to justify the relevance of the
microbiological criteria selected, the ingredients to be tested, and their
periodicity. As preventive measures, good hygiene practices also include
the fight against viruses.
ALLERGENS
As of July 1, 2015, it has been mandatory in France for food service
businesses, and pastry makers by extension, to inform of the presence of 14
allergens in the products they sell. Pastry makers should also be aware of
other potential allergens.
In any case, the display of this allergen information does not prevent pastry
makers from informing consumers. It may even be part of a commercial
strategy.
LIST OF MANDATORY DECLARABLE ALLERGENS
Allergens Exclusions
Wheat-based glucose syrups,

including dextrose. Wheat-based
maltodextrins. Barley-based
Cereals containing gluten (wheat,
glucose syrups.
rye, barley, oats, spelt, kamut, or
Cereals used for the production
their hybridized strains) and
of distillates or ethanol of
products thereof.
agricultural origin for liquor-
based drinks and other alcoholic
beverages.
Crustaceans and crustacean

products.
Eggs and egg products.
Fish gelatin used as a carrier for

vitamin or carotenoid
Fish and fish products.
preparations and Isinglass used as
fining agents in beer and wine.
Peanut and peanut products
Completely refined soybean oil

and fat.
Natural mixed tocopherols.
Vegetable oil-derived
Soy and soy products. phytosterols and phytosterol
esters from soybean sources.
Plant stanol ester produced from
vegetable oil sterols from
soybean sources.
Whey used for making distillates

or ethanol of agricultural origin
Milk and milk-based products
for liquor-based drinks and other
(including lactose).
alcoholic beverages.
Lactitol.
Nuts (almonds, hazelnuts, walnuts,

Nuts used for making distillates
cashew nuts, pecans, Brazil nuts,
or ethanol of agricultural origin
pistachios, macadamia nuts, and
for liquor-based drinks and other
Queensland nuts) and products
alcoholic beverages.
thereof.
Celery and celery products.
Mustard and mustard products.
Sesame seeds and sesame seed

products.
Sulfur dioxide and sulfites in

concentrations greater than 10
mg/kg or 10 mg/l (expressed as
SO2).
Lupin and lupin products.
Mollusks and mollusks products.
Source: DGCCRDF
CUSTOMER INFORMATION
The customer must be informed in writing of the presence of allergens.
For prepackaged products (EU Regulation No. 1169/2011), the presence of
allergens must be indicated in the list of ingredients on the packaging and
highlighted (bold, highlighted, etc.).
In regard to nonprepackaged products, French Decree No. 2015-447 of
April 17, 2015, specifies that consumers must be warned in writing of the
presence of allergens. The display must be in close proximity to the product
concerned, so that no doubt is created for the consumer.
INCIDENTAL PRESENCE OF ALLERGENS
It is possible that nonallergenic preparations have been in contact with
foods containing allergenic substances. It is then necessary to reduce these
risks of contamination. In addition, an entry, such as “may contain traces
of… ‘the allergen’” can be added to the mandatory table of 14 displayable
allergens.
© Adobe Stock
OPERATING PROCEDURES
RECEPTION OF SUPPLIES
The person in charge must:
1
Check vehicle cleanliness (equipment, pallets, etc.)
Check delivery schedule
Check weight (according to delivery note)
2
Check internal temperature of products with a probe thermometer
(maximum allowable deviation:±3°C/5.4°F)
Check labels (UBD, BBD), state of packaging, boxes, etc.
3
Record the information below on a document designed for this purpose:
• Supplier
• Delivery date
• Delivery time
• Product name
• Temp. of products
• Notes
• Signature of the person responsible
Follow the cleaning plan
UNPACKING
1
Wear appropriate clothing (jacket or smock)
Unpack in the unpacking area according to the schedule
Check UBD and BBD

2
Proceed to unpack by order of priority (keep a label* from the opened
boxes in order to maintain traceability of the products until they are
completely used)
Place fresh food in suitable containers (plastic/metal containers, trays, etc.)

3
Remove all packaging and any object that could create a hazard

*There are more modern systems, such as scanning.
STORAGE OF GOODS
1
Check the temperature of the cold rooms (daily)
Record the information below on a document designed for this purpose:

• Cold room temperature
• Signature of the manager
2
Unpack and store in order of priority (fresh products first)
Make sure to apply stock rotation (first in, first out)
Check UBD and BBD

3
Remove all packaging and any object that could create a hazard

PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS
Trainees must:
1
Check the cleanliness of the work area (perform surface disinfection)
Set up the work station (plastic/metal containers, trays, etc.)
Move food into the work area (on a cart or tray rack, etc.)
2
Drain the canned products first (wipe the top of the cans and drain them
immediately after opening, being careful to push the lids inside)
Proceed with peeling, paying attention to
Unpeeled vegetables/fruits
Peelings and wastes
Peeled vegetables/fruits
3
Wash, spin-dry, etc.
Store food in the appropriate containers
Take the clean products to the specific areas (cold preparations, kitchen, ice
cream room)

COLD AND PASTRY PREPARATIONS
Trainees must:
1
Set up the workstation (plastic/metal containers, trays, etc.)
Prepare the material for plating (dishes, plates, etc.)

2
Check quantity and availability of products
Assemble the ingredients:
• Products
• Batters, mixtures
• Cream, choux pastry
• etc.
Observing the work methodology (disposable gloves, skimmer, etc.)

3
Plate on the designated dish (individual or assembly-line work)
Proceed to decorate
Set aside the preparations on racks or trays and store the finished products
in the walk-in cooler (covered in plastic wrap/clingfilm if possible)

BLAST CHILLING
1
Check the cleanliness of the appliance (disinfection proceed)
Turn on the appliance and introduce the food into the appliance
Check the temperature and record it on the temperature log on the appliance
2
Lock the door and indicate the cooling time
Arrange for labeling (computerized or manual)
Arrange for space in the walk-in cooler
At the end of the cycle, check and record the internal temperature
3
Take the ingredients out of the appliance
Attach labels with the mandatory information
Store in walk-in cooler

COOKING
Trainees must:
1
Set up the work station (pastry board, setup box, etc.)
Organize cooking equipment (baking sheet, skillet, oven, etc.)

2
Check quantity and availability of products
Proceed to:
• Lining
• Shaping
• Observing the method (in order of priority)
Cook in:
• Oven
• Combi oven, etc.
3
Check time/temperature
Proceed with cleaning between stages of work

CLEANING PROCEDURE
Trainees must:
1
Clear work stations (board, etc.)
Store all products covered in plastic wrap (clingfilm) and labeled in the
refrigerator
Organize cleaning equipment (bucket with cleaning products, mop, scraper)
Switch on the steam cleaner

2
Proceed with the washing
Start with the tops of furniture, tables, stoves, etc. (scrub, rinse, scrape,
wipe)
For floors, etc., disperse the cleaning product with a hose, brush, and leave
for 5 minutes
Proceed to rinse
Pass the squeegee

3
Clean door handles, switches, etc. according to the procedure
Store mixer and cutter bowls in a cool place
Check ovens, etc.

Clean refrigerators, refrigerated tables, cooling cells, etc.
Record on the cleaning log

TECFRIGO Marylin 450 GBT upright refrigerated display case © Eberhardt
PRESERVATION AND PRODUCTION
TECHNIQUES
PRESERVATION METHODS
The aim of preservation methods is to keep perishable foodstuffs for as long
as possible and in the best possible conditions.
TRADITIONAL METHODS
• Fermentation (or “rotten,” according to Claude Levi-Strauss): theory
graphically described and explained by the culinary triangle. At each
vertex of this triangle are raw, cooked, and rotten. Rotten is used to
describe the work of nature, while fermented describes the phenomenon
when controlled by human intervention. Alcoholic, lactic acid, acetic acid,
butyric acid, propionic acid, and malolactic fermentations, among others.
• Smoking: The smoke dispenses its antimicrobial properties while drying
the product.
• Drying: The purpose of drying is to remove water from the food, therefore
depriving microorganisms of the water they require for survival.
• Coating: The goal of coating is to deprive the food of water and/or air. For
example:
- with salt—used to turn cod into “salt cod,” salted and semisalted butter
- with sugar—this method removes and replaces the water in foods with a
highly concentrated syrup (candied fruits, preserves) or with a marzipan
coating (fruits déguisés)
- with fat or oil—confit, foie gras, rillettes, etc.
- with acid—it strongly restricts microbial development (for example, dill
pickles)
- by alcohol immersion—which has antiseptic properties. Combined with
sugar, this method is used to preserve fruits (cherries, raspberries, prunes,
etc.).
HEAT AND COLD
Heat
Preservation methods Examples of scales
Pasteurization
Heating to a temperature below 100°C (212°F)
to 60–65°C (140–
Slow pasteurization 150°F) in 30 min.
High pasteurization to 82–85°C (180–

185°F) in 1 min.
Flash pasteurization
to 92–95°C (200–
205°F) in 1 sec.
Sterilization
Heating to a temperature above 100°C (212°F)
to 115°C (240°F) in
Slow sterilization 10–20 min.
Fast sterilization to 130–140°C (265–

285°F) in 3–4 sec.
UHT sterilization
to 140–150°C (285–
300°F) in 2 sec.
Appertization
Process for preserving foodstuffs by
sterilization with heat in hermetically sealed
containers
Preservation methods Examples of scales
Dehydration
The goal of this method is to extract as much of
a product’s water content as possible to restrict
microbial growth. A water content of between 8
and 12 percent is desirable.
The different techniques used for this purpose
are:
- by air and sun (traditional)
- by spraying (milk powder)
- by infrared dryer (fruits, vegetables, cookies)
- by hot air dryer (vegetables)
Uperization
A method of sterilizing liquid foods through the
continuous injection of very hot steam.
Tyndallization Heat for a few

To eliminate vegetative bacteria and their minutes (about 30)
resistant spores, the medium must be subjected every 24 hours
to heating at low temperature at certain without exceeding
intervals. 60°C (140°F).
Cold
Cold preservation consists of removing heat from a product to slow down
or stop its deterioration:
- biological (shelf life of foodstuffs)
- biochemical (oxidation, rancidity)
- bacteriological (microbial development).
Preservation
Description
systems
The temperature must be kept at 0–4°C (32–40°F).

Refrigeration should have as short a duration as
possible (2–3 days), because food gradually deteriorates
at temperatures above 0°C (32°F). Dry cold causes food
Refrigeration
to dry out, while moist cold promotes bacterial growth.
In all cases, it is recommended that the food should be
covered with plastic wrap (clingfilm) to prevent cross-
contamination.
This process gradually reduces the food temperature to

between -18°C and -20 °C (-0.4°F and -4°F).
The slow chilling process causes the appearance of
large ice crystals, which break the structure of the cells
Freezing and change the appearance of the product after thawing.
Deterioration of food is halted at -18°C (-0.4°F), which
allows for it to be preserved for a long time.
The date of freezing should always appear on the
packaging of the frozen product.
This process consists of flash freezing food to a

temperature between -30°C and-50°C (-22°F and
-58°F), after which it is brought back to a temperature
of -18°C (-0.4°F).
Deep-
Because of the fast freezing process, only small ice
freezing
crystals forme, and they do not alter the structure of the
product. It is mainly an industrial method.
Food can be preserved this way for a long time with the
same advantages as conventional freezing.
Preservation
Description
systems
This is a process for dehydrating food using intense

Freeze-
cold.
drying or
lyophilization The product is frozen and the ice is removed through
the phenomenon of sublimation.
In all cases, it is important to remember that refrigeration, freezing, and

deep-freezing only stop the action of bacteria. They do not kill them. It is
therefore essential that the cold chain is never broken.
The product must be as fresh as possible before being frozen or deep-
frozen. In fact, while the multiplication of microorganisms is halted during
the freezing process, the oxidation of fatty acids continues at a slower rate.
For nonindustrial freezing, it is advisable to only freeze foods that will
subsequently undergo a cooking process.
Deterioration processes resume during thawing, therefore:
- thawed products must be consumed quickly
- thawed products must never be refrozen unless the time/temperature
parameters for refreezing are validated by a risk analysis.
Certain processes combine cold preservation methods with a controlled
atmosphere for greater efficiency:
Process description Uses
A vacuum sealer creates

Raw food at 4°C
Vacuum-packing a vacuum of up to 99.9
(40°F)
percent
Process description Uses
Vacuum packaging
The injection of gas For fragile products,
and gas injection
(nitrogen, CO2) limits the gas provides a
(modified
protective “cushion”
atmosphere microbial growth. to prevent crushing
packaging)
Vacuum sealing Vacuum sealing is Certain types of

Sous-vide cooking followed by a cooking products, such as
Refrigeration process with controlled fruits, crème anglaise
Storage time and temperature. (custard)
OTHER PRESERVATION METHODS
Principles Effects Uses
Microparticles,
macromolecules,
Membrane microorganisms,
Microfiltration separation viruses, and Milk
method colloids are
separated from the
liquids.
Slightly
acidic
High pressure Inactivation of
Food is subjected liquid
processing microorganisms,
to high pressure. products,
(Pascalization) enzymes
mainly
fruit juices
Exposure to
gamma rays or an Pasteurization or Spices,
Irradiation
electron linear sterilization condiments
accelerator
An electric
current is passed
Ohmic heating Pasteurization Fruit juice
through food to
generate heat.
Control of the
parameters of
The product is
vacuum-packing Salads,
stabilized, which is
Eco-chilling coupled with fruits,
a “gentler” form of
rapid chilling at vegetables
freeze-drying.
the moment of
harvesting
PRODUCTION METHODS COOKING AND/OR

PREPARATION
Controlled
heating with Juices, coulis,
Rotary Evaporation,
vacuum (which aromatic
evaporation condensation
lowers the liquids
boiling point)
Highest
qualitative
Juices for
and
Slow juicing Soft crushing coulis, sweet
quantitative
sauces
juice
extraction
Crystallization
of free (pure)
Slow freezing,
water, hence Fruit juice,
Cryoconcentration progressive
concentration milk, etc.
chilling
without
heating
Limited use
Highly in making
powerful pastry and
Ultrasound mechanism for Sonication cooking:
breaking cell mousses,
walls emulsions,
etc.
Progressive
action of
blades on a
block of ice.
Freezing in a
Pacojet® Aeration Sorbets
special beaker
results from
the fast
operation of
the device
Liquid nitrogen
has a
Immediate
Liquid nitrogen temperture of Sorbets
freezing
-196°C
(-320°F)
Electromagnetic
waves produced Excitation of
Defrosting,
Microwave oven by a magnetron water
cooking
in a closed molecules
chamber
Control of the
Exposure to
temperature of
Low-temperature temperatures Fruit,
hydrolysis,
cooking below 100°C vegetables
coagulation,
(212°F)
etc.
Control of the
temperature of
hydrolysis,
coagulation,
Low-
etc.
temperature Crème
Sous-vide (under Preserves
cooking with anglaise
vacuum) cooking* qualities of
ingredient (custard)
food more
protection
effectively
than low-
temperature
cooking
Heating and Controlled

Thermomix blending in a heating and Sabayons
sole operation handling
Compressed
gas, which is
distributed With N2O
through a Addition of
(nitrous
mixture gas
oxide): foam
A whipping The siphon
Siphon With CO2:
siphon works causes the
with nitrous colloidal the
oxide dispersion of a “carbonation”
gas in a liquid of fruits, for
A soda siphon example
works with
carbon dioxide
*The technique was presented, theorized, and explained by Bruno Goussault (CREA—Paris).
A “NEW” ANCIENT METHOD: LACTIC ACID

FERMENTATION
Lactic acid fermentation occurs through the action of lactobacilli (which is
unrelated to the lactose in milk). This process takes place in the absence of
air (hence the need for a covering liquid), and salt is required to inhibit
undesirable microbes; in other words, a brine, or saline solution, must be
prepared. It seems that this type of practice is being rediscovered in light of
its organoleptic qualities, as well as for health reasons. Fruits and
vegetables, particularly the latter, are suitable for this type of fermentation.
Recommendations include:
- Using a brine consisting of about 30 g (5 teaspoons) salt per 1 liter (4¼
cups) of nonchlorinated water and clean, untreated fruits or vegetables
- Using a clean glass or stoneware container
- Handling with clean hands.
Method:
- Place the fruits or vegetables in the container
- Cover with the brine and seal the container
- Leave the container at an ambient temperature of 20°C (68°F) for 5–7
days without closing tightly for the first stage of fermentation to take place
- Ideally, leave at 15°C (59°F) for several months for the second stage to
take place.
Examples of lactic acid-fermented preparations include kvass, kombucha,
kimchi, yogurt, sauerkraut, sour cream, kefir, koumiss, crème fraîche, and
chocolate.
PRESERVATION AND PRODUCTION METHODS

Deep-freezing is now in common use. Advances in equipment have allowed
for this technology to be more widely accessible. For the purpose of
transparency and health precautions, French law requires pastry makers
who use it to inform consumers.
There are three ways in which this obligation to inform customers can be
fulfilled:1
Customers must be informed of the condition of the products offered for
purchase. This applies to products that have been stored in frozen form and
are presented as “defrosted.” The purpose is to draw attention to the fact
that a frozen product cannot be refrozen. There are two reasons for this:
transparency and health concerns. Pastry makers can choose from different
ways of presenting this information:
- Poster. It is displayed in the store within customers’ view with the term
“defrosted,” in addition to the sales description and the statement “do not
refreeze.”
- Pictogram. This is accompanied by a reminder for customers not to
refreeze the product. Professional organizations in France suggest two
types:
• The igloo. Devised by the French National Confederation of Baking
and Pastry.
• Snowflake symbol. Devised by the National Confederation of Artisan
Pastry Makers, replacing the former pictogram of Freddy the penguin.
- Allergen information document. A column is included notifying
customers of the details. In this case, the table must be entitled “Legal
information for the consumer.”
Certain initiatives have been taken to inform consumers regarding so-called
produits hibernés (“hibernated products”), the terms used to describe
products that have been deep-frozen.
Which products are affected?
- Products that have been purchased deep-frozen.
- Products frozen by artisan pastry makers themselves.
It does not apply to products that were frozen before cooking.
It does not apply to baked unfilled pastry that is frozen before use.
It does not apply to any entremets that undergo momentary and superficial
“freezing” for technical purposes.
© Adobe Stock
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
EQUIVALENCE TABLES
LITERS (L)/CENTILITERS (cl)/MILLILITERS (ml) US/UK FLUID OUNCES (fl oz)
1 L/100 cl/1,000 ml 33.8 fl oz/35.2 fl oz
0.5 L/50 cl/500 ml 16.9 fl oz/17.6 fl oz
0.25 L/25 cl/250 ml 8.4 fl oz/8.8 fl oz
0.125 L/12.5 cl/125 ml 4.2 fl oz/4.4 fl oz
KILOGRAMS (kg)/GRAMS (g) POUNDS (lb) + OUNCES (oz)
1 kg/1,000 g 2 lb 3¼ oz
0.5 kg/500 g 1 lb 1⅝ oz
0.25 kg/250 g 8¾ oz
0.125 kg/125 g 4⅜ oz
EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURES IN
FAHRENHEIT/CELSIUS
UNITS OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND

CONVERSION
The Dutchman Gabriel Fahrenheit introduced the temperature scale that
bears his name in 1724.
Andreas Celsius, a Swede, introduced the Celsius unit and scale in 1742.
The two reference points are the freezing point of water, defined as 0 °C, or
32 °F, and its boiling point, defined as 100 °C, or 212 °F.
It should be noted that the boiling temperature of water varies with
atmospheric pressure. The lower the atmospheric pressure, the lower the
boiling temperature of water.
The degree Celsius is sometimes referred to as degree centigrade.
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), from Great Britain, presented his
temperature scale in 1848. The kelvin is the basic unit of temperature in the
International System of Units (SI).
Temperature conversion chart:
Note: -18 °C equals 0 °F. 0 on the Kelvin scale is absolute cold.

GELATIN SHEETS AND GELATIN MASS
CONVERSION OF GELATIN SHEET TO GELATIN POWDER
The traditional gelatin sheet (leaf) used in France weighs 1.7 g—that’s
about 116 oz. When it comes to substituting gelatin sheets with gelatin
powder of the same bloom (gel) strength, and vice versa, use the same
weight given in the recipe. One (approx.) 2-g sheet corresponds to 2 g, or
about 1 teaspoon, of gelatin powder (but check the package directions for
how much liquid it sets). Before use, gelatin sheets must be hydrated or
softened in water and then drained by squeezing. Gelatin powder needs to
be hydrated in an amount of water equivalent to six times its weight. The
term “gelatin mass” refers to the weight of the gelatin in grams plus the
weight of the hydrating water. For 1 g of gelatin powder, it will be 7 g, or
3½ teaspoons. Gelatin mass can be made in advance.
CONVERTING THE WEIGHT OF GELATIN GIVEN IN A RECIPE
WITH A DIFFERENT BLOOM STRENGTH
For example, a recipe indicates using 20 g (3 tablespoons plus 1 teaspoon)
of a 180 bloom gelatin (the most common in France).
The only gelatin you have available is 200 bloom. In this case, follow the
calculation given here: (180/200) × initial weight in grams = weight in
grams required
In other words, 180/200 = 0.9
0.9 × 20 = 18 g
This is the equivalent of 9 gelatin sheets or 18 g (3 tablespoons) of gelatin
powder.
Note: Always check the manufacturer’s directions, because gelatin strength
and weight does vary between manufacturers. Gelatin sheets in the United
States are weighted and may be used interchangeably if from the same
manufacturer. Reference is sometimes made to use gelatin dessert mix
(instant gelatin). In this case, consult the manufacturer’s directions for use,
because it is typically more concentrated (3.5–5 times) than ordinary gelatin
powder.
EGGS: COMPOSITION AND GUIDE

COMPOSITION OF A 60-G (2-OZ) EGG
Part Weight Percentage
Shell about 6 g (3⁄16oz) 10%
Yolk (vitellus) 20 g (¾ oz) 30%
White (albumen) about 34 g (13⁄16 oz) 60%
GUIDE FOR PASTRY

Volume Quantity
1 L (4¼ cups) eggs 20 eggs
1 L (4¼ cups) egg yolks 48–50 egg yolks
1 L (4¼ cups) egg whites 30–32 egg whites
250 ml (1 cup) egg whites 8 egg whites
Certain recipes give the quantity of eggs by volume.

Recipes have taken shape over time. The use of a single egg as a basic unit
is ancient. This has remained “practical,” because an egg is not easily
subdivided. However, pastry makers have become accustomed to using
specific quantities of ingredients to standardize production, in which case
the use of weight is preferred. Eggs are available in different sizes and
weights, which takes into account the great diversity of products they are
used in.
We have therefore decided to keep the reference to individual eggs for
“classic” preparations, such as basic pastry, genoise (sponge cake), and
crème anglaise (custard), among others (see the Technological Approach
section of this book). As for the actual recipes, we recommend the use of
weight for accuracy.
© Adobe Stock
SUSTAINABILITY
Like any other activity, the food industry has not been spared consumers’
different concerns that are expressed through such words and catchphrases
as food ethics, sustainable consumption, fair trade, ecology, waste,
donations to charitable organizations, corporate social responsibility, food
safety, organic farming, responsible farming, permaculture, Cultures et
Ressources Contrôlées (controlled crops and resources), genetically
modified organisms (GMOs), specific standards (ISO 14000, 26000), zero
waste, plastic-free, biodegradable packaging, environmental protection, and
preserving biodiversity, among others.
The pastry-making industry also shares these aspirations, and artisan pastry
makers did not wait for these trends to consolidate before taking action.
Nevertheless, there is an urgent need to publicize it and to improve the
existing situation.
Given that awareness and recommendations are bound to evolve, it is
advisable to consult the continually updated material produced by
professional organizations.
For example:
Guide de bonnes pratiques environnementales en boulangerie-pâtisserie
(Guide to Good Environmental practices in the baking-pastry making)
Produire et vendre de manière durable (Producing and Selling Sustainably),
published by INBP (French National Baking and Pastry Institute)
To learn more about sustainable development in the pastry-

making industry
RESOURCES
http://www.inbpinnov.com/media/inbp_1211_guidepratiqueenviro_bd__049926700_1159_07052013.
pdf (available in French)
1. The sap from trees, such as maple or birch, was probably used as sweeteners.
2. Certain authors believe LSR stands for “Le Sieur Robert.”
3. In reference to the culinary triangle described by Claude Levi-Strauss.
4 Histoire de la cuisine et des cuisiniers, Jean-Pierre Poulain and Edmond Neirinck (Delagrave,
2004). See also The Noma Guide to Fermentation, René Redzepi and David Zilber (Éditions du
Chêne, 2018).
5. The most famous of the three, Marcus Gavius Apicius, was the author of De re coquinaria, a
collections of Roman recipes dating from the fourth century.
6. Garum (or liquamen) was an extremely salty sauce obtained after a long fermentation of the flesh
and viscera of fish and oysters in a large quantity of salt to prevent rotting. This condiment, which
is reminiscent of modern-day fish sauce, was widely used during the Etruscan period and in
ancient Greece.
7. Les métiers et corporations de la ville de Paris, Étienne Boileau (1270).
8. Gourmandise. Histoire d’un péché capital, p. 42, Florent Quellier (Armand Colin, 2010).
9. Mid-fourteenth century. It portrayed the bourgeois cuisine of the time.
10. A unit of measure corresponding to 4 ounces (115 grams).
11. Histoire de l’alimentation, p. 359, Jean-Louis Flandrin and Massimo Montanari (Fayard, 1996).
12. Where craftspeople were organized into associations or trades with an apprenticeship system.
13. The derived term “nioleux” is used to describe a reactionary pastry chef who does not like new
things. A reference to the use of honey, because sugar is a more modern product…
14. The word used for meat at this time is the word now used for flesh: chair.
15. The best-known description of French aristocratic cooking in the Middle Ages.
16. Recipe for darioles de crème, custard tarts made with ground almonds.
17. “Arlos” (a reference to the harlequin costume) was used for the more or less successful
arrangement of leftover food.
18. Meat, butter, etc. were permitted.
19. Use of fish, vegetables, cereals, leguminous plants, etc.
20. The activities, however, were under the protective benevolence of their patron saints. For
example, Saint Michael for pastry makers and Saint Honoratus for bakers.
21. Opened by Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli, a native of Sicily.
22. A remarkable book, particularly because it was the first to arrange recipes in alphabetical order.
23. The term confitures (“preserves”) here refers to processes involving sugar, salt, or vinegar.
24. Commentaires sur Massialot, Alain Briquet (UDIHR digital library).
25. Le pâtissier pittoresque (1815) and Le pâtissier royal parisien (1815).
26. The traditional croquembouche, often eaten at weddings (although increasingly less popular) is a
pièce montée reminiscent of this practice.
27. One such case was the Congress of Vienna, where France’s fate (after the fall of Napoleon) was
to be decided (1814–1815).
28. The word “extra” came from this.
29. However, the guilds continued to exist under different forms. In fact, the leaders of guilds
(bakers, pastry makers) also held high political positions in the city, reflecting their importance.
30. Particularly famed for writing Almanach des Gourmands (1803–1812) and Manuel des
amphitryons (1808).
31. Author of Physiology of Taste (1825).
32. Physiology of Taste (1825).
33. Almanach des gourmands, vol. 3, p. 18, Grimod de la Reynière (1805).
34. He invented the Baumé scale.
35. Gastrodiplomacy.
36. Le grand livre des pâtissiers et des confiseurs, 2 volumes, Urbain Dubois and Émile Bernard
(1883).
37. He would be criticized for the use of alum after suspicions were raised that it was probably a
toxic product.
38. The progressive replacement of willow rods with iron wires (the whisk as we know it today) took
place in the mid-nineteenth century.
39. Chocolate manufacturers, such as Cadbury, Suchard, Van Houten, Menier, and Nestlé, played a
part in improving the quality of chocolate.
40. Meaning to find something that is not sought and to understand its importance.
41. Leda, queen of Sparta, was seduced by Zeus after he had turned himself into a swan.
42 L’ordre des mets, p. 167, Jean-Louis Flandrin (Odile Jacob, 2002).
43. École Lenôtre was founded in 1971.
44. See Culinaire Design, Marc Bretillot (Alternatives, 2010), the first book on the subject.
45. Travel desserts were no exception to the trend.
46. See works by Bruno Goussault (CREA – Paris).
47. See Hors d’œuvre. Essai sur les relations entre arts et cuisine, Caroline Champion (Menu Fretin,
2010).
48. By Nathan Myhrvold.
49. Author of Gourmandise. Histoire d’un péché capital (Armand Colin, 2010).
50. For some, the boundary between cooking and making pastry has been blurred. For example, Joël
Robuchon described himself as a “chef and pastry chef.”
1. According to good hygiene practice in pastrymaking
OceanofPDF.com
PRODUCTS
© Adobe Stock
© Adobe Stock
MILK
Milk is a white liquid with a pleasant and slightly sweet taste and barely
any odor. When used on its own, the word “milk” refers to cow milk. The
main dairy breeds in France are Prim’Holstein (67 percent), Montbéliarde
(15 percent), and Normande (8.5 percent). Milk can also come from goats
and sheep. In this case, the word milk is featured after the name of the
animal species. Milk is the product of the full and uninterrupted milking of
a healthy, well-nourished, and not overworked milk-producing female.
When collected properly, it must not contain colostrum (a sour milky fluid
produced by cows for about seven days after calving that is unfit for human
consumption).
COMMERCIAL DESCRIPTION
Milk can be classified1 according to different criteria. These combined
criteria form the basis of regulations pertaining to milk production.
CRITERION A: FAT CONTENT OF MILK
Fat
Packaging
content
Min. Predominantly red. ©

Whole (full-fat) milk
3.5%.
Lactel
Reduced-fat (semi- 1.5– Predominantly blue.

skimmed) milk 1.8%
© Lactel
Fat
Packaging
content
Predominantly green.
Skim (nonfat) milk <0.5%.
© Lactel
Fat content of preserved milk products

Evaporated milk (concentrated, unsweetened)
- Whole (full-fat): Min. 7.5%
- Reduced-fat (semi-skimmed): 4–4.4% maximum
- Skim (nonfat): <1%
Condensed milk (concentrated, sweetened)
- Whole (full-fat): Min. 9%
- Reduced-fat (semi-skimmed): 4–4.4% maximum
- Skim (nonfat): <1%
Instant milk powder
- Whole (full-fat): Min. 26%
- Reduced-fat (semi-skimmed): 14–16% maximum
- Skim (nonfat): 1.5%
Note:
- Milk with X% fat: Some types of milk may have a different fat content
than that of either whole, reduced-fat, or nonfat milk. This must be clearly
indicated to the nearest decimal place and be easily readable on the
packaging as “X% fat.”
CRITERION B: HEAT TREATMENT OF MILK
Raw milk
It is mandatory to include the words “raw milk” or “fresh raw milk” on the
packaging.
- No treatment other than refrigeration after milking on the farm.
- Packaged on site.
- Predominantly yellow packaging.
Note: Raw milk must be boiled before use.
Microfiltered milk
Milk treated by microfiltration: A porous membrane removes bacteria from
skim milk while retaining microbial flora and without modifying its
physical or chemical properties.
Packaged, chilled immediately to bring the temperature to below 6 °C (43
°F).
Pasteurized milk
The term applied to milk that undergoes successive:
- heating to 72 °C (162 °F) for 15 seconds (minimum treatment)
- chilling after pasteurization to below 6 °C (43 °F).
Pasteurization destroys certain germs, including pathogens. This technique
preserves the organoleptic qualities of the milk and its nutritional value.
Sour milk is usually made from pasteurized milk. Bacterial cultures are then
added to give the milk a thicker and smoother texture. Acidification gives it
a sour taste. The most common form found in France is lait ribot, a cultured
buttermilk.
© Bridel
Sterilized milk
Simple sterilization is a process for giving milk a long shelf life.
The milk is packed in an airtight container, heated to 115 °C (240 °F) for 15
to 20 minutes, and then chilled.
It can be stored for about 3 months at room temperature if unopened.
Sterilization is a more aggressive process in which all germs are destroyed.
This explains the long shelf life of this milk.
Ultra-high temperature (UHT) milk

The technique involves a special sterilization process in which the milk is
heated to 140 °C (285 °F) for 2 seconds.
Most of the milk sold in France today is UHT milk: 95 percent market
share.
The UHT sterilization method allows the positive effects of pasteurization
and sterilization to be combined without the disadvantages.
Note: Thermization is a process applied to milk used in making cheese.
This method allows for microbial flora to be controlled while preserving the
other components of the milk.
Packaging Fat content per 1 L (4¼

Types
color cups)
Red Whole (full-fat) 36 g
Reduced-fat (semi-
Blue 15.5 g
skimmed)
Green Skim (nonfat) <5 g
Yellow Raw milk Variable
CRITERION C: OTHER MILK CLASSIFICATION CRITERIA

• Organic milk is milk from cows that have been reared in accordance with
organic farming standards.
• The addition of supplements, such as vitamins, proteins, minerals (iron),
omega-3 fatty acids.
• Reduced lactose levels.
• Concentrated milk (evaporated and condensed).
• Dried milk, known as instant milk or milk powder (produced by spray
drying).
• Infant formula.
• Flavored milk, etc.
The different types of milk are monitored for food safety. A health mark is
placed on the package.
SUPPLIERS
• Dairies
• Wholesaler
• Cash and carry (Metro, Promocash, etc.)
• Group-purchasing organization
• A grocery store or supermarket
LABELING/TRACEABILITY
3 LEVELS OF LABELING
Health mark
Certified by official veterinary services, the health mark (or veterinary
stamp) identifies establishments that prepare, treat, process, handle, or store
products of animal origin. It therefore appears on many food products: milk
cartons, cheeses, yogurts, cold cuts, meats, ready-to-eat meals, etc.
For member countries of the European Union, this mark is ovale in shape.
Interpreting the label shown above: The country of origin of the
establishment is represented by two letters (IT for Italy, FR for France,
etc.). The milk carton therefore comes from France. In France, the first two
digits indicate the department in which the plant is located. In this case, the
number 02 stands for Aisne. However, the milk may have been collected
elsewhere (in another department or even in another country). The middle
digits (110 in this example) indicate the municipality. The last digits (01 in
this example) indicate the number given to the processing facility located in
the municipality. Membership of the European Union is shown by the
initials standing for “European Community” given in the language of the
country: CE in France, EG in Germany, EB in Lithuania, etc.
Packer code
The EMB (emballeur) or packer code on a French food product identifies
the packing establishment or importer of the product when the address is
not written on the product. Under certain conditions, it can replace the
manufacturer’s name when the production is outsourced. In this case, the
words “Fabriqué par EMB xxxxx” (“Made by EMB xxxx”) will appear on
the packaging.
Bar code
A bar code is also often seen as a good way for consumers to know the
origin of products. Although the first three digits of the code correspond to
a country (300–379 for France), they do not give completely reliable
information about the origin. In fact, they do not always indicate the
country of production. They may represent the country where the
company’s headquarters are located or one of its registered offices.
COMPOSITION
On average, 1 liter, or 4¼ cups (1¾ UK pints), of raw milk contains about
900 g of water and 130 g of dry extract, in varying proportions.
The density of whole (full-fat) milk is 1,033 g per 4¼ cups (1¾ UK
pints/L), with 40 g of fat.
The composition of 1 liter, or 4¼ cups (1¾ UK pints), of whole (full-fat)
milk (not standardized):
Components Weight %
Water 900 g 87.5
Fat 40 g (35–45 g) 3.9
Carbohydrate (lactose) 48 g 4.6
Protein (casein) 34 g 3.5
Minerals 9g 0.5
Vitamins A, B, D
Note: A dairy cow produces between 20 to 30 liters (5¼—8 gallons) of

milk per day over about 300 days per year. Milk producers in France report
their production in both liters and kilograms.
PRODUCT SHELF LIFE
The shelf life of products is specified in different ways on the packaging.
Main Products
Details
indicator concerned
Best-Before
Date (BBD)
“À consommer de préférence avant le”
This is UHT milk,
followed by the day and month for
expressed in UHT
products with a shelf life of less than 3
France by the cream,
months, or “À consommer de préférence
terms “À evaporated
avant fin” followed by either the month
consommer de milk,
and year for products with a shelf life of
préférence instant
between 3 and 18 months or the year
avant le …” or milk
alone for products with a shelf life of
“À consommer powder.
more than 18 months.
de préférence
avant fin …”
Use-By Date
(UBD)
The terms used Condensed
The former is followed by the day and
for this in milk,
month (shelf life of between 3 and 18
France are “À pasteurized
months), while the latter shows only the
consommer milk, raw
year (shelf life longer than 18 months).
avant le…” or milk, etc.
“À consommer
jusqu’au…”
Shelf life before

Methods Shelf life after opening
opening
Kept refrigerated at
4 °C (40 °F), until Boil for 5–8 minutes. Consume
Raw milk
UBD, maximum 72 immediately
hours after milking
Shelf life before
opening
Pasteurization Kept refrigerated at Kept refrigerated at 4 °C (40 °F)

72–85°C (160– 4 °C (40 °F) until in the original packaging: 2–3
185°F) for a UBD or 7 days days, taking the UBD date into
few seconds, after packaging account; 24 hours in
then chilling date institutional food service
Place with
temperature not
Sterilization
exceeding 15 °C
115 °C (240 Kept refrigerated at 4 °C (40
(59 °F), away from
°F) for 15–20 °F), maximum 1–2 days
light until
minutes
expiration 4–5
months (BBD)
Place with
temperature not
UHT
exceeding 15 °C
140–150°C Kept refrigerated at 4 °C (40
(59 °F), away from
(285–300°F) °F), maximum 1–2 days
light until
for 2 seconds
expiration 3 months
(BBD)
Concentration Place with

After temperature not
pasteurization exceeding 15 °C Kept refrigerated at 4 °C (40
vacuum (59 °F), until °F), maximum 1–2 days
packed at 55 expiration several
°C (130 °F) months (BBD)
Shelf life before
opening
Place with
Away from light and free from
Drying temperature not
moisture or humidity > Whole
After exceeding 15 °C
(full-fat): 10 days > Reduced-fat
pasteurization (59 °F), free from
(semi-skimmed): 2 weeks >
spray drying at moisture or
Skim (nonfat): 3 weeks After
150 °C (300 humidity until
reconstituting: consume
°F) expiration 12–18
immediately
months (BBD)
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES
Milk is a complex and unique medium that offers different functionalities in
cooking and baking:
-Water hydrates preparations.
-Fat: Milk is an oil-in-water emulsion. It is stabilized by surfactant
molecules comprising phospholipids and certain proteins. This dispersed
fat in the form of globules gives flavor and smoothness to preparations.
-Lactose is a natural sugar found in cow milk as well as the milk of other
mammals. Cow milk contains about 4.8 g of lactose per 100 ml (3½ fl oz/
⅓ cup + 1½ tablespoons). When it is digested, it is broken down by the
body into glucose and galactose, which are then absorbed. It can also be
fermented by lactic acid bacteria during the making of cheese or yogurt.
This fermentation produces lactic acid, which causes the proteins to
coagulate. The longer a cheese is aged, the less lactose it contains. Some
hard cheeses, such as Comté and Parmesan, are naturally lactose-free. The
acidity of milk is measured in Dornic degrees (°D), which makes it
possible to assess its “freshness.” “Fresh” milk has a value of between 14
°D and 16 °D. The more a milk “ages,” the higher this value becomes.
Lactose adds a sweet taste and it is involved in the Maillard reaction that
takes place when milk is heated, with the help of proteins. Lactose has a
low glycemic index of 40, compared to 65 for sucrose. Lactose-free milks
are available today for people who have difficulty digesting this sugar.
They are produced by the enzymatic hydrolysis of lactose and/or filtration
processes.
-Proteins: There are two types of proteins in milk—milk serum (also
known as whey) and casein, the latter of which accounts for 80 percent of
the proteins in milk.
-Casein has the particular feature of being able to coagulate under the
influence of heat and in an acidic medium, which causes it to form curds
when in contact with rennet. Casein also has surfactant properties that
enables its use to make a mousse (whisking) and/or an emulsion.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Background:
There are lactose-free milks available today for people who have difficulty
digesting this sugar. They are produced by the enzymatic hydrolysis of
lactose and/or filtration processes.
Statement:
Lactose-free milk2 does not contain sugar.
True?
False?
Answer:
TRUE
1. The lactose is broken down (predigestion process) into its two basic
components: galactose and glucose.
2. Sugar, in France, is sucrose. So, whether the lactose is whole or broken
down, there is no sugar in the milk.
Note: Both plain and lactose-free milks contain sugars. The former contains
lactose, while the latter contains glucose and galactose.
USES
Milk is used in cooking and making pastry: pancake batter, fritter batters,
sauces (Béchamel sauce), crème anglaise (custard), pastry cream, entremets
“au lait”(with milk), milk jam (dulce de leche), frozen custard, custard
(sweet or savory), etc.
The use of milk by artisans and, later, the food industry, led to the
development of methods for producing:
- cream
- butter
- yogurt
- dairy preparations
- cheeses
MILK PROCESSING
(products, processing, “by-products”)
The coagulation of milk (e.g., in the case of

Milk Skimming making cheese) results in the by-product:
whey
Cream Skim milk The fat content of skim milk is standard
Milk is agitated until the fat is emulsified into

Churning
butter
Butter Buttermilk The fat content of butter is standard
Decantation consists of separating the fatty

Decantation
phase from the liquid phase
Clarified
butter Milk solids
Purified (milk Clarifying butter leaves only the fat for use as
butter proteins) an ingredient
Butter Butter water
oil
Ghee, or clarified butter, has been used for more than 300 years in India. It
is known as samnah in Arab countries.
GOOD TO KNOW
A ruling by the Court of Justice of the European Union dated June 14,
2017, confirmed the European Union regulation of December 17, 2013,
specifying that the term “milk” applies exclusively to products of animal
origin and that dairy products, such as cream, butter, and cheese, are solely
derived from milk. Therefore, purely plant-based products cannot be
designated as “milk,” “cream,” “butter,” “cheese,” or “yogurt,” even if they
are accompanied by a qualifier indicating their plant origin. The use of the
term “soy milk,” for instance, is therefore prohibited. There are some
exceptions, however, such as “coconut milk” and “almond milk.”
TRADITIONAL SPECIALTY GUARANTEED (TSG) AND MILK
The name “hay milk,” a product of German-speaking countries, has been
registered and protected by the European Union. Recognized by the French
National Institute for Origin and Quality (INAO), it guarantees milk from
cows fed on at least 75 percent grass or hay, with no fermented fodder or
GMOs. It has TSG status, one of the European Union’s four officially
recognized quality designations.
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
Some people have difficulty “digesting” milk. Known as lactose
intolerance, it is caused by the insufficient production of lactase, the
enzyme that is required to break down lactose. Milk protein allergy is
another story. It seems the “anti-milk” movement is particularly active and
takes a radical stance without any scientific evidence. It is worth recalling
the fact that humans are omnivores and have been consuming milk for a
long time. Nutritionists and dietitians agree that milk provides a significant
amount of animal protein (including bioactive peptides with antioxidant,
immunity-boosting, anti-infective, antithrombotic, and antitumor
properties) and calcium.
REFERENCES
Manger au XXIe siècle pas si simple. Entre désarrois et plaisirs
alimentaires !, Jean-Louis Schlienger (Éditions Belvédère, 2016). Chapter:
Le lait humilié : Pourquoi tant de haine ? http://www.filiere-laitiere.fr/fr/les-
organisations/cniel (available in French)
© Adobe Stock
CREAM
Cream comes exclusively from milk. This fat rises to the surface of the milk
and is separated by either decantation or centrifugation. Centrifugation
consists of separating the fat (cream) and whey (lactoserum) using the
simple difference in density. The cream obtained in this way is liquid and
soft, although the cream subsequently undergoes numerous physical,
chemical, and biological reactions that alter its flavor and consistency.
The term crème entiere, heavy (double) cream, denotes a fat content of 30
percent or higher.
The term crème legère, light (single) cream, requires a fat content of
between 12 and 30 percent.
The term spécialité à base de crème, “specialty cream product,” refers to a
product with a fat content of less than 12 percent, equivalent to half-and-
half.
The addition of any other fat is forbidden by law.
With the exception of raw cream, creams always undergo heat treatment
(pasteurization or sterilization). The term fraîche (“fresh”) applied to heavy
cream, whether cultured (crème fraîche) or not, and light cream means that
the product has been pasteurized and packaged on site within 24 hours.
To understand commercially available cream varieties:
Names Characteristics Heat treatment
Crème entière
(heavy/double 30% fat or more
cream)
Yes.
Crème légère
(light/single 12–30% fat
cream)
Names Characteristics Heat treatment
There are no regulatory

Crème crue
limits, particularly in regard No
(raw cream)
to fat content
Crème fraîche
(crème
fraîche)* Pasteurization and
Minimum 30% fat 12–30%
Crème fraîche packaging on site
fat
légère within 24 hours
(light crème
fraîche)*
*Use of these names are not permitted for creams that have undergone sterilization.
© Prèsident Professionnel
Whole (double) cream
Light (single) cream
Crème fraîche
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CREAM
The different creams can be distinguished from each other by certain
criteria: treatment to extend shelf life, fat content, and consistency (liquid or
cultured/thick). By combining these criteria, a wide variety of products can
be obtained.
Crème crue (raw cream)
The cream once typically used by French grandmothers, this cream has not
undergone either pasteurization or sterilization. Directly after separation, it
is chilled and stored at 6°C (43°F). It has a liquid consistency in the first
few days and a mild flavor. It generally contains more fat than other creams.
The word “raw” must be displayed on the label.
Crème fraîche pasteurisée liquide (fresh heavy cream)
This pasteurized cream is liquid and sweet because no bacterial culture has
been added to it. However, because it is more delicate than sterilized
creams, it is increasingly less popular with general consumers. Pastry
makers and restaurateurs appreciate this cream for its ability to expand with
the incorporation of air to make light and fluffy whipped cream or Chantilly
cream when sweetened.
This type of sweet, liquid, and uncultured cream is known in the industry as
crème fleurette (the word fleur means “surface,” from where it is collected).
It is obtained in the traditional way by gravity separation, known as
creaming (where the cream floats spontaneously to the surface of the milk
at rest, unlike mechanical separation processes).
Crème fraîche pasteurisée épaisse (crème fraîche)
This is a cream that has been soured. After pasteurization, it is chilled to 6–
7°C (43–45°F). Then a bacterial culture taken from a particularly aromatic
cream with a high acidity level is added. The cream thickens and sours, and
its flavor becomes tart.
Note: The words crème fraîche alone on a label indicates that the cream has
been pasteurized; mention of the process is not mandatory.
Crème fraîche cannot be used for creams that undergo sterilization.
The name crème double (“double cream”) is used for cream that has been
soured by natural fermentation. It should not be taken to mean double the
fat content or calories. This type of cream is not suitable for whipping.
Crème stérilisée liquide (sterilized cream)
Once packaged, this cream is sterilized at 115 °C (240 °F) for 15–20
minutes, then chilled. Because sterilization does not permit the addition of
cultures, this cream is liquid. The sterilization process gives the cream a
“cooked” or caramelized flavor, so there is growing preference for UHT
cream.
Crème UHT (UHT cream)
Raw cream is sterilized at 150 °C (300 °F) for 2 seconds, then cooled
quickly. Its nutritional, flavor, and usable qualities are preserved.
Crème légère (light cream)
This product is obtained by adjusting the separator to obtain a cream with a
fat content between 12 and 30 percent. The precise fat content must always
be shown on the package. Crème legère can be liquid or crème fraîche
(cultured and soured). It must be pasteurized or sterilized.
Whipping cream and low-fat whipping cream (whipped cream and
low-fat whipped cream)
These products contain at least 75 percent cream or low-fat cream. The
addition of sucrose (maximum 15 percent), bacterial cultures, natural
flavorings, stabilizers, and milk proteins are also authorized. The overrun
(the ratio between the volume of the whipped cream or low-fat whipped
cream, ready for sale, and the initial volume of the different ingredients)
cannot exceed 3.5.
Chantilly cream
This is whipped cream containing a minimum of 30 percent fat. The only
permitted additions are sucrose (maximum 15 percent semiwhite sugar,
white sugar, or refined white sugar) and possibly natural flavorings.
Pressurized whipped cream
Similar to the composition of whipping cream, except for the addition of a
maximum 0.1 percent stabilizers. It is always pasteurized or sterilized.
Neutral gas is injected into the can, which causes the cream to greatly
expand in volume when dispensed.
Sour cream
This cream, obtained by bacterial fermentation, is widely used in Eastern
Europe, Central Europe and Russia (smetana), and it is also popular in
English-speaking countries. It is served with fish (herring), borsch, stuffed
cabbage, sauerkraut, and goulash. In France, where it is relatively
uncommon—it has a short shelf life—a version is made by adding lemon
juice to cream as an accompaniment for blinis and rollmops.
Organic cream
As with all organic dairy products, organic cream is made from organic
milk, which means that the cows that produce the milk must be reared
according to organic farming standards.
CREAMS WITH PROTECTED DESIGNATION OF ORIGIN (PDO)
STATUS
Crème d’Isigny and Crème de Bresse
These are both forms of pasteurized crème fraîche that are characterized by
their fine quality. These two PDO products are made in the regions of
Isigny (Manche) and Bresse (Ain, Jura, Saône et Loire), respectively,
according to strict manufacturing criteria.
Crème d’Isigny contains between 35 and 40 percent fat (specified by
decree, dated June 30, 1986). It can be made using only pasteurized fresh
cream.
Crème de Bresse contains at least 36 percent fat (PDO, decree of June 26,
2012).
Isigny Sainte-Mère
STORAGE
Shelf
Creams Treatment Label
life
Crème crue liquide

(raw cream)
None 7 days
Crème crue épaisse
(raw crème fraîche)
UBD (Use-By
Date) 15
Pasteurized cream
days
88 °C (190 °F) for
20 seconds
Pasteurized crème 30
fraîche days
115 °C (240 °F) 8

Sterilized
for 20 minutes months
BBD (Best-
Before Date)
150 °C (300 °F) 4
UHT
for 2 seconds months
Shelf
Creams Treatment Label
life
Pasteurized or UBD or 4–8

Pressurized (aerosol)
sterilized BBD/BIUB months
Cream is a delicate product. It is essential to maintain the cold chain.

Thermal shock must be avoided. These creams are to be stored at a
temperature of 4–6°C (40–43°F), except for sterilized creams (unopened). It
is imperative to observe the UBD for raw and pasteurized creams and the
BBD for sterilized cream.
Use the cream quickly after the packaging is opened (maximum 48 hours).
A sour or rancid odor, a yellowish color, and the presence of greenish mold
are evidence that the cream is spoiled.
SUPPLIERS
• Wholesaler
COMPOSITION
Cream contains butterfat (30–40 percent on average), water (59 percent),
and 6 percent nonfat components: protein, lactose, and minerals. It is high
in calcium and fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, and K. The law permits the
addition of small amounts of certain products to cream: sucrose (maximum
15 percent), bacterial cultures, stabilizers (0.5 percent).
Components Percentage
Water 64%
Fat 30%
Carbohydrates 4%
Components Percentage
Proteins 3%
Vitamins A, D, B
The functional qualities of cream basically depend on the proteins it
contains, particularly casein, which has surfactant properties.
The best known properties are those involved in making whipped cream
(unsweetened) and Chantilly cream (sweetened).
Foam stability refers to the ability of whipped cream to hold up over time,
namely for it to retain its foam structure without leaking serum.
All products that are rich in components with surfactant properties can
undergo the same procedure. This enabled Hervé This to create his famous
“chocolate Chantilly,” a chocolate mousse made without the need for
cream. Only a little warm liquid is required in which to melt the chopped
chocolate. When whisked, the mixture is turned into a chocolate mousse
free of cream, egg yolks, or beaten egg whites.
USES
Cream is used to make many foods of all kinds: confectionery, ice cream,
pastry, and savory dishes.
Cream has a number of different qualities:
- It adds a velvety texture to pasta dishes and sauces.
- It adds richness and softness to filled chocolate centers.
- When whipped, it lightens the texture of certain preparations.
- It enhances other flavors.
GOOD TO KNOW
Crême fraîche is made by adding a bacterial culture to the cream (except
for raw cream).
Raw cream is not transformed and its consistency depends on its fat
content. Between 7 and 10 liters (12⅓—17½ UK pints/7–10½ quarts) of
milk is required to make 1 kg (2¼ pounds) of cream with a 30 percent fat
content.
Whether in the form of crème fraîche or liquid, cream has the lowest fat
content and calories of all fatty substances: two to three times less fat than
oil and butter.
The food industry has developed products for professional use:
- “Cooking cream”: containing 15 percent fat in the fresh version and 18
percent in the UHT version and is resistant to alcohol and acidic
ingredients. This product, which contains light cream, modified starch,
E440 stabilizer (pectin, which is listed as an emulsifier, gelling agent, and
stabilizer), and bacterial cultures, does not require lengthy reductions.
- So-called “superior” creams, with a fat content of 35 percent, are
particularly suited for whipping.
On June 16, 2017, the Court of Justice of the European Union ruled to
prohibit the use of designations for dairy products (milk, cream, butter,
cheese, yogurt) for plant-based products. Consequently, plant-based creams
do not exist. More or less imaginative names are being used to designate the
types of products that can be used when preparing dishes for vegans and
vegetarians.
© Adobe Stock
BUTTER
The French word for butter, beurre, precisely refers to the dairy product as a
water-in-oil emulsion obtained by physical processes whose components
are of dairy origin (certain exemptions exist for the English term).
REGULATORY ASPECTS
The French decree of December 30, 1988, regulates the name beurre in a
precise way. It specifies the sales descriptions and composition (extracts):
“Butter [beurre] is a food composed of water droplets in fat derived from
milk. In temperate climates, it is a soft solid obtained from milk. Butter is
concentrated fat. The regulations require an emulsion of a maximum 16
percent water in at least 82 percent milk fat. “Butter is obtained by churning
the cream from the milk. A quantity in the vicinity of 20–22 liters (35–38¾
UK pints/21–23 quarts) of whole (full-fat) milk is required to obtain 1
kilogram (2¼ lb) of butter. This process is often performed after souring
(light fermentation) of the cream. Churning of the unrefrigerated cream
(beating cold cream produces whipped cream) collects the fat droplets in
suspension. The butter then separates from the buttermilk. It is then worked
while being rinsed in cold water to improve its shelf life by removing as
much buttermilk as possible.”
PROCESS FOR MAKING BUTTER
Butter is made in 6 stages:
Stages Description
Milk collection Chilling and possible pasteurization
Separation Collection of cream and skim milk
Souring Spontaneous or not

Stages Description
Churning Separation into butter and buttermilk
Washing Operation consisting of the removal of nonfat residues
Working Giving a homogeneous and smooth texture
COMPOSITION
Components Percent Details
82% for unsalted

butter and 80%
Butterfat* Minimum
for semi-salted
butter
Water 16% Maximum
Nonfat dry matter (lactose,

lactic acid, and protein), also
2% Maximum
known as or milk solids-not-fat
(MSNF)
Vitamin A: 700 Levels vary

micrograms according to the
Vitamins A and D
Vitamin D: about season and type
1 microgram of feed
Salt > 5% Salted butter
Semi-salted
0.5–3%
butter
Components Percent Details
Lowest possible Unsalted butter
*Butyric: referring to butter.

There are now different types of butter, including semi-salted butter, low-fat
butter, and spreadable butter. Each type of butter offers new flavors in
perfect harmony with the creaminess of this dairy product.
BEURRE CRU (RAW BUTTER), BEURRE DE CRÈME CRUE (RAW
CREAM BUTTER), AND BEURRE FERMIER (FARMHOUSE
BUTTER)
All types of butters are made from cream. Raw butter is made from raw,
unpasteurized cream. This butter is delicate and has a short shelf life. It is,
however, the most flavorful butter.
BEURRE FIN (FINE BUTTER) AND BEURRE EXTRA-FIN (EXTRA-
FINE BUTTER)
© Échiré
Fine and extra fine butter are both made from pasteurized cream. For extra-
fine butter, production must take place 72 hours after collection of the milk,
while churning must take place within 48 hours. Frozen cream cannot be
used to make extra-fine butter, but 30 percent frozen cream can be used to
make fine butter.
SPREADABLE BUTTER
A new consumer trend has emerged in the age of refrigerators: spreadable
butter. Its production does not require any additives. The butter is melted
and cooled slowly under strictly controlled temperature. The part that is still
soft is separated and kneaded with normal butter to give it a soft texture.
Despite being easy to spread, this product is a classic butter with an 82
percent fat content.
BEURRE ALLÉGÉ (LOW-FAT BUTTER) AND BEURRE LÉGER
(LIGHT BUTTER)
Because these types of butter have a lower fat content, they do not
withstand the high temperatures of cooking due to their high water content.
These butters are made from low-fat, pasteurized cream. Certain additives,
such as starch, are sometimes incorporated. Low-fat butter contains 60–65
percent fat, while light butter contains 39–41 percent fat. It is also referred
to in France as demi-beurre (“half-butter”).
AOC/PDO BUTTERS
As with cream, certain butters have protected status in France in the form of
the AOC (Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée), the French equivalent of the
European Union’s PDO status. These include Beurre d’Isigny, Beurre
Charentes-Poitou, and Beurre de Bresse. Beurre de Charentes-Poitou is
made from milk produced in the departments of Charente, Charente-
Maritime, Deux-Sèvres, Vendée, and Vienne. After pasteurization, the
cream must undergo souring with bacterial cultures for at least 12 hours
before churning. As with Crème d’Isigny, Beurre d’Isigny must be made
from milk collected in a well-defined geographical area within the Cotentin
and Calvados regions, according to a traditional process.
UNSALTED, SEMI-SALTED, OR SALTED?
Butter can be unsalted, semi-salted, or salted. Unsalted butter is simply
made by churning cream. This butter is then combined with a specific
proportion of salt to make salted or semi-salted butter. Salted butter
contains 3 percent salt, while semi-salted butter should contain between 0.5
and 3 percent salt. Although fine salt is typically used, salt crystals can also
be added to butter to give it a little crunch. Salt was originally added to
butter in order to preserve it.
© Président Professionel
© Président Professionel
BEURRE DE BARATTE (CHURNED BUTTER)
Some producers draw attention to the artisan quality of their butter by
including the words beurre de baratte (churned butter) on the label. This
indicates that the butter was made in a traditional churn.
© Sèvre & Belle

ORGANIC BUTTER
As with all organic dairy products, organic butter is made from organic
milk. To obtain the French AB (Agence Bio) mark on the packaging, the
cows that produce the milk must be reared according to organic farming
standards.
© Sèvre & Belle
© Président Professionnel
SUPPLIERS
• Wholesaler
STORAGE
Type of butter Shelf life
About 10 days. French law recommends 30

Raw butter
days.
Fine and extra-fine

6–8 weeks
butter
Frozen butter Maximum 24 months at -18°C (-0.4°F)
Concentrated butter Maximum 9 months at -18°C (-0.4°F)
Butter should be stored in its original packaging away from light and air at
a temperature range of 4–6°C (40–43°F). If the butter is not stored in the
proper conditions, it will become rancid. Butter easily absorbs other odors,
so it is advisable to store it in an airtight compartment. Salted butter keeps
better than unsalted butter.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUTTER
We have classified the different butters into broad categories:
- Conventional butters with 82 percent fat content, known as fresh butter
- Concentrated butters (high fat content),
- Low-fat butters
- Fractionated butters.
BUTTERS WITH 82 PERCENT FAT CONTENT
Type of
Description
butter
Raw
Made from raw milk or cream
butter
Fine Made from pasteurized milk or cream (up to 30% frozen or

butter deep-frozen cream can be used)
Extra-fine
Made from pasteurized milk or cream
butter
These can be stored for 60 days at 4 °C (40 °F), except for raw butter,
which can be stored for 30 days.
CONCENTRATED BUTTERS1
These are butters from which almost the entire content of water and nonfat
dry matter has been removed. Their fat content is between 96.7 and 99.9
percent. They are also called beurres tracés (“traced butters”), because they
contain a colored tracer (usually carotene) that enables them to be
distinguished from 82 percent butters. These butters can be kept for nine
months at 18 °C (64 °F).
LOW-FAT BUTTERS
These are butters with a reduced fat content. Their name depends on their
fat content percentage.
Type of butter Fat percentage
Beure allégé (low-fat butter) 60–65%
Demi-beurre, beurre léger (light butter) 39–41%
Dairy spreads 20–40%
FRACTIONATED BUTTERS
Fractionation is the separation of butter into fractions due to their different
melting points. By gradually heating and cooling butter, it is possible to
differentiate and isolate unsaturated fatty acids from saturated fatty acids.
Butters can then be reconstituted to obtain a more or less firm consistency.
The food industry offers different types of fractionated butters, both 82
percent fat butter and concentrated.
Note: Two types of butter exist in their natural state—dry butter and wet
butter.
UNDERSTANDING THE NOTION OF WET BUTTER AND DRY
BUTTER
Pastry makers using 82 percent fat butters must choose between two types
of butter depending on how they will be used:
- The main feature of wet butters is their low melting point, which makes
them more malleable. This is due to the presence of high levels of (oleic
acid) triglycerides and unsaturated fatty acids. Examples of these are
summer butters and the butters produced in Normandy and Brittany.
- Dry butters have a high melting point, which means that they remain firm
even at a high temperature. This is due to their significant content in
(stearic acid) triglycerides and other saturated fatty acids. Examples of
these are winter butters, Beurre d’Échiré, and the butters produced in
eastern France.
VARIETIES AND USES
Type of butter Uses
82 percent fat butters, “fresh butters”
Raw, fine, extra fine, salted,

All preparations according to their
semi-salted, and AOC/PDO
specific requirements: wet or dry
butters
Dry butters: Winter butters,

Puff pastry, croissants, pains au
Beurre d’Échiré, butters from
chocolat
Eastern France
Wet butters: Summer butters, Buttercreams, almond cream, ganache

Normandy and Brittany butters Leavened doughs and batters
Concentrated butters, “traced butters”
Concentrated butter with

99.8% fat content
All uses: Puff pastry, croissants,
greasing
Cooking butter with 96.7% fat
content
Fractionated butters, “specialty or concentrated 82 percent butters”
Puff pastry, shortbread pastry for

Butter for puff pastry sheeting, leavened doughs and puff
pastry for cold folding
Puff pastry, croissants, pains au

Croissant butter
chocolat
Type of butter Uses
Leavened doughs, brioche, choux

Brioche butter
pastry
Buttercream, almond cream,

Butter for fillings
mousseline cream, ganache
GOOD TO KNOW
The oldest written record of butter dates back 2,500 years, but butter
making is mentioned all over the world throughout history. The Romans
(even Pliny the Elder mentions it in his writings) and the Greeks did not
appreciate it much, and it was considered “poor man’s fat” in France until
the end of the Middle Ages. It was gradually given pride of place by the
northern peoples, who mastered its preservation. From that moment on,
butter was increasingly used in the kitchens of the nobility and gourmets,
and the notion of “terroir”(local) gradually emerged in relation to its
production. It has become an essential pillar of cooking and making pastry.
Improvements in means of communication and transportation enabled it to
become more widespread. The invention of the centrifugal cream separator
in 1879 enabled large-scale production. Industrial production (aided by the
development of pasteurization methods) became widespread in the 1960s,
gradually marginalizing artisan production. Today, France is Europe’s
leading butter producer and the world’s leading consumer of butter: The
French person consumes an average of 8.3 kg (18¼ pounds) of butter per
person per year.
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
FATS
Milk contains more than 500 different fatty acids. Combined with glycerol,
they form triglycerides, the components of fats. Milk fats behave differently
when exposed to cold, a property that is used to fractionate and sort them.
This has led to the development of butter products that are more easily
spreadable straight out of the refrigerator.
The color and texture of butter depend on the cows’ diet. If they are fed on
hay, the butter produced from their milk is pale yellow. In summer, when
the cows eat grass, the butter has a more intense color resulting from the
pigments (beta-carotene and chlorophylls) contained in the grass. It is rich
in vitamin A and also contains vitamin D and vitamin E. It is also has a high
energy value, with more than 730 calories per 100 g (3½ ounces). Butter
contains 63 percent saturated fatty acids, 26 percent monounsaturated fatty
acids, and 3.7 percent polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Butter melts at a temperature close to 30 °C (86 °F). Because the
temperature of the human body is 37 °C (98.6 °F), we can say that it “melts
in the mouth.”
Butter is also used as a fat for frying foods. It is a primary ingredient in
pastry. Using butter in pastry (and cooking) has traditionally been more
common in the northern part of France in contrast with the southern part of
the country, where oil has been more common.
By removing the water and nonfat milk solids from butter, we obtain butter
oil or anhydrous milk fat. This process is known as clarification.
CLARIFIED BUTTER
Home cooks and professional chefs often clarify their own butter. Clarified
butter is obtained by a physical process. The butter is slightly heated to melt
and render the fat. The fat phase separates from the aqueous phase (water)
and floats to the surface. The recovered fat is referred to as clarified butter.
This practice allows for the butter to better withstand high cooking
temperatures of up to 180 °C (350°F) without blackening.
© Adobe Stock
OTHER FATTY SUBSTANCES
Fatty substances (other than milk, cream, and butter, which are dealt with in
the previous chapters) is a term that refers to oils, hard oils, fats, and
margarines, among others.
Oils are fatty substances extracted from fruits and seeds (oilseeds) or
obtained by rendering animal tissue. These oils can be found in two states,
liquid and solid, the latter referred to as “hard oils.” An oil in a liquid state
can be turned into a solid product, mainly through the process of
hydrogenation. Oils are fats in a liquid state at a temperature of about 15°C
(59°F/or even 18–20°C/64–68°F); fats are solid at these temperatures.
Certain oils and fats are derived from animals. Other fatty substances may
have a mixed composition.
Fatty
Origin
substances
Rapeseed, walnut, hazelnut, olive, sunflower, peanut,

Vegetable
soybean, wheat germ, corn, grapeseed, almond, argan,
oil (fluid)
safflower, flaxseed (linseed), sesame, rice bran, poppy seed
Hard Coconut: copra (formally sold in France under the brand

vegetable “Végétaline”), coconut oil. Oil palm: palm oil (fruit pulp),
oil (solid) palm kernel oil
Animal oil Marine: marine mammals and fish (cod liver oil).
and fat Terrestrial: mutton, beef (tallow); pork (lard)
Processed
Plant and/or animal: margarine, shortening. These are
fatty
refined and hydrogenated products.
substances
OILS
How fatty substances are used depend on their composition. They can be
used cold or by applying heat. A distinction is made between fatty
substances used for frying and for seasoning. Each fatty substance has a
critical temperature, known as “smoke point.” It is advisable to ensure the
use of temperatures that do not cause the fatty substance and its quality to
break down and harm the health of the consumer. These are the maximum
recommended temperatures.
Oils Maximum recommended temperatures
Sunflower 170°C (340°F)
Soy 170°C (340°F)
Rapeseed 170°C (340°F)
Corn 180°C (350°F)
Olive 180°C (350°F)
Peanut 180°C (350°F)
Grapeseed 170°C (340°F)
DEFINITIONS TO KEEP IN MIND

• Vegetable oil for frying and seasoning: Linoleic acid content (2 percent
of total fatty acids) is the standard criterion for classifying frying oils (not
exceeding 2 percent) and seasoning oils, or oils that are used cold (may
exceed 2 percent).
• Vegetable oil for seasoning: The oil can be consumed only raw.
• Cold-pressed oil: The oil or fat must not reach a temperature higher than
50°C (120°F) at any stage of the process. It is an unrefined oil.
• First cold-pressed oil: This definition is primarily applied to olive oil. It
is the first oil obtained by mechanical cold pressing. The same olives can
be pressed again to obtain a second or even a third oil. In this case, heat
and solvents are used.
• Virgin… oil: Oil from a single type of seed or fruit obtained solely by
mechanical means. It can be clarified by physical or mechanical means,
although it must not undergo any chemical treatment or refining operation.
However, it may be heated to a high temperature.
• … oil: Oil extracted from a single type of seed or fruit and refined.
• Vegetable oil: A blend of refined oils.
HARD OILS
Hard oils can be used as a frying oil. A distinction is made between so-
called pan-frying (or shallow-frying) at about 120°C (250°F), and deep-
frying, which involves a temperature of about 180°C (350°F).
Maximum
Oils recommended
temperatures
Maximum
Oils recommended
temperatures
Copra (formerly sold in France under the brand name

“Végétaline,” from the coconut shell), coconut oil and 180°C (350°F)
fat (extracted from the pulp).
Palm oil and palm kernel oil 180°C (350°F)
MARGARINE
The name margarine is reserved for the product obtained by mixing fat with
water or milk. There are two phases involved in the composition of
margarine:
- Fatty phase (mixture of oils, fatty substances depending on the desired
melting points and use)
- Aqueous phase (a mixture of water, salt, starch, sugar, possibly
emulsifiers, preservatives, and antioxidants).
Once the fatty and aqueous phases have been defined, emulsification,
stabilization, and mixing are performed.
Note: An emulsion is a mixture of two immiscible liquids obtained by
means of an emulsifier.
There are many margarines available to professionals that are suited to
particular uses:
- Pastry margarine: Puff pastry, leavened laminated doughs, leavened
doughs and batters, and fillings. Melting points take into account the
season, kitchen temperature, and different uses. Pastry margarine sheets
for laminated products, for example, must be able to withstand
turning/folding at any temperature. Their plasticity/malleability must
enable them to be stretched and flattened without breaking to form a
continuous layer of fat between the détrempe layers during the lamination
process. The ability of some margarines to “absorb air and liquids” and to
be emulsified and whipped can give products a light, airy structure (cake
batter, almond cream) and a consistency that makes them ideal for
buttercream fillings.
- Standard margarine: An economical product largely made from animal
fats, fish oils, etc.
- Cooking margarine, superior margarines (used raw, melted, or for
cooking), table margarine, and spreads. These can be enriched with butter.
- Frying margarine: This product can withstand high temperatures.
- Vegetable margarine made from vegetable oils. The level of
hydrogenation adjusts the nutritional properties of the potential essential
fatty acid before processing.
- Diet margarines: These may contain interesting quantities of essential
fatty acids. They are sometimes enriched with vitamin A and E.
Fatty
Name Aqueous phase
phase
20% of which a maximum of 3% may be of

Margarine 80%
dairy origin
Reduced-
60– 40–38% of which a maximum of 3% may be of
fat
62% dairy origin
margarine
Light 39– 61–59% of which a maximum of 3% may be of

margarine 41% dairy origin. It may contain added gelatin
less
Spreadable
than Minimum 61%. It may contain added gelatin
fat
39%
PRECAUTIONS FOR USE

The effects of air, water, and processed foods cause fats and oils to undergo
chemical alterations, leading to their breakdown and the formation of
undesirable compounds.
THE EFFECTS OF THIS BREAKDOWN
• Unpleasant tasting volatile compounds.

• Nonvolatile compounds that can be toxic in large amounts.
• Reduced nutritional value of certain compounds (essential fatty acids,
vitamins).
TO LIMIT THIS BREAKDOWN
• Store fats and oils in optimum conditions. Fats and oils can be frozen
for a longer shelf life.
• Make sure the fat or oil used suits the type of cooking.
• Make sure that the food the fat or oil is being used with contains as little
moisture as possible.
• Do not exceed 180°C (350°F) when deep-frying.
• If possible, avoid frying foods with different structures and
compositions.
• Frequently check the state of the breakdown of the fatty substances to
change them as often as necessary. Diagnosis kits are available.
Measurement can be taken according to polar compounds and/or
polymeric triglyceride compounds.
• Use the appropriate equipment. For example, deep fryers with a cold
zone have proved to be highly practical.
SUPPLIERS
• Wholesaler
GOOD TO KNOW
The properties of a fatty substance can be assessed according to different
criteria:
- fatty acid content
- chain length
- degree of saturation
- melting point, smoke point
- chain structure.
MELTING POINT, SMOKE POINT
• The substance changes from a solid to a liquid state.
• Melting point decreases as the level of unsaturation increases.
• Melting point increases with chain length.
• Critical point of breakdown, smoke point:
- appearance of breakdown and products, among others
- trans-fatty acids, etc.
Oil Smoke point Flash point
Rapeseed 218°C (424°F) 317°C (603°F)
Peanut 207°C (405°F) 315°C (599°F)
Soy 213°C (415°F) 317°C (603°F)
REGULATORY CONTROL OF FRYING OILS

Strict regulations must be observed regarding the use of fatty substances,
particularly when heated. This is because fats and oils tend to break down
and become harmful to health.
Regulatory references
———————
Article 8 of Decree No. 2008-184 of February 26, 2008
“Fats and oils with a content of polar compounds or triglyceride polymers exceeding 25%
and 14%, respectively, are deemed unfit for human consumption.”
Note: The complete regulations are in the “fritter batter” file.

TRANS-FATTY ACIDS
There has been much talk of trans fats, or trans-fatty acids, for many years.
It seems that the concern is more persistent in English-speaking countries.
Although they are depicted in two dimensions on paper, all molecules in
reality have a three-dimensional arrangement in food. This is referred to as
their shape in space. Most fatty substances have what is known as a “cis”
configuration. The fatty acids in certain products, particularly processed and
hydrogenated fats and oils, and those that have been “transformed” by
cooking, take on a “trans” configuration. The latter are extremely harmful.
However, some trans-fatty acids, such as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) are
thought to be beneficial for health.
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
INVENTION OF MARGARINE
Butter was an expensive product at certain times in history. Politicians
made a number of attempts to harness scientists’ inventiveness to create a
similar product at a lower cost. In the mid-nineteenth century, 1 kg (2¼
pounds) of butter cost a worker in France the equivalent of two day’s labor.
During the Paris World’s Fair of 1866, Emperor Napoleon III held a
competition to find a a butter substitute for the navy and lower classes.
Margarine was invented by the pharmacist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès in
response to this challenge. He obtained a patent for his invention on July
15, 1869. The commercialization of margarine began in 1872.
© Museum Agropolis All rights reserved
Portrait of Mège-Mouriès (1817–1880)
Courtesy of the Chambre Syndicale de la Margarinerie et des Industries des Corps Gras Alimentaires.
On July 15, 1869, Mège-Mouriès obtained a patent “for the production of

certain fats of animal origin.”
The manufacture of this fat, the forerunner to margarine, was intended to
replace butter, which had become too expensive for the less affluent social
classes. Further research would be made into the use of tropical vegetable
oils in the manufacture of margarine.
Palm oil, a “vilified” oil
The subject of controversy and vilification, palm oil (hard oil) is (still)
widely used in the food industry. The functional qualities of palm oil—
smoothness, neutral taste, stability during cooking, resistance to oxidation,
resistance to rancidity—have led it to be widely used to make laminated
doughs, particularly croissant dough. Its saturated fatty acid content is
considerable but much lower than in other fats and oils, such as coconut oil,
that are being used to replace it. Composition: 50 percent saturated fatty
acids (of which 43 percent comprises atherogenic palmitic acid), but 40
percent monounsaturated fatty acids and 9 percent polyunsaturated fatty
acids. No hydrogenated products and no trans-fatty acids.
It seems that other considerations were behind the many critical articles on
the subject: deforestation for the cultivation of palm oil, the use of this oil in
products with a reputation for promoting “junk food,” and the prospect of a
“Nutella tax” (not applied to date), where the concern caused by the fat is
combined with that caused by sugar.
The prospect of sustainable production could restore the image of this oil.
COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE VARIETIES

To overcome the various disadvantages that all oils have in terms of
function, health, and nutrition, the food industry offers “blended” oils. For a
seasoning oil, interest lies in having a product high in monounsaturated
fatty acids, for example, and a good ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty
acids. This optimizes the nutritional value of the oil. It should be noted that
peanut oil and flaxseed (linseed) oil are made from ingredients on the list of
the 14 allergens.
OPINIONS DIFFER REGARDING PAN- OR SHALLOW-FRYING
(COOKING IN A SKILLET OR SAUTÉ PAN) AND DEEP-FRYING
(FRYER)
For cooking or not?
Olive oil, including extra virgin olive oil, and peanut oil are well suited to
cooking, because of their monounsaturated fatty acid content and high
smoke point.
Polyunsaturated oils (canola or rapeseed, peanut, corn, sunflower,
safflower, grapeseed) withstand cooking provided they are not reused.
Soybean and wheat germ oils, which are high in alpha-linolenic acid, do not
withstand cooking well.
It should be noted that oils lose their gustatory qualities when subjected to
heat.
Their nutritional qualities are also lost when cooking at high temperatures.
For deep-frying or not?
It is advisable to choose a refined oil with a high smoke point. Peanut and
olive oils are particularly suitable for this type of cooking. Choose oils with
good heat stability and resistance to oxidation (for example: peanut oil).
Avoid sunflower, soy, rapeseed, corn, and palm oil (saturated fatty acids).
There are oil blends specifically for deep-frying in the best conditions, such
as this combination: “Sunflower oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, high-oleic
sunflower oil,* grapeseed oil, and an antifoaming agent.”
* Conventional sunflower oil contains 15–20 percent oleic acid. High-oleic
sunflower contains 80–92 percent (typically 82 percent). It is obtained by
mutagenesis or induced mutation (distinct from trans-genesis). Despite the
consideration by many people that this “manipulation”—authorized in
organic farming—creates GMOs, it enables the “concept” of an organic
GMO to be obtained.
Note: New rapeseed oils are available for deep-frying. Because omega-3
fatty acids are fragile, particularly when heated, varieties have been selected
with a low omega-3 content. A transgenic canola (rapeseed) oil was created
in the United States that contains little alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). In both
cases, their nutritional interest is eliminated.
Logos used in Europe to distinguish the seasoning and the two cooking
methods.
REFERENCES
https://occitanie.dreets.gouv.fr/sites/occitanie.dreets.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/huilef
riture.pdf (available in French)
© Adobe Stock
GRAINS
WHEAT
Wheat is a cereal from the grass family that grows in temperate climates.
The grains of each ear contain a starchy endosperm.
© Gruau d’Or
COMPOSITION OF A WHEAT GRAIN
Nutrients Ingredients Percent
65–
Carbohydrates Starch
70%
13–
Water
16%
10–
Proteins Gluten
12%
Lipids Fat 1–2%
Phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper,

Minerals 0.5–1%
manganese
Vitamins B1, B2, B3, E Traces
MAIN CATEGORIES
• Soft wheat: It is turned into whitish flours.

• Hard wheat: Higher gluten content, this variety is used to make
semolina and certain flours.
Note: Certain wheat varieties are known as semihard. These are hard wheat
varieties whose texture is excessively soft. They are no longer intended for
semolina production but for milling.
French varieties: Syllon, Fructidor, Chevignon.
© Adobe Stock
© Adobe Stock
USES
OTHER SUBSTANCES THAT CAN BE USED TO MAKE

FLOUR
These substances include cereals, grasses, and plants used for human and
animal food in addition to starchy roots and tubers that can be processed
into flour or starch.
MODIFIED STARCHES
Has “E1400,” therefore has food additives?
Modified starches are qualified as ingredients when the process of obtaining
them is based on physical processes. In other cases, the modified starch is
an additive. It is therefore marked with an E.
Only the term “modified starch” is permitted on the packaging. The
permitted daily intake (ADI) is not specified.
Modified starches have undergone various physical, chemical, and/or
enzymatic treatments that give them new functional properties.
They have been designed to be stored in a cold environment and more
precisely to be frozen. Some modified starches allow for instant desserts.
Modified starches allow for:
- rapid thickening without having to be heated. For example, the so-called
“cold” powder for the preparation of pastry cream
- resistance to high temperature heating followed by cooling (positive and
negative = freezing) followed by reheating
- resistance to acidic pH and mechanical stress.
STARCH PROPERTIES
Starch is insoluble in cold water, which means that it is a colloidal
suspension (dispersion of the granules in the liquid without dissolution). If
starch is heated in an aqueous medium, it loses its crystallinity—its ordered
arrangement in aligned molecules. It then undergoes several successive
transformations:
Gelatinization
50–60°C (122–140°F). The water penetrates the grain through the
amorphous zones. This results in swelling, but the grain remains intact. This
is the starch of starch.
Gelation
85–90°C (185–195°F). The process continues but the grain loses its
integrity. Bursting, solubilization, gelling. Viscosity decreases with
continued exposure to heat.
Demotion
During cooling, amylose and amylopectin crystallize. The starch structure is
rearranged into a more rigid form. Then “rejecting water” and obtaining a
“resistant starch.”
Syneresis
Native starches (in other words, obtained directly from the plant species)
are subject to the phenomenon of water retention loss. Particular sensitivity
to acidity, freezing, and thawing. The preparation is said to “slice.” This
results in a loss of viscosity. For these reasons, starches must be modified to
broaden their applications.
MODIFIED STARCHES
Cross-linking
A process that allows the cohesion and solidity of grains to be reinforced by
chemical reagents. It consists of creating bridges between the starch chains.
It acquires resistance to shear, high temperatures and acidic pH. The first
number after the CH = number of cross-links.
Stabilization
Substances (blocking groups) are incorporated to prevent retrogradation.
Stabilized starches are used for frozen products. Native starches do not
tolerate the freeze-thaw cycle. This is the phenomenon of syneresis. They
will be used in particular in:
- foods kept at 4°C (40°F): fresh preparations
- frozen foods
- long-life foods: canned food, etc.
Pregelatinization
Pregelatinized starches derived from native or modified (cross-linked
and/or stabilized) starches may have undergone heat treatment, which
makes them cold soluble. They are used in food preparations:
- ready to use when used cold
- acids (fruit filling)
- undergoing mechanical treatment (mayonnaises) or heat treatment
(custards).
They provide viscosity, improve water retention, and adjust textures.
Note: Pregelatinized starch is not labeled as a modified starch.
GOOD TO KNOW
NUTRITIONAL EFFECTS
The starch that undergoes cooling is said to be “resistant” (designated by
AR for resistant starch) and, moreover, partly nonmetabolized (therefore
less energy), but is probably interesting for the microbiota. This prebiotic
effect seems to be relevant in the regulation of diabetes.
Either the food naturally contains resistant starch, or there is an increase in
resistant starch by cooking and then cooling, when the starch undergoes
retrogradation.
In this case, the so-called “resistant starch” behaves like a fiber, which
completes the insufficient intake despite the recommendation in some
countries (or misunderstanding) of “5 fruits and vegetables.”
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
HUMANS’ INGENUITY IN MOBILIZING AND MAKING THE
MOST OF THE CEREALS
A disease, pellagra, affects populations (often poor) in which tryptophan
and vitamin B3 (or PP for Pellagra Preventive) are poorly represented in the
diet. This is always the case for populations that consume mostly corn
(maize). Faced with this so-called “3 Ds” disease (for dermatitis, diarrhea,
dementia), the populations have taken advantage of this cereal where
vitamin B3 and tryptophan are present but not available when ingested. The
grains are soaked and cooked in an alkaline solution (usually limewater).
This treatment makes the vitamin already present absorbable and
assimilable and makes the available tryptophan present, itself a precursor of
vitamin B3. This is called nixtamalization.
Note: vitamin B3 = vitamin PP = niacin.
ALLERGIC RISKS AND PREVENTION PRINCIPLES FOR

OPERATORS
There are respiratory and skin allergies.
For respiratory allergies (rhinitis and asthma): Wear a work mask.
For skin allergies (dermatitis): Wear disposable gloves.
In case of:
- Rhinitis (sneezing, runny or blocked nose): Store flour in separate rooms,
prefer to transport it by automation, ventilate the workplace well.
- Asthma (shortness of breath, respiratory failure): Limit dust when pouring
bags, capture dust with a ventilation system, vacuum floors and work
surfaces daily.
- Dermatitis (redness, eczema, and strong itching): Keep flouring to a
minimum, use hermetically sealed dough mixers, mix at low speed when
starting.
Favism is a genetic disease. The presence of bean flour must be indicated in
the ingredients of industrial products. There is a derogation for bakery
products, but the maximum threshold of 2 percent bean flour in the total
flour used cannot be exceeded. Favism implies a ban on the consumption of
fava beans (Vicia faba) in any form (raw, cooked, frozen, etc.). Favism can
be covered by an IAP.
© Adobe Stock
FLOUR
Flour is a powder obtained by grinding and milling grains or seeds. Flour

from gluten-containing cereals, such as wheat, is one of the main
components of the food of all peoples of the world. It is the basic ingredient
of bread, pasta, pancakes, and pastries.
When used on its own, the word “flour” refers to the product obtained by
grinding wheat grains, in other words, wheat flour. Where another type of
cereal is used, the word “flour” is featured after the name of the grain.
Examples include: rye flour, barley flour, etc.
COMPOSITION
Components Percentages Details
Starch Starch comprises the energy reserve

60–72%
Cellulose of cereals.
Proteins 8–12% 85–90% is gluten
A high fat content will compromise

Fat 1.2–1.4%
the baking strength of the flour
Elements that are mainly found in

Minerals 0.4–0.6%
the bran
Important in the fermentation

Sugar 1–2%
process
Water 11–12% Maximum: 16%
B1, B3 (niacin or
Vitamins Mainly found in the germ
vitamin PP), E
EXTRACTION RATE
The extraction ratio of a flour is the weight in flour, expressed as a
percentage, that is obtained from a certain amount of wheat.
For example: 100 kg (220 pounds) wheat = 75 kg (165 pounds) flour. The
amount of flour produced is equivalent to 75 percent.
The higher extraction rate, the lower the perceived quality of the flour,
which is considered “less pure” and less white.
Of the remaining 25 kg (55 pounds), 23 kg (50 pounds) comprises bran and
middlings, with losses accounting for about 2 kg (4½ pounds).
ASH CONTENT
In France, the different varieties of flour are classified according to the
remaining dry mass (ash or mineral content) obtained by burning a sample
in a laboratory oven (usually at 550°C/1,025°F or 900°C/1,650°F), giving a
taux (rate), which will determine its type (represented by T). For instance,
burning 100 g (3½ ounces) of French T 55 flour (just over ¾ cup) will
produce less than 0.55 g (1⁄32 ounce) of mineral ash. The lower the ash
content, the purer and whiter the flour, because the minerals in wheat are
mainly found in the bran. There are a number of different types of flour,
each determined by their bran and mineral content. Bran is the outer skin of
the wheat grain, where we find the residues of pesticides and other products
used in the cultivation of wheat. To avoid chemical residues when using
flour with a higher ash content than T 55, organic flours are available—and
recommended. The ash content is influenced by the extraction rate, but
there is no clear relationship between the two.
CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN ASH CONTENT AND “0”
The way of classifying flours varies by country. Types (T) are used in
France, while Italy uses a numerical scale based on 0. This classification is
sometimes used in France.
French Type Corresponding Italian No.
T 45 000
French Type Corresponding Italian No.
T 55 00
© Gruau d’Or
© Gruau d’Or
© Gruau d’Or
DIFFERENT COMPONENTS
Proteins
Composed of proteins, gluten is greatly important in the bread-making
process, because its molecules form an elastic and extensible network that
hold bubbles of carbon dioxide produced by the breakdown of sugars by
yeast organisms. This causes the dough to rise and the crumb to become
aerated. Bread flour is the name given to flours, such as wheat flour, that
contain enough gluten to make the dough rise. A distinction is made
between flours with a high protein or gluten content, known as strong
flours, which are used to make bread, and flours with a low gluten content
(less than 10 percent), known as weak flours, which are used in pastry
making for preparations that require little mixing. An example is the
chemical composition of a T 55 flour, the most common French flour used
for bread making. It can be argued that a flour with a low-ash content is
potentially high in gluten, because the protein is stored in the kernel of the
grain. However, the variety of the wheat and other factors also play a role,
meaning that this assertion cannot be made in all cases.
Starch
Starch is the main component of flour. Present in all cereals, it is a complex
carbohydrate that is (partly) metabolized by yeast to release carbon dioxide.
When digested, the starch molecules are hydrolyzed into maltose and then
into glucose.
When impregnated with water and heated to 70°C (160°F), the starch
thickens to form a paste (which is responsible, for example, for the
thickening of pastry cream).
Water
According to French law, millers must keep the moisture content of flour to
a maximum limit of 16 percent. A higher moisture content would make the
flour difficult to store.
Sugars
Sugars refer to sucrose and glucose, which are found in small quantities in
flour. However, they can be directly fermented and are quickly assimilated
by the yeasts, which allows for fermentation to start.
Fatty substances
The fat in wheat berries is mainly found in the wheat germ and the outer
layers. Because these parts are largely removed during milling, little
remains in the flour. Too much fat would be detrimental to the ability to
store the flour and would interfere with the development of gluten.
Minerals
These nutrients are used to determine the quality and purity of a flour as
well as its type, such as T 45 and T 55. The main minerals found in wheat
grains are phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium. However, they are
mostly stored in the bran and wheat germ, which are removed by milling.
Vitamins
Flour contains few vitamins (they are mostly found in the wheat germ).
Vitamin B1 plays a role in the conversion of carbohydrates by the body into
energy; vitamin B2, promotes growth; vitamin B3 (PP), is essential to enable
cells to metabolize carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins; vitamin E, ensures
the proper functioning of the nervous system and muscles.
According to French regulations, flours are classified according to type or
“baking strength” (in the case of strong fine-wheat flours).
ACCORDING TO THE ASH CONTENT
Note: The French farine de meule, or “stone-ground flour,” is classed as T
65. It has a creamy and slightly grayish color. It is used in local and
traditional baked goods, such as specialty breads.
© Gruau d’Or
PROCEDURE FOR GAUGING BAKING STRENGTH
Put a dough made of flour and water into a device that can inflate it with air
to form a bubble. The air is propelled in a linear and continuous manner, so
the force exerted on bubble’s wall can be measured, as well as its
progressive deformation (inflatation) until it breaks. The main mechanical
property of flour is its baking strength, known as W strength. This is the
property of flour mixed with water to create a dough that is resistant (tensile
strength) and elastic (extensibility). Baking strength is determined by an
alveograph (invented by Marcel Chopin), expressed by the letter W (see the
alveogram above). Gluten’s proteins have properties of cohesion, elasticity,
viscosity, and plasticity. During the bread-making process, they form an
impermeable three-dimensional network that can retain carbon dioxide and
stretch under its pressure to form a honeycomb structure and texture. The
quantity and quality of the gluten affects these processes. The given protein
content is useful, but it cannot be used to assess a flour’s baking quality.
Valuable information is provided by a test based on the quantity of proteins
in gluten and their ability to swell in a lactic acid solution. Known as the
Zeleny sedimentation test, the results are expressed as volume in ml of
settled gluten. It allows for the rapid classification of wheats according to
quality. The test is based on the ability of flour proteins to swell in an acidic
medium. The height of the resulting sediment is measured after stirring and
settling of a flour preparation suspended in a reagent and given a value
between 0 and 70, known as the Zeleny sedimentation value. The higher the
value, the higher the gluten content. There are four categories:
Zeleny sedimentation value Suitability for bread making
1 <16 Unsuitable
2 16–25 Intermediate
3 25–38 Good
4 > 38 High
© Gruau d’Or
Hence these classifications:
- A “weak flour” has a W value of 100–150. It is used to make cookies,
fruitcakes, and sponge cakes.
- A “medium-strength flour” has a W value of 150–180. It is used for choux
pastry and tarts, both sweet and savory.
- A “strong flour” has a W value of 200–300.
The following distinctions are also made:
- Farine de force (strong flour): made from a mixture of high-quality
wheats with a notably high-gluten content. This type is particularly
suitable for pastries.
- Farine de gruau (fine-wheat flour): a strong flour with a higher gluten
content than other flours. It has good plasticity and is well suited for the
production of laminated doughs, whether leavened or not, and pastries.
- Farine de gluten (gluten flour): used to make low-carb breads and to
strengthen weak flours.
SUPPLIERS
• Local flour mill
• Wholesaler
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLOUR
Organoleptic
Characteristics
qualities
The whiter the flour, the purer it is. It must be a uniform

Whiteness
white or cream color, with no blotches or specks.
Smell It should not have a strong smell.
It has a clean taste of wheat in the mouth. Rancid flours

Flavor
have a pungent and bitter taste.
Organoleptic
Characteristics
qualities
The particle size of the flour varies according to the

Particle size mill. A good flour feels soft and smooth to the touch.
There should be no coarse particles or lumps.
In addition to pasting and gelatinization, flour has properties that enable it
to ferment—in other words, to convert its carbohydrates. This is referred to
as enzymatic activity. One enzyme, amylase, plays a key role by gradually
breaking down the starch into fermentable “sugars.” The enzymes present
in yeast take over this important activity at the start of the bread-making
process.
By law, certain ingredients can be added to improve the quality of T 55
bread flour. The following improvers can be added under certain conditions:
- malt flour, fava bean flour, soy flour
- amylase and xylanase enzymes
- ascorbic acid, soy lecithin.
STORAGE
Storage conditions are key to preserving flour. Premises that are too hot
and/or too humid will quickly cause the flour to turn rancid and provide
good conditions for pests to breed. Any shortcomings in the cleanliness of
the premises would have the same consequences.
GOOD TO KNOW
GLUTEN AND CELIAC DISEASE
Gluten is composed of insoluble proteins, including glutelins and
prolamins. Gluten intolerance is caused by gliadin, a protein (prolamine)
fraction in wheat. In the case of barley and rye, it is caused by hordein and
secalin, respectively.
Mnemonic for remembering gluten-containing grains: BROWS (barley, rye,
oats, wheat, spelt), in addition to T for triticale, E for einkorn, and K for
Kamut or khorasan wheat. It is therefore important to remember:
BROWSTEK.
The French term épeautre refers to three very different types of cereal, with
the particular distinction made between grand (large) épautre and petit
(small) épeautre. Petit épeautre, also known as engrain, is einkorn wheat,
an ancient variety that contains a small amount of gluten. It has been noted
that some people who are allergic to gluten can tolerate it in small
quantities. This tolerance can sometimes also be observed with oats.
Moyen (medium) épeautre or amidonnier blanc is used to refer to emmer
wheat, also known as farro.
List of gluten-FREE cereals: corn (maize), rice, millet, buckwheat, quinoa,
chestnut, sorghum, fonio. These are therefore not suitable for making bread.
Note: Gluten-containing products are mandatory declarable allergens.
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
Celiac disease is (actually) an intolerance to gluten, because there is an
immune reaction. It is a very disabling condition.
Sometimes referred to as gluten intolerance, celiac disease is an
autoimmune disorder characterized by villous atrophy (damage to the lining
of the small intestine). This disease is a permanent intolerance to different
protein fractions in the gluten contained in different types of grains, such as
wheat, barley, and rye. It leads to the poor absorption of certain nutrients
(vitamins, iron, calcium, etc.) and therefore nutritional deficiencies. People
with the disease must follow a strict gluten-free diet for life. There are no
drug treatments for celiac disease today.
Celiac disease should not be confused with a gluten or wheat allergy, which
is a food allergy, or with nonceliac gluten sensitivity, which is a somewhat
controversial clinical entity.
Nonceliac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) has emerged in scientific studies in
recent years. It presents with symptoms similar to those of celiac disease
and irritable bowel syndrome when consuming foods containing gluten. It is
believed to affect between 3 and 6 percent of the population, but this is
uncertain, because it is often self-diagnosed.
It is mainly caused by what is known as FODMAPs, an acronym for
fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols,
which are short-chain carbohydrates and sugar alcohols. Found in
abundance in the modern Western diet, these are poorly absorbed by the
small intestine. Restricting their intake is considered beneficial in cases of
irritable bowel or other functional gastrointestinal disorders. The low-
FODMAP diet has had certain success.
THE VALUE OF CERTAIN SUGARS
Fructooligosaccharides (FOS), also known as oligofructose, are a type of
carbohydrate naturally present in certain vegetables and fruit, such as
asparagus, onions, chicory, artichokes, garlic, and bananas. FOS are a form
of soluble dietary fiber. They comprise one sucrose molecule linked to one
or more fructose molecules. Short-chain FOS are obtained by linking one,
two, or three fructose units onto sucrose. Long-chain FOS are obtained by
the hydrolysis of inulin.
The particular structure of FOS makes them difficult to digest in the small
intestine. They work as soluble fiber in the colon, where they serve as a
substrate for gut bacteria, known as bifidobacteria. Studies have shown that
this bifidogenic effect in humans is associated with improved intestinal
transit, stimulation of the immune system, and an antidiarrheal action; in
other words, a prebiotic effect. It has also been suggested that bifidobacteria
plays a role in the prevention of colon cancer in animals. It should be noted
that this bifidogenic effect is recognized from a dose of 5 g of FOS/day
(Source: https://www.cultures-sucre.com/faq/quest-ce-que-les-fos-fructo-
oligosaccharides/ (available in French)). A dose of about 10 g/day may
cause some digestive discomfort. In 2012, the European Union health
authorities ruled on health claims for dietary supplements containing FOS
and did not permit claims related to gut health or cholesterol levels.
REFERENCES (AVAILABLE IN FRENCH)
https://www.vidal.fr/parapharmacie/complements-alimentaires/fructo-
oligosaccharides-oligofructoses-fos.html
http://www.cuisinedaubery.com/les-types-de-farine-quelle-farine-pour-quel-
usage/
https://www.passeportsante.net/fr/Maux/Problemes/Fiche.aspx?
doc=maladie_coeliaque_pm
© Adobe Stock
RISING AGENTS AND LEAVEN
RISING AGENTS
Rising agents is a generic term that groups together substances that differ
greatly in both their composition and uses. Rising agents are also called
leavening agents. Certain rising agents found in nature have many
drawbacks.
The function of rising agents is to “leaven,” that is, to cause dough or batter
to increase in volume or rise.
The following distinctions are made:
- Biological rising agent, known as yeast, particularly “baker’s yeast”
- Chemical rising agent, particularly baking powder.
The role of yeast in brewing was noted by Louis Pasteur in about 1856. He
demonstrated the part it played in the fermentation process that transforms
sugars into alcohols and carbon dioxide.
Yeasts have actually been used since the dawn of time to make bread and
alcoholic beverages. They live on fruit, flowers, and other sources of
sugars.
Yeast is the name given to a single-celled fungus that multiplies by
budding. Yeast is obtained today from beet molasses.
Baking powder allows for carbon dioxide to be produced under the
optimum conditions of heat and humidity.
SUPPLIERS
• Wholesaler
COMPOSITION
Baker’s yeast is a living microorganism. There are 12 billion cells in a gram
of yeast. The typical strain is Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Nutrients Percentage
Water 70%
Nitrogenous substances 14%
Sugar 12%
Minerals 2%
Cellulosic materials 2%
Vitamins B group vitamins and vitamin E
Note: 10 grams of yeast provides:

- 1.2 mg vitamin B1 (85 percent of the recommended daily allowance or
RDA)
- 3.7 mg vitamin B3 (20 percent of RDA)
- 0.4 mg vitamin B6 (25 percent of RDA)
- 0.15 mg vitamin B9 (75 percent of RDA).
The main chemical rising agent is baking powder. Its activity is due to a
chemical reaction involving at least three components:
- Baking soda (bicarbonate of sodium), which is an alkali (also known as a
base). It is the actual rising agent that causes carbon dioxide to be released.
- An acidic component (tartaric acid: E334, citric acid: E330, sodium acid
pyrophosphate: E450), which hastens the release of carbon dioxide and
neutralizes the aftertaste of the baking soda during baking.
- A buffer of filler ingredient that prevents the premature reaction of the
previous components, provided there is no heat or humidity. It is typically
a starch.
It is advisable to add baking powder as a last step and to bake as soon as
possible after its addition.
USES
Baker’s yeast is used for leavened doughs: bread, brioche, savarin,
croissant, etc.
In France, yeast, levure, is sometimes referred to as levure biologique
(organic yeast), to distinguish it from baking powder, levure chimique.
It comes in different types:
- Fresh yeast (most often as compressed yeast)
- Active-dry yeast
- Instant dry yeast
- Liquid yeast.
You can also find fast-acting yeast and other yeasts for specific use.
Osmotolerant yeasts are strains that can withstand different sugar
concentrations.
Baking powder is employed to get batters to rise, such as those used to
make fruitcake, madeleines, gingerbread, and pound (madeira) cake, among
others.
As a general rule, baking powder is used with fairly runny batters that must
be baked soon after the wet ingredients are combined with the flour and
baking powder mixture.
You can find gluten-free baking powder.
STORAGE AND PRECAUTIONS FOR USE
Fresh yeast
Fresh yeast cannot withstand extreme temperatures.
It can be stored in the refrigerator in an airtight container at 4°C (40°F) for
several weeks. It can also be frozen.
It is used at a proportion of between 2 and 4 percent of the weight of the
flour.
Baking powder
Baking powder should be stored away from air and moisture.
Do not use stale or expired baking powder.
Do not exceed the proportion of 20–25 g (¾—⅞ oz/1½—2 tablespoons) per
1 kg (2¼ lb/8 cups) of flour, depending on the brand.
Sift the baking powder with the flour.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD BAKER’S YEAST
Quality criteria Fresh yeast Stale yeast
Color Light Red
Smell Good Vinegar-like smell
Taste Pleasant Acidic or unpleasant taste
Consistency Firm Dry or soft and sticky
Fresh yeast is a living product and is affected by both heat and cold. Yeast
cells become dormant at 3°C (37°F), and die at 50°C (120°F). Ideally, it
should be stored within a temperature range of 4–6°C (40–43°F).
Active-dry yeast is typically used in hot countries and on ships. It can be
stored for 3–6 months at room temperature. It only needs to be rehydrated
for use.
ACTION AND USE OF YEAST
The action of yeast depends on:
- Flour strength (a high-gluten T 45/pastry/Italian “00” flour should be
used)
- Kneading quality (the dough should not be heated too much during the
kneading)
- The amount of salt and sugar used (salt “burns” the yeast and yeast feeds
on sugar)
- Moisture content (if dry, the dough forms a tough skin; if wet, dough is
sticky)
- Temperature (the ideal temperature is 37°C/98.6°F. Yeast is sensitive to
drafts)
- The amount of yeast (the more yeast you use, the faster it works, but it can
affect taste). In general, 20–50 g (¾—1¾ ounces) of yeast are used per 1
kg (2¼ lb/8 cups) of flour, depending on the recipe and the time of year.
LEAVEN
A leaven, also known as levain and sourdough starter, is defined by two
criteria:
- It contains an acidifying microflora essentially consisting of yeast and
lactic acid bacteria.
- It is a paste or dough (flour, water, salt) that undergoes a natural acidifying
fermentation process whose function is to ensure that a bread dough will
rise.
There are two types of commercially available leaven:
- Sourdough powder (dried)
- Deactivated fermented flour/inactive sourdough starter.
Baker’s yeast: 0,09 lb (42 g)
© Adobe Stock
STAGES OF BREADING FERMENTATION
Fermentation takes place in four stages:
Étapes Méthodes Descriptions
The yeast is diluted in water and added

live
during the kneading process.
The yeast is diluted with one-quarter of

sourdough the flour and added to the dough when
it has doubled in volume.
A classic bread is made with flour,

water (the quantity of water is
calculated from the weight of the bread
Ensemencement divided by two), salt, and yeast. On
“poolish” means that you isolate some
flour, water, and yeast. The goal is to
on create a fermentative dynamic. Process:
“poolish” Take one-third of the flour and add the
same amount of water and all the yeast.
You can add a little honey or sugar. Let
it grow. The whole thing is gathered
together with the remaining flour and
water. When this mix is ready, proceed
to the kneading.
Obtaining an elastic and homogeneous

Kneading dough. Setting up the gluten. Mixing
the ingredients.
Fermentation
The yeast is in action:
- on starches, dextrins: hydrolysis to
release glucose
- on the glucose, by releasing carbon
dioxide and alcohol.
The dough swells.
Fermentation stops (50°C/120°F) due to

inhibition of yeast enzymes. Under the
influence of the gradual increase in
temperature due to the cooking process,
Cooking the various ingredients turn into a “gel.”
The dough consolidates, freezes. The
Maillard reactions take place and are
responsible for the appearance of odors,
flavors, and colors.
Note: Rising powders are prohibited in bread making.
FURTHER AFIELD
Traditionally, historians describe the cooking of food as an important step in
the kitchen. It seems that the human genius was manifested long before in
the discovery and mastery of fermentation. “Fermentation, well before
cooking, defines the specificity of humanity in the art of feeding itself, of
potentiating the nutritional properties of food.”1
Fermentation is involved in the development of substances that give rise to
the “umami” sensations, the 5th flavor or “delicious taste. Three amino
acids are involved: glutamic acid (glutamate), guanylic acid, and inosinic
acid. Hence the classification of monosodium glutamate, or MSG, as E621
(flavor enhancer).
© Adobe Stock
EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS
EGGS
An egg is an organic object formed in the female of different species of
oviparous animals as part of the reproductive process. The name “egg”
without a qualifier indicating the species of origin is applied to the egg of a
domesticated chicken hen. All other eggs must include the name of the
animal, for example: quail egg, ostrich egg, etc. Chicken eggs are an
ingredient in numerous dishes in many culinary cultures around the world.
Eggs are a valuable food source, because they contain all the nutrients
needed for a future organism. In particular, they are rich in highly digestible
proteins consisting of essential amino acids.
COMPOSITION
Composition of a 60-g (2⅛-oz) egg

Part Weight Percentage
Shell 6 g (3⁄16 oz) 10%
Yolk (vitellus) 20 g (¾ oz) 30%
White (albumen) 34 g (1 3⁄16 oz) 60%
It should be noted that with larger eggs, the weight of the white increases,
whereas the weight of the yolk tends to remain stable.
Guide for pastry making
Volume Quantities
1 L (¾ pints/4¼ cups) eggs about 21 US large (UK medium) eggs
1 L (¾ pints/4¼ cups) egg about 60 US large (UK medium) egg

yolks yolk
1 L (¾ pints/4¼ cups) egg about 32 US large (UK medium) egg

whites whites
250 ml (8¾ fl oz/1 cup) egg about 8 US large (UK medium) egg
whites whites
Nutritional information
Eggs are an excellent source of protein (proteins of high biological value,
because they contain large amounts of the essential amino acids, or EAAs).
The egg yolk is partly comprised of protein, whereas the egg white contains
only protein. Two whole eggs contain 10–12 g of protein, which is as much
as half a serving of steak haché. Egg protein is the least expensive animal
protein.
It is also an important source of lipids (yolk) with a sizable amount of
dietary cholesterol. The impact of dietary cholesterol on blood cholesterol is
put into perspective when considering the important influence of
enterohepatic circulation. In fact, there is an autonomous flow of
cholesterol between the liver (biliary system) and the digestive tract. The
function of this circulation can vary and exert a strong influence on blood
cholesterol. In this case, there is negligible influence from dietary
cholesterol.
Finally, an egg has a high content of fat-soluble vitamins and a low content
in water-soluble vitamins, particularly vitamin C.
Note: The color of the shell or yolk has no effect on flavor or nutritional
value. The color of the yolk depends on the hen’s diet, while the shell color
is genetic. In order to improve the flavor and nutritional value of eggs, some
farmers feed flaxseed (linseed) to their hens.
There are two categories of eggs suitable for artisan pastry:
- Class A (or fresh eggs): Only this category of eggs can be sold to
consumers.
- Class B: Eggs that do not or no longer meet the quality thresholds of class
A eggs. They are destined to be used in the food industry.
Class
These eggs must not be cleaned, and they must not be treated for
A
preservation. Eggs in France can be described as:
- Extra frais (extra fresh): Air space height of 4 mm (⅛ inch)
when packed. Packed within four days of laying and sold
within seven days of laying. After this date, the part of the label
containing the word “extra” must be removed. They are then
described as “frais” (fresh).
- Frais: Air space height of ¼ inch (6 mm) when packed. They
can be packed up to seven days of laying.
Class A egg packaging must bear on the outer surface in easily
visible and clearly legible type:
- The code of the packing center where the eggs were classified
and packed
- Class (A) and weight.
Class This category includes eggs that have been treated by chilling or
B for preservation (whether or not refrigerated in a mixture of
gases), and Class A eggs that have been downgraded.
Source: https://lesepicuriensdemontbrison.jimdofree.com/espace-etudiants/2%C3%A8me-
ann%C3%A9e-bep/les-œufs/ (available in French)
Class A eggs in Europe are graded into four categories according to weight:
- XL for very large eggs (73 g and above)
- L for large eggs (63–73 g)
- M for medium eggs (53–63 g)
- S for small eggs (below 53 g).
The number of eggs given in the recipes in this book are for US large (UK
medium) eggs unless otherwise stated in a recipe.
LABELING
The following information must appear:
Extra-fresh/Fresh
According to EU regulation No. 589/2008 regarding marketing standards
for eggs:
© Matines
© Matines
© Matines
1. The words “extra” or “extra fresh” may be used as an additional quality
indication on packing containing Class A eggs until the ninth day after
laying of the eggs.
2. Where indications referred to in paragraph 1 are used, the laying date and
the time limit of nine days must be shown on the pack in such a way as to
be easily visible and clearly legible.
Packing date/Laying date
Egg producers can indicate either the packing date (on the packaging) or the
laying date (usually on the actual eggs) or both.
Best-before date/date of minimum durability
The marking “best-before…” (BBD) is mandatory. It is the recommended
date by which eggs should be consumed. This date should exceed more than
28 days after laying.
However, eggs must not be sold to end consumers later than 21 days after
the laying (SBD: sell-before date). They must be removed from the shelf
seven days before the date of minimum durability.
It is not mandatory to indicate the date of laying.
Date of minimum durability

This is the date up to which Class A eggs retain their specific properties
when properly stored. It is fixed as the twenty-eighth day after laying. It is
marked in the following order:
- The day, expressed in numeric characters between 1 and 31
- The month, expressed in numeric characters between 1 and 12 (or
alphabetic characters of up to four letters).
EGG MARKINGS
Farming method
The method of rearing the laying hens must be specified on the egg
packaging. A distinction is made between:
Production
Code Characteristics
type
The hens are fed an organically produced diet.

Organic They have access to outdoor runs covered with
egg 0 vegetation. Indoors, they are provided with nest
production boxes, perches, and the feed they require. 6 hens
per 1m2 (10 sq. ft.).
The hens have access to an outdoor run during the

Free-range day. A building to shelter them from the weather.
egg 1 Label Rouge eggs are marked with code. 1. 9 hens
production
per 1m2 (10 sq. ft.).
Barn egg This indicates that the hens are free to roam
2
production around inside a space without an outside run.
This accounts for most French egg production. It

meets the new European Union standards in force
Enriched- since January 2012. Colonies of 20 to 60 hens live
cage egg 3 in a new system of housing furnished with their
production own perches and nests. These measures were
taken after criticism of what was known as
“battery farming.”
Source: https://oeuf-info.fr/infos-filiere/france-diversite-des-modes-delevage/ (available in French)
Note: A commitment has been made by the related interprofessional

association to ensure that 50 percent of laying hens in France are reared
using alternative methods by 2022.
Organic eggs are labeled as organically farmed eggs. They are allowed to
bear the AB (Agence Bio) mark, but it is not a mandatory requirement. It
requires that the hens must be fed a diet that is at least 95 percent organic.
Part of the feed ration must originate in the place where the hens are kept.
The maximum density is 6 hens per 1 m2 (10 square feet) indoors. The hens
have outdoor access. Artificial light is acceptable, but it must be turned off
for at least 8 hours during each day.
The standards required for certification by the Nature et Progrès, Demeter,
and Bio Cohérence labels are even more demanding than those required for
the AB marking. The hens must be fed on an exclusively organic diet.
The term “free range” indicates that the hens have access to pasture with
about 10 m2 (100 square feet) space per hen.
Such descriptions as oeuf de ferme (farmhouse egg), oeuf coque and
fraîcheur coque (fresh eggs for boiling), and oeuf du jour (freshly laid egg)
are not regulated and have no real value.
Example:
Code: 3 FR WFB02
- The “3” signifies that the egg was laid by a caged hen.
- “FR” indicates that the farm is in France.
- “WFB02” is the registration number of the producer and building in which
the egg was laid.
New packaging
© Adobe Stock
A “new” type of egg tray has appeared on the market. It holds 20 eggs
instead of 30. These cardboard trays are smaller and come with a more
informative traceability card attached, allowing the eggs to be tracked to
their final destination.
Labeling for a canadienne* or demi-canadienne box
*Canadienne (“Canadian”) is the name given in France to a carton

containing 360 eggs. During World War II, Canadian producers were
mobilized to supply their soldiers with large numbers of eggs. The type of
carton used was probably similar to that used today and made of wood.
Nowadays, canadienne cartons are mostly made of cardboard.
Suppliers
• Farm, agricultural cooperative
• Wholesaler
• Packing center
FOOD SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS
The bacteriological risks involving eggs are mainly due to the presence of
salmonella.
It is therefore necessary to implement good food safety practices when
handling them.
Do not wash the eggs to avoid destroying the cuticle, their protective
coating.
Monitor storage temperature (6–8°C/43–46°F).
Follow the logical FIFO (first in, first out) stock-rotation method.
Limit inventory.
Keep the eggs upside down (the air chamber facing upward) so that the
yolk is well centered, helping to prevent contamination (egg white
contains lyzozyme, which has antibacterial properties). When storing
eggs for more immediate use, keep them in the middle of the refrigerator
to protect them from temperature fluctuations when the doors are
opened.
Never put egg cartons directly on the work surface.
Wash hands with (antibacterial) soap before and after handling: sorting,
breaking.
Use clean equipment.
Take out eggs as needed.

Break and separate eggs at the last minute (just before using them).
Prevent contamination that could be caused by their origin (hen’s

digestive tract) by avoiding all contact between the contents of eggs and
their shell, particularly when breaking and/or separating them.
Avoid storing large amounts of egg whites, even if refrigerated. Should

the need arise, consider using egg products.
Do not use bare hands to separate eggs. Do not use your finger to scrape
out any remaining egg from inside the shells.
After mixing or beating eggs, filter out the chalazae and any broken egg
shell through a stainless steel conical sieve.
Testing for freshness.

Egg float test: Place the egg in a saucepan filled with water. It can be
eaten if it sinks to the bottom.
An egg comprises shell membranes, an air chamber, egg white, yolk,
chalazae (spiral bands of tissue), vitamins, and minerals.
The physicochemical properties of the different components give them their
functionality. It is advisable to study them to ensure familiarity with
traditional processes and to be able to invent new ones.
* The importance of the proteins in egg yolk (low-density lipoprotein, or
LDL) and the role they play as a surfactant that aids foaming and
emulsification seems to have been overlooked.
Egg white proteins
* Lysozyme is an enzyme that can break down the protective membrane of
pathogenic bacteria, causing them to burst. Although present in blood and
milk, it is found in the largest amounts in egg white.
Egg yolk proteins
Egg yolk is an oil-in-water emulsion.
Egg yolk lipids

Lipids are divided into lipoproteins, triacylglycerol, and phospholipids. A
class of phospholipids is the phosphatidylcholines, the best known of which
is lecithin, an excellent surfactant.
In fact, proteins and phospholipids act together in the emulsion process.
In practice
Characteristics Applications
Aromatic and
Creams, pastry
sapid properties
Foaming and rising Meringues, soufflés, fritter batters, Savoy sponge

properties cake, ladyfingers, joconde sponge cake, etc.
Custard, different forcemeats, consommés, crème

Binding properties
brûlée
Emulsifying and
stabilizing Sabayon
properties
Coloring
Glaze (pastry)
properties
GOOD TO KNOW
Two trillion eggs are consumed in the world each year (2012, source
WHO). Chicken eggs account for two-thirds of these, while the remaining
third comes from other birds.
France produces 13 billion eggs/year, making it the leading egg-producing
country in Europe.
French consumption is 230 eggs/year per person.
In France, 97% of people eat eggs.
Americans prefer eggs with white shells.
Europeans (particularly the Latin countries) prefer eggs with brown shells.
While the most commonly consumed eggs are from chickens, the eggs of
other birds are also consumed. These include quail, duck, goose, ostrich,
emu, and megapode eggs, among others. Fish eggs, known as roe, such as
caviar, are also used in human food. However, their use is very different
than that of poultry eggs.
The eggs used in cooking are unfertilized and are used fresh, less than 28
days after being laid. Asian culinary traditions sometimes use eggs that are
fertilized or preserved by fermenting for several weeks, such as the century
egg.
Century eggs are treated with arsenic, then covered with a crust of mud and
rice husks and left for two or three weeks, when they are ready to be eaten.
They are sold still covered in their brown crust. They are eaten as a snack,
for example, on a slice of bread with a little ginger.
There are also salted eggs, which are covered in a black paste (clay) in a
process that partly cooks them.
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
Storing eggs
According to the European Union regulation in regards to the storage of
eggs (point 7 of the recitals), cold eggs left out at room temperature can
become covered in condensation, facilitating the growth of bacteria on the
shell and probably their ingression into the egg. Therefore, eggs should
preferably be stored and transported at a constant temperature, and, in
general, should not be refrigerated before sale to the final consumer.
But, Article 12 of the same regulation contains the following specification
for packs of Class A eggs (for sale to private individuals, Class B being
reserved for industrial use): “as a special storage condition in accordance
with Article 3 (1)(6) of Directive 2000/13/EC, an indication advising
consumers to keep eggs chilled after purchase.”
In fact, it is much more preferable to store eggs at room temperature. The
advantage of this is that bacteria, which are sensitive to temperature
variations, are not subject to “stress.” Eggs have their own defenses,
particularly the cuticle on the surface of the shell, which hinder
microorganisms from penetrating into the egg. If eggs are stored in the
refrigerator, the shell becomes even more porous and microbes are able to
pass through. This is why eggs sold in European stores are always at room
temperature. However, storing them at room temperature in a commercial
kitchen poses an important concern. Because eggshells are always a little
porous, the water contained in the white will gradually evaporate, causing it
to become drier than normal.
Studies (regarding salmonella, Escherichia coli, Listeria, Campylobacter)
conducted in a number of English-speaking countries were not able to
conclude that one method was of greater interest than the other.
Nonetheless, certain recommendations are made. If you prefer to chill eggs,
it is recommended that eggs removed from the refrigerated compartment
and not used (for various reasons) are temporarily stored at room
temperature and then used first when making a new preparation.
Note: It should be noted that many culinary professionals are reluctant to

handle “dirty” eggs. Many clean them immediately before use.
Hazards and risks
The egg and egg product industry is subject to strict food safety standards,
enabling the prevalence of salmonella on farms to be reduced. Voluntary
quality procedures have been put into place, particularly at the processing
facilities: ISO 9001/ISO 22000. Mandatory procedures are also
implemented in the form of specifications, examples being certification
according to BRC (British Retail Consortium) and ISF (International
Featured Standards, based in Germany) standards. HACCP tools and
different procedures are implemented.
The use of egg products (powdered egg whites, liquid eggs, etc.) can be a
possible alternative for pastry. Aside from their practicality, their use is
recommended when high food safety standards cannot be assured. It is
necessary to be extra vigilant in this regard when offering services to frail
people, particularly when dealing with institutional food service or
particularly large production runs.
Despite the efforts of manufacturers, the presence of certain substances can
make them the subject of vilification and controversy, as occurred when
fipronil and amitraz (pesticides) were detected in August 2017.
Note: Egg proteins can cause food allergies.
Animal Welfare
Hens begin to lay eggs at 17–18 weeks of age. They lay about 300 eggs in a
year.
Hens typically lay a clutch of 4–6 eggs (or slightly more) and then will
incubate them.
It is therefore necessary to collect them regularly.
Both consumers and professionals are aware of the need to improve the
living conditions of animals. Milk and eggs are particularly valued in pastry
making, hence the special status of these two ingredients: humans benefit
from the animals that provide milk and eggs and do not need to kill them
for this purpose.
Source: https://www.compassioninfoodbusiness.com/awards/good-egg-award/ (available in French)
Since 2007, the Good Egg Award has recognized companies that use or
have committed (within five years) to use cage-free eggs or egg products.
The egg that doesn’t kill the hen.
Initiatives are being taken to ensure that hens are not sent for slaughter after
18 months, when they are no longer productive. Part of the price paid by
consumers covers the management of end-of-lay hens. To avoid having to
destroy the male chicks that are of no use for laying, the industry is
implementing a laser technique for sex determination of the chick on the
ninth day of incubation. This technique, which is still not very widespread,
makes it possible to select females before they hatch.
FOLKLORE
Ovomancy, also known as oomancy, is a form of divination using eggs. In
the past, both the shape of the egg and those of the white and yolk were
used to tell the future. In more recent times, only the white of the egg is
used. Different ways:
- Fill a glass bowl three-quarters full with water and sprinkle in a few grains
of coarse salt. Then add a very fresh egg white, taking care to remove the
germ spot. After letting it rest for 24 hours in a dry place, take a lamp and
observe the figures that will have emerged.
- Put one or more egg whites into a bowl of water. Put the bowl near the
oven and observe the changes that take place.
These must be interpreted in order to predict the future.
http://www.snipo.com/qui-sommes-nous
https://www.lesoeufs.fr
https://oeuf-info.fr
http://agriculture.gouv.fr/etiquetage-des-oeufs-mode-demploi
https://www.economie.gouv.fr/dgccrf/Publications/Vie-pratique/Fiches-
pratiques/Etiquetage-des-oeufs
http://www.mieuxproduire.fr/
https://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/laffichage-environnemental-des-produits-et-
des-services-hors-alimentaire
EGG PRODUCTS
To facilitate the use of eggs, the industry offers them as egg products; in
other words, types other than eggs in their shell. These 100-percent natural
products are widely used by the food and catering industries, particularly
for reasons of convenience, hygiene, and cost. French companies meet their
expectations by offering comprehensive ranges as well as “custom”
products.
There are two main categories of egg products:
- Egg products from “first processing” are simply the result of breaking
eggs. Egg whites, yolks, and whole eggs can be found in liquid, frozen, or
powder form.
Liquid whole eggs, egg yolks, and egg whites made from free-range eggs © Ovoteam
- Specialty egg products are cooked table eggs, or formulated and/or cooked
egg products. In this case, they are used directly by consumers or by the
professionals in the catering industry and include omelets, scrambled eggs,
hard-boiled eggs, and poached eggs, among others. These are ready-to-use
products that can be offered on different menus (institutional food service:
school cafeterias, companies, hospitals, nursing homes) or used as
“ingredients” for preparations destined for food service establishments
(hotels, restaurants, fast-food restaurants, fast casual restaurants, bakeries,
ghost kitchens, etc.), such as salads, burgers, and sandwiches.
Fresh omelet made from free-range or organic eggs © Ovoteam
Scrambled eggs made from free-range eggs © Ovoteam
Shell egg: the source of egg products
Eggs unused by the table egg sector due to quality issues are downgraded
and processed into egg products.
Examples: include eggs that are downgraded on the farm (upstream of
packaging) or at packaging centers during candling or grading operations,
and when they are too small or too large to be sold as table eggs.
Moreover, the eggs used to make egg products may also come from farms
set up specifically for this purpose.
PROS
• Easy and simple to use.
• Time and labor saving.
• Little or no waste (use of white or yellow).
• Easy to store and preserve.
• Excellent functionalities (emulsion, binding, coagulation).
• Bacteriological guarantees.
INFORMATION ON EGG PRODUCT MANUFACTURING METHODS
The manufacture of egg products involves strictly controlled processes to

guarantee natural products of the highest quality. To be turned into egg
products, shell eggs undergo different stages. They are broken, separated,
filtered, homogenized, pasteurized, and chilled to 3°C/37°F (for example:
pasteurization of whole eggs at 64–70°C/147–158°F, yolks at 59–
63°C/138–145°F, and whites at 62–66°C/144–150°F).
The egg product family includes, among others:
- liquid egg products
- dried egg products
- frozen egg products
- processed and cooked egg products.
Specific product and packaging types
All of these have specific features to meet the requirements of the food
industry, catering industry, and baking/pastry-making sector.
Bulk packages are mainly intended for the food industry. Smaller package
types are available: 1-, 2-, and 3-liter (about 1-, 2-, and 3-quart) containers,
among others, and in different practical designs to avoid excessive
handling.
Dried egg products are also offered as ready-to-use mixes. Egg powder is in
particular demand due to its many properties, including high protein
content, emulsifying properties, resistance to heat, etc. Processed egg
products are the result of either cooking eggs directly in the shell or
preparing recipes cooked using liquid egg products, such as hard-boiled
eggs, poached eggs, fried eggs, omelets, scrambled eggs, etc.
Free-range or organic hard-boiled eggs © Ovoteam
Free-range poached eggs © Ovoteam
SUPPLIERS
• Wholesaler
THE CASE OF EGG WHITES
Although whole eggs, whites, and yolks in liquid form have been around
for a long time, they are mainly used by institutional food service and large-
scale pastry-making facilities.
The white on its own is most often used in the powdered (dehydrated) form,
and its functional properties are completely retained. The white is
incorporated into preparations that mainly require its foaming and
stabilizing properties. Egg white powder can be added to liquid egg white.
Liquid egg white has a large number of uses, particularly in pastry making,
due to its functional properties (aeration) or for its microbiological qualities.
Separation to obtain quality egg white is the result of a combination of
control over both the selection of the raw material (age of the hens, egg
size) and the actual separation process, where controls ensure no yolk is
mixed with the white (measurement of fat content). A superior-quality
white will not require the use of any additives in the composition of specific
food products (macarons, chocolate mousse, etc.). Some egg white products
are formulated with stabilizers to provide optimum hold and stability (for
example, beaten egg white stiffness) to meet demand from the baked goods
and pastry industry. Finally, egg white is recognized for its microbiological
qualities for use in the composition of entremets/desserts (little cooking
required).
THE CASE OF EGG YOLK
Egg yolk is used as a binding agent for sauces and emulsions. It adds its
beautiful, bright yellow hue and is used to emulsify fats and increase the
firmness of certain mixtures. Its molecules also retain aromas.
REFERENCES
https://oeuf-info.fr/infos-filiere/les-ovoproduits-les-oeufs-coquilles/
(available in French)
Powdered mix range © Ovoteam
© Adobe Stock
SUGAR
Sugars and sweeteners are classified according to different criteria:

• According to sweetening power (their “sweet” taste) or sweetening
function. A sweetener is typically defined as a substance that gives a
sweet taste but without the addition of calories (see the section on
sweeteners: high-intensity sweeteners and bulk sweeteners).
• Chemical formula:
- Sugars, which are carbohydrates
- Polyols, also known as “sugar alcohols,” which are sugars possessing the
function of alcohol, in other words, an OH value.
• Regulations.
• Product of origin.
• Glycemic Index (GI).
The material commonly referred to as sugar is actually sucrose (99.9
percent), one of the most common carbohydrates.
This sweet-tasting substance derived mainly from sugar beets or sugarcane
comes in the form of bright white, colorless and odorless prismatic crystals.
Although the two main sources of sucrose in the world are sugar beets and
sugarcane, there are other, lesser-known sources, such as certain palm trees,
sweet sorghum, and maple.
For a better understanding, a distinction is made between sugar and
sugars:
- Sugar (uncountable, without any other qualifier) refers to the sugar made
from sugar beets or sugarcane. It comprises sucrose, which is made up of
equal parts of glucose and fructose molecules.
- Sugars (with and “s”) refers to the single molecule of glucose, fructose,
galactose, and mannose, and equally to a disaccharide (comprising two
molecules), such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
Properties of sugar:
- It is crystallizable and highly soluble in water (particularly at high
temperatures), when heated in a concentrated solution, it melts, gradually
loses its water, and then carbonizes—a process known as caramelization.
- Its sweet flavor is—along with saltiness, sourness, and bitterness—one of
the four “basic” tastes that can be perceived by humans.
- It is a nutrient with a metabolizable energy value (essential to biological
life) of 4 calories (17 kJ) per gram.
- Sweetening is one of the oldest forms of preservation, particularly for
fruits (preserves and candied fruits).
Just over 80 percent of sucrose is extracted industrially from the root of the
sugar beet. The rest is broken down by fermentation between the time from
the beet being harvested to the sugar being extracted.
COMPOSITION
A sugar beet contains approximately:
- 76 percent water
- 15–18 percent sucrose
- 4–5 percent pulp
- 2–3 percent unsweetened components.
White (refined) sugar contains 100 percent sucrose.
SUGAR VARIETIES
Different types of sugar are sold in stores, depending on the size of the
crystals and whether or not they are agglomerated. The most common
commercially available types are:
- White granulated sugar (or refined sugar): it must be at least 99.7
percent purified and crystallized sucrose. It is collected from centrifuges
after the syrup crystallization processes.
- Superfine (caster) sugar: produced by grinding and sifting white
granulated sugar. Mainly used for desserts and pastries, it is also an
excellent sugar for household use.
- Confectioner’s (icing) sugar: produced by grinding white granulated
sugar into a fine powder and to which starch is added to prevent caking.
- Sugar cubes: sugar molded into different shapes (standard cubes, hearts,
clover leaves, etc.). They are made by compacting white or raw sugar in
molds while still hot and moist.
- Rock candy: produced by slow crystallization of a concentrated and hot
syrup. It is mainly used make brandied fruits, homemade aperitifs, and
liqueurs.
- Raw cane sugar: raw sugar with a golden or tan hue produced by the
crystallization of raw cane juice under a vacuum.
- Vergeoise sugar (French equivalent of brown sugar): available as blonde
(light brown) or brune (dark brown), this soft sugar is made by reheating a
syrup with the addition of color and flavor of the natural components of its
raw material, either sugarcane or, mostly, sugar beets.
- Liquid sugar or sugar syrup: a clear or amber solution of beet or
canesugar containing about 65 percent sugar.
SPECIALTY SUGARS
- Gelling sugar (also known as jam sugar): crystallized sugar with the
addition of fruit pectin and natural citric acid, ingredients that facilitate the
setting of preserves and their storage.
SUGAR(S) FOR PROFESSIONAL USE
In addition to the commercially available types of sugar, professionals in
the food industry use the following sugars in specific applications:
- Invert sugar (also known as inverted sugar): known in France by the
brand name Trimoline®, it is an aqueous solution made by hydrolysis, the
chemical breakdown, in water, of sucrose. It contains glucose and fructose
in equal proportions, with possibly a sucrose fraction. It comes in liquid
form. It is widely used to make pain d’épices (gingerbread), fruits
preserved in syrup, and pastries. It is also the sugar used to make
confectionery, madeleines, almond paste and marzipan, fondant, and any
pastries that need to remain soft. Invert sugar stabilizes moisture content
and enhances color during the cooking process.
- Fondant: a white, supple, and sticky paste with a thick consistency, it is a
concentrated sugar syrup comprising small sugar crystals. For use, fondant
must be melted over a bain-marie and can be colored (food coloring) and
flavored (kirsch). To keep it shiny, it should not be heated above 35°C
(95°F). It is used for frosting cakes and petits fours.
- Popping sugar: sugar is embedded with CO2 (the gas in carbonated
beverages) under pressure through a process of successive cooking and
cooling. On contact with saliva, the sugar dissolves and the gas is released,
producing a fizzy effect in the mouth. To retain this effect, this sugar
should be used in preparations with a low moisture content and not heated
(the sugar will dissolve and lose its fizz).
- Pearl sugar (also known as nib sugar): a hard sugar made by compressing
refined sugar into clumps, it is distinguished by its high purity and
characterized by optimum hardness obtained by cold extrusion at high
pressure and by a gradual drying process. The white and compact pearls
are used in leavened dough products (waffles, brioches, craquelin). It is
often used to decorate pastries, particularly chouquettes.
Type Production Characteristics
Produced by the
Invert
(acid or enzymatic) Equal ratio of glucose to fructose
sugar
hydrolysis of sucrose
Contained in many
fruits and honey. It
Fructose can be extracted
(levulose) from invert sugar
and is a product of
sorbitol conversion
Type Production Characteristics
Produced from corn

or wheat starch by
acid or enzymatic
hydrolysis
Glucose With 26–55% DE*=

and/or glucose syrup Used mainly in confectionery and
glucose cookie making
syrup With 80% DE =
glucose power
(atomized glucose)
With 99.5% DE =
dextrose
It is mainly used in the United

High- Made from glucose States in beverages, ice cream, etc.
fructose syrup (part of the with a higher fructose content
corn glucose is converted (about 50%) than in France (20%).
syrup to fructose) Also known as glucose-fructose
syrup and isoglucose.
Maltose Derivative: maltitol
Contained in the
berries of the
mountain ash
Polyol or sugar alcohol
Sorbitol (rowan) tree (sorbus
Laxative activity
in Latin, hence the
name) but mainly in
plums
* The dextrose equivalent (DE) value is the degree of starch hydrolysis into
glucose. The higher the DE, the greater the degree of hydrolysis that took
place and the greater the proportion of simple (short-chain) sugars.
The different sugars do not all have the same sweetening power:
Type Sweetening power
Lactose 20
Maltose 35
Isomalt 50
Sorbitol 50
Glucose powder 50
Glucose syrup (DE 60) 40–60
Glucose 50 (glucose)/70 (dextrose)
Sucrose 100
Invert sugar 120
130
Fructose (levulose)
150 cold
Honey 130
ORIGIN
Sugar forms inside plants (although it is not a plant, as the advertising of
some sugar brands improperly suggests). Through photosynthesis, the
action of sunlight and chlorophyll cause the formation of organic
compounds, which become fixed in the form of starch in their leaves and as
glucose in their storage organs. These sugars will later be converted by
polymerization into either starch (potato) or sucrose (sugar beets and
sugarcane).
EXTRACTION PROCESSES
Different
Sugar beet Sugarcane
stages
Washing Magnetic separator

Method
Slicing into thin strips called
Shredder/Crusher
cossettes
Diffusion by soaking in water Pressing

at 80% The resulting juice
The resulting juice contains: contains:
Extraction 13% sugar 17% sugar
84% water 80% water
3% impurities 3% impurities
(Residue: pulp) (Residue: bagasse)
Liming (hydrated lime)
Purification Carbonation (CO2) Decantation
Filtration
Evaporation
Crystallization
SUPPLIERS
• Wholesaler
PROPERTIES
Sugar has a number of properties that play an important role in pastry
preparations.
• Sweetening agent: This is sugar’s main role, sweetening power may
vary according to the sweetener used.
• Preservative: Sugar is a preservative, because its hygroscopic nature
allows for water to bind to it. One sucrose molecule can form bonds
with six water molecules. Once a bond is formed, the water is no longer
available and the water activity (aw) value decreases. This means that
microorganisms no longer have enough moisture in which to develop
(for example: fruit preserves, condensed milk, fruits preserved in syrup,
fruit syrups).
• Coloring agent: Sugar breaks down at temperatures of 190°C (375°F)
and above. It then plays a role in the complex processes of the Maillard
reaction (coloring pastry) and caramelization.
• Flavoring agent: Sugar regulates flavors by toning down the sour and
bitter taste of certain products.
• Fermentation agent: Sugar is the quintessential fermentable substance.
It serves as a basic food for yeast (leavened dough, alcoholic
beverages).
• Texturizing agent: Sugar lowers the hardening point of ice cream,
reduces gluten hydration in doughs and pastries, makes it easier to beat
egg whites until stiff, and gives chocolate mass a more fluid and
crunchier texture.
• Crisping agent: Because of the large amount of sugar used, sugar
enables cookies to become crisp.
• Decorating agent: Dusting (confectioner’s/icing sugar), glazing
(syrup), in the form of caramel, pulled sugar, etc.
GOOD TO KNOW
GLYCEMIC INDEX (GI)
Any ingestion of sugars results in their absorption by the small intestine and
an increase in the blood sugar level, which is regulated by the hormone
insulin. This increase at the time of ingestion is expressed as a rise in
glycemia. Glycemia refers to the amount of glucose (not sugar) in the
blood. It is typically around 100 mg/dL (there may be differences due to
measuring methods). Some high-sugar foods cause blood glucose to spike
quickly. Others cause it to rise less, more often over a longer period. In
order to differentiate between them, sugar—mainly sucrose—is used as a
reference, and any changes to the normal fasting blood sugar curve caused
as a response to the ingestion of different sources of sugars are observed.
By superimposing the different responses, comparisons are made in the
form of its glycemic index (GI) rating. Sugars that cause a lower response
than that of sucrose have a value below 100. Sugars with a more drastic
response than that of sucrose have a value above 100. For health reasons,
low GI sources of sugar are recommended.
We tend to use sugar for its sweet taste. Some sugars sweeten more than
others. This is reflected in their sweetening power.
By using a sugar with a higher sweetening power, we need less of it. This is
an advantage when it comes to counting calories.
We can easily deduce from this that we should (as far as possible) look for a
sugar with a high sweetening power and low GI.
Certain “fashionable” sugars are considered to possess many properties.
Among them is coconut blossom sugar. Although its success is not expected
to last, it can be used momentarily to illustrate the process. Depending on
the source, there are variations in the assessment of its GI rating: 35 for
some producers and about 50 for others.
A table in metric, such as the one given below, can be used to evaluate a
dish in a meal.
CASE STUDY: GENOISE WITH CRÈME ANGLAISE (CUSTARD)
Basic ingredients for genoise sponge cake:
- Flour: 125 g (4⅜ oz/1 cup)
- Eggs: 4 pc
- Sugar: 125 g (4⅜ oz/⅔ cup)
Basic ingredients for crème anglaise (custard):
- Milk*: 75 ml (⅓ cup/2½ fl oz)
- Sugar: 185 g (6½ oz/1 cup)
- Egg yolks: 4–5 pc
*To be more accurate, the sugar in the milk (lactose) should be included.
However, milk is found in the same proportions in all four recipes, so it can
be omitted, because it has no effect on the demonstration.
The ingredients shown in bold above are the only ones that contain
carbohydrates. Therefore, only the sugar and flour will be analyzed in the
table below.
The table shows recipes for genoise with crème anglaise (custard) with
variations in the type and amount of sugar (sucrose) used:
- A. Traditional recipe
- B. Recipe where the conventional sugar is replaced by coconut blossom
sugar. Because it has a stronger sweetening power, less is used. The 310 g
(1½ cups/4½ oz) of conventional sugar in the traditional recipe is replaced
with 200 g (⅞ cup/7 oz) of coconut blossom sugar.
- C. Recipe in which half of the conventional sugar is replaced by a
sweetener.
- D. Recipe in which the half of the conventional sugar is replaced by a
sweetener in the batter and entirely replaced in the crème anglaise
(custard).
For a dessert, a glycemic load of between 20 and 25 can be considered a
“good” value. It is also important that the meal in its entirety is balanced
overall.
According to certain authors, it is neither necessary nor desirable to
systematically avoid high GI foods. They believe that the physical reality of
their consumption (quantity) and other parameters, such as fat content and
dietary fiber content, must also be taken into account.
Note: All or part of the flour can also be replaced with maltodextrins. It
would also be wise to use low-GI flours, such as chia, quinoa, and hemp.
Note: There are many sugars with many benefits:
- Agave syrup
- Maple syrup
- Rapadura, unrefined whole cane sugar, sometimes known as Sucanat,
from the French sucre de canne naturel (natural cane sugar).
- Demerara, cane sugar in the form of light brown crystals.
- Kithul syrup, the sap extracted from the stem of a palm tree, just below the
flowers. It contains equal parts fructose, glucose, and sucrose.
- Panela, also known as piloncillo, comes in the form of a sugar loaf. Sugar
cane juice is boiled down at high temperature and the molasses obtained is
cooled in molds.
- Muscovado, made by heating raw sugar cane juice. After evaporation, the
dark brown residue is crushed.
- Galabé sugar
- Coconut blossom sugar.
These are sometimes referred to as “whole cane sugars.”
THE CASE OF HONEY
Honey is not a sugar but is still included with the sugars.
Classification
• According to origin:
- Blossom (floral) honey: flowers (for example, borage honey)
- Honeydew honey: different sweet substances.
• According to color and texture:
Type of honey Color and texture
Acacia honey bright yellow
Canola (rapeseed) honey white and crystallized
Composition
It contains water (15–20 percent), sugars (80 percent), and different
residues. The sugars are:
- Sucrose: the higher the sucrose content in a honey, the more it will
appear as crystallized.
- Glucose: the higher the glucose content in a honey, the more it will
crystallize; canola honey, clover honey.
- Fructose: the higher the fructose content in a honey, the more fluid it will
be; acacia honey.
Honeys do not have the same GI rating. Acacia honey has a low GI of 35;
multifloral honey has a GI of 80. It is the only naturally produced invert
sugar. It has the functional properties of invert sugar and can therefore
replace it (while adding a particular taste) in so-called travel cakes.
Traditional uses: Pain d’épices (gingerbread), nougat.
Quality labels:
• PGI: Miel d’Alsace, Miel de Provence.
• PDO: Miel de Corse, Miel de Sapins des Vosges.
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS
Sugar is the subject of much controversy and vilification. While this

appears to have been taken to extremes in some respects, it would be a
mistake not to listen to consumers, public authorities, and the medical
profession.
It is necessary to have at least a minimum amount of information to be able
to reason and not be unduly influenced.
There is no doubt that sugar plays a part in different dietary problems, some
of which have been known for a long time, while others have more recently
been identified.
A “new” condition seems to have appeared all of a sudden, known as
nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), a fatty liver disease that can lead to
cirrhosis. Until recently, cirrhosis was systematically associated with
(excessive) alcohol consumption.
A high sugar intake appears to have been established as the origin of this
disease, which has dreadful consequences. It is also been given the
nickname of “soda disease.” Blame has also been pointed at fructose.
“Desugaring” is therefore recommended for both consumers and
professionals.
However, the question remains of identifying where these sugars are and
what their actual sources are.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO) RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommended sugar intake is 10 percent of total calorie intake, which

is about 50 g/day for a total calorie intake of 2,000 calories.
This amount refers to free sugars (including those contained in fruit juices,
added sugars, and/or other sources, such as honey).
A product labeled “sugar-free” may therefore contain sweeteners and
polyols.
Note: The word glucides in French replaced the term hydrates de carbon
(carbohydrates), which was considered obsolete. However, the term
carbohydrates is still the correct term in English.
In regard to sugars, a maximum sugar intake of 100 grams per day is
sometimes given, including the sugars present in fruit, vegetables, milk, and
dairy products. Since 2017, the French Agency for Food, Environmental
and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) has been recommending a
sugar intake of less than 100 grams for all foods, excluding lactose.
Note: The calculations made by the French government’s Nutri-Score rating
system and the different applications given to it take into account total
sugars (those added and those naturally present). However, the score refers
to 100 g of product, not the serving consumed.
Counting calories has become a major consumer trend. This phenomenon is
combined with the demand and respect for natural products. It has become
fashionable to want to cut down on sugar. While the intention is
commendable, it seems absurd to crusade against adding sugar while
recommending at the same time, for example, fruit powders, nuts, glucose
powder, concentrated fruit juices, honey, raw canesugar—especially when
the substrate for certain thickeners and gelling agents is glucose syrup.
The use of processed products can be troubling. However, it is not new; our
predecessors did not only utilize “natural products”: “Wheat (or glucose)
syrup is very much in use. It is added to the sugar for glazing fruits; it is
also added to apricots and red currants; by heating it, it is used as a glue for
fruits on desserts. It is very cheap; we put it in the baba.” (Le nouveau
pâtissier glacier français et étranger, p. 138, Pierre Lacam, 1865).
WHAT DO THE DIFFERENT NUTRIENT CONTENT CLAIMS MEAN?
“Low sugar”
The product contains no more than 5 g sugars per 100 g (in solids) or 2.5 g
sugars per 100 ml (in liquids).
“Sugar free”
The product contains no more than 0.5 g sugars per 100 g or per 100 ml.
“No added sugar”
No added simple carbohydrates or sweetening agents. If sugars are
naturally occurring, the label must state: “Contains naturally occurring
sugars.”
“Reduced sugar”
Content in sugars reduced by at least 30 percent compared to a similar
product. Note: Since 2012, the “reduced sugar” claim can be made in
France only if the energy value of the product is less than or equal to that
of a similar product.
RESOURCES
https://www.cultures-sucre.com/actualites/barometre-opinionway-les-
francais-affirment-leurs-attentes-citoyennes/ (available in French)
© Adobe Stock
SYRUPS
Syrups are made of water and sugar. They are usually made by heating.
Sugar content is controlled by using a saccharimeter (sugar density
meter/hydrometer) to measure sugar concentration. In France, this
concentration was previously measured using the Baumé scale (°B) until its
use was prohibited by Decree No. 61–501 of May 3, 1961. Current sugar
density meters are graduated between 1,000 and 1,400 g/ml.
A refractometer was used in France until recently. The unit of measure is
the degree Brix (°Bx). It indicates the content of dry solids in a syrup based
on metric measuring units. For example, a syrup comprising 500 ml water
and 500 g sugar is a syrup that will have a strength of 50 °Bx. Depending
on the source, results may differ due to the temperature at which the syrup
was tested.
The presence of sugar in the water alters the boiling temperature of the
mixture.
To convert degrees Baumé to degrees Brix, divide by 0.55

To convert degrees Brix to degrees Baumé, multiply by 0.55
STAGES OF COOKING SUGAR
The process of cooking sugar is simple but delicate. It also involves the risk
of burns.
The following recommendations are given:
- Use clean utensils.
- Measure the ingredients carefully and the water, which should be one-
third the weight of the sugar (you can add glucose).
- Mix gently and bring to a boil.
- Keep a container of cold water nearby to wash down any sugar splatters
on the sides of the pan, using a clean brush.
- Carefully insert the thermometer into the sugar to monitor the cooking
process.
Experienced professionals can determine the degree of cooking by carefully
taking a little cooked sugar with their fingers (well moistened beforehand)
and dipping it into cold water. The sensation of the sugar’s consistency led
to the expressions: ball stage, thread stage, and crack stage, among others.
UTENSILS AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
The syrup can be measured with a saccharimeter (or sugar density meter), a
candy thermometer (or sugar thermometer), an electric probe thermometer,
or a refractometer.
Monitoring the temperature of the sugar as it cooks is a guarantee of
success. Determining the stage by the sensation of consistency is less
accurate.
REFERENCES
http://www.basesdelacuisine.com/Cadre6/z6/pp911b.htm (available in French)
© Adobe Stock
SWEETENERS
A sweetener is a substance that gives a sweet taste. Sugar is therefore a

sweetener. However, in common parlance, a sweetener is a product that
gives a sweet taste but with no (or very little) energy value. Sweeteners
include:
- Intense sweeteners: these have an intense taste and a caloric value close to
0. Whether or not they are harmful to health has been a regular topic of
controversy. In principle, a very high intake would be needed in order to
consider them a risk to health.
- Bulk sweeteners (also known as polyols): the particularity of these is that
they provide a lower level of sweetness than that of intense sweeteners
while providing about half the calories, namely, 2.4 cal. They do not cause
tooth decay, but some have a consumption limit and, if exceeded, can have
a negative effect on intestinal function.
In both cases, their consumption does not directly affect blood sugar levels.
Some scientists believe that sweeteners (especially intense sweeteners)
interfere with the perception of sweetness. In fact, compensation
phenomena could ultimately lead to the consumption of more sweet
products.
INTENSE SWEETENERS
SWEETENING POWER
Sweetener Sweetening power
Acesulfame-K
200
E950
Aspartame
200
E951
Cyclamate
30–40
E952
Sweetener Sweetening power
Saccharin
300–400
E954
Sucralose
500–600
E955
Stevia rebaudiana
200–400
E960
Neotame
7,000–13,000
E961
ACCEPTABLE DAILY INTAKE (ADI)
Sweetener ADI Commercial Description
15 mg/kg
Acesulfame-
(2¼ lb) of
K Acesulfame potassium
body
E950
weight/day
40 mg/kg
Composed of phenylalanine* and aspartic
Aspartame (2¼ lb) of
acid. The ADI is equivalent to consuming
E951 body
30 cans of diet soda!
weight/day
7 mg/kg
Cyclamate (2¼ lb) of
Sodium cyclamate and calcium cyclamate
E952 body
weight/day
Sweetener ADI Commercial Description
5 mg/kg
Saccharin (2¼ lb) of
The oldest artificial sweetener.
E954 body
weight/day
15 mg/kg
Sucralose (2¼ lb) of
Obtained by the chlorination of sucrose.
E955 body
weight/day
4 mg/kg
Stevia
(2¼ lb) of Extracts from this plant are used,
rebaudiana
body particularly steviol glycosides.
E960
weight/day
0–2 mg/kg This intense artificial sweetener derived

Neotame (2¼ lb) of from aspartic acid is a dipeptide with a
E961 body chemical structure similar to aspartame that
weight/day does not degrade to phenylalanine.
* Phenylalanine is an amino acid associated with the disease phenylketonuria. All babies born in
France are screened for it. Nevertheless, manufacturers insist on taking precautions by providing
information on the labels. Example: “contains aspartame” and “sweetened with aspartame.” In
addition, the label must state “contains phenylalanine.”
BULK SWEETENERS
The qualifier “bulk” means that these sweeteners take up volume in a
product and have a weight (dry solid basis). They can therefore be used to
replace part or all of the sugar in a recipe.
SWEETENING POWER AND USES
Sweetening
Sweetener Uses
power
Sweetening
Sweetener Uses
power
It takes its name from the fruit of the

mountain ash (rowan) tree (sorbus in latin),
where it is found. In fact, it is mainly present
Sorbitol
0.5 in plums and raspberries.
E420
Also known as glucitol, it is a naturally
occurring polyol (not a synthetic sugar as
often seen in scientific literature).
Mannitol
0.5 Naturally occurring in mushrooms.
E421
Obtained by the transformation

(isomerization) of a part of glucose into
fructose. It comes in powder or granule
form. Used in a number of preparations to
Isomalt reduce the energy value and to make
0.5
E953 decorative elements. It is easier to work with
than sucrose, and allows for the “sugar”
items to be stored more effectively due to its
lower hygroscopic effect (“wetting” effect)
than that of sugar.
Naturally occurring in very small quantities

in milk, tagatose is obtained by processing
lactose. It can be used both cold and hot. It
has good resistance to heat and caramelizes
Tagatose
1 more quickly than regular sugar. It is usually
E963
combined with other sweeteners to make a
powder that can replace sugar in many
cooked preparations, both sweet and savory.
Its taste is close to that of ordinary sugar.
Sweetening
Sweetener Uses
power
Maltitol “Fresh” effect in the mouth. Does not add

0.8
E965 color.
Lactitol
0.4 Used in confectionery.
E966
Xylitol Extracted from birch bark.

1
E967 Refreshing effect.
Naturally occurring in some fruits and

Erythritol fermented products.
0.7
E968 Contains 0.2 cal/g.
“Fresh” effect in the mouth.
Polyols (bulk sweeteners ending in—ol, such as sorbitol and lactitol) can be
used to retain moisture in brioches and cakes.
Polyols have no ADI and no toxic effects have been identified. The
quantum satis (as needed) rule applies.
Sweeteners undergo regular reassessment for toxicity.
SUGAR BLENDS
These blends are half-sugar and half-artificial sweetener (mainly a bulking
sweetener).
They have two advantages:
- The sugar content of a traditional recipe is halved.
- The volume of sugar is replaced by the same volume of the sugar blend.
The main interest lies in having the volume (mass) with which to work and
the presence of real sugar.
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
The problem of sugar addiction is raised on a regular basis. Our unbridled
appetite for sugar is considered the cause of much of the harm done to our
health and, more generally, to society.
Some critics have suggested that it can be likened to a drug addiction.
Experiments on animals have demonstrated that when placed in the
presence of drugs and sugar, they choose sugar. Perhaps, they were simply
hungry and, for pleasantly resolve this need, the sugar presented them with
many advantages.
Flavor enhancers play a part in our perception of sweetness. For example,
glycine (1 of 22 amino acids) has a sweet taste and is a flavor enhancer,
hence its classification as E640.
© Adobe Stock
WATER
Water, which is found in abundance on the earth, is essential to the survival

of all living beings, whether animals or plants.
It has unique physical properties derived from the composition of its
molecule and the way these molecules bind with each other.
It can be found in three states: liquid, solid, or gas.
Humans has always wondered about the nature of water. For Aristotle
(384–322 BC), water—along with fire, earth, and air—was one of the four
elements of the universal reality. During the same period, Democritus (460–
370 BC) believed that, on the contrary, matter was composed of small
indivisible particles (the word “atom” comes from the Greek atomos,
meaning indivisible). The Aristotelian theory was accepted until the
seventeenth century. In the late eighteenth century, however, everything was
called into question. In 1766, the English physicist Cavendish succeeded in
demonstrating that water was a compound of hydrogen. This was later
followed by the discovery of oxygen by Joseph Priestley in 1774. On June
27, 1783, in France, Lavoisier and Laplace achieved the synthesis of water
using one part oxygen and two parts hydrogen. In 1800, Anthony Carlisle
and William Nicholson performed the first analysis of water by immersing
copper wires connected to a battery (invented by Volta), resulting in the
recovery of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen. The
chemical formula for water is therefore H2O. This research into the
structure of water paved the way for modern chemistry.
QUALITY CRITERIA
Water quality takes two aspects into account:
- Health and hygiene
- Comfort and pleasure.
The search for comfort and pleasure may seem secondary to health.
However, for users accustomed to the domestic comforts of home, it has
also become essential. Professionals working in the field of water are
therefore making every effort possible to meet this expectation. Whether it
comes out of a bottle or a faucet, drinking water, also known as potable
water, should be an enjoyable and totally safe experience for consumers.
In France, strict sanitary regulations apply to water intended for human
consumption (bottled water is excluded). Based on a European Union
directive, they were drawn up by the Ministry of Health for inclusion in the
Code of Public Health and issued in the form of the ministerial orders of
January 11, 2007, and January 21, 2010.
Their aims are to ensure the sanitary quality of water from its raw source to
the home. These regulations are based on medical studies and the current
recommendations made by the World Health Organization (WHO). They
set out maximum permissible daily doses (MPDDs) for substances, or limits
that a person can consume safely every day during a lifetime. On this basis,
the maximum allowable level of substances in drinking water was
calculated, leaving an adequate margin of safety.
DRINKING WATER OR “WATER FIT FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION”
French regulations no longer use the terms “drinking water” or “potable

water” but water that is “fit for human consumption.” To guarantee an
average daily water consumption of 2 liters (3½ UK pints/8½ cups) per day
during a lifetime and without posing a risk to health, it is essential that the
water supplied for human consumption meets more than 70 health and
environmental criteria.
It must be colorless, odorless, tasteless, and perfectly clear.
FOCUS ON THE FRENCH CODE OF PUBLIC HEALTH
Article L.1321-1 of the French Code of Public Health states the following
principle: “Any individual who supplies water to the public for human
consumption, whether in return for payment or free of charge and in any
form whatsoever, including edible ice, is required to ensure that the water is
fit for consumption. The use of water that is unfit for consumption for the
preparation and preservation of any foodstuffs and goods intended for
human consumption, and the use of water that is unfit for domestic
purposes are prohibited…”
This text applies to all types of water intended for human consumption,
defined as follows:
- Any type of water, either in its original state or after treatment, that is
intended for drinking, cooking, food preparation, or other domestic
purposes, whether supplied from a supply network, from a tank, a tank
truck, or tank ship, in bottles or containers, including spring water and
natural mineral water.
- Any type of water used in food businesses for the manufacture,
processing, or preservation of products or substances intended for human
consumption, which may affect the safety of the final foodstuffs, including
edible ice.
According to the Code of Public Health, the municipalities (communes) are
responsible for the treatment and distribution of drinking water.
BOTTLED WATER
The term “bottled water” applies to table water, spring water, and mineral
water.
COMPOSITION
LEVEL OF ACIDITY: PH
• Acidic pH (1–6): acidic water.

• Neutral pH (7–9): normal water.
• Basic or alkaline pH (10–14): basic or alkaline water.
Note: A pH level that is too high can have negative effects on yeasts.
WATER HARDNESS
The degree of General Hardness (dGH or °GH), also referred to as the
German degree, is a unit that measures water hardness, in other words, the
mineral content of water. There is also a French degree (°f or °fH), which is
not to be confused with degrees Fahrenheit (°F).
It is proportional to the concentration of calcium and magnesium, to which
the concentrations of iron, aluminum, manganese, and strontium are
sometimes added.
Note: 1 °fH = 0.740 dGH
The dGH of water without calcium and magnesium (for example, distilled
water) is zero.
Water remains drinkable regardless of its hardness.
Nonetheless, hard water greatly impairs the performance of certain heating
appliances.
One solution is to soften the water or use a reverse osmosis filtration
system.
MINERAL WATER
As the name indicates, this type of water has a high mineral content.
However, not all mineral water is potable, it depends on its mineralization
level. In fact, mineral water can be classified as sulfurous, alkaline, or
ferruginous, etc.
USES
IN PASTRY
• Dough and
batter formation:
- Flour hydration—the starch grains gradually swell
- An essential ingredient for certain biological reactions (fermentation)
and/or chemical reactions (moisture and heat in batters containing baking
powder).
- Enables the dissolution of sugar, salt, etc.
• Rehydration of powder mixtures.
Note: This is the gradual conversion of some of the water into steam, which
by increasing in volume, creates enough pressure to make puff pastry rise.
IN CONFECTIONERY
- Preparation of sugar syrups.
IN CHOCOLATE MAKING
- Preparation of fillings, coatings, etc.
A FEW REMINDERS
Regardless of the kitchen, water is the medium for cleaning and
disinfecting. That is why it is so important to keep control over your water
supply.
The use of detergents and disinfectants must be dosed to avoid
compromising the water after it is discarded.
Hard water requires a higher dose of detergent. The opposite applies to soft
water.
The density of water is 1. Therefore 1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram.
Tap water must meet the criteria to be considered safe. The competent
authorities may request test results.
Water has a cost. This is a consideration when determining the total and
precise cost of a dish. Account should be made of the water contained in the
dish (for example, a sorbet) and the water used to make the dish.
GOOD TO KNOW
THE DIFFERENT STATES OF WATER
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
USEFULNESS
- Hydrotherapy: The use of water (whatever its origin) for preventive or
curative therapeutic purposes, typically at a spa (a term thought to be
derived from sanitas per aquam).
- Crenotherapy: treatment with spring water.
- Thalassotherapy: seawater-based treatment.
https://www.cieau.com/le-metier-de-leau/ressource-en-eau-eau-potable-eaux-usees
https://www.africmemoire.com/part.7-iii-2-4-indices-hydrochimiques-1036.html
© Adobe Stock
SALT AND SPICES
SALT
A BRIEF HISTORY
Salt was once used as a form of currency. The first saltworks in France were
operated by monasteries between the ninth and thirteenth centuries. By the
fourteenth century, the state had become the chief salt producer, and in
1340, it instituted an onerous tax known as the gabelle. The state had a
monopoly over the entire salt trade. The country’s inhabitants were forced
to buy it from the royal storehouses and to pay high prices. After many
attempts, the gabelle was finally abolished during the French Revolution.
Even today, the French term salée (“salty”) is used to describe a hefty bill to
be paid (such as from a top-quality pastry establishment or the check from a
fine-dining restaurant), which would have been subject to the salt tax. The
word “salary” is believed to have come from a reference to salt.
DEFINITION
Salt, sodium chloride (NaCl), is composed of approximately 60 percent
chloride ions (Cl) and 40 percent sodium (Na). The chloride imparts the
salty taste. Proof of this can be seen with so-called salt substitutes such as
potassium chloride (KCl), a salty-flavored condiment without the
disadvantages of sodium. Sodium is blamed for the problems associated
with excessive consumption of salt. If the sodium content is given, multiply
it by 2.5 to find the total salt content. If the salt content is known, multiply
it by 0.4 to find the sodium content.
The salt used as a condiment is a colorless, odorless, and crystallized
substance with an acrid taste. It is highly soluble in water and should be
stored away from moisture in a dry place.
ITS ORIGINS
• Sea salt: Typically harvested in salt marshes after the evaporation of salt
water (the average salt content of 1 liter/1¾ UK pints/4¼ cups of
seawater is 35 g/1¼ oz, about 2 tablespoons).
• Rock salt: Extracted from underground mines. For health reasons,
iodine must be added in France to enable it to be consumed.
• Vacuum evaporated salt: Obtained by evaporation (under the action of
heat) of a brine extracted by pumping. It is then refined at a specialized
saltworks.
ROLE OF SALT IN PASTRY
• It helps to develop the flavor of doughs, batters, mixtures, and creams.

• It controls the fermentation of bread.
• It improves the plastic properties of bread dough by increasing the
elasticity of the gluten, giving it more “body.”
• It improves the texture of the dough and its ability to be shaped.
• It enhances the coloring of the crust.
• In dry weather, it helps to retain water.
• In humid weather, it quickens the softening of the crust.
Fleur de sel is popular because of its “moisture,” “reduced salt content,”
crunch, and its lingering taste.
SPICES
DEFINITION
Spices are substances with a particular, strong, and sometimes pungent
flavor that are used to enhance the taste of food or to flavor preparations.
DIFFERENT SPICES
These are increasingly being used in pastry to flavor the creams and sauces
that accompany desserts. This relatively modern trend requires a good
knowledge of spices, their characteristics, and how to use them.
Spices Producing regions Aromas and tastes
Pleasant and pungent

Allspice Jamaica (best quality) fragrance. Aromas
(Jamaica West Indies, Central and reminiscent of those of
pepper) South America pepper, cloves, cinnamon,
and nutmeg.
It grows wild in the rain

forests of southern India
and of Sri Lanka at an Its aroma is camphorlike,
altitude of between 750 bitter, and strong at first,
Cardamom
and 1,500 m (2,500–5,000 becoming mellow. Warm,
feet). Intensively farmed pleasant, and lingering taste.
in Guatemala, Tanzania,
and Vietnam
It has a more intense flavor

China, Vietnam,
Cassia than true, but less strong,
Indonesia, Central
cinnamon with bitter and astringent
America, and Myanmar
notes.
Tropical and equatorial Dried chile ground to a

Cayenne
regions of the Americas, powder. Strong aromas that
pepper
India, and Africa should be used with caution.
Chiles have little aroma, but

India, Mexico, China,
their flavors greatly.
Chile Japan, Indonesia,
Capsaicin* gives chile its
Thailand
characteristic heat.
Indonesia, Madagascar, Penetrating, warm, and rich

Cloves Tanzania, Sri Lanka, aroma. Pungent and bitter
Malaysia, and Grenada taste.
Coriander India, Iran, Middle East, Spicy and fresh fragrance

seeds United States with peppery notes.
Warm aroma, reminiscent of

Cubeb turpentine.
(tailed) Indonesia and Sri Lanka Aromatic and bitter flavor
pepper closer to that of allspice than
black pepper.
Strong aroma with pungent

Egypt, North Africa,
notes, with a slightly bitter,
Cumin Anatolia, Iran, India,
warm, and penetrating taste.
Indonesia, China
The pungency lingers.
Depending on the blend

(cinnamon, cloves, cumin,
Curry
India nutmeg, and cardamom), the
powder
taste can be mild, semispicy,
strong, or burning.
Lesser galangal: Pungent,

light fragrance reminiscent
of eucalyptus. Greater
Galangal India and Southeast Asia galangal: Slightly pungent,
fragrance reminiscent of
ginger and pepper, with a
sour, lemony note.
India, China, West Indies,

Hawaii, Africa, and Warm and delicately woody
Ginger northern Australia. aroma. Pungent and slightly
Jamaican ginger is caustic flavor.
considered the best.
Grains of Ghana, Guinea, Ivory

Pungent and peppery taste.
paradise Coast, Sierra Leone
Nutmeg and its seed

covering, mace (known as
nutmeg flower), have a rich,
Maluku Islands, Sri
warm aroma, although that
Nutmeg Lanka, Malaysia, and the
of mace is more refined. The
West Indies
nutmeg seed is aromatic and
slightly sweet, while mace is
more bitter.
A fragrant variety of mild

South and Central chile, it is found in the form
Paprika
America of a red powder with a
slightly pungent flavor.
Woody, fresh, pungent, and

pleasantly aromatic
fragrance. White pepper is
hotter and less subtle than
India, Malaysia,
Pepper black pepper. Green pepper
Indonesia, and Brazil
is less pungent but fresher.
Long black pepper is less
pungent than round black
pepper and has sweet notes.
Distinctive and lingering

Spain, Greece, France, aroma, slightly aromatic and
Saffron Turkey, Iran, Morocco, penetrating taste. Only a
and Kashmir small amount is needed to
add color and flavor
Spicy aroma, with woody

Sichuan
In the wild in China notes. Powerful flavor that
pepper
numbs the palate.
Its aroma is similar to those

of fennel and anise, although
Star anise Southern China, Vietnam
more pungent and closer to
licorice with sweet notes.
Sri Lanka, India, Brazil, Sweet and pleasant aroma

True
Indonesia, West Indies, that is delicate but intense.
cinnamon
Indian Ocean islands Strong and defined flavor.
Fresh peppery aroma, with a

India, Indonesia, China,
fragrance reminiscent of
Bangladesh, South
Turmeric orange and ginger, and a
America, and the
pungent, bitter, and
Caribbean region
astringent taste.
Delicate, smooth, and sweet

aroma reminiscent of
France, Germany, and the
Vanilla tobacco. Imitation vanilla
United States
has a strong aroma and an
unpleasant aftertaste.
* Capsaicin is one of the molecules responsible for a chile’s strength. The Scoville scale is a scale for
measuring a chile’s strength.
It is important to avoid confusing spices with aromatics and condiments.

Aromatics are fragrant plant-based substances that are used fresh or dried
(mint, parsley, chives, onions, garlic, etc.).
Condiments are strongly flavored substances that are specifically prepared
to enhance the taste of food (salt, vinegar, mustard, capers, ketchup, etc.). It
is perhaps surprising to refer to ketchup, a sauce that is highly associated
with the English-speaking world. However, it is included in several recipes
in Joseph Favre’s Grand dictionnaire de cuisine (volume 4, 1889). Joseph
Favre was the founder of the Académie Culinaire de France.
SUPPLIERS
• Wholesaler
STORAGE AND USE
We have seen the use of spices in pastry becoming increasingly widespread.
It should be noted, however, that the amounts required depend on the
expected result. It is not possible to define a specific quantity for each spice.
It is up to the pastry chef to measure and estimate the amount of spices
needed for a dish according to the desired result.
It is essential to know that spices are generally dried and that it is important
to rehydrate them before use to obtain an optimum result. By optimum
result, we mean that the spice has to be able to develop all of its aromas in
the dish. This allows for use of less spices, because their cost is high.
The recommendationn for spices is that they are stored in a cool and dry
place away from light to avoid any alteration to taste or color.
From a microbial perspective, the use of spices is a problem, particularly
when dealing with frail and/or vulnerable people, in which case there is a
risk of food poisoning. Spices can be sold in debacterialized form, a
treatment mostly involving irradiation. This prevents the need for harsh
chemical treatments. The specifications for Label Bio organic certification
do not authorize the use of irradiation.
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
SALT, SODIUM, AND HEALTH
WHO recommends limiting the consumption of salt to 5 g per person per
day, which is 2,000 mg sodium per person per day. Levels of 9–12 g of salt,
or 3,600–6,400 mg of sodium, are typically reached through natural food
intake.
The sodium in salt affects health. It is hygroscopic, which means that it
absorbs water. All forms of food containing sodium contribute to this effect.
Nevertheless, it is important to keep in mind that substances with sodium
are not necessarily harmful. Some bicarbonate-rich waters (for example,
sparkling waters containing sodium bicarbonate) do not seem to have
negative effects on health.
Bakers who follow the recommendations of the medical profession and who
believe in the precautionary approach are careful to limit the amount of salt
used in their products.
For example, a limit of 18 g (⅝ oz/1 tablespoon) of salt per 1 kg (2¼ lb/8
cups) of flour is recommended for bread. This rate may be further reduced
in the future.
There are many official guidelines promoting a reduction in the use of salt.
France’s Fourth National Health and Nutrition Plan (PNNS 4) for 2019–
2023 recommends a 30 percent reduction in the salt contained in food,
particularly in regard to bread, which represents 25 percent of the total daily
salt intake in the country.
© Adobe Stock
COCOA
Cocoa is extracted from the seeds of the cocoa, or cacao tree, known as
cocoa beans. There are different species of cocoa tree found throughout the
tropical regions of the world. Its cultivation is demanding, and the fruit it
bears, known as a pod, is harvested twice a year when ripe.
COCOA VARIETIES AND PRODUCING COUNTRIES
There are different varieties of cocoa trees that produce cocoa with different
flavors and aromas.
Producing
Cocoa tree varieties
countries
Criollo: Aromatic, considered to be the best cocoa. Mexico,

This variety is rarely grown today (1–3% of world Nicaragua,
production), because it is more susceptible to Venezuela,
diseases. Colombia
Peru, Ecuador,
Forastero: Hardier, high in tannin, and astringent. Colombia, Brazil,
80–90% of world production. Guyana, Ivory
Coast, Ghana
Trinidad, West
Trinitario: Felatively fine character and quality, Indian countries,
strong aroma. 10–15% of world production. Indonesia,
Cameroon
Nacional Arriba: Aromatic quality. 5–6% of

Ecuador
world production.
The main producing countries are:
- Africa (70 percent of world production): Ivory Coast (40%), Ghana
(17%), Nigeria, Cameroon
- Latin and Central America: Brazil, Ecuador, Colombia
- Southeast Asia: Malaysia, Indonesia.
SUPPLIERS
• Wholesaler
FROM POD TO COCOA BEAN

POD SPLITTING AND SEED EXTRACTION: A MANUAL
OPERATION
Shortly after harvesting, the pod is split lengthwise. The seeds are then
removed, along with the mucilaginous pulp covering them. The seeds are
mostly separated, sorted, and placed in boxes, then covered with banana
leaves. Another method consists of leaving the seeds in piles or placing
them in baskets. The temperature varies between 40 and 50°C (104–122°F).
The seeds are left to rest for about a week, mixing them regularly, which
starts the fermentation process.
FERMENTATION
The purpose of fermentation is to:
- Remove the pulp from the seeds
- Kill the seed embryo to prevent germination
- Reduce the bitter taste and develop the aroma precursors.
Fermentation is an important step that takes between three and eight days.
Along with roasting, it is one of the two essential stages for the aroma of
chocolate.
The fermentation process takes place in several successive phases:
- The first takes place under the banana leaves. The seeds are deprived of
air and an anaerobic environment favorable to yeasts is created. Gradually,
the sweet and acidic (citric acid) pulp is converted into ethyl alcohol. This
stage is known as alcoholic fermentation. The process is the same as that
involved in the fermentation of grapes. This reaction releases a little heat
and raises the temperature by a few degrees.
- After a few days, the conditions are right for the action of acetic bacteria,
which work in the presence of air (aerobic stage) and convert the alcohol
into acetic acid. This reaction gives off a lot of heat. The temperature can
rise up to 50°C (122°F). During this stage, the seeds lose their original
white or purple color and turn brown.
- The acetic acid sets off the different biochemical reactions that give rise to
the precursors of the chocolate aroma. It is then eliminated. These aroma
precursors will come into play during the roasting stage, particularly by
interacting with each other under the effect of heat. Chocolate compounds
are formed.
Note: Yeasts, bacteria, and other microorganisms are naturally occurring.
DRYING
Whether industrial or manual, the purpose of this process is to reduce the
moisture content of the seeds so they can be stored. From this point, the
seeds are referred to as cocoa beans.
Valrhona, Photo by Hugo Tyfany
STORAGE
The beans are stored in jute bags that allow for proper aeration to prevent
further fermentation.
BEAN PROCESSING
Processing takes place in the following stages:
• Inspection
• Cleaning
• Cracking and winnowing: The beans are crushed into large pieces. By
screening through sieves of different sizes, the bean husk, germ, and shell
are removed. Only cocoa nibs remain.
• Roasting, which has several roles:
- Reducing the moisture content
- Evaporating off certain volatile acids
- Developing the chocolate aroma.
This decisive and delicate operation consists of heating the cocoa nibs to
between 100 and 150°C (212–300°F) in a roaster. The success of the future
cocoa depends on the precision of these operations, the origin of the beans,
and the desired organoleptic qualities.
GRINDING AND REFINING
Grinding turns the nibs into a paste, known as cocoa mass, cocoa paste, or
cocoa liquor. It then undergoes a necessary refining process.
This cocoa mass can now be used to make chocolate or pressed to produce
cocoa butter and cocoa cake for the manufacture of cocoa powder.
© Valrhona
GOOD TO KNOW
ORIGIN OF COCOA
Cocoa originally came from Central America, particularly Mexico and
Venezuela, and the countries and islands of the Caribbean. It was known to
the Maya and Aztecs, who consumed it in the form of a beverage called
xocolatl, which was very different from what we know today, because it
was fermented and bitter (unsweetened). It was referred to as the “drink of
the gods,” a notion reflected in its scientific name Theobroma cacao (from
the Greek theo, god, and bromos, food).
Upon his arrival, Christopher Columbus was presented with cocoa beans.
He found them to have little interest but noted beneficial effects when
consumed.
The Spanish court would correct their bitterness by adding sugar. While it
was initially consumed for its energy-giving properties, cocoa would later
become a beverage of “pleasure.”
Hot chocolate (particularly with the addition of vanilla) would remain the
prerogative of the aristocracy. It arrived in France with the Spanish king’s
daughter Anne of Austria, who married King Louis XIII, and it became the
height of fashion at Versailles.
MYCRYO™ COCOA BUTTER
Mycryo™ cocoa butter is made by grinding and pressing roasted cocoa
beans. It is transformed into powder by the process of cryogenization
(freezing at especially low temperatures). It is used in a number of ways,
including:
- Tempering chocolate, with the addition of 1 percent.
- Cooking food; its smoke point is about 200°C (400°F).
© Adobe Stock
CHOCOLATE AND COUVERTURE
CHOCOLATE
CHOCOLATE
There are four cocoa derivative products:
- Cocoa butter
- Cocoa powder
- Chocolate (contains cocoa butter)
- Compound coating (contains vegetable fat).
Chocolate is a mixture of cocoa mass, sugar, and cocoa butter.
COCOA BUTTER
A European Union directive allows a content of 5 percent vegetable fat
other than cocoa butter to be included in the composition of chocolate.
However, the manufacturer must specify this on the packaging. In France,
the names “pure cocoa butter chocolate,” “traditional chocolate,” and all
other equivalents are reserved for chocolates made solely from fatty
substances obtained from cocoa beans, without the addition of vegetable
fat. This claim applies only to dark (plain) chocolate and the coating of
filled chocolates. The centers of the latter may contain vegetable fats
(hazelnuts, almonds, copra, and others). The same applies to the chocolate
used in ice cream.
PRODUCTION
Blending
Different types of cocoa mass can be combined to achieve specific
organoleptic qualities and functional properties. Blending with cocoa butter
takes place at this stage.
Refining
The mixture passes through different rollers to obtain a homogeneous
mixture with a fine grain size.
Conching
This process helps the chocolate achieve fineness and smoothness by
homogenizing the product and developing the aromas. This kneading
process (performed by roller-kneaders in a conche) causes a rise in the
temperature of the product, which must be controlled.
Tempering
Once the conching is complete, the temperature of the chocolate must be
stabilized. This procedure cools the liquid mass to its correct solidification.
Molding
The chocolate can then be poured into molds or used to coat the centers for
filled chocolates.
COMPOSITION
Composition of
Description
dark chocolate
Cocoa mass The cocoa beans are ground to a paste.
Containing mostly triglycerides, cocoa butter is

Cocoa butter
obtained by the cold pressing of cocoa beans.
In France, this refers to beet sugar when no further

Sugar
information is provided.
Vanillin It adds a vanilla-like aroma with a sweet taste.
Lecithin An emulsifier.
REGULATION
Chocolate products in France are subject to stringent regulations.
While adding flours and starches to chocolate is prohibited, it is
permissable to add other products, such as hazelnuts, almonds, rice, spices,
and dried fruits.
The label on chocolate products must include the ingredients, date of
minimum durability (best-before date), and a list of potential allergens.
The indication of the cocoa content (cocoa mass and cocoa butter) is
mandatory.
Chocolat noir (dark chocolate), also given the descriptors fondant
(“melting”) and amer (“bitter”), is simply referred to in France as chocolat
(“chocolate”). It is a mixture of at least 35 percent cocoa and sugar.
Chocolat de ménage (baking or cooking chocolate) may contain as little as
30 percent cocoa. Below that level, the major brands use the term confiserie
chocolatée (“chocolate confectionery”) for lack of a legally specified term.
At higher percentages, with a minimum of 43 percent cocoa, the term used
is chocolat à croquer (“eating chocolate”) or chocolat supérieur (“superior
chocolate”). The amount of sugar used depends on the bitterness of the
variety of cocoa.
Dark chocolate
Milk chocolate
Milk chocolate is made with the addition of dry milk powder or condensed
milk. European Union and Swiss regulations require a minimum cocoa
content of 25 percent. It has just as many calories as dark chocolate (less fat
but more sugar). It typically contains just under 40 percent cocoa. However,
certain luxury stores offer milk chocolates with a cocoa content of 45
percent or higher.
White chocolate
Known in France as couverture ivoire (“ivory couverture chocolate”), white
chocolate is essentially cocoa butter (minimum 20 percent) with added
sugar, milk (minimum 14 percent milk solids), and flavoring. It is
recognized as chocolate, but it does not contain cocoa. It is used in
confectionery to play on the contrast of colors or in slabs.
The classification of chocolate varies depending on the ingredients:
Couverture chocolate
Couverture chocolate is a high-quality chocolate. It can be dark chocolate
or milk chocolate, but it must contain at least 32 percent cocoa butter (42
percent limit) and 16 percent cocoa, which gives it a more fluid consistency
to make coatings that are finer than those using conventional chocolate.
The types of couverture chocolate available are:
- Dark chocolate couverture
- White chocolate couverture (couverture ivoire)
- Milk chocolate couverture.
USES
Functions Uses
Coating Soft centers, fruits
Eggs, rabbits, and other objects, depending on the

Molding
occasion
Decoration Shavings, curls, and decorative designs
Filling Soft centers, ganache
Flavoring Mousses, creams, bavarian cream

Functions Uses
Glazing Entremets and petits fours
GOOD TO KNOW
Nutritional properties
Chocolate does not contain any cholesterol. However, it does contain sugar
and fat. It provides 560 cal per 100 grams. Among its components is
theobromine, a compound that has a positive effect on health. It also
contains caffeine.
Chocolate has a relatively low GI.
“Sugar-free” chocolate
Usually, this type of chocolate contains maltitol, a sugar alcohol (or polyol,
formed by adding a hydrogen atom to the maltose molecule). It has half the
calories of sucrose. This type of sugar has little effect on blood sugar levels
and is noncariogenic (it does not contribute to tooth decay). Its sweetening
power is approximately the same as that of sucrose. Uncontrolled ingestion
of sugar alcohols (including maltitol) may cause some digestive discomfort,
hence the statement “excess consumption may have a laxative effect.”
Because the actual reduction in energy intake is limited and less than the
required 30 percent, it is not possible to use the claim “low-fat chocolate.”
COUVERTURE CHOCOLATE
Couverture chocolate is widely used, and there are different types of
couverture chocolate with different properties. Nevertheless, French
regulations set a number of specifications.
Dry fat-free cocoa Cocoa

solids butter
Dark chocolate couverture Min. 16% Min. 31%
Milk chocolate couverture

Min. 2.5% Min. 31%
chocolate
The exclusive use of cocoa butter allows for the statement: “pure cocoa
butter product.”
NEW EUROPEAN UNION REGULATIONS ON THE USE OF
VEGETABLE FATS
The addition of vegetable fats is permitted up to a maximum of 5 percent of
the total weight of the product.
The fats permitted are mango kernel oil, palm oil, illipe butter, sal butter,
shea butter (most commonly used), and kokum butter (or kokum oil).
The vegetable fats used must be prominently displayed on the label, near
the list of ingredients and near the sales description.
Couverture chocolate Flavoring/Coloring
Dark Coffee, orange
Milk Caramel, orange
White and colored Green, blue, orange, yellow
SUPPLIERS
• Wholesaler
© Valrhona Credit Jérome Bryon
© Adobe Stock
VANILLA, COFFEE, AND TEA
VANILLA
Vanilla is a spice derived from the Vanilla genus, primarily the species
Vanilla planifolia, which is native to Mesoamerica. It comes from the fruit
of certain climbing orchids that grow in the understory of tropical forests.
Its history is linked to that of chocolate, given that the Maya and later the
Aztecs used it to flavor their cocoa drink.
The bulk of the world’s supply is produced in Madagascar and Indonesia.
STAGES OF VANILLA PROCESSING
Killing or wilting
Wicker baskets filled with green vanilla seedpods, commonly known as
beans (up to 66 lb/30 kg per basket) are immersed in water at 65°C (150°F)
for 3 minutes.
Sweating
The beans are immediately placed between wool blankets for 12–14 hours.
Kept warm in the wool, they lose their water, ferment, and turn their
characteristic blackish brown color.
Slow-drying
The vanilla beans are then dried for a few hours a day, first in an oven (65
°C/150°F), then in the sun, and finally in the shade.
Conditioning
The vanilla beans are matured in wooden chests for 8 months. It is during
this stage that the aroma develops.
Sorting
The vanilla beans are sorted according to their length, with longer beans
having greater value.
Packaging
Vanilla beans of the same length are tied into bundles, while the remainder
are bagged.
VANILLA FLAVORS
Vanilla develops a complex fragrance comprising several hundred aromatic
compounds. Among these, the vanillin molecule (4-hydroxy-3-
methoxybenzaldehyde) is mainly responsible for the characteristic aroma of
vanilla.
The most exceptional quality are the “crystallized” vanilla beans, on the
surface of which small frostlike crystals of vanillin have formed. It is the
most intensely and delicately scented vanilla.
Exhausted vanilla is the name given to the depleted beans after the essential
oil is extracted.
Two countries, Madagascar and Indonesia, provide most of the world’s
vanilla.
“NATURAL” VANILLA, SYNTHETIC VANILLA, AND
ARTIFICIAL VANILLA
Vanilla bean
Its flavor is produced by a large number of compounds, some of which are
odorous and others sapid.
Vanillin
This is the molecule responsible for the vanilla smell. Synthetic vanillin is a
molecule identical to that of natural vanillin.
It can be obtained as a by-product of paper pulp or by fermenting pine
needles (natural), in which case the vanillin is natural.
Ethylvanillin
This compound is derived from a minor chemical modification of vanillin
and is 25 times more intense than vanillin.
USES OF VANILLA
Demand for vanilla is diverse. It comes from:
- the food industry
- individuals, chocolate and ice cream makers, culinary and pastry chefs
- the cosmetics industry, for use in perfumes and other personal care
products.
Vanilla bean
This is the whole seedpod that develops from the flowering vanilla orchid.
It is typically sold in stores in glass tubes. To discover the full aroma of
vanilla, it is best use it in bean form. It should be plump, blackish brown in
color, and 15–20 cm (6–7 inches) in length. It just needs splitting to expose
the seeds.
Vanilla powder
It is made by grinding dried vanilla beans. It is sold either pure or with
added sugar.
Vanilla extract
Sold as a powder or a liquid, vanilla extract is made by macerating vanilla
in alcohol and then filtering it or infusing it into a sugar syrup. The darker
and more concentrated the vanilla extract liquid, the purer and higher its
quality. A few drops are enough to flavor creams and desserts.
Vanilla sugar
A mixture of dry vanilla extract (at least 10 percent) and sucrose, it is often
used to sweeten pancakes, doughnuts, etc.
PRICE FLUCTUATIONS AND INFLUENCES ON SUPPLIES
After saffron, vanilla beans are the world’s most expensive spice.
Madagascar produces 80 percent of the world’s production.
Reunion produces a high-quality product known as blue vanilla, a vanilla
bean that can be eaten whole. It sells at prices close to €1,200/kg (about
$600/lb or £1,000/kg).
© Escale Bleue
COFFEE
A psychoactive stimulant beverage, coffee (from the Arabic, ‫القهوة‬:
qahwah) is produced by roasting the seeds, known as beans, of different
varieties of coffee plants (tropical shrubs of the genus Coffea). Along with
tea and maté, it is one of the three most widely consumed caffeinated
beverages in the world. The two species whose fruits are used to make
coffee are Coffea arabica (about 75 percent of production, grown for the
longest time) and Coffea robusta (also known as Coffea canephora).
Associated legends
There are two legends associated with coffee. The best known is that of a
shepherd from Abyssinia (present-day Ethiopia), who noticed the
energizing effect of this shrub on his goats. The other legend says that a
shepherd dropped a branch taken from this shrub into a pan, causing it to
give off a delicious aroma.
Venetian merchants introduced coffee to Europe in the early seventeenth
century. In 1672, a man named Pascal (an Armenian) founded the first
Parisian coffeehouse near the Pont-Neuf. He later opened another in
London in 1685. The second such establishment to be opened in Paris (in
1686) was the famous Café Procope. There, the beverage was prepared by
passing hot water through the filter containing the coffee. Cafés, as they
came to be known, became popular during the Enlightenment, and there
were more than 2,000 of them in Paris by the time of the French
Revolution. The authorities of the time frowned upon these places, which
were where intellectuals gathered and debated.
Producing regions
The main coffee-producing regions are South America (mainly Brazil and
Colombia), Vietnam, Kenya, and the Ivory Coast. Of the many varieties
developed, Hawaii produces a limited amount of a high-quality (and high
priced) coffee, but the most expensive and renowned variety is now
Bourbon Pointu coffee, which is grown on the island of Reunion.
HARVESTING AND BEAN PROCESSING
Harvesting
The coffee harvest begins when the fruits, known as cherries, are ripe (6–8
months after flowering for Arabica coffee, 9–11 months for Robusta
coffee). The two possible methods are selective harvesting and strip
harvesting:
- Selective harvesting is the most costly technique, because it is necessary
to return to the same plant several times to handpick only the ripe cherries.
This technique is used to obtain the best-quality coffee.
- Strip harvesting is a fast technique that consists of stripping the branches
of all their cherries at the same time. This process can be manual or
mechanical. The result is a mixture of more or less ripe cherries, which
produce a more bitter taste (due to the presence of unripened fruit).
Note: In Vietnam, Indonesia, and the Philippines, there is a special form of
harvesting that produces small quantities of “dung” coffee, beans digested
and excreted by the Asian palm civet. Known as Kopi luwak, it is the most
expensive coffee in the world. The coffee beans are “matured” in the civet’s
digestive tract. In Thailand, coffee is produced by having elephants digest
and excrete coffee beans in their dung.
Dry processing or washing
The fruit of the coffee plant is a drupe (fleshy fruit encasing a seed),
referred to as a cherry. After harvesting, the coffee beans are quickly
removed from their fleshy envelope either by drying or washing. The
drying method consists of laying the cherries in the sun until the pulp is dry.
The washing method is applied to only ripe (selectively harvested) fruit.
After their skin is broken, the cherries are soaked in water long enough for
fermentation to break down the pulp.
After drying or washing, the coffee beans are still enclosed in their hulls,
known as parchment. Sorting eliminates any discolored, rotten, or damaged
parchments. The coffee can be preserved in its hulls (some crops are even
aged in this way to improve the flavor of the coffee). The final operation to
obtain green (unroasted) coffee consists of mechanically hulling the beans.
Decaffeination
At this stage, when the green coffee has been obtained, the decaffeination
process can take place. This process allows for the flavor of coffee to be
enjoyed without the stimulating effects of caffeine. Although different
processes exist, the general principle is to soak the beans in water and then
extract the caffeine.
Roasting
To develop their aroma, the green coffee beans are then roasted at high
temperature. As the beans are roasted, they double in size, turn yellow and
then brown, and lose all their moisture.
Grinding
The roasted coffee beans are then ground. The finer the grind, the higher the
quality of the beverage. In addition, the fineness of the grind must be suited
to the method for preparing the beverage. If there is only a short exposure to
hot water, the grind must be fine in order to quickly release its aromas. In
contrast, if there is longer contact with water, the grind will have to be
coarser so that the coffee will not become oversaturated, resulting in a
strong and bitter taste. However, if the grind is too coarse, the resulting
beverage may be bland.
Because ground coffee oxidizes quickly and soon loses its aroma, it is
advisable to grind the coffee just before use. Otherwise, vacuum-packing
the ground coffee is the best option.
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
There are many ways to prepare coffee, one of which is the use of instant
coffee. The other methods are more traditional and include the use of
freshly ground beans or vacuum-packed ground coffee, single-serve coffee
pods or capsules—a more modern version of filter coffee—and espresso
machines. Depending on how the coffee is prepared, the resulting beverage
will have different organoleptic properties.
The final beverage can be more or less concentrated, ranging from the
highly concentrated Italian espresso to varying degrees of dilution, such as
the so-called “Americano.”
Instant coffee
This is a powder (freeze-dried coffee extract) that is dissolved in hot water.
Boiling
This is the oldest method for preparing coffee. An extra-fine grind of coffee
mixed with water (about 3 tablespoons of coffee for 300 ml/10 UK fl oz/1¼
cups of water) is brought to a boil in an Arabic coffeepot (or another pot) on
the stove. Spices are sometimes added to the grind. This is the method used
to prepare Turkish (or Greek) coffee.
Immersion brewing
For this method, you need a French press (cafetière). The coffee is brewed
by immersion in water inside a glass container with a pistonlike filter that
pushes the grounds to the bottom of the container, separating them from the
beverage.
Filtering (leaching)
The method used by modern electric coffee makers with disposable filters,
typically made of paper, is a process known as leaching. Filter coffee is
prepared by slowly passing boiling water through a filter filled with grinds.
Percolation
This is the steam-forced leaching process that takes place in Italian moka
pots, which are used for both preparation and service.
A moka pot consists of two compartments separated by a filter basket
containing the measured grinds. When heated, part of the water in the
sealed chamber evaporates. The steam creates pressure inside the chamber
(the steam has a volume greater than that of the liquid water), causing the
remaining liquid to rise into the filter basket, pass through the grinds, and
overflow at the top of the funnel into the upper chamber.
High-pressure percolation
High-pressure percolation is the method for making espresso coffee (from
the Italian espresso, extracted by pressure).
Note:
• A barista is a person who specializes in the preparation of espresso-
based drinks. The term implies a certain mastery of the art of coffee
preparation, sometimes taken to the extreme in the notion of “coffee
sommelier.”
• Caffeine, which can be extracted from coffee, is used for its stimulating
properties in some carbonated drinks, energy drinks, and medicines.
COFFEE USES
Coffee extract is used in confectionery and pastry to flavor, for example, ice
creams, candies, macaroons, and tiramisu. It is also used to make the
traditional mocha cake. It is sometimes drunk in a combination with butter
and oil. Known as bulletproof coffee, it is believed to have many benefits.
Its taste is similar to a creamy latte.
TEA
Consumed for its aroma, flavor, and ability to quench thirst, tea is a
beverage made by infusion or percolation of water through different tea-
based preparations (made from the young leaves and leaf buds of tea plant).
These beverages can be drunk hot, cold, or warm, with different degrees of
concentration, in greater or lesser quantities, alone or with added plant- or
animal-based ingredients. Tea is grown in many different regions (with
different characteristics reflecting the different conditions), using different
methods of cultivation, with different forms of processing after harvesting.
Those processes are responsible for producing teas with different “colors,”
such as green tea (from dried leaves) and black tea (from fermented leaves).
The countries that drink large amounts of tea have turned the beverage into
a cultural marker, and each of them has different ways of consuming it, for
example, with milk in the United Kingdom, with mint in North Africa, with
spices and milk in India, and whisked during the famous tea ceremony in
Japan.
TYPES OF TEA
There are several families of tea, often associated with their colors: black
teas, green teas, oolong teas, yellow teas, white teas, etc. These teas come
from the same species of tea plant, Camellia sinensis, but undergo different
processes after harvesting. The main stages of production are plucking,
withering, drying (for white, green, yellow, and oolong teas), oxidation (for
black, oolong, and yellow teas), rolling, drying, sieving or sorting, and the
final “baking” or roasting (for black and Oolong teas). Processing always
involves these different stages, however, producers jealously guard the
secrets of their exact processing steps.
Green teas
After harvesting, the harvested leaves are often withered and heated at high
temperatures to keep them from fermenting. They are then rolled and dried
to give them the desired shape (strips, beads, curls, etc.).
Black teas
These are completely oxidized teas. Black tea (a reference to the color of
the leaves) is the name given in Western countries. The Chinese refer to it
as red tea due to the color of the beverage after infusion.
Semioxidized teas and postfermented teas
Semioxidized teas, such as oolong, are teas that are partly fermented and
form a category between green tea and what Westerners refer to as black
tea.
Postfermented teas are teas that are oxidized and then slowly fermented in
the open air. This type of tea is known by the Chinese as black tea.
Scented or flavored teas
Teas can be consumed plain or flavored with additional ingredients. These
can include flowers (jasmine, rose, cherry blossoms, etc.), essences
(bergamot, lemon, etc.), spices (ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, etc.), and
synthetic or artificial flavors. Any type of tea (green, white, black, etc.) can
be used, but these flavors are most often added to black tea in Western
countries. Some famous scented teas include jasmine tea, mint tea, and Earl
Grey (bergamot) tea.
COMPOSITION
The main components of tea are:
- Theanine: an amino acid that gives green teas their umami flavor by acting
as a flavor enhancer. It is known to reduce stress and produce a relaxing
effect.
- Polyphenols: antioxidants.
- Caffeine: sometimes referred to as theine when found in tea. First isolated
by Oudry in 1827, theine was found to be the same as caffeine in 1838.
The stimulating effects of tea are different than those of coffee, because
the caffeine in tea is released into the body over a much longer period of
time, which is why tea is said to stimulate without exciting.
© Sapam
FRUITS AND NUTS, HERBS AND
FLOWERS
FRUITS AND NUTS

A fruit develops from a flower. For your information, a flower is composed
of a calyx (with sepals), a corolla (with petals), male organs (stamens
containing pollen), and female organs (carpels containing one or more
ovules, together forming the pistil). After fertilization, these carpels develop
into fruits, with the ovules becoming the seeds contained in those fruits.
Note: Many “vegetables” are actually fruits. We tend to think of them as
vegetables, because they are not sweet. However, green beans, tomatoes,
avocados, eggplants (aubergines), sweet peppers and chiles, cucumbers,
zucchinis (courgettes), and olives are all fruits.
Fruits come in two main categories, fleshy fruits and nuts (which are
considered dried fruit in France).
© Sapam
FLESHY FRUITS
There are three types of fleshy fruits.
Drupes
They contain a hardened endocarp (pit or stone) in which there is a single
seed (kernel).
Examples include, peaches, apricots, plums, and cherries.
Berries
Berries are fruits that contain seeds without a hardened endocarp. Examples
include, red currants, melons, grapes, oranges, lemons, dates, avocados, and
tomatoes.
Accessory fruits
Also known as false fruits, these are complex drupes or berries resulting
from the transformation of the ovary but also other parts of the flower that
sometimes remain visible on the fruit.
Examples include, apples, pears, quinces, strawberries, bananas, and
pineapples.
The fleshy fruits can be divided into several families of fruits:
- Common fruits
- Stem plants
- Citrus fruits
- Tropical fruits*.
* Tropical fruits are sometimes referred to as “exotic fruits.” However,
“exotic fruits” is not an accepted term within the framework of a botanical
definition and could actually refer to any fruit taken outside of its country of
origin. Coconuts and bananas, for example, are not considered exotic in the
countries in which they are native. It is therefore more accurate to use the
term “tropical” to refers to fruits that grow in the region situated between
the Tropic of Cancer (north of the equator) and the Tropic of Capricorn
(south of the equator).
Common
Varieties and specificities Uses
fleshy fruits
Raw
Braeburn, Golden, Royal Gala, Pink Cooked
Lady, Granny Smith, Jonathan, (caramelized,
Apple
Starking, Reinette du Mans, Reinette du roasted)
Canada, Fuji, Idared Preserves
Tarts
Fresh
Decoration
Jam, jelly
Early varieties: OrangeRed, Précoce de
Pulp
Bourbon
Syrup
Seasonal varieties: Rouge du
Apricot Flavoring for
Roussillon, Kioto
creams and
Late varieties: Orange de Provence,
entremets
Bergarouge, Bergeron
Flavoring for
ice creams
and sorbets
On their own
Tart
Black
Noir de Bourgogne/Andega/Blackdown Juice, jelly,
currant
cream,
liqueur
Wild blackberry Raw

Blackberry Cultivated blackberry: Triple Crown, Preserves,
Smooth stem, Thornfree jelly
Type
Tarts
Blueberry Bluetta, Patriot, Berkeley, Collins, etc.
Jam
Sugared
Common
fleshy fruits
Bigaroon cherries: Burlat, Summit,

Tarts,
Reverchon, Napoléon
clafoutis
Cherry Other types: Sweet cherry (Marsotte,
Preserves
Noire des Vosges, Guignes de mai),
Fruit salad
wild cherry, morello cherry
Decorative
Red currant: Fertodi, Rondom, Groseille
elements
raisin, Versaillaise blanche, Gloire des
Preserves,
Currant Sablons Gooseberry
jelly
Casseille (gooseberry and black currant
Fruit salad
hybrid)
Sorbet
Raw
Cooked
Figue de Sollies, Dauphine, Noire de
Fig (caramelized,
Caromb
roasted)
Jam, jelly
Raw
Cooked
(caramelized)
White: Chasselas, Muscat
Grape Preserves
Red: Cardinal, Red Globe
Tart
Juice
Sorbet
Ground-
cherry, Cape Decoration
Goldenberry, tomatillo
gooseberry, Fruit salad
or physalis
Common
fleshy fruits
Fresh
Jam, jelly
Puree
Syrup
With alcohol
Decoration
Melon Cantaloupe, Charentais, Gallia
for entremets
Flavoring for
creams
Flavoring for
ice creams
and sorbets
Raw
Bellerime, Hermione, Springwite, Rich Cooked
Peach Lady, white, red Vine peach, nectarine, (caramelized,
brugnon (hybrid) roasted)
Jam
Raw
Cooked
Winter pear: Conference, Comice,
(caramelized,
Pear Passe-Crassane
roasted)
Summer pear: Bartlett, Williams, Guyot
Preserves
Tart
Raw
Cooked
Reine-Claude, Monsieur, President, (caramelized,
Plum
Mirabelle de Nancy, Quetsche roasted)
Preserves
Tart
Common
fleshy fruits
Preserves,
Quince Champion, Bourgeault jelly
Poached
Raw
Preserves,
Raspberry Williamette, Mecker, Heritage
jelly
Ice cream
Mainly raw
but also
caramelized,
Senga sengana, Fortuna, Camarosa,
en papillote.
Strawberry Splendor, Gariguette, Clery, Mara des
With sugar
bois, Ciflorette, wild strawberry
and
combined
with pepper
Watermelon Black beauty Fruit salad
Flan
Winter Rouge vid d’Etampes pumpkin,
Tarts
squash Musquée de Provence squash, etc.
Sorbet
Stem Varieties and

Uses
plants specificities
Angelica Wild angelica Candied and/or in alcohol
Compote, preserves, and

Rhubarb Victoria
jelly
Citrus fruits Varieties and specificities Uses
Bergamot essence is used

Calabrese, Castagnaro, to make Bergamotes de
Bergamot
Femminello, Fantastico Nancy candies.
Sorbet, ice cream
Calamondin Cross between mandarin Sorbet, mousse, entremets,

(calamansi) and kumquat coulis
Citrus medica
Citron Candied, grated zest
Buddha’s hand (peel only)
The clementine was

obtained by crossing Fruit pulp preparation
Clementine
different citrus species. (frozen juice)
Clemenules/Clemenvilla
Star Ruby, Ruby Red Fruit salad

Grapefruit** (pink flesh), Jaffa Sweetie Preparations made from
(white flesh) the flesh
Kumquat Fortunella Candied
Eureka, Verna, Flavoring with zest or

Femminello, Primofiori, juice
Fino, Citron de Menton Prevents the oxidation of
Lemon
certain fruits and
Green finger lime vegetables.
Yellow finger lime Sorbet
Lime Cocktail: Mojito

Key lime
Kaffir lime Zest, juice
Citrus fruits Varieties and specificities Uses
Havana/Tardivo di Preserves, candied

Mandarin
Ciaculli (decorations)
Edible peel (infusion,

Mikan Satsuma mandarin
decoction)
Fruit salad, infusion

Sweet oranges: Jaffa,
(leaves), preparations
Thomson, Navel,
made from the flesh
Naveline, Cadenera
Orange Marmalade, mousse
Blood oranges: Tarocco, Flavoring (zest)
Sanguinello, Moro Combination with
chocolate
Citrus Sudachi
Sudachi Juice
Native to Japan
Hybrid of the wild

mandarin and the Ichang
Yuzu Zest, juice
papeda
Native to Japan
** The grapefruit is a hybrid of the pomelo and a sweet orange.
© Sapam
Bergamot
© Agrumes Bachès
Rough Lemon
© Agrumes Bachès
Tropical
Varieties Uses
fruits
Avocado Ettinger, Fuerte, Hass Tart, ice cream
Grand Nain, Petit Nain, Lady Fresh, flambéed

Finger, red banana, Cavendish, Ice cream, tart
Banana Lacatan, Manzano, Mysore, Poyo,
etc.
Plantain Fritters
Mainly for
Carambola decoration but also
Green and yellow varieties
(star fruit) in preserves and
fruit salads.
Fruit of cocoa tree. Raw

Cocoa pod Chocolate is made from cocoa The pulp can be
beans. used to make juice
Shredded (cakes)
Fresh coconut meat
Malayan Tall, Vanuatu Tall,
Coconut (desserts)
Jamaican Tall, etc.
Coconut water:
sorbet, ice cream
Deglet Nour, Kenta, Allig,

Date Fresh or dried
Medjool
Raw
Compote, candied,
Guava Chiveria, Paluma
juice, sorbet, puree,
jelly
Tropical
Varieties Uses
fruits
Mainly raw (fruit

salads), but also as a
Kiwi* Hayward, Ken’s Red, Chinabelle
puree, in preserves,
sorbet
Shahi, Kwai Mi, Chakraped, rose-

scented, Mauritus, Hak Ip (black Raw, but also
leaf) cooked, in
Lychee Grown in Taiwan, Madagascar preserves,
The lychee is from the same smoothies, sauces,
family as the rambutan (also coulis
known as the hairy lychee)
Raw (fruit salad)

Kent, Edward, Haden, Carabao, Cooked
Mango
Tommy Atkins, Alphonso (caramelized)
Chutney, preserves
Mangosteen Native to Indonesia Sorbet
Fruit salad and fruit

Papaya Solo 8, Sunrise, Amazon Red
gratin
Fresh
Passion Purple granadilla or maracuyá,
Juiced, pureed, or as
fruit banana passion fruit
a coulis
Raw
Caucasian persimmon, Fuyu
Persimmon Cooked
persimmon, Sharon fruit
(caramelized)
Tropical
Varieties Uses
fruits
Used in pastry
making, fresh and
dried, to prepare
Cayenne lisse, Queen Victoria,
mousses and
Pineapple Red Spanish, Victoria,
sorbets.
Pernambuco
Decoration for
entremets and
restaurant desserts.
Pitaya or
With white, yellow, or red flesh Fruit salad
Pitahaya
* Kiwis, also known as Chinese gooseberries, are the fruits of several species of vines in the genus
Actinidia. They are native to China, particularly the province of Shaanxi. They are also found in
mountainous regions in the tropics. In France, the Kiwi d’Adour has PGI and a Label Rouge status.
NUTS AND OTHER DRY FRUITS

Nuts and other dry fruits can be divided into two types.
IN THE FORM OF A HARD, SEALED SEED CASE: ACHENES
They do not open and contain a single seed. For example, hazelnuts.
IN THE FORM OF AN OPENABLE SEED CASE: PODS AND
CAPSULES
Pods either open on one side or, where there are two fissures, on both sides.
They are often elongated and contain several seeds. For example, vanilla
and peanuts.
Capsules are dry fruits that release seeds through several openings. For
example, anise and chestnuts.
Nuts and
dry Varieties and specialties Uses
fruits
Nuts and
fruits
Decoration or
filling
Ai, Ardechoise, Avola, Ferragnes, Whole, slivered,
Almond
Lauranne, Ferraduek chopped, as a
paste, ground,
etc.
Roasted, candied,
Comballe, Marigoule, Bouche Rouge,
Chestnut caramelized,
Sardonne
boiled, puree
Green Powdered or
anise whole
Dried or fresh
Hazelnut Ennis, Fertile de Coutard, Butler Whole, blanched,
ground, etc.
Chopped (salad)
Ground (for
Peanut Virginia, Valencia sauce)
Flan
Tart
Raw or cooked
Fruit of the pecan tree
Pecan (roasted)
Native to the United States and Mexico
Kernels, ground
Raw or cooked
Pine Mostly from the stone pine
(roasted)
nuts Native to the Mediterranean basin
Whole, ground
Nuts and
fruits
Raw or cooked
Fruit of the Pistacia vera pistachio tree
Pistachio (roasted)
Native to the Mediterranean basin
Whole, ground
Marbot, Franquette, Mayette,

Parisienne, Noix du Perigord Dried or fresh
Walnut
(AOC/PDO), Noix de Grenoble Kernels, whole
(AOC/PDO)
OTHER PRESENTATION FORMATS

PROCESSED FRUITS
These are fruits that are found in a state other than the one in which they are
found naturally.
PUREES
They refer to the edible part of the whole fruit, after peeling and/or seeded,
if necessary, which is turned into a puree by straining or another similar
process.
© Les Vergers Boiron
PULP
The pulp refers to the edible part of the whole fruit, possibly peeled or
seeded, which may be cut into pieces or crushed, but not pureed.
COULIS
It is a thin sauce made from fruits.
The term “coulis extra” means that the product generally contains 70
percent fruit, pulp or puree.
The term “coulis” on its own means that the product generally consists of
50 percent fruit, pulp or puree.
Coulis is used as a topping for desserts and ice cream sundaes.
FRUIT JUICES
The product is obtained by squeezing or pressing and filtering fleshy fruits
without the addition of water. It is used as a beverage and for making ice
cream, creams, and sorbets.
PRESERVED FRUITS
These are fruits that are preserved in a state other than the one in which they
are found naturally.
DRIED FRUITS
These are fleshy fruits that have been dehydrated to preserve them for a
longer time.
These include bananas, dates, figs, apples, prunes, grapes, and apricots.
These fruits are used as they are as decoration, or they are rehydrated with
alcohol to flavor entremet or chocolate fillings.
FROZEN AND DEEP-FROZEN FRUIT
• The freezing is carried out at temperatures between -30°C and -35°C

(-22°F and -31°F).
• Deep-freezing is carried out at between -40°C and -96°C (-40°F and
-140°F).
The products can be found in the following forms:
Packaging Uses
Individually flash-frozen fruit, either whole

Tart fillings,
or in pieces (known as IQF food, which
decorations, for use in
stands for individual quick frozen or
ice cream and sorbets
individual quick freezing)
Bulk frozen Sorbets
Pastry, ice cream,

confectionery,
Fruit purees (sweetened or without added
chocolate, cooking,
sugar)
cocktails, mocktails,
etc.
Frozen fruit juice
CANNED FRUITS
• Packed in syrup: with a syrup containing 20–50 percent sugar.

• Packed in water.
BRANDIED FRUIT
These products are made by macerating fruits in alcohol, with or without
the addition of sugar.
They are widely used in pastry for:
- Glazed fruits dipped in fondant
- Cream fillings
- Chocolates
- Decoration.
FRUIT PRODUCTS
JELLIES AND JAMS
Jellies are preparations made from fruits (juice, puree, etc) that contain high
levels of pectin and sugar. They are cooked to the desired moisture content
and consistency to ensure their preservation.
Jams are made in a similar way, although their texture is not as smooth and
can have fruit pieces.
Jam
Thaw the purée (and the IQF if necessary). Over low heat, bring the purée to a boil with the pectin
sugar mixture.
Add the second weighing of sugar, cook at 217 °F (103 °C) / 220 °F (104 °C), check 73° Brix with a
refractometer.
Uses:
- Fillings
- Flavoring
- Topping for desserts and ice cream sundaes.
© Sapam
COMPOTES, FRUIT SAUCES, AND PRESERVES
Fruit sauces are made by cooking pureed fruits with sugar.
Stewed/candied
Macarons side dish
Heat the purée with half the sugar to 122 °F (50°C), then add the other part of the sugar
previously mixed with the NH pectin. Continue cooking until 217 °F (103°C). Remove to a
baking sheet, cover with plastic wrap and allow to cool. When cold, mix with a spatula to
smooth the mixture. Fill macaroons with a piping bag.
FRUIT JELLY
Pureed fruit is cooked with sugar, molded, and cut into pieces for sale.
Compotes are generally less sweet than preserves.
You can also find fruit mousses, fruit creams, fruit ganaches, fruit-flavored
Chantilly creams, pastry creams with fruits, chocolate-based fruit creams,
soaking syrups containing fruit, etc.
CANDIED FRUITS
The candying process gradually replaces the water in fruits with syrup for
long-term preservation. They can be used both for decoration or as a filling
in certain desserts (cakes).
SALE
FRUIT LABELING
The marketing of fruit and vegetables is subject to specific regulations in
France.
© Sapam
• Labels contain the following information:
- Origin
- Type of product
- Variety
- Size
- Number of pieces or net weight.
• Label color:
- Red: EXTRA
- Green: CAT 1
- Yellow: CAT 2
- Gray: CAT 3.
SUPPLIERS
• Wholesaler
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: POACHING FRUITS

POACHING IN SYRUP
Sugar content: 30 °B syrup, or 50 percent water and 50 percent sugar.
Poach at a simmer.
SOUS-VIDE POACHING
Fruits contain a large number of nutrients.
Some of these are specifically responsible for the firmness and digestibility
of a particular fruit.
A compromise between the functional properties of each of the components
—cellulose, starch, and pectin—must be considered. The average poaching
temperature is 83°C (180°F). There are variations, depending on the nature
of the fruits, the seasonings in the bag, and their planned use.
HERBS
It can be interesting to use herbs in pastry. The appropriate herb must be
chosen when partnering it with a dessert, entremets, ice cream, or even a
sorbet.
The herbs and uses suggested in the table are examples and this list is not
exhaustive.
Herbs Uses/Partners
Anise hyssop Ice cream, tiramisu
Bergamot mint (Eau de Cologne

Crème brulee
mint)
Bishop’s goutweed (ground elder) Fruit salad, cake
Douglas fir Partnered with grapefruit
Fir (young shoots) Syrup, infusion
Ice cream, creme anglaise

Ground ivy
(custard)
Hogweed Fruit salad (mandarin)

Herbs Uses/Partners
Lady’s mantle Decoration
Crème brulee, partnered with

Meadowsweet
chocolate
Red clover Bread, pastries
Sea buckthorn Syrup, sorbet
Stickywilly (cleavers) Toasted (reminiscent of coffee)
Stinging nettle Crème anglaise (custard)
Sweet clover Pain d’epices (gingerbread)
Tansy Partnered with chocolate
Vietnamese cilantro (Vietnamese

Cocktail, infusion, syrup
coriander)
Wild garlic Small cookies
Wild mint Crème brulee
Woodruff Meringue, sorbet, granita
Yarrow Partnered with chocolate
FLOWERS
Flowers have “traditionally” been used in pastry, most often in French
regional specialties, and include acacia flowers and elderflowers (in
fritters), as well as hyacinth and linden flowers (infusions for syrup). Other
flowers can be added as decoration, but can also form an integral part of the
pastry creation (depending on the level of creativity, they can be cut down
to size if they are too “imposing,” mixed with others, etc.). Flowers are not
only decorative but also add flavor.
Pansies
© Marius Auda
Primroses
© Marius Auda
Flowers Uses/Combinations
“Salad” flowers Borage, nasturtium, begonia (petals and leaves),

(mainly eaten dahlia, centaury, pansy, daisy (candied in syrup at
raw) 30°C/86°F, then dried), sweet pea, sweet William
“Vegetable”
Primrose, marigold, hops, and squash and zucchini
flowers (can be
(courgette) blossoms
cooked)
“Spice” flowers Yarrow, deadnettles (white, yellow, purple), lavender,

(for decoration sage, French marigold (also known as “poor man’s
and flavoring) saffron”), thyme
“Fruit” flowers
Violet, rose, mustard flower, lilac
- decoction
Rose, violet, jasmine
- sugared
Begonia
- candied, jelly.
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
WHY SHOULD FRUITS AND/OR VEGETABLES BE EATEN?
Because they are packed with vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber, and
because of their proven health benefits. They play a protective role against
the diseases that appear in adults, such as cancers, cardiovascular diseases,
obesity, type-2 diabetes, etc. And more particularly, because they offer an
incredible variety of flavors—everything you need to combine health with
pleasure.
HOW SHOULD FRUITS BE EATEN?
There is no limit to the way they can be prepared: fresh (preferably) as well
as poached, frozen, as coulis and sauces, mousses, etc.
Priority should be given to seasonal fruits. Fruits sold out of season or
imported from distant countries have the same nutritional value as others,
but they have a negative impact on the planet.
A LOOK AT SERVINGS
At least 5 fruits and vegetables a day means at least 5 servings in

total of fruits and/or vegetables.
AND WHAT IS A SERVING?
It’s the equivalent of 80 to 100 grams, or, to put it simply, the size of
a fist or two full tablespoons. It is for example:
• 1 small apple
• 2 apricots
• A slice of melon
• A bowl of fruit salad
• A slice of compote (without sugar)
• 1 banana
• 5-6 strawberries
• 1 orange (squeezed if necessary)
• 1 tomato
• 5-6 cherry tomatoes
• One piece of salad
• 2 full tablespoons of spinach
• 1 large carrot
• 1 full handful of green beans…
“Fruit or vegetables?”
Ideally, you should eat both. For example:
3 servings of fruit and 2 of vegetables, 4 of vegetables and 1 of
fruit…
And vary each day according to your preferences.
https://www.my-vb.com/fra/a-propos/actualites/corporate/le-terroir-osmose-entre-la-terre-l-humain
https://blog.my-vb.com/actualites/tout-ce-quil-faut-savoir-sur-les-fruits
https://blog.my-vb.com/actualites/voyage-au-c%C5%93ur-des-fruits
http://www.mangerbouger.fr/Les-9-reperes/Les-9-reperes-a-la-loupe/Fruits-et-Legumes
TABLES OF FRUITS BY SEASON

No more strawberries in January! Every fruit and vegetable has its own
season. It is therefore important to pay attention to where the products sold
on market stalls and in large retail establishments are grown and, if
possible, how they are grown! If you want what you eat to be good for the
planet, it is important to show appreciation for the natural cycle and to
prioritize your consumption of local and seasonal fruits and vegetables
(which are largely better than air-freighted organic produce).
First of all, it cuts down on the long-distance air, sea, or road transportation
responsible for a large number of environmental problems, including the
consumption of nonrenewable resources and pollution (for example, it takes
5 L/1⅓ gallons of gasoline/petrol to transport 1 kg/2¼ pounds of winter
strawberries), but also traffic jams and accidents (one truck out of three on
European roads is carrying food). It also means that you are supporting the
farmers in your region and country (one farm disappears every 20 minutes
in France).
Finally, keep in mind that locally grown seasonal fruit picked when ripe
shortly before you eat it tastes much better and has greater nutritional
quality than a fruit that has ripened in cold storage on a ship—often
requiring treatment with products that make them last longer and plastic
wrapping for protection during transportation.
Another difficulty is learning to identify produce advertised as French but
grown in greenhouses when they are out of season. Ask the seller, because
it is not mandatory to show the growing method and it is often not given.
The problem with greenhouse farming is that it requires up to nine times
more energy than open-field cultivation. This method requires constant
heating to maintain a stable ambient temperature, sometimes even the use
of artificial lights—not to mention the addition of chemicals if the crop is
not organic and the produce has to be shipped.
The trouble is that we, especially the urban dwellers among us, no longer
know what fruits and vegetables grow in each season. For everybody who
has forgotten the natural cycles of fruits and vegetables, or were never
taught them, here is our calendar of seasonal fruits and vegetables.
Fruits Vegetables
Apples,
Beets (beetroot), Brussels sprouts,
grapefruits,
carrots, celery, endive, garlic, leeks,
January kiwis, lemons
onions, potatoes, spinach, turnips,
mandarins,
winter squash
oranges, pears
Apples,
Beets (beetroot), Brussels sprouts,
grapefruits,
carrots, celery, corn salad (lamb’s
February kiwis, lemons,
lettuce), endive, frisee, garlic, leeks,
mandarins,
onions, potatoes, turnips
oranges, pears
Apples, Asparagus, beets (beetroot), Brussels

grapefruits, sprouts, carrots, celery, endive, frisee,
March
kiwis, lemons, leeks, onions, potatoes, spinach, Swiss
oranges, pears chard, turnips
Apples, Asparagus, beets (beetroot), carrots,

April grapefruits, endive, frisee, leeks, onions, potatoes,
lemons, rhubarb radishes, spinach, Swiss chard, turnips
Fruits Vegetables
Asparagus, beets (beetroot), carrots,

Cherries, cauliflower, celery, cucumbers,
raspberries, eggplants (aubergines), garlic, leeks,
May
rhubarb, lettuce, onions, peas, potatoes,
strawberries radishes, spinach, Swiss chard,
turnips, zucchini (courgettes)
Artichokes, beets (beetroot), cabbage,

Apples, apricots,
carrots, cauliflower, celery,
black currants,
cucumbers, eggplants (aubergines),
cherries, melons,
June fennel, garlic, leeks, lettuce, onions,
raspberries, red
peas, peppers, potatoes, radishes,
currants,
spinach, Swiss chard, turnips, zucchini
strawberries
(courgettes)
Apples, apricots,
black currants, Artichokes, asparagus, beets
cherries, figs, (beetroot), cabbage, carrots,
melons, cauliflower, celery, corn, cucumbers,
Mirabelle plums, eggplants (aubergines), fennel, garlic,
July
nectarines, leeks, lettuce, navy (haricot) beans,
peaches, plums, onions, peas, peppers, potatoes,
raspberries, red radishes, spinach, Swiss chard,
currants, tomatoes, zucchini (courgettes)
strawberries
Apples, apricot, Artichokes, beets (beetroot), cabbage,

blackberries, carrots, cauliflower, celery, corn,
black currants, cucumbers, eggplants (aubergines),
August figs, melons, garlic, fennel, leeks, lettuce, navy
nectarines, (haricot) beans, onions, peppers,
peaches, pears, potatoes, radishes, spinach, Swiss
plums, prunes chard, tomatoes, zucchini (courgettes)
Fruits Vegetables
Apples, Artichokes, beets (beetroot), broccoli,

blackberries, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrots,
blueberries, cauliflower, celery, corn, cucumbers,
grapefruits, eggplants (aubergines), fennel, garlic,
September
grapes, melons, leeks, lettuce, navy (haricot) beans,
peaches, pears, onions, peppers, potatoes, radishes,
plums, prunes, spinach, Swiss chard, tomatoes,
watermelons zucchini (courgette)
Beets (beetroot), broccoli, Brussels

sprouts, cabbage, carrots, cauliflower,
celery, corn, corn salad (lamb’s
Apples,
lettuce), cucumber, eggplants
grapefruits,
October (aubergines), endive, fennel, frisee,
grapess, pears,
garlic, leeks, lettuce, navy (haricot)
quince
beans, onions, potatoes, radishes,
spinach, winter squash, zucchini
(courgettes)
Beets (beetroot), broccoli, Brussels

Apples,
sprouts, carrots, cabbage, cauliflower,
grapefruits,
celery, corn, corn salad (lamb’s
grapes, kiwis,
November lettuce), endive, fennel, frisee, garlic,
mandarins,
lettuce, leeks, onions, potatoes,
oranges, pears,
pumpkins, spinach, turnips, winter
quinces
squash
Apples, Beets (beetroot), Brussels sprouts,

grapefruits, carrots, celery, corn salad (lamb’s
December kiwis, lettuce), endive, garlic, leeks, onions,
mandarins, potatoes, pumpkins, spinach, turnips,
oranges, pears winter squash
Source: http://www.mescoursespourlaplanete.com/Calendrier_des_fruits_et_legumes_de_saison.html
VEGETABLES
While fruits are traditionally present in pastry creations, vegetables are not.
What can we expect from their use?
Flavors, textures, mouthfeel, little (or no) sugar, antioxidants, vitamins,
minerals, and water strongly bound to their fibers!
Carrots are already well represented in the traditional cake and tart (glazed
with orange) that bear their name. It is also possible to use parsnips,
pumpkins, sweet potatoes, cooked beets (beetroot), and butternut squash,
among others. Combinations with other plant-based products, such as
almonds, walnuts, hazelnuts, and chocolate, can become subjects of studies
in food pairing and the creation of food-matching tables.
Their functional properties make it possible to envisage a new form of
plant-based pastry suitable for vegetarians and vegans.
This approach is already being taken in the production and presentation of
frozen desserts, which makes it possible to obtain a good rating according
to the Nutri-score system (mainly B). Their inclusion promotes the intake of
dietary fiber (alternatively, the addition of acacia, chicory, wheat, and other
fibers to replace all or part of the sucrose) and limit the intake of calories,
sugar, saturated fatty acids, etc.
Help is being provided to professionals to understand and promote these
qualities, and they have recourse to software, such as Nutri Info, developed
by the Centre Technique des Métiers de la Pâtisserie (https://nutri-
info.ctmp.org (available in French)).
© Sapam
© Adobe Stock
ALCOHOL, WINE, AND LIQUOR
WINES
LIQUORS
RECTIFIED ALCOHOLS
These are alcohol-based products intended for food use that are unfit for
consumption in this state.
These products are therefore cheaper (with the agreement of the French
Ministry of Economy and Finance) and can be found under the following
names:
- extraits alcooliques (alcohol-based extracts)
- spiritueux dénaturés (denatured spirits).
Before using a liquor, it is necessary to consider:
- The alcohol content (ABV), depending on the use (its ability to reduce the
freezing point of ice cream, evaporation in hot creams)
- The amount of sugar it contains that may affect the recipe
- The flavor concentration (observe the measures given on the packaging)
- Its state (liquid, syrupy, rectified) to incorporate it in the best way in a
preparation.
LIQUEURS
Liqueurs are mainly used to flavor creams, mixtures, and chocolate centers,
and their choice depends on the production area and regional specialty.
They always contain added sugars of plant origin.
Producers have developed a range of special natural liqueur concentrates
with varying alcohol content.
The use of these concentrates allows for highly flavored preparations to be
produced with measures far lower than those previously used.
The alcohol content varies according to the manufacturer and the intended
use.
These liqueurs are usually fragrant and sweet. Crèmes de fruits are liqueur
derivatives made with fruit.
CRÈMES DE FRUITS
According to French regulations, liqueurs contain a minimum of 100 g (3½
oz/½ cup) sugar per 1 liter (1¾ pints/4¼ cups) and have an alcohol content
of between 15 and 55 percent by volume. Crèmes de fruits have a sugar
content of more than 250 g (8¾ oz/1¼ cups) per 1 liter (1¾ pints/4¼ cups)
and their alcohol content (not regulated) is generally lower than that of
liqueurs.
GOOD TO KNOW
Calculating the calories in alcohol:
1 ml alcohol weighs 0.8 g
1 g of alcohol = 7 cal
Example: Calories in a 125 ml (4 fl oz/½ cup) glass of wine with 12 percent
ABV: 1.25 × 12 × 0.8 × 7 = 84 cal.
When wine or other alcoholic liquids undergo a cooking process, 90 percent

of the alcohol is eliminated.
If the glass of wine is cooked, only 1.2 g of alcohol will remain, which is
8.4 cal (or 35 kJ).
Flambéing has the same effect on the evaporation of alcohol.
According to French regulations, a “nonalcoholic” beverage must not
contain more than 1.2 ml alcohol per 100 ml.
A can of “nonalcoholic soda” (250 ml/8½ fl oz/about 1 cup) may contain
more than 1.2 ml alcohol.
© Adobe Stock
CONVENIENCE FOOD, PROCESSED
FOOD
In France, pastry products that have undergone some degree of industrial

processing are referred to as produits alimentaires intermédiaires
(intermediary food products), typically shortened to PAI. Aside from the
fact that the meaning of this term may lead to confusion, the wording is a
little awkward and does not express the reality of the concept. It is
preferable to use the term convenience food, because it expresses the
concept from the perspective of comfort, convenience, suitability,
practicality, ease, etc.
PROPOSED CLASSIFICATION OF CONVENIENCE FOOD
INFLUENCE OF THE USE OF PROCESSED FOODS

These products are mainly intended for pastry kitchens with large-scale
production catering to a large number of consumers, particularly in
institutional food service.
After careful consideration of the benefits widely trumpeted by the food
industry, pastry makers are led to expect the following “benefits” of their
use:
Analysis
Benefits
criteria
Reduction in production areas but increase in storage

Investments
areas and volumes.
in premises
Tendency to shrink the production area.
Investment
in Equipment no longer required or fewer units installed.
equipment
Reduction of repetitive, monotonous tasks.

Staff Need to keep a professional mindset to ensure
compliance with production worksheets, creativity, etc.
Raw Different products with organoleptic qualities, not always

materials perfect, but standard.
Food safety is a constant consideration. Keep in mind

that the safety of the food product to be sold must be
guaranteed. For example, the HACCP method must be
applied to a pastry cream made using custard powder. In
Food safety
this case, the use of tap water is the critical control point.
If production is started up again after a stoppage lasting
several days, the water should be allowed to run so that
no stagnant water enters the composition of the cream.
CLASSIFICATION BY PRODUCT CATEGORY

Food products are traditionally classified in France into categories based on
their degree of processing. Category 1 contains food products in their raw
state. Processed food products fall into categories 1 through 5 (possibly 6).
Newer categories have been proposed to take into account more recent
technologies.
A category 7 (or even 8) would allow the grouping of products processed
with such technologies as: pascalization, microfiltration, and
cryoconcentration, among others.
© Adobe Stock
ADDITIVES
Information compiled from the website of the French General Directorate

for Competition Policy, Consumer Affairs and Fraud Control (DGCCRF):
• Additives: “Additives are substances that are added to foods for
technological purposes: to improve their preservation, to reduce oxidation
phenomena, to color foodstuffs, to enhance their flavor, etc. Even if used
in small quantities, these substances are assessed and monitored to prevent
adverse health effects. Their use is therefore regulated and their presence
must be mentioned on the labels of the products concerned.”
They must be included on the list of ingredients.
• Processing aid:
“Any substance:
- that is not consumed as a food ingredient by itself,
- that is intentionally used in the processing of raw materials, foods, or
their ingredients to fulfill a certain technological purpose during
treatment or processing,
- and that may result in the unintentional but technically unavoidable
presence of residues of the substance or its derivatives in the final
product, provided that they do not present any health risk and do not
have any technological effect on the finished product.”
Because it does not usually remain in the finished food product and serves
only as an intermediary, it is not listed on the label.
(Reference text: EU regulations regarding food additives of December 16,
2008)
Examples:
- Transglutaminase, known as “meat glue,” used to bind meat and fish
pieces together.
- Nitrogen or carbon dioxide used for chilling a food preparation.
- Calcium chloride used in direct spherification.
ADDITIVE FAMILIES
There are 25 families of additives, totaling approximately 350 authorized
additives. Certain additives possess several different properties. The
letter/digit code classification—E for Europe and 3 digits for the
International Numbering System (INS)—should be considered as an
indication, because an additive may have several functions.
Additives are classified into several categories according to their activities:
- E100 for food colors
- E200 for preservatives
- E300 for antioxidants
- E400 for texturizing agents (emulsifiers, stabilizers, thickeners, gelling
agents)
- E500 for acids, pH regulators
- E600 for flavor enhancers
- E900 for sweeteners
- E1400 for modified starches.
ACTUAL TEXTURIZING AGENTS E400 AND E1400
These include:
- Emulsifiers
- Foaming agents
- Gelling agents
- Modified starches
- Stabilizers
- Thickeners.
PROCESSING AIDS USED WITH TEXTURIZING AGENTS
Citric acid E330
Sodium citrate E331
Citric acid salt
A salt is the product obtained by neutralizing an acid with a base.
SWEETENERS
E900
Isomalt E953
Polyol, sweetening power 0.5. High thermal stability. Few calories,
noncariogenic. Excessive consumption may have a laxative effect. Used to
make sugar decorations.
Sugar decoration by Bastien Dambacher. Head pastry chef at Buerehiesel restaurant
(Strasbourg)
GOOD TO KNOW
French regulations are based on the European Union Directive 89/107/EEC
of December 21, 1988. There are four regulations in effect as of December
31, 2008.
• A text of general scope: Regulation (EC) No. 1331–2008.
• Three specific texts on:
- Additives—Regulation (EC) No. 1333–2008,
- Flavors—Regulation (EC) No. 1334–2008,
- Enzymes—Regulation (EC) No. 1332–2008.
This set of regulations forms the “technological additives package” for the
purpose of harmonizing the regulations existing in all of the European
Union member states.
It should be noted that processing aids, other than enzymes, remain the only
technological substances that do not come under the harmonized regulations
and therefore remain subject to national rules.
The existing rules remain unchanged:
- Principle of prior authorization
- Principle of a positive list of authorized additives
- Only additives that are safe, meet a technological need, are of interest to
the consumer, and not likely to mislead may be authorized.
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
ADDITIVES, PASTRY MAKING, AND FOOD SERVICE
Current events have highlighted the need to provide an overview of the use
of different additives in the food industry in the context of controversies
surrounding molecular cuisine.
The products offered obviously comply with the regulations and are subject
to an authorization procedure.
The Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) is the amount that a person can
consume safely every day during a lifetime. To assess this amount, testing is
performed on animals. When the dosed amount of substance has no effect
on the animal, it is known as the No Observed Adverse Effect Level
(NOAEL). This dose is divided by 100 for humans, which is the ADI.
It is important to note that the ADI is not the threshold of toxicological
concern; it represents a safe level of consumption.
Most of the additives that are authorized for use do not come with an ADI.
In this case, ADI is undetermined.
The amount to be used falls under the quantum satis (no maximum
regulatory dose; as needed) rule or guidelines for the efficient use of the
product—in other words, no more than is necessary.
NANOMATERIALS
It is important to note that the European Food Information Regulations

(FIR), which have been in force since December 2014, make it mandatory
to include the word “nano” on the packaging of food products. However,
this regulation does not set any minimum threshold for the presence of
nanomaterials, which could lead to misinterpretations by some
manufacturers. In May 2017, a similar law requiring the mandatory labeling
of food products containing nanomaterials. The text also defines
“engineered nanomaterial” as “any intentionally produced material having
one or more dimensions 100 nm (nanometers) or less” or composed of
discrete functional parts, many of which have one or more dimensions of
that size.
In the world of the infinitely small, comparing a meter to a nanometer is
like comparing the diameter of the earth to that of a marble.
This technology has allowed silver to have an antibacterial effect, gold to
become a catalyst, and certain insulators to have conductive properties.
Nanoparticles exist in a natural state, examples of which are smoke from,
forest fires, pollen, volcano ash, and in exhaust fumes, but they also serve to
shrink the size of our smart phones and computers, and are found in sun
creams.
Silicon dioxide (E551), used in agriculture, is also found in sugar, salt, and
flour as an anticaking agent to make them flow freely. It is present in
confectionery, cakes, and seasonings in the form of additives and colorings.
Its effect is purely aesthetic.
The minute size of these nanoparticles favors their penetration into the body
without respecting biological barriers, potentially having a harmful effect
on the intestines, lungs, etc.
The use of titanium dioxide (E171) as a food coloring has been banned in
the European Union.
As for E551 (silicon dioxide) and E172 (iron oxide), products containing
them should mention their presence. However, this happens in few cases, in
violation of the legislation in force.
http://www.additifs-alimentaires.net/E551.php
https://www.actu-environnement.com/ae/news/nanoparticules-aliments-etiquetage-obligation-geny-
dgccrf-31066.php4
© Adobe Stock
CONTEMPORARY INGREDIENTS
Baked goods can be classified in different ways.

According to the classification of additives:
- E100 food coloring
- E200 preservatives
- E300 antioxidants (acidity regulators)
- E400 texturing agents (emulsifiers, stabilizers, thickeners, gelling agents)
- E500 acids (pH regulators)
- E600 flavor enhancers (taste developers or correctors)
- E900 sweeteners
- E1400 modified starches.
Note: E700 antibiotics.
This type of classification has various disadvantages:
- When faced with this information, pastry chefs find it hard to offer
explanations, because they are not experts in toxicology.
- Experts’ opinions can be changeable or even alarmist. For example, E171
white food coloring (titanium dioxide) has been the subject of controversy,
because it is, in part, made up of nanoparticles that are probably harmful to
health.
- Labels do not give the full information, because some additives have
several functions. The way they are classified is sometimes confusing.
- There is also the (decisive) argument claiming that pastry chefs do not use
additives. However, some ingredients can, in fact, be classified as
additives (for example, gelatin).
Or as a classification according to their origin: animal, vegetable,
natural, chemical (the one chosen in this chapter):
- Coloring-pigmenting agents (as part of E100)
- Preservatives (E200) and antioxidants (E300)
- Texturing agents: emulsifiers, foaming agents, gelling agents, stabilizers,
thickeners, suspending properties (E400), modified starches (E1400. See
chapter on Grains)
- Flavor enhancers (E600), sweeteners (E900. See chapter on Sweeteners),
and flavoring agents
- “Technological” agents: beeswax (E900), packaging gases (E930).
FOOD COLORING-PIGMENTING AGENTS (PART OF E100)
Food colorings are used to give color, rebalance, or enhance a color in a
preparation. There are several sources for food colorings.
• Natural, the food coloring is extracted from a substance:
- Plant origin: chlorophyll(s), carotene
- Animal origin: carmine from the cochineal insect
- Mineral origin: aluminum, silver, gold.
• Synthetic, the coloring molecule(s) of a natural substance is/are
reproduced identically.
• Artificial molecules are created that, when combined, give a color.
They are commercially available in different forms:
- Water-soluble food coloring
- Fat-soluble food coloring
- Alcohol-based food coloring
- Food coloring powder.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USE
• Don’t systematically go for a flashy effect. Colors that are too bright
suggest the use of artificial food coloring. It’s important to measure out
precise amounts of food coloring.
• Pay close attention to the effects of cooking.
• Pay close attention to colored ingredients: pH, aqueous, and/or lipid
phase/s.
For example, and without going into exhaustive detail, you should consult
lists published and validated by the ministries concerned.
It is recommended that expert institutions are consulted. In fact, there may
be changes to the authorizations issued that take into account the opinion of
toxicologists on these substances, which are the subject of controversy.
Color Additive numbering Name
Color Additive numbering Name
E100 Curcumin
E101 Lactoflavin
Yellow E102 Tartrazine
E104 Quinoline yellow
E107 Yellow aka G2
Orange E110 Orange yellow S
Red E120, etc. Cochineal
Blue E131, etc. Patent blue V
Green E140, etc. Chlorophylls
Brown E150, etc. Caramel
Black E151, etc. Brilliant black BN
PRESERVATIVES (E200) AND ANTIOXIDANTS (E300)

These are added to foodstuffs to help preserve them. They are used to
combat the effects of time and the environment. They act on the role of the
enzymes that are naturally present in foodstuffs as well as on the existing
and/or added microbial flora.
Name Numbering Use
Sorbic
E200 Fermented milk, yogurt
acid
Sodium
E221 Fruit juices
sulfite
Name Numbering Use
Sodium
E251 Deli meats
nitrate
Acetic Condiments
E260
acid Commercially produced bread
Lactic
E270 Acidifier, flavor enhancer
acid
Propionic
E280 Commercially produced bread
acid
Prevents fruit and vegetables from oxidizing.

Ascorbic Used to improve flours and the consistency
E300
acid of dough.
Ensures longer shelf life.
Sodium
E301
ascorbate
Preserves and conserves
Sauces
Calcium
E302
ascorbate
Ascorbyl
E304 Prevents fats from becoming rancid.
palmitate
Citric Acidifier, pH corrector. Intensifies aromas.

E330
acid Inhibits color and flavor deterioration.
Tartaric Antioxidant but also acidifying agent, pH

E334
acid corrector, stabilizer.
Name Numbering Use
Purified potassium bitartrate in powder form.

Cream of Replaces glucose for making smooth
E336
tartar fondants and makes boiled sugars easier to
shape. It is a component in baking powder.
TEXTURIZING AGENTS: EMULSIFIERS, FOAMING AGENTS,

GELLING AGENTS, STABILIZERS, THICKENERS, SUSPENDING
PROPERTIES (E400)
Recommendations for use (doses) are suggested here. These
recommendations are only indicative. Several factors should be taken into
account:
- Active compounds may have several functions (gelling agent, emulsifier,
etc.). The way they perform is affected by the characteristics of the
environment in which they are used, and these must be taken into account.
- Manufacturers often include other ingredients, such as excipients. These
products may have practical implications.
- To reduce the supply of active products, manufacturers will offer a
package of ingredients specifically for a particular use: gelling, glazing,
filling, etc.
It is therefore advisable to precisely follow the indications of use
recommended by the manufacturer.
PROTEINS
Gelatin
A translucent solid substance, gelatin is considered to be an ingredient
when it comes to labeling (European standard) and not an additive, which is
why it isn’t preceded by an E. Nevertheless, it is still found with the number
E441 (a number used in the past), because even now it is considered to be a
gelling additive by some food companies.
Made from collagen (animal bones and hides), it is 90 percent protein.
Gelatin is primarily of bovine origin. However, the outbreak of mad cow
disease resulted in a shift to sourcing gelatin from pigs. Gelatin is once
again bovine in origin. Another gelatin is derived from fish.
It has three properties:
- Gelling agent, neutral flavor, and ability to dissolve. Gel strength, also
known as “Bloom” value, is a measure of the strength and stiffness of the
gelatin, and it ranges from 50° to 300° Bloom in increments of 20°. Gold
(200°/220° Bloom), silver (160°/180°), and bronze (120°/140°) are
commercially available.
- Stabilizer for water/oil emulsions (for example, light spreads).
- Foaming agent.
The traditional method consists of dissolving gelatin sheets (or “leaves”),

previously rehydrated in cold water, in a hot liquid. It is effective but it
takes time for the gelatin to start setting as the temperature of the liquid
needs to drop. It is better and more efficient to melt the rehydrated gelatin
(separately in a saucepan or in the microwave) and gradually add it to a
liquid that’s at room temperature. This disperses the gelatin and the gel will
set quickly.
Gelatin powder is used in the same way as gelatin sheets—hydrated in cold
water and then mixed with a hot liquid. The advantage is that it is much
more accurate for measuring precise amounts. Because powdered gelatin
allows for more accurate weights, you won’t be randomly breaking off tiny
parts of sheets and questioning if you have the exact amount—and there is
no need to squeeze the gelatin as you do with sheets. The required weight in
powder corresponds to the “old” weight expressed in sheet form, which in
theory weigh 2 grams each.
Method Characteristics Uses
Gels at 10–12°C (50–54°F) and begins to A transparent,

break down if warmed to 27–35°C (80– elastic gel that
95°F). melts in the
mouth (and
Soluble Some products contain proteolytic
releases its
at 45– enzymes that prevent gelling: papaya,
flavor).
50°C kiwi, figs, pineapple. This disadvantage
(113– can be avoided by blanching or cooking It is used for
122°F) these fruits. desserts to
stabilize ice
Gel is weaker in acidic or salty
cream, for
environments and is stronger in a sugary
bavarian cream,
environment.
etc.
Its uses are becoming more diverse. For example, the recent development of
a new “instant gelatin” in powder form means it doesn’t need to be
rehydrated or heated.
Composition: Dehydrated glucose syrup and bovine gelatin.
To subsitute a traditional gelatin sheet with the powder form, use 10 g (⅜
oz/1 tablespoon).
SEAWEED EXTRACTS
Alginates (E401), sodium alginate
Brown algae.
Thickening properties.
Stable in hot and
Gelling agents (when
In cold water, if cold environments.
calcium ions are
possible mixed with salt Flavored beads
present).
or sugar. (normal, inverted),
Firm and brittle gel. “glue.”
Slow solubility.
Nonreversible.
Ice cream stabilizer.
Transparent.
Carrageenan (E407)
Red algae.
Lambda fraction: soluble in cold water, thickener.
Kappa fraction: soluble in hot water. Firm and brittle gel on cooling.
Iota fraction: slightly soluble in cold water, completely soluble in hot water.
Elastic gel, clear when cool.
Tolerates freezing.
All are soluble in hot milk.
Widely used by the food industry to stabilize dairy products.
Gels from 40°C

(104°F).
Spaghetti can replace gelatin,
At a temperature of Elastic gel, heat pectin, and eggs in set
80°C (176°F) 1–2 stable. custards.
minutes Gel breaks
Ice cream stabilizer.
down at 65°C
(150°F).
Agar (E406)
Plant-based gelling agent. Sometimes called agar-agar, agarose, kanten,

Java seaweed, Ceylon moss, Chinese gelatin, or Japanese glue.
Derived from red algae, it was discovered in Japan in 1658 by Minora
Tarazaemon.
Solid gels:
Block, can be
“grated.”
Gels on cooling 36°C (97°F): Fast Sweet or
Soluble in hot gelling, firm and brittle savory
liquid (boiling) thermoreversible gel. spaghetti.
100°C (212°F) Commercially
1–2 minutes. Holds up to heat. produced
Gel breaks down at 80°C (176°F). preserves.
Jelly candies
(sweets).
Confectionery.
POLYSACCHARIDES OBTAINED BY FERMENTATION

Xanthan gum (E415)
Synthesized by Xanthomonas campestris (found in cabbage) from
cornstarch. Thickener.
Stabilizer for keeping solids in suspension in emulsions, foams, and
mousses.
Withstands Stabilizer.
Soluble in hot and cold water and in
freezing and Suspending
milk (let cool before using).
thawing. properties.
Gellan gum (E418)

Synthesized by Sphingomonas elodea (a bacterium that grows on an aquatic
plant).
Gels with low concentrations (0.1 to 0.5 percent).
Solubilizes at about 70°C (160°F). Mix thoroughly for 8–10 minutes.
Stable up to about 70°C (160°F)—or even 90°C (195°F)—allowing for hot
gels to be cleanly cut.
Withstands a wide pH range (3–10).
CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES
Methyl cellulose (E461)
Emulsifier and bulking agent.
Firm gel when hot, mixed in when cold.
When whisked in, makes fresh fruit juices and coulis light and airy while
keeping the pulp in suspension—dose of 1–4 g per 1L (1⁄32—⅛ oz/¾-3
teaspoons per 1¾ UK pints/4¼ cups).
Methylcellulose A: Gelling agent.
Methylcellulose B (E464) or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose: Thickener.
Heat to 60°C (140°F).
Carboxymethyl cellulose, CMC (E466)
Soluble in hot or cold liquids.
Thickener.
Activates at room Gels at 65°C A: Elastic and opaque gel,

temperature. (150°F) forms only when hot.
A and B: 80°C Gel breaks down at B: Used for making fine
(175°F) 40°C (104°F) layers of edible gel.
NATURAL AND MODIFIED STARCHES

See chapter on Grains
PLANT-BASED EXTRACTS
Carob bean gum (E410)

Extracted from the seeds of carob trees.
Structure: Galactomannan.
Thickening properties.
Use in gelato and ice creams.
Soluble in cold water, stirring energetically. Swells in water, hydration
obtained by heating to boiling point.
Guar gum (E412)
Extracted from the seeds of the plant.
Strong thickener. Stabilizer for ice cream.
Used in breads and pastries (for softness) as a (partial) replacement for
flour. Reduces calorie intake.
Tragacanth gum (E413)
Extract from trees of the Astragalus family.
Does not dissolve in water but swells to form a gelatinous mass. Can be
used to make pastillage.
Gum arabic (E414; also known as gum acacia)
Extracted by incising the bark of the acacia tree.
Soluble in water.
Used in pastry making to give a glossy look to petit fours and marzipan
creations.
Sometimes considered as an ingredient and sometimes as an additive.
Soy lecithin (E322; classified as an antioxidant)
Natural emulsifier, derived from soybeans, sunflower oil, or egg yolks.
Brown, pasty liquid. Also available in powder form.
Classified as a lipid.
Acts on leavened doughs, adds texture and softness.
Antioxidant properties (slows down the deterioration of products).
For mousses, such as foams, lecithins should not be added to mixtures
hotter than 40°C (104°F).
Konjac (E425)
Tuber.
Thickener.
Ingredient of konnyaku (Japan). Served as a block or in noodle form:
shirataki.
Lubricating effect, can replace fats.
Tara gum (E417)
Extracted from a legume.
Thickener.
Used to make creamy mixtures.
Good substitute for carob.
Practically dissolves in cold liquids.
Pectins (E440)
Extracted from apple pomace, citrus rind (pith), in cell walls and the
intracellular layer of plant cells such as in currants, quince, etc.
Food manufacturers have modified pectins by making them undergo a
number of transformations and/or by adding certain ingredients. As a result,
a huge range of pectins (delayed setting, rapid set, thermo-reversible, etc.)
is available to meet the needs of artisan pastry chefs. For example: pectin
HM, LM, and LMA; yellow pectin; pectin × 58; and pectin 325 NH 95, etc.
The M corresponds to the degree of methylation.
Pectin strength is determined by SAG degree.
It is used in jellies and preserves (sugar gel), coatings.
Stabilizer for gelato and ice cream.
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS
Mono- and diglycerides (E471)

Derived from fats, obtained from glycerin and fatty acids.
Good emulsifiers. Must first be diluted in a fatty element, because they are
lipophilic.
Should be dissolved, for example, in oil heated to 60°C (140°F).
They can improve the texture and slow the melting of ice creams but not
sorbets, because the latter do not contain fat.
A mixture of glycerides and sucrose esters increases the stability of an
emulsion, either E472e or DATEM (part of the Louis François range of
products), an emulsifier.
Sucrose esters (E473)
Emulsifier derived from sucrose, from a reaction of sucrose and fatty acids.
Must be mixed in an aqueous phase, because they are hydrophilic.
Dissolves faster when hot.
Biodegradable and metabolizable. Neutral flavor. Stable when hot.
A mixture of glycerides and sucrose esters increases the stability of an
emulsion.
FLAVOR ENHANCERS (E600); SWEETENERS (E900; see chapter
on Sweeteners); FLAVORING AGENTS
“TECHNOLOGICAL” AGENTS
- E900 Beeswax
- E930 Propellant
- Nitrogen.
MIXES: INGREDIENTS AND FORMULAS
Many of the elements mentioned here have been used for a long time and
are not the object of rampant modernity. Moreover, their origins are often
natural. When this is not the case, legislation takes into account the opinion
of a toxicologist. Fortunately, “new and/or suspect” ingredients are in most
cases used (and therefore consumed) in quantities that do not endanger the
health of consumers.
Food manufacturers offer two types of products:
- “Pure” ingredients: The packaging is often so large that buying them
may seem impractical. The idea is to benefit from the functional properties
of the products. A basic degree of knowledge is required to understand the
complexity of the information. Moreover, the amounts needed—often
minimal—make their purchase sometimes extravagant. Nevertheless,
pastry chefs will want to use products that meet their personal needs. It is
essential to consider proper storage conditions and a rotation of the
packages.
- Mixes: These are preparations intended for a specific production purpose.
In this regard, food manufacturers take every precaution to avoid the
inconveniences of, for example, an unknown or uncontrolled pH or of
water with more or fewer minerals. If a product is “safe,” it is also a
standard product that others will also use, reducing the possibility of
“customizing” a service.
PREMIXES AND MIXES
• Composition: Premixes and mixes generally consist of a base flour
(wheat, rye, or other), sensory ingredients (seeds, flakes, malts), and
technological ingredients, depending on the final use of the product (fat,
milk powder, enzymes, emulsifiers, etc.).
• Mixes: These are ready-to-use preparations that contain all the
necessary elements—except for water, yeast, and salt, which the baker
must add during the kneading process—to make a finished product. The
quantities are therefore 100 percent accurate.
• Premixes (or concentrates): Quantities are between 10 and 50 percent.
They contain little base flour. It is therefore necessary to add flour and
water, as well as salt, etc.
“NOUVELLE” PASTRY MAKING?
Much has been written about molecular cuisine. Curiously, the pastry
industry has not taken any particular position on the subject, although it is
particularly relevant. According to Hervé This’s definition of “molecular
cuisine,” it is defined by the use of new materials, new ingredients, and new
techniques. As in other cuisines, pastry making has followed this evolution,
and, like other cuisines before it, pastry making has had a golden age of
constructed desserts. More recently, and thanks to the evolution of both
materials and ingredients, pastry making today is molecular. Without a
doubt, it will most likely be a driving force behind the “Note by Note”
cooking advocated by Hervé This.
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
EGGS VERSUS PLANT-BASED ALTERNATIVES
The current trend for veganism and vegetarianism has led to the appearance
of new plant-based alternatives. The problem of food intolerances has also
pushed food manufacturers to come up with substitutes. One idea retains
the physical appearance of eggs. Another is a substitute in the form of
“liquid eggs”: plant-based whole eggs, egg whites, and egg yolks.
© Adobe Stock
OF THE INGREDIENTS USED IN PASTRY:
EXPERIMENTAL WORKSHOPS
MOLECULAR GASTRONOMY AND MOLECULAR PASTRY

THE EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH
Learning about pastry making by looking at the functional properties
involved is an approach that can encourage readers to consider the concept
of molecular pastry in the same way as molecular cuisine, but we won’t
delve into the facts here.
In pastry making, a phenomenal diversity of consistencies, tastes, flavors,
aromas, and colors can be produced from a limited number of ingredients:
flour, eggs, sugar, milk, cream, etc.
Many ingredients are used in recipes in which measurements must be exact
and the method and technique precise.
In stores, ingredients are presented and classified according to their
composition, to physicochemical characteristics. Obviously, these items
play a role in the creation of this or that recipe.
We’re happy to follow Hervé This, who encourages us to differentiate
between molecular gastronomy and molecular (or pastry making) cuisine.
Molecular gastronomy is a science that consists of understanding the
physicochemical phenomena (or trying to) that take place in cooking and
therefore in pastry making. That is why we’ve been using products with
technological qualities for a long time (tragacanth, glucose, modified starch,
gelatin), while others are more recent: alginates, xanthan gum, etc. Learning
about these, although not enough on its own to master pastry making, can
nevertheless be used to understand some phenomena and to know what to
do when an expected outcome does not materialize.
There are many guidelines when it comes to pastry making. Myriad
recommendations, sayings, and directives are scattered among recipes and
other references for achieving success. It’s imperative, for example, to
blanch an egg yolk-and-sugar mixture well, to put parchment (baking)
paper under a bain-marie when cooking creams.
Alongside these categorical assertions, unconvincing explanations are often
proffered. If they’re followed, it’s because they are presented as essential if
one aspires to be a true professional.
To completely understand the phenomena expounded, it is necessary to turn
to the experimental method. Traditionally, this process has different stages:
1) Problem, 2) Studying the problem, 3) Hypothesis, 4) Experimentation, 5)
Deduction. This method is strict and time consuming, as it is a matter for
specialists.
We won’t go into it here. We simply offer a few experiments to support our
claims about the functional properties of foods. They will be backed up by
experimental workshops, sometimes referred to as Applied Technology.
Food is made up of nutrients: proteins, fats, carbohydrates. The latter are
families of various molecules composed of atoms. They are the gateway to
show and explore the functional properties of foods.
1. Document by CNIEL (National Dairy Interbranch Organization of France) http://www.filiere-

laitiere.fr/fr/laits-liquides (available in French)
2. Also referred to as “delactosed milk.”
1. Also known by the generic and imprecise term “beurres pâtissiers” (“pastry butters”).
1 Ni cru ni cuit, Histoire et civilisation de l’aliment fermenté, Marie-Claire Frédéric (Alma Éditeur,
2014).
OceanofPDF.com
TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACH
© Adobe Stock
SPONGE CAKE BATTERS
Sponge cake batters are soft and airy. These mixtures are beaten by hand or
with an electric mixer. They are classified as foam batters.
For the sponge cake batters, first whisk the basic ingredients (hot or cold),
then add the flour. Finally, add the egg whites, stiffly beaten, and fold in
gently.
GENOISE SPONGE CAKE
To make the batter for a genoise sponge cake, mix the sugar and eggs in a
bain-marie until it reaches ribbon consistency, then gently fold in the flour.
BASE RECIPES
SAVOY SPONGE CAKE, LADYFINGERS, AND GENOA BREAD

• Savoy sponge cake: To make the batter, first mix the egg yolks, eggs,
and sugar (remember to save some for the egg whites). Blanch this first
mixture until ribbon consistency is reached. Gently fold in the flour and
starch. Beat the egg whites until stiff, gradually adding the reserved
sugar. Decorate the top with slivered (flaked) almonds.
• Ladyfingers (sponge fingers) are sprinkled with confectioners’ (icing)
sugar.
• Genoa bread (pain de Gênes) is made by adding ground almonds,
baking powder, and melted butter.
BASE RECIPES
Note: The commercial food industry offers quality products that can be
used in a variety of ways, particularly for the restaurant industry or when
large numbers of sponge cakes are required.
DERIVATIVES
SWEET AND SHORT PASTRY DOUGHS
These are dry doughs with a low water content, which makes the pastry
particularly crumbly.
TWO MAIN METHODS OF PREPARATION
The “rubbing-in” method: First combine the dry ingredients (flour, sugar,
and salt) and cold butter, then add the wet ingredients (eggs or egg yolks,
water, and milk).
The “creaming” method: First mix the wet ingredients (softened butter
and eggs), then add the sugar, salt, and, finally, the flour.
In both cases, the goal is to avoid hydrating or “working” the gluten.
Short pastry is crumbly, while pastries made with the creaming method are
more compact.
BASE RECIPES
Contemporary recipes are now being created.

For example, a glucose short pastry dough is used as a base for many
pastries, tarts and tartlets, entremets bases, etc.
This type of dough has the advantage of being supple, thanks to the addition
of glucose, making it easier to roll out. It doesn’t tear.
When eaten, it’s a crumbly pastry that is not too sweet, and it doesn’t get
soggy when refrigerated.
RECOMMENDATIONS:
It’s advisable to make this type of dough in advance, not at the last moment.
These pastry doughs are usually first “blind baked,” in other words, baked
without the filling.
BASIC PASTRY DOUGHS
DRY DOUGHS AND/OR TART SHELLS

Basic pastry doughs, or shortcrust (brisée) doughs, are part of the family of
“dry” doughs and/or tart shells (cases). What they have in common is their
texture and crumbliness.
It is important to work these doughs as little as possible. A cutter mixer is
therefore an appropriate piece of equipment. For the best results, it is
advisable to make them in advance, if possible.
BASE RECIPES
Water is important for a successful basic pastry dough. However, you can
substitute a whole egg for the yolk and water.
USES
FOR SAVORY DISHES
Basic pastry dough is used as a base for tarts (quiches, vegetable tarts, etc.),
for croustades, etc.
Some recipes may include regional characteristics, such as the use of olive
oil or lard:
Tart shell made with
Tart shell made with oil
lard
Flour 0.200 kg/7 oz/1⅝ cups 0.200 kg/7 oz/1⅝ cups
Olive 0.10 L/3½ fl oz/⅓ cup + 1½

oil tbsp
Lard 0.050 kg/1¾ oz/¼ cup
0.10 L/3½ fl oz/⅓ cup + 1½

Water 0.05 L/1¾ fl oz/3½ tbsp
tbsp
Salt 0.005 kg/3⁄16 oz/⅞ tsp 0.004 kg/⅛ oz/⅝ tsp
FOR SWEET PASTRY DOUGH
Basic pastry dough is used for tart shells (apple tart, plum tart, etc.) or for
tartlets, sweet cake bases, etc.
GOOD TO KNOW
One difficulty when it comes to baking a filled basic pastry shell is ensuring
that the pastry is not “waxy” (white, yellowy, stodgy, soggy). It should be
an amber color, dry, and crispy.
One solution is to start baking the pastry at about 180°C (350°F/Gas Mark
4) for 15 minutes and then to reduce the heat to 150–160°C (300–
325°F/Gas Mark 2–3) for 45 minutes.
A second solution is to “toast” the flour raw before making the dough. The
dough then takes on a characteristic caramel taste.
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
The ingredients are not definitive. Other, less traditional ingredients, can
also be added. For example, 15 percent of malt can be added to the basic
pastry dough (recommended by Christophe Meyer, from the Christian
pâtisserie in Strasbourg).
The names of these pastry doughs are the subject of considerable
discussion. In fact, it’s difficult to classify them in an exact way. So—for
some professionals—basic pastry dough and tart shells (pâte brisée and
pâte à foncer in France) are the same thing, while for others, basic pastry
dough is a tart shell made without egg yolks (a tart shell is therefore a basic
pastry dough with the addition of egg yolks).
PUFF PASTRY
Puff pastry is a great pastry classic, for which there are different ways to
make it.
The choice of the method depends on the expected result.
The food industry offers high-quality puff pastries, in particular, frozen
ones.
The principle of puff pastry is as follows: to make layers of pastry with a
number of properties.
THE EFFECT OF BAKING
On the one hand, the layers made with flour and water provide the support
and the possibility for the water to evaporate; on the other hand, the layers
of fat offer resistance to the “wet” layers that evaporate. As a result, the
different layers separate and move away from each other, leaving gaps that
create a “millefeuilles” effect.
PERSONALIZING THE PASTRY DOUGH
For example:
- Add an alcohol (or vinegar) to (or instead of) the water. The puff pastry
will develop quickly during baking.
- Add unsweetened cocoa powder to the flour to obtain a chocolaty puff
pastry.
BASIC GUIDE
Recipes are not set in stone. For example, it is not unusual to find melted
butter added directly to the water dough.
Ordinary (traditional) puff pastry is made by turning twice three times.
Inverted puff pastry is made with four turns. The fat is on the outside, hence
the term “inverted” (sometimes referred to as the Dutch method).
Rough puff pastry is also turned four times.
Another kind of puff pastry is made with what is called the Scotch method.
It’s a fast puff pastry to make in less than 40 minutes. The flour is mixed
with half of the butter to make the water dough, working it as little as
possible. It is a traditional puff pastry except that the pastry is turned
making three “double turns,” one after the other. This puff pastry can be
used immediately but is very crumbly.
Note: The three main ingredients can be modified to personalize the dough.
DERIVATIVES
Note: A little known puff pastry that is light, melts in the mouth, and is
almost glittery is making a comeback: Viennese puff pastry. The ingredients
used for the water dough are: cream (35 percent fat content), milk, and egg
yolks.
USES
Appetizers, vol-au-vent, tarts, pithiviers, galettes des rois, puff pastry
straws, millefeuilles, palmiers, bichons, fleurons, etc.
AN IN-DEPTH LOOK
DOES IT REALLY HAVE A THOUSAND LAYERS?
A water dough (mixture of flour, water, and salt) is made.

In this case, the amount of water is equal to half the weight of the flour.
The fat is incorporated before folding and turning. It weighs half of the
weight of the water dough.
The three folds and the turns made allow you to see the progressive layers
of water dough and layers of fat build up. Before the first folding, you can
see that a layer of fat is sandwiched between two layers of water dough.
During the first folding, three layers of fat and six layers of water dough are
obtained (when two layers of water dough touch each other, they become
one).
Calculating the number of layers:
Number of turns Calculation Number of layers
1st turn 3 × 3 = 9–2 7
2nd turn 7 × 3 = 21–2 19
3rd turn 19 × 3 = 57–2 55
4th turn 55 × 3 = 165–2 163
5th turn 163 × 3 = 489–2 487

Number of turns Calculation Number of layers
6th turn 487 × 3 = 1,461–2 1,459

FRITTER BATTERS
Fritter batters are no longer popular, because they are high in fat.
However, by taking a few specific precautions, the amount of fat can be
reduced.
It is essential to use clean oil (keep an eye on its deterioration) and the right
temperature.
BASE RECIPES
DERIVATIVES
OTHER RECIPES
Names Descriptions
Names Descriptions
Fritter batter
Make the batter by mixing the flour with yeast
made with a
(diluted in a little warm milk).
leavened batter
Fritter batter Add vanilla sugar and confectioners’ (icing) sugar

made with a choux to the choux pastry dough. Add milk to obtain the
pastry dough right consistency.
Add ice water to the tempura flour. Season and

use immediately.
0.150 kg/5¼ oz/1 cup + 3 tbsp flour
0.100 kg/3½ oz/¾ cup + 1 tbsp cornstarch
(cornflour)
11 g/⅜ oz/2½ tsp baking powder
Tempura batter 1 pinch salt
0.15–0.20 L/5–7 fl oz/⅔—⅞ cup ice water
Mix the flour, cornstarch (cornflour), baking
powder, and salt.
Add the water gradually until you have a batter
that is slightly thicker than crepe batter.
Let stand in a cool place before using.
USES
Typical fritters are found in all local cuisines: bugnes, churros, oreillettes,
etc. They are differentiated by the ingredients used and their flavors and
shapes, as well as by the occasions in which they are enjoyed.
REGULATIONS FOR EVALUATING FATS USED FOR FRYING
Regulations encourage professionals to know how to evaluate the degree of
deterioration of frying oil. The amounts of polar compounds (maximum 25
percent) or the content of triglyceride polymers (greater than 14 percent)
must be checked. Oils that do not comply with these regulations are
considered unfit for human consumption.
The alternative criterion “triglyceride polymer content” is a recent one. It
was introduced for practical reasons, because the analysis of triglyceride
polymers is faster and solvent usage is reduced.
Oils and fats used for frying break down during their use (change in
triglycerides, the main components of fats). Labels for oils and fats intended
exclusively for cooking or frying include the words “for frying only” or
“for cooking only” on them.
PRECAUTIONS
After cooking, place the fried food on sheets of (kitchen) paper towels.
Food manufacturers sell additives (such as methylcellulose) that prevent
food from becoming permeated with fat while cooking.
LEAVENED DOUGHS
Leavened doughs include:

- brioche dough
- savarin and baba batters
- puff pastry.
BRIOCHE DOUGH
USES
• Hot appetizers with brioche dough: sausage brioche, etc.
• Dishes made with brioche dough: beef tenderloin (fillet) in brioche,
duck breast in brioche, etc.
• Pastries made with brioche dough: almond cream brioche, pear cake,
fruit tart, etc.
• Viennese pastries made with brioche dough: brioche Parisienne, rolls,
Mousseline brioche, Nanterre brioche, braided brioche, Lyon brioche,
etc.
SAVARIN AND BABA DOUGHS

DIRECT METHOD
- Measure the ingredients.
- Sift the flour into a bowl (or into the bowl of a mixer).
- Make a well in the middle and add the yeast dissolved in a little warm
milk.
- Add the salt dissolved in a little milk, the eggs, and sugar.
- Knead the dough, adding the remaining milk.
- Work the dough until smooth and no longer sticks to the sides of the bowl.
- Melt the butter.
- Gradually add the warm melted butter.
- Knead until smooth. Scrape down the sides.
- Fill lightly greased molds halfway.
- Put into drying oven to rise (30–35°C/86–95°F).
- When the dough has risen to the top of the molds, bake in a medium oven
(200°C/400°F/Gas Mark 6) for 20–25 minutes for small brioches, 30–35
minutes for large brioches.
- When done, unmold and let cool on a rack.
SOURDOUGH METHOD
- Sift one-quarter of the flour onto a marble pastry surface. Make a well in
the middle and add the yeast diluted in the warm milk.
- Mix together. Knead.
- Roll into a ball, score the top, and let rest in a warm place to double in
size.
- In the meantime, put the remaining flour into a bowl. Add the salt
dissolved in a little milk, the eggs, and sugar, then add the flour.
- Knead it well to give the dough body.
- Gradually add the milk, kneading until smooth and elastic.
- Add the yeast mixture (which should have doubled in volume), mix well.
- Let rise in a bowl covered with a cloth (let double in volume).
- Punch down (knock back) the dough and gradually add the melted butter.
Knead the dough until smooth and glossy.
- Fill, let rise, and bake as in the direct method.
USES
Savarins, pomponnettes, Marignan, babas, etc.
PUFF PASTRY
CROISSANT DOUGH
- Measure the ingredients.
- Sift the flour and make a well in the center.
- Add the salt, sugar, the egg, a little at a time, and most of the milk or
water; let the salt and sugar will dissolve.
- Pour in the yeast diluted in a little milk and/or water.
- Gradually add all the flour with your fingertips as well as the remaining
milk and/or water. Mix well.
- Roll into a ball and set aside in a lightly floured bowl.
First rising
- Cover the dough to avoid crusting.
- Let rise at room temperature and away from drafts.
- The dough should double in volume in about 1 hour.
- Punch down and set aside at 5°C (40°F) for 2–3 hours to relax the dough
and cool it down.
Folding
Three single turns (ST) or one double turn (DT) and one single turn.
Cutting
Shaping
Second rising
- Put the dough into a drying oven.
- Remove the croissants as soon as they have doubled in size.
- Bake.
Ingredients Recipe 1 Recipe 2
Flour 0.500 kg/1 lb 2 oz/4 cups 0.500 kg/1 lb 2 oz/4 cups
Fine salt 0.010 kg/⅜ oz/1⅝ tsp 0.010 kg/⅜ oz/1⅝ tsp
Milk or
0.030 L/1 fl oz/2 tbsp 0.030 L/1 fl oz/2 tbsp
water
15–20 g/½—¾oz/ —1⅛ 15–20 g/½—¾oz/ —1⅛

small cakes or 2⅜–3¼ tsp small cakes or 2⅜–3¼ tsp
Fresh yeast
active (fast-action) dry active (fast-action) dry
yeast yeast
Superfine
(caster) 0.070 kg/2½ oz/⅓ cup 0.070 kg/2½ oz/⅓ cup
sugar
Egg 0.050 kg/1¾ oz/1 pc
Unsalted 0.250 kg/8¾ oz/1 cup +1½

0.200 kg/7 oz/⅞ cup
butter tbsp
Eggs (for
0.100 kg/3½ oz/2 pc 0.100 kg/3½ oz/2 pc
glazing)
USES
Croissants, almond croissants, pains au chocolat, etc.
SOUFFLÉS
There are savory soufflés (hot, such as cheese soufflé) and sweet soufflés
(cold or hot, such as vanilla soufflés).
BASE RECIPES
Ingredients Savory soufflé Sweet soufflé
Lining the molds
0.020 kg/¾ oz/2 tbsp + 2 0.075 kg/2⅝ oz/½ cup +

Flour
tsp 1½ tbsp
Unsalted
0.020 kg/¾ oz/1½ tbsp 0.020 kg/¾ oz/1½ tbsp
butter
Sugar 0.030 kg/1 oz/2½ tbsp
Base
Béchamel sauce Pastry cream
mixture
Unsalted
0.075 kg/2⅝ oz/⅓ cup
butter
0.075 kg/2⅝ oz/½ cup + 1½ 0.075 kg/2⅝ oz/½ cup +

Flour
tbsp 1½ tbsp
Whole milk 0.5 L/17 fl oz/2⅛ cups 0.5 L/17 fl oz/2⅛ cups
Egg yolks 0.080 kg/2⅞ oz/4 pc 0.080 kg/2⅞ oz/4 pc

Ingredients Savory soufflé Sweet soufflé
Sugar 0.150 kg/5¼ oz/¾ cup
Seasoning
Salt and
As needed
nutmeg
Vanilla As needed
For finishing
Egg yolks 0.080 kg/2⅞ oz/4 pc 0.060 kg/2⅛ oz/3 pc
Egg whites 0.300 kg/10½ oz/10 pc 0.300 kg/10½ oz/10 pc
Sugar 0.050 kg/1¾ oz/¼ cup
For garnishing
0.160 kg/5⅝ oz/1½ cups

Gruyère
(prepared)
DERIVATIVES
CHOUX PASTRY
Choux pastry, formerly pâte à chaud (hot pastry), is a mainstay of savory

and sweet pastry making.
Traditionally (recipe 1), make the first step with water (and/or milk), butter,
salt, and, if using, sugar. After it boils, away from the stove, add all the
flour immediately. The mixture should be pastelike. If the mixture is made
while boiling, it may be lumpy. Return the mixture to the stove to dry. The
paste will be more solid and is now called a panade. Finally, away from the
heat, add the eggs, one at a time (for 0.250 L/8 fl oz/1 cup + 1 tbsp of
water) or two at a time in the case of larger amounts.
There are other recipes (recipe 2). The first step is the same, but once mixed
in, do not dry the flour. Add all the eggs at the same time.
In the case of the catering industry, or when making large amounts, the
flour is put into the bowl of a mixer. The water is then boiled with the fat
and, when it boils, poured over the flour. The eggs are added last.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Do the first part of the cooking process in a humid environment without
ventilation. The water vaporizes and the choux pastry dough swells. Keep
the vent closed and do not open the oven. Food manufacturers cook choux
pastries under an individual dome to preserve the humidity of the
preparations for as long as possible. Bakers seek the same effect when they
use a craquelin on top of the choux pastries to achieve an even rise and
baking process.
When the proteins have coagulated and formed a crust, the pastries are
ready to be dried. Open the oven vent to let the moisture escape and begin
the drying step. Doing this too quickly can cause the choux pastries to
collapse.
INGREDIENTS FOR THE CRAQUELIN
Butter: 0.100 kg/3½ oz/⅓ cup + 2 tbsp

Brown sugar: 0.120 kg/4¼ oz/½ cup + 1 tbsp (packed)
Type 55/all-purpose (plain) flour: 0.120 kg/4¼ oz/1 cup
USES
SAVORY DISHES
Gougères, cheese ramekins, gnocchi (Parisian style), Pignatelli fritters

(dough + diced ham + lightly toasted slivered/flaked almonds).
SWEET DISHES
Choux pastries, profiteroles, éclairs, croquembouche/pièce montée, délices

(or désirs) du roi, bâtons de Jacob, religieuses, gland pastries, swan pastries,
salambo pastries, chouquettes, Saint-Honoré, Paris-Brest, churros, pets de
nonne (puffed fritters, fruit fritters), puits d’amour, polka puits d’amour,
Pont-Neuf, Parisian pastries.
CREPE BATTER
BASE RECIPE AND DERIVATIVES
Note: Use butter for cooking pancakes and blinis.

A variety of recipes
Other ingredients can be added. For example, ingredients that lighten the
crepes: beaten egg whites, baking powder, fresh yeast, etc.
Basic batter Added ingredients End result
Crepe batter + beaten egg whites Thick crepes
+ Baking powder Pancakes

Basic batter Added ingredients End result
+ Fresh yeast Blinis
Clafoutis
+ Fruits
Far
USES
• Stuffed crepes (preserves, pastry cream, almond cream): Pannequets,
purse crepes, etc.
• Puffed crepes: Stuffed with a soufflé mixture, they are baked in the oven
(200°C/400°F/Gas Mark 6 for 6–10 minutes). Dust with confectioners’
(icing) sugar just before serving.
LEAVENED CAKE BATTERS
Sometimes referred to as quick batters in the United States, these batters are
leavened cake batters that include baking powder, which reacts with
moisture and heat.
TWO TYPES OF LEAVENED CAKE BATTERS

CREAMED BATTER: FRUITCAKE, POUND (MADEIRA) CAKE, MARBLE CAKE
BEATEN BATTERS: MADELEINES, GINGERBREAD
Ingredients Madeleines Spice bread
Unsalted butter 0.200 kg/7 oz/⅞ cup
Confectioners’
0.400 kg/14 oz/3¼ cups 0.100 kg/3½ oz/¾ cup + 1
(icing) or
confectioners’ sugar or tbsp confectioners’ sugar
superfine
2 cups superfine sugar or ½ cup superfine sugar
(caster) sugar
0.500 kg/1 lb 2 oz/1½

Honey
cups
Eggs 0.350 kg/12½ oz/7 pc 0.250 kg/8¾ oz/5 pc
0.600 kg/1 lb 6 oz/4¾

Flour
cups
Rye flour 0.900 kg/2 lb/7 cups
All-purpose 0.300 kg/10½ oz/2⅓ cups

(plain) flour + 1 tbsp
Baking powder 0.015 kg/½ oz/3¾ tsp 0.040 kg/1⅜ oz/3 tbsp
Vanilla As needed As needed
0.250 L/8¾ fl oz/1 cup +

Milk
1 tbsp
Cinnamon 0.010 kg/⅜ oz/1½ tbsp
Nutmeg 0.001 kg/ oz/½ tsp
Ground anise 0.001 kg/ oz/½ tsp

Ingredients Madeleines Spice bread
Lemon zest 1 pc
ALMOND PASTE
Almond paste has been around and used for a long time. The main
ingredient is almonds. You can’t make a good almond paste without using
top-quality almonds. The almonds should be of excellent quality and
blanched. The almonds are ground and mixed with other ingredients: sugar,
confectioners’ (icing) sugar, glucose, syrup, cooked sugar, egg whites,
flavoring and/or almond extract, alcohol, food coloring, water, etc.
Depending on the country and the era, almond paste has different names. It
is massepain (Belgium, Switzerland), marzipan (Germany, England), panis
marci (bread of Saint Mark, the patron saint of Venice). Variations include
persipan (a combination of apricot and peach pits/stones) and frutta di
Martorana (fruit-shaped marzipan, typically of Palermo).
Marzipan is a paste made from finely ground, blanched almonds mixed
with egg whites and sugar in a ratio of two-thirds to one-third, respectively.
It is a traditional preparation in several European countries.
DIFFERENT ALMOND PASTES
Percent of Percent
Name
almonds sugar
Superior almond paste 66 33
Extra almond paste 50 50
Confectioners’ almond paste (or

33 66
fondant)
Restaurant standard almond paste 25 75

Note: If the percentage of almonds is less than 25 percent, it cannot be
called “almond paste,” and in the United States, it is considered a marzipan.
“Superior” quality (66 percent almonds and 33 percent sugar) and “extra”
(50 percent almonds and 50 percent sugar) almond pastes are used in pastry
to cover desserts or small cakes, to make cakes with a melt-in-the-mouth
texture (such as Genoa bread), and for decoration (flowers, leaves, animals,
well-known characters, etc.).
“Confectioners’” (33 percent almonds and 66 percent sugar) and “standard”
(25 percent almonds and 75 percent sugar) almond pastes are used to make
candies, filled chocolates, and various shapes.
HOMEMADE ALMOND PASTE

RAW ALMOND PASTE
This almond paste is made cold (therefore without cooking) according to
the following method:
- Mix the skinned and dried almonds with the confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
- Start the grinding process.
- Add glucose, syrup, vanilla extract, and alcohol.
- Process to a smooth paste.
Storage: Refrigerate at 4°C (40°F), wrapped in plastic wrap (clingfilm) and
in an odor-free environment. It will keep for up to 10 days.
Uses: Petits fours, macarons, etc.
Recipe with egg (+ Recipe without egg
Ingredients
vanilla) (+ rum)
0.320 kg/11¼ oz/3⅓ 0.250 kg/8¾ oz/2

Ground almonds
cups cups + 3 tbsp
Confectioners’ (icing) 0.320 kg/11¼ oz/2½

sugar cups + 1 tbsp
Recipe with egg (+ Recipe without egg
Ingredients
vanilla) (+ rum)
Superfine (caster) 0.150 kg/5¼ oz/¾

sugar cup
Orange flower water 0.01 L/⅜ fl oz/2 tsp 0.01 L/⅜ fl oz/2 tsp
Bitter almond essence 1–2 drops 1–2 drops
Vanilla bean (pod), split

½ pc
and scraped
Egg whites 0.060 kg/2⅛ oz/2 pc
0.04 L/1⅜ fl oz/2

Water
tbsp + 2 tp
Rum 0.01 L/⅜ fl oz/2 tsp
COOKED ALMOND PASTE
The mixture includes a hot, cooked ingredient. The paste is subjected to a

rise in temperature. Basic principle:
- Grind the dry skinned almonds with the confectioners’ (icing) sugar to a
fine powder.
- Heat the glucose sugar between 118 and 125°C (244–257°F), depending
on its consistency and use.
- Drizzle the cooked sugar over the almond powder.
- Continue processing until the mixture has whitened and has a pastelike
consistency.
Storage: Preferably refrigerated, but possible at 15–18°C (60–65°F) in an
odor-free environment.
Uses:
• In pastry: To cover entremets and to make decorative elements, such as
roses, leaves, and other shapes (animals, well-known figures).
• In confectionery: Candies (sweets), marzipan centers, marzipan
vegetables, imitation fruits.
• In the chocolate industry: Fillings for chocolates.
Ingredients Weight
Dry, skinned almonds 1 kg/2¼ lb/7 cups
Sugar boiled to soft-ball stage (117°C/242°F) 2 kg/4 lb 6 oz
Glucose 0.200 kg/7 oz/1 cup
Vanilla As needed
Note: Grinding is done using a specific machine but can also be done with
an industrial mixer.
MERINGUES
Light and airy preparations that are made hot (Swiss and Italian meringues)
or cold (French meringue).
THREE KINDS OF MERINGUES

FRENCH MERINGUE (OR ORDINARY MERINGUE)
Beat the egg whites to stiff peaks. Add the sugar, then the confectioners’
(icing) sugar to the mixture.
Uses: Meringues, mini meringues, etc.
SWISS MERINGUE
Beat the egg whites with the sugar. Heat the mixture in a bain-marie to a
temperature of about 60°C (140°F), stirring occasionally. Put the mixture
into a mixer and beat until cool.
Uses: Cakes and petits fours (almond, hazelnut, walnut, or coconut rocks,
etc.).
ITALIAN MERINGUE
Beat the egg whites to form stiff peaks. Add the sugar heated to the hard-
ball stage (118°C/245°F).
Beat the mixture until cool.
Uses: In creams, sponge cakes, and frozen soufflés, etc.
THE BENEFITS OF MOLECULAR CUISINE
Beating egg whites can sometimes be difficult. Molecular cooking can be
used to stabilize preparations and reduce the amount of traditional sugars
needed.
It has an effect on:
- The functional properties of egg whites when egg white powder is added,
- The desired structure thanks to the addition of xanthan gum.
For example: Glucose meringue recipe.
This recipe calls for superfine (caster) sugar, invert sugar (Trimoline),
glucose, and gelatin. This meringue has a long shelf life. Ideal for lemon
meringue pie, brioches polonaises, etc. Vinegar, cream of tartar, or lemon
juice can be added to prevent the egg whites from becoming grainy and to
ensure a smooth even texture.
MERINGUE-BASED (SPONGE CAKE) BATTERS
Egg whites and sugar are the base to which various ingredients are added:
nut flours (and sugar, in equal quantities, for sugar and ground almonds)
and/or other flavoring ingredients. It is a batter that, in some cases, contains
neither egg yolks nor wheat flour.
They are used in certain recipes:
Using dehydrated egg whites makes it possible to ensure success.

BASIC CREAMS
There are many recipes for creams and numerous variations. Despite the
variety, when it comes to the basic ingredients, they are all linked by some
shared features.
CRÈME ANGLAISE (CUSTARD) AND PASTRY CREAM

TABLE COMPARING CRÈME ANGLAISE (CUSTARD) AND PASTRY CREAM
To summarize, a quick look at the difference in ingredients:
PASTRY CREAM AND DERIVATIVES

Chiboust cream can also be made without adding gelatin.
Crème anglaise (custard): Cook at about 85°C (185°F). Boiling causes the
proteins to flocculate, resulting in lumps that are difficult to eliminate.
Pastry cream: For a thick, smooth pastry cream, make a starch paste with
boiled cream. The starch protects the proteins so lumps do not form.
Nevertheless, if the cream is cooked too long, the binding effect will be lost.
BUTTERCREAM
We should perhaps talk about buttercreams in the plural, because there are
so many different recipes.
BUTTERCREAM WITH COOKED SUGAR (RECIPE 1)
- Soften the butter.

- Cook the sugar with one-third of its weight of water to the soft-ball stage
(117°C/243°F).
- Clarify the eggs, put the yolks into a bowl, and beat lightly.
- Drizzle the sugar over the yolks, stirring vigorously.
- Beat until cooled.
- Add the mixture to the softened butter.
- Mix well.
GENOISE-STYLE BUTTERCREAM (RECIPE 2)
- Put the eggs and sugar into a bowl and place over a bain-marie.
- Beat until the mixture has cooled.
- Mix in the butter.
BUTTERCREAM WITH CRÈME ANGLAISE (CUSTARD) (RECIPE
3)
- Make a crème anglaise (custard).
- When it has cooled, gently fold it into the butter.
Note: The butter and crème anglaise (custard) must be of equal importance.
BUTTERCREAM WITH ITALIAN MERINGUE (RECIPE 4)
- Prepare an Italian meringue.
- When it has cooled, gently fold it into the butter.
TABLE COMPARING DIFFERENT BUTTERCREAMS
Buttercreams can be flavored with many ingredients: coffee, cocoa or

couverture chocolate, vanilla, praline, alcohol, liqueur, etc.
Uses: Mocha cake, mascotte cake, russe or succès, yule log, jelly (Swiss)
roll, envoi de Nice, petits fours, individual cakes.
CRÈME CARAMEL, POT DE CRÈME, CHANTILLY

CREAM, GANACHE CREAM, ALMOND CREAM
Uses for almond cream: Bourdaloue pear tart, pithiviers, croissants (with
almond filling), frangipane.
OTHER CREAMS
Crème brûlée Setting custard
Milk 0.2 L/7 fl oz/⅞ cup
Whipping 0.1 L/3½ fl oz/⅓ cup + 1½ 0.1 L/3½ fl oz/⅓ cup +

cream, tbsp 1½ tbsp
Eggs 2 pc
0.200–0.240 kg/7–8½
Egg yolks 0.020 kg/¾ oz/1 pc
oz/10–12 pc
Sugar 0.100 kg/3½ oz/½ cup 0.050 kg/1¾ oz/¼ cup

Crème brûlée Setting custard
Vanilla As needed As needed
0.100 kg/3½ oz/½ cup

Brown sugar
(packed)
SUMMARY AND COMPARISON
Note: Despite the fact that the protein content of crème caramel and crème
brûlée mixes is virtually identical, they are different in texture. The former
can be unmolded, while the latter cannot be.
NOTES ON HYGIENE
Cooking and maturation conditions for making egg-based ice cream.
GANACHES
Also called ganache cream, this is a fine, soft, and smooth mixture made
mainly with chocolate and to which a number of ingredients can be added,
including milk, cream, butter, invert sugar or neutral honey, glucose, juice,
depending on the use for the ganache. It can be flavored with spices, fruits,
coffee, etc.
Depending on its use, the composition of a ganache can be modified. You
can use either a regular chocolate or a chocolate called “couverture.”
The following distinctions are made:
- Simple ganache: Traditionally the base for truffle centers and chocolates,
it is also the main preparation for certain mousses and desserts.
- Whipped ganache: A light mousse that can be piped or spread with a
spatula (palette knife), ideal for macarons, verrines, and a number of
entremets.
When you have made the ganache, check that it sticks to the beater. Cream
can also be added. Put the mixture into the bowl of a mixer and beat to a
texture that is consistent enough for piping.
MAKING A SUCCESSFUL GANACHE
A ganache is a kind of the reverse of mayonnaise. For a mayonnaise, the oil
is added to the nonfatty ingredient. However, for a ganache, the liquid
ingredient (milk, cream, fruit pulp, etc.) is poured into the fatty ingredient—
the chocolate.
WHAT IS AN EMULSION?
It is a mixture of two ingredients that are not naturally miscible, such as oil
and water. An emulsion lets you make a smooth glossy preparation that is
silky yet can also coat. The aim is to achieve an optimal texture, a ganache
should not be too dry or be unpleasantly oily in the mouth. A good
emulsion should also retain the aroma and flavor of the chocolate, which
might otherwise evaporate. Air does not have an oxidizing effect on a
ganache nor will it become moldy because of unstabilized water.
THE RIGHT SKILLS FOR MAKING A SUCCESSFUL GANACHE
The emulsion can be made in different ways. However, it’s important not to
incorporate air into it. The greater the friction, the finer the emulsion and
the better the texture and shelf life. You can use a spatula, a mixer fitted
with a flat beater attachment, or an immersion (stick) blender, depending on
the quantities you’ll be working with.
Ideally, the emulsion is made in three steps, usually with a spatula and the
two ingredients heated to about 35°C (95°F). Start by incorporating one-
third of the liquid into the chopped or slightly melted chocolate. It’s
common for the mixture to split and for the texture to be grainy at this
stage, because this is the step when the fat is saturated. A smooth and
glossy elastic core is then formed by friction, a sign that the emulsifying
process has started (but has not yet finished); this texture must be
maintained throughout the mixing process and the progressive addition of
liquid.
Warning: Depending on the percentage of the cocoa content of the
chocolate used, the quantities of liquid needed for the emulsion will vary to
achieve the ideal texture. The higher the cocoa content, the greater the
amount of liquid is needed.
Water ganache—chocolate mousse like Chantilly cream! Chocolate is an
emulsion. It therefore naturally contains surfactants, which cause foaming
(the introduction of air).
Technique
- Combine the water and the chopped chocolate (twice as much chocolate
as water) in a stewpan.
- Melt the chocolate without boiling it.
- Remove from the heat.
- Pour it into the bowl of a mixer.
- Whip the mixture to obtain a frothy emulsion as if you were making
whipped cream.
- Transfer to another container.
PREPARATION TECHNIQUES
COLD CHOCOLATE AND HOT LIQUID INGREDIENTS
- Chop a specific type of chocolate and/or couverture chocolate.
- Boil the cream or condensed milk. Add glucose, invert sugar, vanilla, etc.
- Remove from the heat.
- Add the chopped chocolate.
- Smooth the mixture away from the heat.
- Stir to even out the texture and temperature.
- Add the softened butter (if required by the recipe) and mix well.
- Add any flavoring.
- Use.
MIXTURE OF HOT CHOCOLATE AND WARMED INGREDIENTS
- Melt the chocolate or couverture chocolate at 50°C (120°F) in a drying
oven or over a bain-marie.
- Pour in the crème fraîche mix and any other ingredients, if using.
- Smooth.
- Add the softened butter.
- Add any flavoring.
- Beat until cooled.
BASE RECIPES
USES
Filling and coatings for entremets and individual cakes (for a different
filling, mix 50 percent ganache and 50 percent buttercream), chocolate
centers, and/or molded chocolates, chocolate truffles.
SAUCES, COULIS, AND SABAYONS
Ingredients/Techniques (for 8–10

Variations
servings)
Dark
Put milk or water (0.350 L/12 fl oz/1½ chocolate
cups) and chopped chocolate couverture sauce
(0.350 kg/12½ oz) into a saucepan over a
Chocolate
Chocolate bain-marie. Add the cream (0.050 L/1¾ fl
and fresh
sauce oz/3½ tbsp). Remove from heat. Smooth the
mint sauce
mixture. Add the butter (0.050 kg/1¾ oz/3½
tbsp) and cut into small pieces. Mix to Chocolate
smooth. Keep over the bain-marie. and coffee
sauce
Melt the glucose (0.075 kg/2⅝ oz/⅜ cup),

then add the superfine (caster) sugar (0.300
Hot caramel
kg/10½ oz/1½ cups) a little at a time,
sauce
stirring regularly until you have a light
Caramel
caramel. Boil the cream (0.450 L/15 fl Cold
sauce
oz/1⅞ cups) and pour it over the caramel,
caramel
making sure that the cream and caramel are sauce
approximately the same temperature. Return
to the heat to dissolve the caramel.
Ingredients/Techniques (for 8–10
Variations
servings)
Sauces
Dilute the apricot preserves with sugar
made with
syrup (1.2624 Density). Bring to a boil;
Fruit red currants,
adjust the consistency. Strain through a fine
sauce strawberries,
conical sieve. Add a flavoring (kirsch), if
raspberries,
using, and keep warm.
apricots, etc.
Pineapple,
Pulp (0.5 L/17 fl oz/2⅛ cups) or fresh,
black
frozen fruit (0.600 kg/1 lb 6 oz). Add sugar
currant,
(confectioners’/icing sugar: 0.200 kg/7
Coulis peach, pear,
oz/1⅔ cups). Blend. Strain through a fine
strawberry,
conical sieve. Adjust the flavor of the coulis
raspberry
by adding sugar syrup (1.2624 Density).
coulis, etc.
Beat the sugar (0.125 kg/4⅜ oz/⅔ cup) and

Foamy
egg yolks (4–5 pc) over the heat to a ribbon
sabayon
consistency. Away from the heat, gradually
Sabayon (add
add white wine (0.25 l/8¾ fl oz/1 cup + 1
whipped
tbsp), liqueur, or champagne until thick and
cream)
foamy.
USES
For hot or cold dishes that are somewhat liquid, to accompany a dessert, ice
cream, or sorbet.
ICING AND PASTILLAGE
ICING
A common term in cooking and pastry making, generally speaking, the
technique of icing consists in covering the surface of a cake, an entremets,
or a dessert with a smooth glossy layer.
Various ingredients and mixtures can be used, with fondant being one of the
most common. Among the impressive recipes, royal icing stands apart.
It is worth noting that manufacturers of pastry-making products are
introducing increasingly more ready-to-use icing mixes onto the market.
ROYAL ICING
This icing is also called: royal frosting or white icing.

Royal icing is a mixture of egg whites and confectioners’ (icing) sugar,
beaten to a light creamy paste.
Proportions
- 0.050 kg/1¾ oz/2 teaspoons egg white.
- 0.250 kg/8¾ oz/2 cups confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
- A few drops of lemon juice or vinegar.
Technique
- Put the egg white into a mixing bowl.
- Sift the confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
- Add the confectioners’ sugar a little at a time, mixing vigorously.
- When the mixture is well beaten, add a few drops of vinegar or lemon
juice.
- Mix well.
- The mixture should hold a stiff peak when the spatula (palette knife) is
removed.
- Cover with a damp cloth or plastic wrap (clingfilm).
The legend is that royal icing was first made in England. In fact, it was used
to completely cover the wedding cake of Queen Victoria and Albert of
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (who married in 1840). This white coating was
subsequently named “royal icing” in their honor.
This icing is used to coat cookies (biscuits), entremets, éclairs, religieuses,
and puff pastries. Flavorings and/or food coloring can be added.
It can be used, as its name indicates, for grand ceremonies.
Popular for traditional desserts, royal icing is notorious for being both
difficult to work with and very sweet. Food manufacturers now sell icing
mixes that overcome these two drawbacks.
GLAZES
Only what is extracted from cocoa beans (cocoa powder) is used to make
the glaze. Cocoa butter is totally replaced in glazes by plant-based fats.
Glazes are therefore a mixture of unsweetened cocoa powder, sugars, and
other dairy components, all finely ground and which then disperse in the
plant-based fat.
PASTILLAGE
Pastillage is used for decorative pastry making: cakes or sugar sculptures.
Made in the form of a paste for decorating, it is traditionally made of
confectioners’ (icing) sugar, lemon juice, starch, water, and gelatin.
Pastillage can include tragacanth gum, a range of starches, vinegars, etc. It
is usually not eaten, even if edible pastillage does exist.
BASE RECIPES
Ingredients Royal icing Pastillage
Ingredients Royal icing Pastillage
Confectioners’ 0.500 kg/1 lb 2

0.500 kg/1 lb 2 oz/4 cups
sugar oz/4 cups
0.080 kg/2⅞
Egg whites
oz/2½ pc/⅓ cup
Lemon 0.01 L/⅜ fl oz/2

0.04 L/1⅜ fl oz/2 tbsp + 2 tsp
juice/vinegar tsp
0.040 kg/1⅜ oz/⅓ cup cornstarch

Starch
or ¼ cup potato starch
Water 0.05 L/1¾ fl oz/3½ tbsp
Gelatin sheets 0.010 kg/⅜ oz/5 pc
OceanofPDF.com
BASIC TECHNIQUES
Photo by Bartosch Salmansk for 128 dB, pâtisserie: Christian Strasbourg

NOTE:
Basic techniques, or more precisely, the “tricks of the trade” for artisans
and/or artists—involve highly precise, automatic movements that can be
considered akin to magic. They can be performed in the time it takes to
turn over a hand—in other words, extremely quickly.
At first glance, they appear to be simple, however, it takes a lot of work
and practice to achieve dexterity, speed, and efficiency. The results
obtained depend on solid foundations.
To acquire these skills on a professional level—no matter the type of
pastries being made—students must pay attention to the recommendations
and pointers of those teaching them.
By drawing on their sensibilities, sources, and career paths, master pastry
makers can pass on their knowledge.
We invite you to share in all of this, although we cannot claim to be
exhaustive.
The QR codes will let you access many videos showing basic
techniques.
Note: The photos and videos show eggs and packaging present in the
work space so they can be identified. When possible, it is strongly
recommended keeping them at a distance to avoid contaminating the
preparations.
BASIC TECHNIQUES
- Rolling dough with a dough sheeter
- Making a template
- Greasing a pastry ring with butter
- Greasing a savarin mold with butter
- Lining a cake pan
- Lining an entremets ring with sponge cake
- Lining a pastry ring
- Crimping a pastry shell
- Separating eggs
- Making an egg yolk glaze
- Making a paper cone
- Writing with a paper cone
- Drawing a pattern with a paper cone
- Making pastillage decorations
- Filling a pastry bag
- Piping choux puffs and éclairs
- Preparing poured fondant for use
- Glazing éclairs
- Icing religieuses
- Blanching egg yolks
- Cutting out parchment paper for blind baking
- Blind baking tart shells
- Making a parchment paper lid
- Making puff pastry cassolettes
- Splitting and scraping a vanilla bean
- Preparing apricot glaze for use
- Softening gelatin
- Piping a strip of sponge cake
- Making a syrup for soaking
- Soaking sponge cake
- Making an infused soaking syrup
- Soaking babas or savarins
- Sifting
- Cutting a sponge cake into layers
- Assembling entremets
- Cutting orange zest into julienne
- Removing peel and pith from citrus fruit
- Supreming citrus fruit
- Piping round meringues
- Tempering chocolate (classic method)
- Making a chocolate decoration
ROLLING DOUGH WITH A DOUGH
SHEETER
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TECHNIQUE
Feed the dough through a dough sheeter to make it an even thickness. Then
place the dough on a marble pastry surface for cutting and shaping.
Tabletop or freestanding dough sheeter.
Adjust the thickness as needed.
Feed the dough from left to right, lightly dusting with flour.
You can roll the dough around a rolling pin before sliding it onto a marble pastry
surface.
Cut the dough or reserve it in the refrigerator.
MAKING A TEMPLATE
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TECHNIQUE
Cut out a template of the diameter you need to make tuiles, cigarette wafers,
etc.
Cut the template to the desired shape.
Place the mixture in the center of the template.
Smooth the mixture with a spatula (palette knife) to an even thickness.
Continue to smooth until you have the thickness you need.
Gently lift off the template and repeat the operation.
GREASING A PASTRY RING WITH BUTTER
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TECHNIQUE
Buttering a pastry ring or a cake pan to create the desired color and make
unmolding easier.
Prepare the ingredients.
Dip the brush in the softened butter.*
* Softened butter: Butter worked with a spatula and softened to a creamy lump-free consistency.
Brush the sides of the ring with the softened butter.
Chill the pastry rings to make sure the butter adheres well.
Place on a baking sheet and refrigerate before using.
GREASING A SAVARIN MOLD WITH
BUTTER
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TECHNIQUE
Buttering a mold to create the desired color and make unmolding easier.
Prepare the softened or melted butter.
Clean the molds thoroughly.
Brush the bottom of the mold with the butter.
Don’t forget to also butter the “chimney” in the center.
Keep chilled in the refrigerator until ready to fill them.
LINING A CAKE PAN
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TECHNIQUE
Buttering a cake pan and dusting it with flour to create the desired color and
make unmolding easier.
Brush the sides of the pan with the softened butter.
Add flour to the pan and turn it to dust the sides.
Turn the pan over on the work surface or marble pastry surface to remove the excess
flour.
Make sure you don’t touch the floured sides.
LINING AN ENTREMETS RING WITH
SPONGE CAKE
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TECHNIQUE
Placing a strip of sponge cake around a pastry ring for an aesthetic touch
but also to bring another texture to the dessert.
Prepare the ingredients and materials. Cut strips of the sponge cake.
Lightly soak the sponge cake and gently press it along the inside of the pastry ring.
The sponge cake should adhere nicely to the sides.
Prepare the correct size and quantity of sponge cake for the dessert.
To make unmolding easier, you can place a Rhodoïd® acetate strip around the sides.
LINING A PASTRY RING
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TECHNIQUE
Lining the bottom and sides of a mold with dough.

Roll out the dough to an even thickness.
Roll a perfect disk to avoid having scraps.
Calculate a disk with a diameter 2–3 cm (¾–1¼ inches) larger than the diameter of the
ring.
Shape the edge by crimping it between your thumb and index finger.
Run your hand inward around the edge, making sure that the dough does not hang over
the edge of the ring.
Crimp with your thumb and index finger. . .
. . . or use a pastry crimper.
When making pastry today, it is advisable to smooth, blind bake, and sand the tart shells (cases).
Nowadays, crimping is used for only savory preparations.
To blind bake tart or tartlet shells, it’s not necessary to protect the dough with parchment paper with
weights on top (pie weights, baking beans, or dried beans). The dough will stay flat and not lose its
shape or blister, and the edges will not sag due to the heat if the shell is refrigerated for at least 1 hour
before baking and the oven is not heated to more than 160°C (Gas Mark 3/325°F). In this case, the
tarts or tartlets are filled after baking. To seal the tart shells, glaze them three-quarters of the way
through the baking process.
It is also possible to bake filled tarts.
CRIMPING A PASTRY SHELL
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TECHNIQUE
Making small, regular slanted indentations around the edges of a puff pastry
pie shell (case).
Using the back of a knife or a crimper. . .
. . . make small regular indentations to seal the pastry and also to add a decorative
element.
While you do this, use your index finger to press gently on the pastry lid. . .
. . . continue to do this all around the edge of the pastry.
SEPARATING EGGS
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TECHNIQUE
Separating the yolks from the egg whites.

Prepare the ingredients and bowls.
Crack the egg on the edge of a bowl.
Pass the yolk from one half shell to the other to get rid of the white.
Always use a separate bowl to do this to avoid contaminating the yolks or whites in
case of mishandling an egg.
Use the yolks soon after breaking them to prevent them from drying out.
If you don’t want to use a utensil, you can crack the eggs by knocking them together.
Remove the yolk with a slotted spoon. To set aside for a little while before use, put a little water over
the yolks.
Use yolks and whites from cartons.
The photos and videos show eggs presented in a work space. This is done here to show them for
identification. As much as possible, it is strongly recommended to keep them at a distance to avoid
contaminating the preparations.
MAKING AN EGG YOLK GLAZE
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TECHNIQUE
Beating a whole egg or egg yolk to glaze a preparation so that it takes on a

beautiful color when baked.
Prepare the ingredients and materials.
Break each egg into a first bowl to check for freshness, then pour it into a second bowl.
Beat with a whisk or a fork.
Use a brush to apply the glaze to the preparation.
Use egg yolks mixed with a little milk.
Always glaze twice for a beautiful color.
Refrigerate after the first application.
You can add a little salt if you are making a savory dish.
MAKING A PAPER CONE
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TECHNIQUE
Making a paper cone using parchment (baking) paper.

Use the paper cone for decorating or placing tiny amounts of a mixture on
an entremets or on a plate.
Cut out equilateral triangles of parchment paper (not silicone coated paper).
Wrap one around your hand to make a cone.
Make sure the tip is pointed and there is no hole.
You can make the cones in advance and store them.
WRITING WITH A PAPER CONE
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TECHNIQUE
Writing on a cake or entremets using a paper cone.

Prepare the paper cone.
Fill the cone with royal icing, buttercream, or another product suitable for decorating
and squeeze.
Press on the cone and begin writing.
Write the words attractively.
Let dry.
DRAWING A PATTERN WITH A PAPER CONE
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TECHNIQUE
Drawing a pattern on an entremets using a paper cone.

Fill your parchment paper cone with royal icing.
Close the cone tightly.
Draw on the surface with royal icing.
Practice using a suitable surface, such as a slate.
Make all kinds of patterns.
MAKING PASTILLAGE DECORATIONS
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TECHNIQUE
Rolling out, cutting, and making pastillage decorations.

Roll out the paste on a surface dusted with confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Trim so that you have nice right angles.
Cut out shapes following a design.
Give the desired shape to the pieces.
Arrange the elements and assemble using royal icing or another product to paste the
pieces together.
FILLING A PASTRY BAG
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TECHNIQUE
Filling a pastry (piping) bag with a preparation.

Prepare the pastry bag and ingredients.
Fold one-third of the pastry bag back over your hand.
Fill it with the mixture by scraping the spatula (palette knife) or scraper on your hand.
Make sure the mixture moves down toward the tip.
PIPING CHOUX PUFFS AND ÉCLAIRS
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TECHNIQUE
Piping choux pastry puffs and éclairs onto a baking sheet or silicone mat.
When you’ve filled the pastry (piping) bag, pipe the mixture by squeezing the top part
of the bag.
Pipe choux puffs and éclairs of the same size.
Brush the preparations with a glaze.
Score the choux batter using a fork to be sure of even baking.
For éclairs and certain other preparations, use a petit-four or star tip (nozzle) instead of scoring the
choux batter with a fork.
PREPARING POURED FONDANT FOR USE
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TECHNIQUE
Heating fondant. It is important not to heat it more than 38°C (100°F) or it

will lose its shine.
Prepare the ingredients and the materials.
Put the fondant into a saucepan or a bain-marie.
Add a little water or syrup to loosen the fondant.
Prepare the fondant by working it over heat.
It should reach a ribbon consistency.
. . . making sure that it is not heated above 38°C (100°F) so it does not lose its shine.
GLAZING ÉCLAIRS
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TECHNIQUE
To apply a fine layer of fondant to éclairs.

Prepare the fondant. Do not heat it to more than 38°C (100°F) or it will lose its shine.
Pour a fine ribbon of fondant, being careful to control the flow of the preparation.
Pass the éclair under the ribbon of fondant to make an even smooth layer.
Remove any excess fondant with the side of your index finger and place the éclairs on a
rack or baking sheet.
ICING RELIGIEUSES
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TECHNIQUE
Applying a layer of fondant to choux puffs.

Prepare the fondant, being careful to avoid heating it above 38°C (100°F) or it will lose
its shine.
Dip the choux puffs in the preparation and remove the excess fondant.
Place on a rack or baking sheet and let harden.
Decorate using a pastry (piping) bag or a paper cone.
BLANCHING EGG YOLKS
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TECHNIQUE
Briskly mixing sugar and egg yolks until smooth to use as a base for
custard, pastry cream, etc.
Add the separated egg yolks to the sugar.
Whisk together.
Beat until the mixture is pale and foamy.
You can do this process in a planetary mixer.

CUTTING OUT PARCHMENT PAPER FOR
BLIND BAKING
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TECHNIQUE
Cutting out disks from parchment (baking) paper to use for blind baking.
Prepare the different elements, for example, pastry rings, parchment paper, and a cookie
(biscuit) cutter.
Use a cookie cutter 2–3 cm (¾–1¼ inches) larger than the pastry ring.
Adapt the size of the paper to the template to be cut out.
Cut out the parchment paper disks.
Place the parchment paper disk into a pastry ring.
BLIND BAKING TART SHELLS
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TECHNIQUE
Blind baking a tart shell (case) without a filling.

Line the pastry rings, making sure you have nice upright sides.
Place a disk of parchment paper over the dough.
Add in a layer of dried beans.
Bake in the oven to keep the sides nice and upright.
Remove the dried beans after or during baking.
Use perforated pastry rings for optimal baking results.

For short and sweet doughs, it’s not necessary to used weights for baking. After lining the rings, just
put them into the refrigerator for an hour, then bake immediately at 160–170°C (Gas Mark 3–
3½/325–340°F).
MAKING A PARCHMENT PAPER LID
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TECHNIQUE
Preparing a lid of parchment (baking) paper to cover a container.

Prepare the materials, adapting the size of the disk to match the container to be covered.
Fold the sheet of parchment paper in half.
Fold it in half again.
Starting in the corner, make regular folds, then cut to the desired size.
Place on the container to be covered.
MAKING PUFF PASTRY CASSOLETTES
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TECHNIQUE
Cutting puff pastry to make cassolettes (small casseroles).

Use a cookie (biscuit) cutter to cut out dough disks.
Cut out triangles, which will be the little handles of the cassolettes.
After moistening the disks with a little water or egg glaze, place the handles on the
dough.
Lay the second disk on top, being careful to enclose the handle securely.
Apply the first layer of glaze. Refrigerate for 10 minutes, then glaze a second time.
Decorate with the tip of a knife before baking.
SPLITTING AND SCRAPING A VANILLA
BEAN
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TECHNIQUE
Cutting a vanilla bean (pod) to extract the seeds.
Place the vanilla bean flat.
Press on the bean with the flat of a knife.
Make an incision along its length.
Use the knife to scrape out the seeds.
For maximum flavor, use immediately.
Make vanilla sugar by processing the beans with sugar.

Store the beans in the refrigerator in an airtight container.
PREPARING APRICOT GLAZE FOR USE
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TECHNIQUE
Thinning and preparing an apricot glaze for use.
Put the glaze into a saucepan.
Add a little water or syrup to loosen the glaze.
Heat the glaze, stirring regularly.
Use immediately without letting the glaze cool down.
Brush the dessert with the glaze.
If any is left over, it can be reused.

There is also a red glaze used for berry tarts and other reddish desserts.
SOFTENING GELATIN
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TECHNIQUE
Soaking gelatin sheets (leaves) in cold water to soften it.

Put the gelatin sheets into a suitable container.
Cover with cold water.
Let soften.
Check that it has softened properly.
Squeeze the gelatin to drain.
PIPING A STRIP OF SPONGE CAKE
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TECHNIQUE
Piping a strip of genoise or plain sponge batter on a silicone mat or
parchment (baking) paper.
Fill a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a tip (nozzle) with the sponge batter.
Pipe a straight strip of batter.
Use the back of a spoon or an angled spatula (palette knife) to smooth.
Bake immediately in the oven.
After taking it out of the oven, cover with lightly dampened paper.
When baked, place a damp cloth or parchment (baking) paper onto it to stop it from drying out.
Use the entire length of the baking sheet.
You can also make a large ring for an entremets by piping a series of ladyfingers (sponge fingers)
close to each other.
Measuring the circumference of an entremets ring:

To find the size of the ring for the entremets you want to make, whether a strip of sponge cake (as in
the step-by-step photos) or a series of ladyfingers, you need to calculate the circumference of the
entremets ring you will be using:
circumference = Pi (π) x diameter of the ring (d)
For example, for a 18-cm (7-inch) ring: 3.14 x 18 = 56.52 cm
(3.14 x 7 = 22 inches)
MAKING A SYRUP FOR SOAKING
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TECHNIQUE
Preparing a syrup in which to soak a plain or genoise sponge cake.

Prepare the ingredients (sugar and water).
Bring to a boil.
Add the flavoring and/or food coloring to the syrup.
Stir so that the color is even throughout.
Apply the soaking syrup while warm or cold using a clean brush.
SOAKING SPONGE CAKE
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TECHNIQUE
Applying syrup to a genoise or plain sponge cake using a brush or other

utensil.
Put the sponge cake into a baking sheet.
Prepare a flavored syrup.
Gently brush the sponge cake with the syrup.
Finish the soaking process by brushing on more syrup after lining the pan with the
lightly soaked sponge cake.
Do not soak the sponge cake too much before using it to line the pans.
MAKING AN INFUSED SOAKING SYRUP
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TECHNIQUE
Mixing and boiling water and sugar to make a soaking syrup.
Add the measured sugar to the correct quantity of water.
Add a vanilla bean (pod) or other flavoring and bring to a boil.
Transfer to a container and refrigerate.
. . . or soak the sponge or other dessert in hot syrup so it absorbs faster.
Keep refrigerated at between 0°C and 3°C (32–37°F).

Make sure you measure the ingredients precisely.
SOAKING BABAS OR SAVARINS
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TECHNIQUE
Soaking savarins or babas in syrup to saturate them with the liquid.

Place a rack in the syrup.
Add the elements to be soaked.
Spoon the syrup over the babas or savarins to saturate them.
Use warm syrup.

Remember to soak items cooked on the previous day.
SIFTING
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TECHNIQUE
Sifting an ingredient through a sieve to make it more airy.
Put the ingredients into a sieve.
Sift the ingredients through the sieve.
If necessary, use a scraper to help the passage if there are any lumps.
Make sure the sieve is perfectly dry.

Don’t use the same utensil to sift flour, chocolate, etc., savory ingredients, or strong smelling ones,
such as a mousseline filling.
Purists traditionally place a sheet of parchment (baking) paper on the marble pastry surface. This
way, the sieve is horizontal and will sift better.
CUTTING A SPONGE CAKE INTO LAYERS
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TECHNIQUE
Cutting even slices of a plain or genoise sponge cake.
Mark the top to make assembling easier.
Use a serrated knife to cut . . .
. . . two or three slices, depending on the height of the final cake.
Set aside the slices to be soaked.
Don’t cut a sponge cake that is freshly made.

ASSEMBLING ENTREMETS
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TECHNIQUE
Assembling an entremets by layering sponge cake and filling for a balanced
result.
Cut the sponge cake into uniform slices.
Generously soak the sponge disks with a flavored syrup.
Place the first disk in the bottom of a stainless steel ring.
Cover with filling.
Add any other ingredients.
Alternate three layers of sponge cake.
Cover the top of the entremets with the glaze and set aside in the refrigerator.
Decorate the entremets.
CUTTING ORANGE ZEST INTO JULIENNE
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TECHNIQUE
Cutting orange zests into fine strips called “julienne.”
Scrub and wash the oranges.
Use a vegetable peeler to peel the zest.
Avoid peeling the pith (the white part) as you peel.
Use a knife to slice even, fine strips.
Blanch two to three times to remove any bitterness.

Candy them in sugar syrup.
REMOVING PEEL AND PITH FROM CITRUS
FRUIT
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TECHNIQUE
Using a knife to remove the peel from a citrus fruit.

Scrub and meticulously wash the citrus fruit.
Trim off the ends so that you have a flat surface.
Use a knife to cut between the flesh and the peel.
Follow the shape of the fruit.
It is best to use a knife with a flexible blade.

SUPREMING CITRUS FRUIT
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TECHNIQUE
Removing sections (segments) or supremes from citrus.

Remove the peel and pith from the citrus fruit.
Use a knife to cut between the supremes and the membranes of each section.
Don’t slice too far in.
Remove the supremes and squeeze what is left to extract the juice.
It is best to use a knife with a flexible blade.

Set the supremes aside in the refrigerator.
PIPING ROUND MERINGUES
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TECHNIQUE
Piping a disk of meringue on a silicone mat or on parchment (baking) paper.

Fill a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a nozzle (tip) with meringue. Pipe in a spiral,
starting in the center.
Dry the meringues in the oven or in a drying oven at between 80°C and 95°C (175–
210°F). . .
. . . for as long as necessary.
When dry, take the meringues out of the oven.
Use silicone mats with the shapes printed on them.

Draw disks on parchment paper.
Store in a dry place.
TEMPERING CHOCOLATE (CLASSIC
METHOD)
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TECHNIQUE
Heating chocolate to 45°C (113°F), reducing it to 27°C (80°F) by working

on a marble pastry surface, and heating it to 31°C (88°F), the ideal
temperature for keeping a shine.
Put the chocolate into a bowl.
Place the bowl over a water bath (bain-marie).
Stir the chocolate with a spatula (palette knife).
Stir until the temperature reaches 45°C (113°F).
Pour the chocolate onto the marble pastry surface.
Work it back and forth to reduce the temperature to 27°C (80°F).
Pour it back into the bowl and heat to 31°C (88°F). At this temperature, the chocolate is
at its glossiest.
There are two other ways to temper chocolate:
Tempering by seeding:
Melt two-thirds of the chocolate to 45°C (113°F).
Add the remaining third, broken into little pieces, and control the heat until melted.
Cool to 28–29°C (82–84°F).
Reheat to 32°C (90°F).
Tempering with Mycryo® cocoa butter:

Melt the chocolate to 35°C (95°F).
Add 1% Mycryo® cocoa butter.
Use at 32°C (90°F).
These methods are certainly faster, but they are not advisable for large quantities of chocolate.
MAKING A CHOCOLATE DECORATION
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TECHNIQUE
Preparing chocolate and make a decoration or assemblage.

Heat the chocolate to 31°C (88°F).
Brush a layer of chocolate on the molds.
Let harden, then brush on a second layer.
Clean the edges of the shapes or molds.
Unmold when hard.
Prepare the elements for the decoration.
Spread with a spatula (palette knife).
Pull off the protection and, when hard, prepare the decorative elements.
Assemble and paste the pieces together to make the decoration.
Finish by adding a personal touch.
OceanofPDF.com
BASE PREPARATIONS
© Adobe Stock
NOTE:
Although dexterity may be more important than raw materials and tools,
when referring to base preparations you must also consider the
ingredients, the techniques, the environment (materials, utensils, etc.) to
make pastry doughs, creams, and mixtures.
All of these concepts have evolved over the course of time. This is true
not only for methods but also in the choice of ingredients: sugar, almonds,
flour, chocolate, etc. have not always been available nor necessarily
valued. Some ingredients have come from the Americas, others from the
East and at different times throughout history.
These preparations are the cornerstone for creating the necessary bases for
making entremets, desserts, cakes, etc. They should be made with respect
for tradition and using good hygienic practices.
Depending on the type of establishment, the target clientele, the quantities
required, the qualifications of the operators, different types of ingredients
are recommended: raw, semi-prepared, or even industrial.
The QR codes let you access many videos showing base preparations.
Note: The photos and videos show eggs and packaging present in a work
space. This is to show them for identification. As much as possible, it is
strongly recommended to keep them at a distance to avoid contaminating
the preparations. Temperature and time recommendations are not
necessarily set in stone. For example, whether you use a deck oven or a
convection oven means you’ll have to adapt the temperature and time
settings in regard to the expected results. Thermostats and utensils for
measuring are not always reliable for giving accurate temperature readings
and therefore cooking times should be deduced. It is advisable to have
them calibrated.
BASE PREPARATIONS
- Genoise sponge cake batter
- Chocolate sponge
- Almond sponge
- Joconde sponge
- Basic shortcrust pastry
- Basic shortcrust pastry in a mixer
- Sweet pastry
- Shortbread pastry
- Almond shortbread pastry
- Cigarette (wafer) batter
- Sweet and flavored crumbles
- Traditional puff pastry
- Rough puff pastry
- Inverse puff pastry
- Brioche dough
- Savarin batter
- Choux pastry
- Crepe batter
- Pound cake batter
- Fritter batter
- Soufflé mixture
- Almond tuile batter
- French meringue
- Swiss meringue
- Italian meringue
- Dacquoise
- Traditional crème anglaise (custard)
- Crème anglaise cooked sous-vide
- Crème anglaise cooked sous-vide in a water bath
- Crème anglaise cooked in a wok
- Traditional pastry cream
- Pastry cream made with custard powder
- Frangipane
- Mousseline cream
- Other pastry cream derivatives
- Setting custard
- French buttercream
- Chantilly cream
- Almond cream
- Lemon cream
- Crémeux
- Bavarian creams
- Fruit mousses
- Chocolate mousses
- Chocolate ganache with melted chocolate
- Chocolate ganache with cold chocolate
- Sauces and coulis
- Gelatin desserts and confectionery
- Pastillage
- Royal icing
- Mirror glaze
- Shiny chocolate glaze
- Other glazes
- Velvet spray mixtures
- Nougatine
GENOISE SPONGE CAKE BATTER
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Mix the sugar and eggs.
Whisk the mixture to blanch it.
Whisk over a water bath (bain-marie) at the specific temperature. Do not let it go above
48°C (118°F).
Whisk to a ribbon consistency.
Whisk away from the water bath until cool.
Scrape down the sides and check the consistency.
Add the flour.
Mix the batter with a spatula (palette knife).
Pour the batter into a greased and lined cake pan until three-quarters full.
HISTORY
Genoise is classified as a kind of “biscuit” sponge cake, with “biscuit”
meaning “twice baked.” It was “invented” in the eighteenth century by a
pastry maker from the Republic of Genoa. The cake was popular at
various European courts, where it was named after the country of its
origin.
USES AND DERIVATIVES
• Traditional genoise with crème anglaise
• Genoise with buttercream: mocha cake
• Genoise and pastry cream/mousseline cream: fraisier, Montmorency
• And yule log, Danicheff, Black Forest, baked Alaska, bavarian cream
CAKE MIXES
• The food industry produces a range of mixes that can be used to make
sponge cakes. These are generally powders to which you just add water.
• Ready-to-use “sponge cake strips” complete the range available.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
Egg protein can be allergenic. Flour, even those with a low gluten content,
is a cause for concern for those who are intolerant to it. Wheat flour can be
replaced with cornstarch (cornflour), potato starch, etc.
HYGIENE AND GOOD PRACTICES
• Pay particular attention to eggs and egg products (pasteurized, dried,
etc.). Hygienic practices must be followed when using equipment and
handling food.
• See the (European) Guide for good practice related to pastry making and
the implementation of HACCP and FSP.
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
A sponge cake is a mousse that stabilizes thanks to egg protein
coagulating. It is therefore vital that the heat in the water bath does not
exceed 48°C. Baking in the oven sets the batter.
CHOCOLATE SPONGE
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TECHNIQUE

Sift the flour and cocoa powder.
Separate the eggs.
Whisk the egg yolks with the sugar.
Whisk until fluffy.
Gently fold in the sifted flour and cocoa powder.
Fold the batter with a spatula (palette knife).
Fold in the stiffly beaten egg whites.
Fold together gently.
Pour into the greased and lined cake pans.
Bake at about 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F).
When baked, unmold and place on a wire rack.
FLOURLESS CHOCOLATE CAKE
Beat the egg whites with the first quantity of superfine sugar to stiff peaks.
Whisk the egg yolks with the second quantity of sugar.
Melt the semisweet (dark) chocolate in a water bath (bain-marie) at 40°C
(104°F).
Fold in one-third of the beaten egg whites. Fold in the chocolate, then
gently fold in the remaining beaten egg whites in two batches.
Pour the batter into the cake pans (whatever shape you choose) and bake in
a convection oven at 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F) for 8 to 14 minutes.
Set aside on a rack.
ALMOND SPONGE
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Mix the flour and ground almonds.
Sift the two together.
Blanch the egg yolks with the sugar in a mixer.
Whip until the mixture is fluffy.
Use a spatula (palette knife) to gently fold in the flour and ground almonds.
Fold in the beaten egg whites.
Mix together gently.
Spread the batter over a silicone mat or a sheet of parchment (baking) paper.
When baked, place it on a wire rack.
Lift off the silicone mat or parchment paper and wrap in plastic wrap (clingfilm).
HISTORY
In 1348, Pierre D’Yenne, master pastry chef to Duke Amadeus VI of
Savoy, created the Savoy cake at Ripaille Castle.
History of a recipe: Yule log
The pastry chef Pierre Lacam (1836–1902) seems to have been the first
person to mention a recipe for an “edible” log for Christmas. In 1893, he
wrote: “Discovering who created the Yule log had never been achieved
and it had been attributed to many pastry chefs, but, thanks to this search,
I found that it was first made by a man called Antoine Charabot, the chef
to a Mr. Sanson, who lived at 14 rue de Buci, who created this ‘branch of
a tree’ in 1879 . . . Many pastry chefs began making it, and since 1886 its
popularity has lived on.” The oldest detailed recipe we have is from the
same Pierre Lacam three years earlier: It was not a rolled cake but an
assemblage of slices of sponge cake held together with cream. (Je mange
donc je suis. Petit dictionnaire curieux de l’alimentation, p. 45, by various
authors, published by the National Museum of Natural History, 2019).
• Biscuit sponge is the main ingredient for making small cakes, mocha
cake, etc.
• Ladyfingers are used for making charlottes and Diplomat pudding.
• Regional sponges, such as Breton sponge, are used to make petits fours.
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
The basic ingredient of many contemporary desserts and pastries.
This almond sponge is soft and airy. Its special characteristic is that it has
a pronounced almond flavor. This kind of sponge belongs to the family of
whipped batters. This light batter is made with invert sugar (Trimoline®).
Invert sugar is an equimolar mixture of glucose and fructose obtained by
hydrolyzing sucrose.
It is used for its superior sweetening power (about 20 percent more than
sucrose), for its ability to absorb moisture, its resistance to drying out (it
stays soft and smooth), and because it reduces cooking and baking times.
The addition of ingredients (such as chocolate, pistachios, and hazelnuts)
makes it possible to achieve a variety of different flavors.
CONTEMPORARY RECIPE FOR ALMOND SPONGE
JOCONDE SPONGE
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Mix the ground almonds with the confectioners’ (icing) sugar and flour.
Beat the egg whites and sugar to stiff peaks in a mixer.
Whisk the eggs until fluffy.
Gently fold in the confectioners’ sugar, ground almonds, and flour.
Spread the batter on a silicone mat or a sheet of parchment (baking) paper.
Bake at about 90°C (Gas Mark 5/1375°F).
It should be soft.
When baked, place it on a wire rack.
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
Joconde sponge is the base of many entremets, and its texture and almond
flavor make it a sponge.
For a chocolate Joconde sponge, replace the flour with 0.030 kg (1 oz/¼
cup) of flour mixed with 0.020 kg (¾ oz/¼ cup) of unsweetened cocoa
powder.
To make a printed sponge, draw lines on a silicone mat with a colored or
uncolored cigarette (wafer) batter and freeze. Spread the sponge batter
over it and bake.
When the Joconde sponge has cooled, cut out the desired shape (circle,
strip, etc.). Store in an airtight container for up to four to five days or wrap
in plastic wrap (clingfilm).
BASIC SHORTCRUST PASTRY
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Put the flour on a marble pastry surface or clean work surface and make a well in it.
Add the salt.
Add the butter, cut into small pieces.
Gently rub the butter into the flour.
Add the water and egg yolk.
Mix the ingredients.
Fold the dough back over itself.
Knead it with the palm of your hand until smooth.
Shape into a ball without warming it.
Wrap in plastic wrap (clingfilm) and refrigerate.
HISTORY
The origins of basic shortcrust pastry, known as pâte brisée in France (and
sometimes referred to as brisée pastry in English) is certainly old. It must
have been made with the ingredients available (starch from roots mixed
with water; the first “pancake” subjected to heat). The word “brisée”
probably came from bis (a light grayish brown). A recipe for paste bizée
(due to the color of the wheat flour used) is mentioned in Le Pâtissier
françois, dating to 1651, by François de la Varenne, chef to the Marquis
d’Uxelles. The recipe has become more sophisticated: oil is used as are
other fats, butter, and eggs. Pastry chefs have continued to improve the
recipe and broaden its uses, such as using it in molds or cake pans: lining
the bottom of a mold or pan was probably the start of what we call tart
shells (cases).
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
• A good basic shortcrust pastry dough should not have any “body”; in
other words, it shouldn’t be elastic. To achieve this, the gluten must not
be “mobilized.” The addition of liquid, although completely necessary,
must be limited. The aim is to achieve a smooth dough that has been
worked as little as possible. Using a cutter mixer is a good idea.
• To stabilize the dough, it must rest before being used.
• Baking basic shortcrust dough can be difficult. Sometimes the dough
may be “waxy.” As a remedy, lightly dry-roast the flour before using it in
your recipe. In this case, the dough will be extremely fragile, but the
result will be as it should be.
BASIC SHORTCRUST PASTRY IN A MIXER
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Put the flour and butter, cut into small pieces, into the bowl of the mixer.
Add the fine salt.
Use a dough hook to rub the ingredients together.
Add the egg yolk.
Add the water.
Work the dough until it no longer sticks, but without it becoming warm.
Transfer to a clean work surface.
Knead lightly.
Cut into pieces.
Wrap the balls of dough in plastic wrap (clingfilm) and refrigerate.
HISTORY
The names for pastry doughs can be the subject of heated debate. In fact,
it’s difficult to classify them in a cut and dry way. For example, for some
professionals, there’s a similarity between basic shortcrust pastry dough
and pastry for tart shells (cases). For others, a basic shortcrust pastry
dough is the same as a pastry dough for tart shells but without egg yolks—
and therefore a pastry dough for tart shells is a basic shortcrust pastry
dough with egg yolks.
SWEET PASTRY
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Put the flour into the bowl of a cutter mixer.
Add the salt, cornstarch (cornflour), and confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Mix to rub in the ingredients.
Check the fineness of the mixture.
Add the egg yolks.
Add the water and a pinch of salt.
Flour your work surface and place the dough on it.
Gently shape the dough without warming it and refrigerate before using.
SHORTBREAD PASTRY
PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Add the salt.
Pour in the superfine (caster) sugar.
Turn on the cutter mixer to rub in the ingredients.
Check the fineness of the mixture.
Add the egg yolks and water.
Work the dough in the cutter until it comes away from the sides of the bowl.
Flour the work surface and place the dough on it.
Knead the dough quickly without letting it become warm.
Cut and shape it.
Wrap with plastic wrap (clingfilm) and refrigerate.
USES AND VARIATIONS
• Blind bake the dough: make sure you prick the dough well, use the right
size piece of parchment (baking) paper, and fill with pie weights (baking
beans) or dried beans to avoid blistering and prevent the edges from
sagging as it bakes.
• The superfine sugar adds a crunchy touch. It must be mixed with the
butter.
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
Properly rubbing in is a guarantee of success. Basically, it consists of
coating the starchy grains with fat. As a result, the starch’s ability to
hydrate is limited (the gluten’s ability to act is reduced). The dough will
be even more crumbly after baking. This lack of hydration occurs if the fat
is too soft.
It is also advisable to use a dough that is low in gluten.
ALMOND SHORTBREAD PASTRY
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Add the ground almonds.
Pour the confectioners’ (icing) sugar into the bowl.
Add the baking powder.
Dissolve the salt in a little water.
Rub in the ingredients.
Add the egg yolks and the water with the dissolved salt.
Mix gently in the cutter mixer.
Place the dough on your work surface and shape it.
CONTEMPORARY RECIPE FOR ALMOND SPONGE
SHEET CAKE
Rub the flour, ground hazelnuts or almonds, fleur de sel, and confectioners’
(icing) sugar into the butter.
Add the egg yolk, whole egg, and glucose syrup.
Knead until smooth.
Wrap in plastic wrap (clingfilm) and refrigerate.
BRETON SHORTBREAD PASTRY DOUGH

Blanch the egg yolks with the sugar, add the softened butter, and cream
together.
Sift in the flour, then incorporate with the salt and baking powder.
Work to a smooth dough.
Wrap the dough with plastic wrap (clingfilm) and refrigerate for 2 hours.
Roll out and line a pastry ring to the desired thickness.
Bake in a convection oven with the vent open at 160°C (Gas Mark 3/325°F)
for 10 to 12 minutes.
CIGARETTE (WAFER) BATTER
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE
Soften the butter.

Add the confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Cream the butter with the confectioners’ sugar.
Mix until smooth.
Add the egg whites.
Whisk and add the vanilla extract.
Incorporate the flour, whip the batter, then fold and use immediately.
SWEET AND FLAVORED CRUMBLES
CRUMBLE
Cut the butter into small pieces and mix with the dry ingredients, rubbing in
by hand or with a mixer fitted with a flat beater attachment until crumbly.
Use to top fresh seasonal fruit, for tarts, etc. or bake at 160°C (Gas Mark
3/325°F) on a silicone mat, then let cool.
CHOCOLATE CRUMBLE
Cut the butter into small pieces and rub the dry ingredients in until crumbly.
Bake at 160°C (Gas Mark 3/325°F) on a silicone mat, then let cool.
Add the chocolate, melted at 50°C (120°F), the fleur de sel, and, finally, the
cocoa nibs.
Line the molds and let cool (this crumb topping can be used for tart
shells/cases, as a crust/base for entremets, etc.).
STREUSEL
Mix together the brown sugar, ground almonds, flour, salt, and cocoa
powder.
Add the butter, cut into small pieces, and mix with a silicone spatula
(palette knife) or in a mixer fitted with a flat beater attachment.
Roll out to the desired thickness and bake at 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F)
for about 15 minutes (or shape into small balls).
Let cool and crumble to the desired size.
TRADITIONAL PUFF PASTRY
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Make a well in the flour.
Add the fine salt.
Pour the water into the well.
Knead gently and shape the water dough.
Make an incision into the dough, cover in plastic wrap (cling film), and refrigerate.
Work the butter until the same consistency as the dough.
Roll out the dough into the shape of a cross.
Place the butter over it.
Fold the dough over the butter.
Roll the dough.
Fold the dough in the same direction and give six turns.
HISTORY
It is said that puff pastry was invented by Claude Gellée, known as “le
Lorrain” (a painter who had been a pastry chef when he was young).
However, today we have no historical proof of this claim.
There is a recipe for puff pastry in Le Pâtissier françois from 1651.
• Apple turnovers
• Palmiers
• Mille-feuilles
• Dartois, jalousies
• Pithiviers, galettes
• Croûtes de bouchées, vol-au-vent, fleurons
• Tarts
MIXES
There are no mixes but there are preparations that can be used straight
from the package. Frozen puff pastry is of high quality. However, this kind
of puff pastry, which puffs up well, is always the same no matter what
recipe a pastry chef is using it for.
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
• Water dough can be made entirely or partly with a liquid other than
water: alcohol, vinegar, wine, etc. Similarly, other ingredients can be
added to the flour: unsweetened cocoa powder, etc.
• To make sure the dough cooks properly, you can lightly roast the flour
before using it.
ROUGH PUFF PASTRY
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Pour the flour into the bowl of a stand mixer.
Add the butter, cut into large pieces.
Dissolve the salt in the water.
Add the water with the dissolved salt to the bowl.
Fit the mixer with a hook attachment and start mixing.
Make sure there are still large lumps of butter.
Dust the marble pastry surface with flour and place the dough on it.
Shape the dough into a rectangle.
Roll out the water dough to a neat rectangle.
Fold to make the first turn.
Make the second turn.
After the first two turns, refrigerate the dough for about 15 minutes.
Fold in the same direction, making six turns in total, letting the dough rest after every
two turns.
HISTORY
This quick way of making puff pastry is also referred to as the Scotch
method.
Viennese puff pastry includes other ingredients, such as milk.
INVERSE PUFF PASTRY
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Put the butter and flour into the bowl of a stand mixer.
Knead together with the flat beater attachment.
Place the mixture on parchment (baking) paper and flatten.
Fold the parchment paper into a rectangle.
Roll out the kneaded butter to a thickness of about 1 cm (⅜ inch). Refrigerate.
Make the water dough by adding the salted water to the flour in the bowl of the mixer.
Add the melted butter.
Dust the work surface before rolling the water dough into a rectangle (smaller than the
kneaded butter).
Set aside in the refrigerator.
When cold, place the water dough on the kneaded butter.
Wrap the water dough with the kneaded butter.
Roll the first time making a single turn and finish with a double turn.
When cold, repeat the previous step.
Roll out and use as needed.
BRIOCHE DOUGH
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TECHNIQUE

Add the flour to the bowl of a stand mixer.
Add the sugar and salt.
Mix the yeast with the warm water (or milk).
Pour the mixture into the bowl of a stand mixer.
Add the eggs.
Work the dough with the hook for about 10 minutes.
Gradually add the butter, cut into pieces.
Let beat for a few minutes.
Finish by beating the dough on high speed.
Put the dough on a marble pastry surface.
Shape the brioche (braided/plaited brioche, Parisian brioche, etc.).
Let rise in a drying oven at 30°C (85°F).
Glaze the brioche with egg.
Bake at 180°C (Gas Mark 4/350°F).
When baked, transfer to a wire rack.
SAVARIN BATTER
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Sift the flour.
Pour a little milk over the yeast and mix.
Add the salt, yeast, and milk.
Add the eggs and sugar.
Knead the dough in the mixer.
Work the dough vigorously.
Melt the butter.
Add the butter and beat the dough in the mixer to give it body.
Pour into molds or pipe, let rise, and use immediately.
HISTORY
Do we owe the “baba” to the former King Stanisław Leszczyński of
Poland, who settled in Nancy? According to legend, “kouglof,” pinot gris,
and rum, and then flambéing were part of the recipe. Despite the absence
of historical certainty, these are still popular preparations, even if
described as being traditional.
The large savarin (for 5 to 8 people) is a reflection of classic pastry
making of the 1950s. The savarin gradually became an individual pastry
in the 1970s.
• Savarins
• Marignan
CHOUX PASTRY
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE
Pour the water into a saucepan.

Add the salt and sugar.
Bring to a boil, controlling the evaporation.
Away from the heat, add all of the flour immediately.
Mix vigorously, away from the heat, to form a paste.
Dry the choux dough by putting it back on the stove.
Transfer to a bowl.
Add the eggs one at a time.
Work the dough until the consistency is like that of a quenelle.
HISTORY
The creation of choux pastry dough is attributed to Popelini, one of
Catherine de Medici’s pastry chefs, who took French pastry making to
great heights.
During the eighteenth century, a pastry chef by the name of Jean Avice
amped up the recipe both in terms of the starch content and the role of
eggs. The “modernization” of the recipe is attributed to his young
apprentice, Antonin Carême. In 1856, the pâtisserie Frascati, located on
the Grands Boulevards, came up with the religieuse.
According to some authors, it was probably referred to as a hot pastry
dough before it was named choux pastry.
It can be poached, fried, baked in the oven: gnocchi, doughnuts, choux
puffs.
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
• Choux pastry dough contains a lot of water. When heated, the water
evaporates. This pressure is exerted on a film of dough that is “already a
little dry,” causing the dough to puff up.
• In the food industry, choux puffs are cooked “under a cloche,” thus
conserving the maximum humidity contributing to the creation of the
choux puffs.
• Pastry chefs sometimes apply a “craquelin,” which reinforces the empty
space in the dough by not letting the moisture evaporate, causing the
dough to swell.
• Baking makes the outer layer firm. The starchy paste hardens as the
proteins of the flour and eggs harden to a solid layer.
• It all then needs to dry; to do so, open the oven’s vent.
Note: The above points are sometimes the subject of controversy. The
debate is about the topic of drying. There are recipes for doing so, in
particular, when the dough is to be frozen uncooked.
There is also debate about the requirement for eggs. Many traditional
recipes specify the number of eggs needed and sometimes stipulate the
size of the eggs. We recommend weighing the ingredients.
Some recipes insist (while others do not) on sifting the flour. It would
appear that the starch is more homogeneous when the flour is sifted. For a
successful paste, we believe that the liquid (water, milk, or a mixture of
both) should be as hot as possible, that’s why it should come to a boil.
Other experts are of the opinion that the only essential point is that the
butter should be completely melted.
MIXES
• Ready-to-use mixes are available. Just add water and/or milk.
• There are choux pastry recipes that call for baking powder.
• Choux pastry dough freezes well.
CRAQUELIN
Soften the butter, add the brown sugar, and mix with a spatula (palette
knife). Add the sifted flour and mix until smooth.
Roll out finely between two sheets of parchment (baking) paper and
refrigerate until firm.
Cut out the shapes you need and place on each choux pastry before baking.
CREPE BATTER
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE
Put the flour into a bowl.

Add the salt.
Add the whole eggs.
Whisk well.
Pour in a little milk to begin with.
Add more milk to loosen the batter.
Add the remaining milk.
Strain the batter through a conical sieve and let rest for at least 30 minutes before using.
HISTORY
Candlemas is celebrated in every region of France. Celebrated 40 days
after Christmas, this day is so-called because of the blessed candles that
are carried in a procession to honor the purification of the Virgin Mary
and the presentation of Jesus at the temple.
In the fifth century, pilgrims flocked to Rome for the occasion. Pope
Gelasius (or perhaps Pope Vigilius?) was led to distribute a kind of crepe
called an oublie, which comes from the word oblaqe or oblata, meaning
“not consecrated.” A thick flavored crepe batter is used to make oublies. A
special iron or waffle iron is used to make them. They are rolled into
cones and filled with sweetened whipped cream, preserves, fruit
compotes, etc. The oublies were gradually replaced by crepes. Le
Mesnagier de Paris notes that to make crepes: “Take flour and mix with
eggs. . .” The guild of oublie makers became the guild of pastry cooks in
1566.
The festival of Candlemas is mentioned for the first time in one of
France’s oldest texts written in old French. In the chronicle written by
Geoffrey of Villehardouin, which tells of the capture of Constantinople
during the Fourth Crusade, he states: “L'éspousa li emperieres Henriz au
mostier Sainte Sophie le diemenche après la feste Nostre Dame
Chandeleuse, a grant joie et a grant enneur” which translates as: “The
Emperor Henry married her in the church of Saint Sophia on the Sunday
after the feast of Our Lady of Candlemas, in general joy and in the midst
of honors.” (La prise de Constantinople, pp. 290–291. Translated and
introduced by Jean Dufournet. Éditions GF Flammarion, 2004).
There are several kinds of crepe batter. For example, crepes (made from
potatoes) by la mère Blanc: milk is added to the mashed potato. Then add
flour and eggs, and finally salt and fresh cream. Let rest. Cook in a skillet.
POUND CAKE BATTER
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Put the flour and baking powder into a drum sieve.
Sift the two ingredients.
Use a mixer fitted with a flat beater attachment to soften the butter.
Add the sugar all at once.
Add the eggs.
Beat with the flat beater attachment.
Gently add the sifted ingredients to the mixture.
Beat until smooth.
Add the candied fruit.
Pour into a mold lined with parchment (baking) paper.
There are numerous recipes for sweet and savory pound (madeira) cakes.
One original suggestion is to include a long strip of fresh butter in the
middle of the batter.
FRITTER BATTER
PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Separate the egg yolks from the whites.
Set aside the egg whites.
Put the flour into a bowl.
Add the salt and superfine (caster) sugar.
Add the egg yolks.
Add the beer while whisking.
Add the milk and oil to loosen the batter.
Whisk vigorously to remove any lumps.
Beat the egg whites to stiff peaks.
Add them to the batter.
Fold gently and use immediately.
SOUFFLÉ MIXTURE
PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Bring the milk to a boil.
Add one-third of the sugar to prevent the milk from sticking to the bottom of the
saucepan.
Separate the eggs (set aside one raw yolk).
Blanch the egg yolks with the remaining sugar, whisking briskly.
Add the flour and mix until there are no lumps.
Add the vanilla and some of the alcohol.
Soak the ladyfingers (sponge fingers) in the remaining alcohol.
Pour the boiling milk over the mixture.
Cook this pastry cream until thickened.
After transferring the mixture to a bowl, add the raw egg yolk.
Finally, fold in the stiffly beaten egg whites.
Put the mixture and the soaked ladyfingers into a lined mold.
FRUIT JUICE SOUFFLÉ MIXTURE
ALMOND TUILE BATTER
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Put the confectioners’ (icing) sugar into a bowl.
Add the chopped almonds and ground almonds.
Add the flour.
Zest in a little lemon.
Add the whole egg.
Finish with the egg whites.
Whisk the mixture.
Fold and use immediately.
FRENCH MERINGUE
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE
Put the egg whites into the bowl of a mixer.

Place the bowl in the mixer.
Whisk until thick.
Add the superfine (caster) and the confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Continue whisking on high speed until thick and to the desired consistency.
Fold and use immediately.
HISTORY
Meringue’s origins have not been clearly established. Some attribute it to
a certain Gasparini, a Swiss pastry chef of Italian extraction who lived in
Meiringen in the canton of Bern in the early eighteenth century. Other
clues appear to indicate other pastry chefs and other recipes. Interestingly,
there is a recipe for “dry snow” in a work called Ouverture de cuisine by
Lancelot de Casteau (a Belgian cook), dating back to the seventeenth
century.
(Source: http://www.compagnons-boulangers-
patissiers.com/crebesc/histoire-de-la-meringue/ (available in French))
USES AND VARIATIONS
• Meringue dried in the oven: 90°C (194°F)
• Meringue “poached” in a microwave
• Meringue poached in a water bath (bain-marie) in the oven (at
120°C/250°F)
• Shaped meringue poached over steam: 85–90°C (185–194°F).
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
• Meringue is naturally (very) sweet and is often used in combination with
ingredients that are also usually sweet.
• There are two ways to reduce the amount of sugar used:
- By substituting some of the real sugar with a sweetener,
- By substituting all or part of the effect of the sugar by adding xanthan
gum. And then there are the “wind crystals” created by Hervé This.
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
• Adding dehydrated egg whites helps the composition of the mixture to
set to a foam and stabilizes it during cooking.
• Dehydrated egg whites return to their original state by adding a flavored
liquid, which need not be water but can be a plant-based liquid and/or
fruit juice, to make new meringues.
• Egg whites can be replaced with “plant-based egg whites.” The goal is to
not expose someone to egg protein if they are allergic. It allows vegans
to enjoy meringue.
SWISS MERINGUE
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE
Prepare a water bath (bain-marie).

Whisk the egg whites, away from the heat, and add the sugar.
Place the bowl over the water bath.
Whisk the mixture over the water bath.
Remove the bowl when the water bath reaches 50°C (122°F).
Put the bowl into the mixer and whisk until completely cool.
Remove from the mixer and use immediately.
ITALIAN MERINGUE
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Gently beat the egg whites.
Pour the water into a stewpan and set on the stove.
Add the sugar.
Immerse a probe thermometer into the stewpan and bring the preparation to 118°C
(244°F; firm-ball stage).
Pour the sugar over the beaten egg whites.
Whisk until completely cool and the desired consistency has been reached.
Remove from the mixer and use the meringue immediately.
DACQUOISE
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Sprinkle confectioners’ (icing) sugar over sheets of parchment (baking) paper.
Beat the egg whites in a mixer.
Mix the confectioners’ sugar with the sifted ground almonds.
Whisk the egg whites with the superfine (caster) sugar.
Mix gently.
Pipe the batter on the sheets of parchment (baking) paper or on a silicone mat.
Bake at 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F).
It should be soft.
When baked, transfer to a wire rack.
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
This dough is used for the bottom and sides of entremets.
Before baking, lightly dust with confectioners’ (icing) sugar twice, at 15-
minute intervals, to obtain a “pearl” effect.
It is important to keep the oven vent open to let the steam escape.
PISTACHIO DACQUOISE
COCONUT DACQUOISE
TRADITIONAL CRÈME ANGLAISE
(CUSTARD)
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Bring the milk to a boil with some of the sugar.
Blanch the egg yolks with the remaining sugar.
Add the vanilla.
Pour some of the milk over the mixture.
Pour the mixture into a stewpan.
Mix the mixture with a spatula (palette knife).
Heat the mixture to 84°C (183°F).
Pass the mixture through a conical sieve.
Chill over ice, stirring regularly.
Cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) and refrigerate. Use within 24 hours.
HISTORY
In the past, crème anglaise was called “sauce anglaise.”
It first appeared at court in England, where it was all the rage during the
sixteenth century. This explains its French name. In English-speaking
countries, it’s called custard.
A fundamental element in pastry making, it can be used as part of a
dessert but also as an accompanying sauce:
- crème anglaise + gelatin + whipped cream = Bavarian cream
- crème anglaise + flavoring = flavored cream
MIXES
Manufacturers have developed various types of crème anglaise with
interesting tastes. The addition of additives makes it a crème anglaise full
of Es. This explains why many professionals feel that crème anglaise has
been usurped, because the ingredients are so far from the “traditional”
recipe.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
Crème anglaise is basically an eggnog that has been pasteurized. Without
actually claiming any specific restorative virtues, crème anglaise is high in
essential nutrients: proteins from the egg yolks; proteins and calcium from
the milk.
In the past, pastry chefs learned to cook this cream so that it “coated the
back of a spoon.” This involves taking some of the mixture with a spatula
(palette knife) and running a finger through it. If the space left by the
finger remained, it was deemed to have been properly made. Another
method used is to make it “à la rose,” which consists of holding a spatula
held horizontally in the same way. By blowing on the crème anglaise, the
air creates more or less precise swirls that resemble the outline of a rose (a
recipe for a staphylococcal disaster—and especially a staphylococcal toxin
one). This method of testing is now forbidden for hygiene reasons.
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
If the temperature goes above 85°C (185°F), the grainy look (flocculation)
is reversible. Whisking and/or blending the crème anglaise will help to
restore it.
CRÈME ANGLAISE COOKED SOUS-VIDE
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Separate the eggs and add the vanilla to the yolks.
Add the sugar to the yolk-and-vanilla mixture.
Blanch the mixture.
Add the cold milk.
Fill the pouches.
Vacuum seal the bags.
Set the oven to the steam setting at 83°C (181°F) for 40 minutes.
Put the pouches into a perforated pan.
Chill and label after cooking.
HISTORY
Bruno Goussault is the person credited with the scientific explanation of
“sous-vide cooking.” The term “sous-vide” is not the most appropriate,
because, although a vacuum is used, it is only one step in the process. The
main thing is to control the physicochemical properties; in other words,
the effects of the time/temperature relationship on the ingredients of the
crème anglaise.
USES AND VARIATIONS
Depending on what the crème anglaise is going to be used for, it can be
thick or, conversely, liquid. To do either of these, the quantity of eggs and
the cooking time of the crème anglaise must be adjusted. The amount of
sugar must also be adjusted for how the crème anglaise will be used. You
can replace all or part of the milk with fresh cream.
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
Steam guarantees a good distribution of heat all around the pouches
containing the crème anglaise. Nevertheless, there may be differences,
depending on where the pouches are situated inside the oven.
CRÈME ANGLAISE COOKED SOUS-VIDE IN
A WATER BATH
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE
Prepare a water bath (bain-marie) with a thermostat.

Set the temperature to 84°C (183°F).
Blanch the egg yolks with the sugar.
Add the vanilla.
Add the milk while whisking. Fill the sous-vide pouches.
Vacuum seal the pouches.
Put a pouch into the water bath with the thermostat at 84°C (183°F).
After cooking for 40 minutes, immerse the pouch into a bowl of ice cubes.
Quickly label and refrigerate.
HISTORY
Sous-vide allows for perfect and even cooking. Our grandmothers knew
what they were doing when they added a touch of cornstarch (cornflour),
which was a far cry from the traditional recipe. However, in his Guide
Culinaire, Auguste Escoffier suggests using arrowroot.
• It is cooked at 84°C (183°F) for 40 minutes. Lower temperatures can be
used but it needs a longer cooking time, which will have a positive
influence on calculating the Pasteurization Value. Crème anglaise in a
pouch will wait patiently to be used, especially because there is no
external contamination after cooking.
• After microbiological tests and a long cooking time, the Pasteurization
Value can be calculated, and the crème anglaise can then be stored from
10 to 15 days.
• French law, in its Guide of Good Hygiene Practices, recognizes the
effectiveness of the method when a mixture is brought to and maintained
at 83°C (181°F) for 1 minute.
• The technique, as efficient as it is, does not mean that strict hygiene,
when it comes to handling ingredients, can be disregarded.
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
There are three parameters to consider regarding the coagulation of
proteins in a liquid:
- Temperature;
- The types of proteins and their respective concentrations;
- Liquids with different characteristics: osmotic concentration, rheology,
pH.
CRÈME ANGLAISE COOKED IN A WOK
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Put one-third of the sugar into a wok.
Add the milk.
Add the vanilla seeds.
Add the remaining sugar to the egg yolks.
Whisk the egg yolks and sugar to blanch them.
Bring the crème anglaise to 83°C (181°F), stirring with a spatula (palette knife).
Pass through a fine conical sieve.
Cool quickly on a bed of ice.
Making soft creams using crème anglaise as a base:
- crème anglaise + butter = buttercream
- crème anglaise + chocolate = ganache
- crème anglaise + gelatin = gelatin (jelly)
- gelatin (jelly) + whipped cream = base for bavarian cream
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
• Using this traditional recipe as a base, it’s possible to think up many
others.
• Base ingredients: milk (liquid) and egg yolks (protein and surfactant
substances) are essential, but so are flavorings (our grandmothers
sometimes added a bay leaf to their crème anglaise).
• This base is called Priestley (in reference to the chemist J. Priestley) by
Hervé This, the father of gastronomy and molecular cuisine. Other
liquids beside milk can be used, as can other ingredients be used in place
of eggs (if they contain protein). The cooking process and temperature
must be the same as above. Many recipes can be created from this base.
TRADITIONAL PASTRY CREAM
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TECHNIQUE

Put one-third of the sugar in a stewpan.
Add the milk.
Add the vanilla.
Bring the sugar, milk, and vanilla mixture to a boil.
Whisk the remaining sugar with the egg yolks.
Blanch the mixture.
Add the flour and whisk.
Pour the milk over the mixture and mix.
Pour into a clean stewpan.
Whisk just until it comes to a boil.
Transfer to a pan.
Sprinkle with confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Place plastic wrap (clingfilm) in direct contact and cool quickly.
HISTORY
The latest research shows that pastry cream is not mentioned prior to
1691. A recipe called “cresme pâticière” can be found in a work by F.
Massialot, Le Cuisinier royal et bourgeois.
• Pastry cream + almond cream = frangipane
• Pastry cream + whipped cream + gelatin = diplomat cream
• Pastry cream + eggs + flavoring + beaten egg whites = soufflé mixture
• Pastry cream (warm) + butter (cold) = mousseline cream
• Pastry cream + French meringue + gelatin = chiboust cream or Saint-
Honoré cream
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
Pastry cream has an interesting nutritional value: calcium (milk) and
protein (milk and egg yolks).
The Guide of Good Hygiene Practices is strict about boiling time. It must
boil for 1 minute 30 seconds.
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
• The consistency of pastry cream is due to the presence of two main
ingredients as it cooks: starch and egg yolks.
• Storing it cold, or even deep-freezing it, affects how it sets. By using
modified starches, it is possible to implement these technologies without
experiencing any consequences.
PASTRY CREAM MADE WITH CUSTARD
POWDER
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Put one-third of the sugar into a saucepan.
Pour in some of the milk and mix.
Mix in the custard powder and the remaining sugar.
Add the remaining milk and mix.
Add the vanilla bean (pod) or vanilla extract.
Put the saucepan back on the heat and whisk just until it comes to a boil.
Pour into a cold pan.
Cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) in direct contact with the surface and cool quickly.
HISTORY
Using custard powder has practically become the norm, something that
worries those who adhere to traditional cooking. It would appear that
molecular pastry making has been done by pastry chefs for a long time.
These preparations obviously ensure the stability of a custard.
USES AND VARIATIONS
A distinction must be made between custard powder plus a cold liquid and
the “better-quality” custard powder plus a hot liquid. Custard powder plus
a cold liquid is (mostly) mixed with water. It sets practically immediately,
but the consistency leaves a lot to be desired. Custard powder plus a hot
liquid is used like flour is in a “traditional” pastry cream. The result is
very similar to the latter.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
It is difficult to make use of the components in custard powder plus a cold
liquid. When used with water, it’s important to ask yourself if there are
real calcium and protein nutrients. This question is logical for pastry shops
and restaurants serving elderly people and children whose food intake
needs to be monitored.
The question is different if the custard is made hot, because milk is usually
used.
If the pastry cream is made cold, there is a health risk regarding the liquid
(water), because it is not heated. It is advisable to let the water run from
the faucet for a while (especially if the faucet has not been used for several
days for example, if the water has been cut off).
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
The starches used have undergone a chemical and/or enzymatic
transformation. These changes affect retrogradation and syneresis. It is
best to use cross-linked/stabilized starch. Custard powders usually have
this kind of starch.
FRANGIPANE
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Put the pastry cream into a bowl.
To the pastry cream, add. . .
. . . the ground almonds (and a little rum if using).
Whisk the mixture.
Whisk until smooth.
Cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) in direct contact with the surface.
Frangipane can also be made by combining pastry cream and almond cream.
MOUSSELINE CREAM
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Soften the butter.
Add the softened butter, into pieces, to the slightly warmed pastry cream.
Whisk the mixture.
Whisk until smooth.
Scrape down the sides.
Cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) in direct contact with the surface and use
immediately.
OTHER PASTRY CREAM DERIVATIVES
DIPLOMAT CREAM
Hydrate the gelatin sheets (leaves).

Make a traditional pastry cream, then, away from the heat, add the squeezed
gelatin to set it.
Transfer to another container, cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) in direct
contact with the surface, and cool quickly in a blast chiller.
Whip the cream.
Strain the custard through a sieve to obtain a smooth cream, then fold in the
whipped cream in several stages.
CHIBOUST CREAM
Hydrate the gelatin sheets (leaves) in a bowl of cold water.
Make a pastry cream with the milk, egg yolks, sugar, and custard powder.
Bring to a boil and cook for 2 minutes.
Away from the heat, add the squeezed gelatin sheets.
Place plastic wrap (clingfilm) in direct contact with the surface and keep
warm.
Make an Italian meringue by heating the sugar and water to 118°C (244°F),
then pouring it over the beaten egg whites.
Fold the warm Italian meringue into the hot pastry cream.
Use immediately.
CHOCOLATE CHIBOUST CREAM

Make a pastry cream with the milk, egg yolks, sugar, and custard powder.
Bring to a boil and cook for 2 minutes.
Away from the heat, add the cocoa paste and the gelatin sheets.
then pouring it over the beaten egg whites.
Fold the hot Italian meringue into the hot pastry cream.
Use immediately.
LEMON CHIBOUST CREAM

Boil the lemon juice with the 0.050 kg (1¾ oz/¼ cup) of sugar and, in
another saucepan, the cream and the lemon zest.
Blanch the egg yolks with the 0.025 kg (⅞ oz/2 tbsp) of sugar and the
cornstarch (cornflour).
Whisk the boiling hot cream into the mixture, add the lemon juice, and cook
over medium heat as you would for pastry cream.
Mix in the softened gelatin and the mirabelle eau de vie.
then pouring it over the beaten egg whites, and cool in the mixer set at a
medium speed.
Fold the two mixtures together gently.
Use immediately.
SETTING CUSTARD
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Crack open the eggs and whisk them.
Split the vanilla bean (pod) and scrape out the seeds.
Add the sugar to the eggs.
Blanch the mixture.
Whisk in the boiling milk.
Add flavorings to the mixture, if you want.
FRENCH BUTTERCREAM
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Cook the sugar in the water.
Beat the egg yolks in a mixer.
When it reaches the hard-ball stage, remove the sugar-and-water mixture from the heat.
Pour it carefully over the egg yolks.
Add the softened butter.
Transfer to another container and whisk until smooth (add any flavoring now).
CHANTILLY CREAM
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Pour the cream into the chilled bowl of a mixer.
Add the sugar to the cream.
Add the vanilla.
Turn on the mixer.
Whisk the mixture until fairly firm.
Transfer to another container and place over ice.
Cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) and use immediately.
HISTORY
Traditionally, it is believed that Chantilly cream was invented by F. Vatel.
Its name comes from the Château de Chantilly, where it was invented.
We know that it originated in Italy. It can be traced back to the Italians,
such as the famous Bartolomeo Scappi in the sixteenth century. However,
Chantilly cream as we know it today, made by whisking the cream, is
named after F. Vatel.
USES AND VARIATIONS
• Traditionally, there is a difference between whipped cream (without
sugar and unflavored) and sweetened Chantilly cream, which is
sometimes flavored.
• To achieve a firm Chantilly cream, additives provided by food
manufacturers or gelatin can be added.
• It is forbidden to use raw cream to make Chantilly cream.
• Hygienic practices must be followed to the letter when using equipment
and handling food.
• According to the Guide of Good Hygiene Practices, preparations made
with Chantilly cream can be refrigerated for two days after being made.
THE SCIENTIST CHEF
• To be precise, Chantilly cream is an emulsified mousse or whipped
emulsion. Cream is an emulsion of fatty substances, water, and
stabilizers (surfactants), among which is casein. “Whipped” cream is the
result of the functional properties of proteins (caseins)—in other words,
a mousse or a whipped preparation. Cold has a stabilizing effect on the
fatty acid content, which is why a cream used for making Chantilly
cream must have a minimum fat content of 30 percent and ideally of 35
percent.
• This principle, explained wonderfully by Hervé This, allows for making
Chantilly creams with such ingredients as chocolate. A chocolate
Chantilly cream can be made with only chocolate (and is different from a
chocolate mousse, which is made with egg yolks, cream, sugar, etc.).
• To make a chocolate Chantilly cream, you need only melted chocolate,
beaten in as it cools. The natural lecithins in the chocolate trap the air
bubbles. The air is held in the chocolate Chantilly cream by the fat,
which freezes the air bubbles as it cools.
• To make a mousse, you can use a whisk (or mixer) or a siphon, which
injects N2O (nitrous oxide) into it. As the gas expands, it generates cold
and ensures the cream holds together well. It’s also possible for the
whipped effect to last longer by adding surfactants, such as lecithins.
MASCARPONE CREAM FILLING
Soak the gelatin sheets (leaves) in cold water for at least 15 minutes.
Split the vanilla bean (pod) and infuse in the cream, then bring to a boil.
Away from the heat, add the squeezed gelatin.
Add the white chocolate and, when melted, add the mascarpone and mix
well until smooth.
Cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) in direct contact with the surface and
cool quickly in a blast chiller, then set aside in a cool place at 3°C (37°F)
for about 12 hours.
Whip the cream in a chilled bowl for about 3 minutes, until the desired
texture is reached.
Use immediately.
ALMOND CREAM
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Soften the butter.
Add the sugar to the softened butter.
Whisk the sugar and butter.
Add the eggs and whisk the mixture.
Add the ground almonds and whisk.
Add the vanilla and rum.
Scrape down the sides of the bowl and transfer the almond cream to another container.
HISTORY
Almonds are widely used in cooking (fresh almonds, slivered [flaked],
chopped, crushed, in sticks, ground, etc.) to make many recipes, and many
are old: almond milk, almond paste (massepain in Switzerland and
Belgium, marzipan in Germany and England, panis marci in Italy),
almond cream, etc.
• Flourless almond cream will probably “spread” during cooking. If you’re
worried this might happen, add a little flour (Pithiviers) or pastry cream.
• If you mix two-thirds almond cream with one-third pastry cream, the
result is frangipane. It is named after an Italian, Frangipani, who
invented this flavor using bitter almonds.
• It is used in various recipes: tarte bourdaloue, galette des rois, and
almond tuiles.
• The expression “tant pour tant” (or TPT) of almonds in a recipe means
the same weight of sugar and almonds is used. For example, 0.400 kg
(10 oz/2¾ cups) of “tant pour tant” of almonds means that you need a
mixture of 0.200 kg (7 oz/1 cup) of sugar and 0.200 kg (7 oz/2⅛ cups) of
ground almonds.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
Almonds are interesting from a nutritional standpoint. They are high in
macroelements and trace elements: protein, fiber, high in fatty acids, but
few are saturated. Flavonoids complete this interesting nutritional profile.
For the complete nutritional value of almonds, see:

http://www.aprifel.com/fiche-nutri-produit-composition-amande,44.html
LEMON CREAM
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TECHNIQUE

Blanch the sugar with the egg yolks.
Add the cornstarch (cornflour) to the blanched mixture.
Add the lemon juice, lemon liqueur, and water.
Add the zest of one lemon.
Bring the mixture to a boil.
Whisk until smooth.
Cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) and use immediately.
CRÉMEUX
MANGO AND PASSION FRUIT CRÉMEUX
Soak the gelatin sheets (leaves) in cold water for 20 minutes.

Bring the purees and cream to a boil.
Mix the egg yolks and sugar, then make a crème anglaise (84°C/183°F)
with the purees.
Away from the heat, combine with the squeezed gelatin, cover with plastic
wrap (clingfilm) in direct contact with the surface, and cool quickly in a
blast chiller to 34°C (93°F), then add the softened butter and mix in a mixer.
Pour into 16-cm (6¼-inch) center molds and quickly freeze in a blast
chiller.
DARK CHOCOLATE CRÉMEUX

Make the gelatin mass.
Make a crème anglaise with the milk, cream, egg yolks, and superfine
(caster) sugar. Cook to 85°C (185°F).
Pour the crème anglaise over the dark chocolate couverture and gelatin
mass.
Mix in a mixer and pour the mixture into center molds.
Cool quickly in a blast chiller.
PISTACHIO CRÉMEUX
Soak the gelatin in cold water for 20 minutes.
Bring the cream to a boil.
Mix the egg yolks and sugar, then make a crème anglaise (84°C/183°F).
Away from the heat, combine with the squeezed gelatin, flavor, and pass
through a conical sieve.
Use as needed. Cover with plastic wrap in direct contact with the surface
and cool quickly in a blast chiller.
BAVARIAN CREAMS
VANILLA BAVARIAN CREAM

Bring the milk and vanilla to a boil.
Away from the heat, combine with the squeezed gelatin, pass through a
conical sieve, chill over ice, and cool to 20°C (68°F) so that it has the
texture of yogurt.
Whip the cream, but not too stiffly, then fold into the mixture in three
batches.
Pour into molds of your choice and cool quickly in a blast chiller.
GIANDUJA BAVARIAN CREAM

Cook the milk, cream, and egg yolks to 84°C (183°F).
Away from the heat, combine with the squeezed gelatin and chopped
gianduja, then mix in a mixer until smooth.
Transfer to another container, cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm), and cool
quickly to 25°C (77°F) in a blast chiller.
batches.
HAZELNUT BAVARIAN CREAM

Bring the cream and milk to a boil. Add the hazelnut praline and make a
crème anglaise with the egg yolks and sugar, heating to 84°C (183°F).
conical sieve, and cool quickly in a blast chiller to 25°C (77°F), then add
the softly whipped cream in three batches.
FRUIT BAVARIAN CREAM

Bring the fruit puree to a boil.
conical sieve, chill over ice, and cool to 20°C (68°F) so that it has the
texture of yogurt.
batches.
FRUIT MOUSSES
FRUIT MOUSSE WITH ITALIAN MERINGUE
Heat the superfine sugar and water in a stewpan to 114°C (237°F).

Now, whisk the egg whites, pour the sugar cooked to 121°C (250°F) over
them, and whip until completely cooled.
Hydrate the gelatin in cold water for 20 minutes.
Heat one-third of the puree to about 70°C (158°F), add the squeezed gelatin
sheets (leaves) to the hot puree, add the remaining cold puree, and cool to
25°C (77°F).
Loosen the cold meringue with a little of the puree-and-gelatin mixture,
then gradually fold it into the remaining puree and softly whipped cream.
Use immediately.
FRUIT MOUSSE WITH GLUCOSE MERINGUE
Heat the superfine (caster) sugar, glucose, and water in a stewpan to 114°C
(237°F).
Now, whisk the egg whites, pour the sugar cooked to 121°C (250°F) over
them, and whip until completely cooled.
Make the gelatin mass (water + gelatin powder).
Heat the puree or the mixed fruit pulp to about 20°C (68°F). Add the gelatin
mass (melted in the microwave), then the glucose meringue and, finally,
fold in the softly whipped cream in three batches.
Use immediately.
SIMPLE FRUIT MOUSSE

Softly whip the cream and refrigerate.
Heat the fruit puree and sugar to 60°C (140°F), then add the squeezed
gelatin.
Fold the softly whipped cream into the fruit puree (at 28–30°C/82–86°F).
Use immediately.
CHOCOLATE MOUSSES
CHOCOLATE MOUSSE (SUGAR SYRUP BASE)
Bring the water and sugar to a boil in a stewpan.

Measure the quantity of syrup required, pour it onto the egg yolks, and cook
at 85°C (185°F).
Whip the mixture until completely cooled.
Melt the chocolate in a water bath (bain-marie) to 45–50°C (113–122°F).
Softly whip the cream.
Finish the mousse by folding the pâte à bombe and cream into the melted
chocolate with a whisk.
Use immediately.
CHOCOLATE MOUSSE (COOKED SUGAR BASE)

Make a sabayon: Heat the superfine (caster) sugar and water to 118°C
(244°F).
Pour it in a stream into the mixer over the egg yolks and the whole eggs.
Beat until cooled to about 30°C (86°F).
Fold part of the whipped cream into the dark chocolate couverture melted to
45°C (113°F), then the sabayon and, finally, the remaining whipped cream.
Use immediately.
DAIRY MOUSSE
Melt the milk chocolate in a water bath (bain-marie) to about 40°C (104°F).
Make a crème anglaise with the first quantity of cream, the milk, egg yolks,
and sugar. Cook to 84°C (183°F).
Away from the heat, combine with the hydrated and squeezed gelatin.
Strain through a fine conical sieve over the melted dairy couverture.
Mix in a mixer.
Heat to 35°C (95°F) and fold in the whipped cream, in three batches, with a
whisk.
Use immediately.
WHITE CHOCOLATE MOUSSE

Chop the chocolate and melt to 40°C (104°F) in a water bath (bain-marie).
Bring the first quantity of cream to a boil, then pour it over the melted
chocolate.
Whisk until smooth and cool to 30°C (86°F).
Whip the remaining cream, but not too stiffly, then fold into the first
mixture, in three batches, with a whisk.
Use immediately.
CHOCOLATE GANACHE WITH MELTED
CHOCOLATE
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TECHNIQUE
Chop the chocolate.

Put it into a water bath (bain-marie).
Melt the chocolate.
Transfer to a bowl.
Add the cold cream.
Whisk the mixture. . .
. . . until cool.
Flavor with an alcoholic liqueur, if using.
Scrape down the sides of the bowl and transfer to another container or fill pastry
(piping) bags.
Use to fill macarons or with another recipe.
CHOCOLATE GANACHE WITH COLD
CHOCOLATE
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TECHNIQUE

Chop the chocolate.
Put the chocolate into a bowl.
Pour the cream into a stewpan.
Bring the cream to a boil.
Pour the boiling cream over the melted chocolate.
Whisk the mixture.
Beat until smooth.
Put the mixture over ice.
Whisk until cold.
Use the ganache as needed.
HISTORY (OR MYTH?)
The word “ganache” comes from a culinary error. An apprentice chocolate
maker mistakenly poured boiling cream over chocolate and was called
ganache (“moron”) by the master chocolatier. The mixture, which was far
from being unusable, was then given the nickname of its inventor,
“Ganache.”
SAUCES AND COULIS
CHOCOLATE SAUCE
Bring the superfine (caster) sugar, water, and heavy (double) cream to a
boil.
Pour it over the chopped chocolate.
Mix until smooth and add a flavoring, if using.
CARAMEL SAUCE
Cook the sugar to a caramel.
Stop the caramel cooking process by adding the warm cream.
Bind with the apricot glaze.
CARAMEL-BASED FRUIT COULIS
Caramelize the sugar and water.

Stop the caramel cooking process by adding the fruit pulp.
CARAMEL CENTERS
Stop the caramel cooking process by adding the warm cream.
Pour over the chopped couverture.
ORANGE CARAMEL

Stop the caramel cooking process by adding the orange juice.
Infuse the tea (preferably black tea) and strain.
Reduce until thick.
WINE SABAYON
Blanch the egg yolks and sugar.

Add the wine.
Whisk in a water bath (bain-marie).
CIDER BUTTER
Sauté the apples with the unsalted butter and sugar to caramelize.
Deglaze with the cider and reduce.
Mix in a mixer, then emulsify with the salted butter.
SPICED SYRUP

Stop the caramel cooking process by adding the orange juice and lemon
juice.
Add the water.
Add the quatre-épices spice mix.
MINT JUICE SYRUP

Bring the water and sugar to a boil.
Bind with the cornstarch (cornflour) and infuse with the chopped mint.
Add a pinch of pepper.
RED BERRY COULIS
Pick over the red berries (you can use frozen red berries).
Wash the berries (not necessary if they are frozen).
Put the red berries into the bowl of a mixer and mix to a smooth puree.
Press through a fine conical sieve.
Add the sugar and lemon juice to the coulis.
Mix well and set aside in the refrigerator until needed.
GELATIN DESSERTS AND CONFECTIONERY
MANGO GELATIN (JELLY)
Heat the mango pulp and add the gelatin.

Add the lemon juice.
Freeze or put into a siphon.
COCONUT GELATIN (JELLY)

Heat the coconut milk and add the gelatin.
Add the Malibu liqueur.
APPLE AND CINNAMON GELATIN (JELLY)
Heat the apple pulp and add the gelatin.

Flavor with cinnamon.
BASIL AND STRAWBERRY GELATIN (JELLY)

Heat the strawberry pulp and add the gelatin.
ORANGE AND CUMIN GELATIN (JELLY)
Heat the orange juice and add the gelatin.

Flavor with the cumin.
FRUIT PRESERVES
Heat the fruit puree and invert sugar (Trimoline®) to 40°C (104°F) in a
stewpan.
Add the superfine (caster) sugar and pectin NH. Bring to a boil, then, away
from the heat, add the gelatin mass and lemon juice.
Mix in a mixer and use.
FRUIT JELLIES
Mix the first quantity of sugar with the pectin to prevent it from sticking.
Heat the fruit pulp to 40°C (104°F) in a stewpan, add the sugar and pectin,
and bring to a boil, stirring constantly.
Add the glucose, then the granulated sugar, in three batches, and bring to a
boil, stirring.
Cook to 108–109°C (226–228°F) or 72–73° on a refractometer.
Remove from the heat and stir in the acid solution. From this moment,
gelling will start.
Immediately pour into a frame or silicone molds and let cool. Cut into the
shapes desired and roll in the granulated sugar.
PASTILLAGE
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Soften the gelatin.
Sift the potato starch.
Put the confectioners’ (icing) sugar into the sieve.
Sift the confectioners’ sugar.
Put the two ingredients (the confectioners’ sugar and potato starch) into the bowl of a
mixer.
Add the water with the softened gelatin and mix with the flat beater attachment.
Add the lemon juice or white vinegar.
Mix well to a smooth paste.
Turn onto a marble pastry surface sprinkled with potato starch or confectioners’ sugar.
Work the pastillage and shape into a ball.
Wrap in plastic wrap (clingfilm). When you work with the pastillage, do so quickly.
ROYAL ICING
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE
Sift the confectioners’ (icing) sugar.

Add the egg whites.
Add the lemon juice or vinegar.
Gently whisk together.
Mix to a smooth royal icing.
Use immediately.
MIRROR GLAZE
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE
Soften the gelatin.

Heat the syrup.
Add the gelatin.
Stir the gelatin into the syrup.
Flavor the syrup.
Use to glaze your creations.
SHINY CHOCOLATE GLAZE
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PURCHASE ORDER
TECHNIQUE

Soften the gelatin.
Pour the cream into a stewpan.
Add the water to the cream.
Add the sugar.
Add the cocoa powder.
Mix the mixture.
Whisk and heat the glaze to 80°C (175°F).
Add the softened gelatin.
Whisk well.
Strain through a fine conical sieve.
Use to glaze your creations.
OTHER GLAZES
MIRROR GLAZE FOR ENTREMETS
Boil the water, sugar, and glucose to 103°C (217°F).

Away from the heat, pour over the condensed milk.
Combine with the hydrated and squeezed gelatin.
Pour in the white chocolate in three batches.
Add the food coloring.
Mix in a mixer until an even color.
Cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) in direct contact with the surface and let
crystallize in the refrigerator before using at 30°C (86°F).
CARAMEL MIRROR GLAZE
Make a dry caramel to the desired color.

Stop the caramel cooking process by adding a boiling water-and-cream
mixture (watch out for splashes).
Add the 0.030 kg (1 oz/2½ tbsp) of sugar mixed with the potato starch and
boil for 1 minute, whisking to bind it all.
Cool to 80°C (176°F) on ice and add the rehydrated and squeezed gelatin.
Mix in a mixer until an even color.
crystallize in the refrigerator before using at 30°C (86°F).
GIANDUJA MIRROR GLAZE

Bring the cream, glucose, and 30° Baumé syrup to a boil.
Meanwhile, melt the gianduja and dark chocolate over a water bath (bain-
marie; do not heat above 50°C/122°F).
Add the grapeseed oil and add to the first mixture in three batches.
Mix in a mixer until smooth.
crystallize in the refrigerator before using at about 35°C (95°F).
SPECIAL GLAZE FOR CHOUX PASTRY

Make the gelatin mass.
Melt the chocolate coating in a water bath (bain-marie) at 40°C (104°F).
Boil the cream with the glucose in a stewpan.
Away from the heat, add the hydrated and squeezed gelatin.
Add the white chocolate disks to the chocolate coating, then the cream
mixture, glucose, and gelatin.
Whisk until smooth.
Add food coloring and mix in a mixer.
Scrape down the sides, cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) in direct contact
with the surface, and let crystallize in the refrigerator.
When ready to use, heat a water bath to 30°C (86°F).
VELVET SPRAY MIXTURES
VELVET SPRAY MIXTURES FOR SPRAY GUNS
COMMON TECHNIQUE
Melt the cocoa butter/chocolate or cocoa butter/food coloring mixture over
a water bath (bain-marie) or in the microwave to 40°C (104°F) before
pouring it into the spray gun container.
Heat the spray gun (airbrush) in a heating cabinet before pouring in the
mixture, because it may harden and clog the spray gun if it’s cold.
Use a hot mixture (40–45°C/104–113°F) for a velvety coating and spray
onto frozen foodstuffs.
© Jean-Michel Loessel
Trompe-l’œil lemons
NOUGATINE
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TECHNIQUE

Pour the sugar into a stewpan.
Add the water and glucose.
Bring to a boil and cook to a light caramel.
Add the chopped almonds (previously toasted in an oven).
Add the lemon juice.
Stir the almonds in the caramel.
Pour onto a silicone mat.
Let rest for a few seconds.
Using a silicone mat, work the nougatine to a good texture.
Cut to the desired shapes and let cool.
Work it under a heat lamp or warm in the oven to make it workable.
USES AND VARIATIONS
Nougatine is made with slivered (flaked) or chopped almonds. Hazelnuts
can also be added.
It is used as a decoration: half-moons, dent de loup (wolf’s teeth), fan,
diamond.
It can be used to make a croquembouche or a pièce montée.
It is called by different names, depending on the region: croquante, brown
nougat, etc.
CROUSTILLANT FEUILLANTINE
Melt the chocolate in a water bath (bain-marie; no more than 45°C/113°F).

Mix the praline and softened butter with a spatula (palette knife), add the
melted chocolate, stir well, and, finally, add the wafer cookies.
Roll between two sheets of silicone coated paper.
CROUSTILLANT FEUILLANTINE (WITHOUT BUTTER)

OceanofPDF.com

NOTE:
A worksheet is the developed and finalized design of a recipe.
It is a concept that has not always existed. The goal is to make a mousse, a
tart, etc. in the best possible way.
It sets out:
- The ingredients (type, quantity, quality);
- The number of servings;
- Production techniques (in this book, numerous cross-references to
basic preparations are given in related step-by-step sections);
- Materials and utensils;
- Visuals (illustrations or photos);
- Suggestions for serving.
QR codes will let you access many worksheets in video form.
A worksheet shows you how to do something, but you must also have
room for imagination, creativity, and so-called “revisited” recipes.
Each unit adapts the recommendations given according to the quantities to
be made (among the worksheets that follow, some are for a larger number
of servings that meet the needs of commercial pastry kitchens), the
technicality of the producers, and the clientele.
SPONGE DESSERTS
- Genoise sponge with custard
- Yule log using a mold
- Traditional Yule log
- Black Forest cake
- Two-chocolate triangle entremets
- Mocha cake
- Ladyfingers
- Savoy sponge cake
- Almond-flavored Savoy sponge cakes
- Pound cake
- Genoa bread
- Opera cake
- Caramel and rum raisin entremets
- Mascarpone, chestnut, and black currant entremets
- Sacher torte
- Fraisier cake
CHOUX PASTRY DESSERTS

- Cream puffs
- Coffee éclairs
- Coffee and chocolate religieuses
- Saint-Honoré with Chantilly cream
- Croquembouche
- Paris-Brest
- Beignets
- Bugnes or angel wing fritters
- Chilled cream-filled choux pastries
CREPE BATTER DESSERTS

- Crepes
- Crepes normandes
- Far Breton
FRITTER DESSERTS
- Apple fritters
- Acacia flower fritters
MERINGUE DESSERTS
- Meringue Chantilly
- Pavlova
- Dacquoise with coffee mousse filling
- Dacquoise with ganache filling
CAKE DESSERTS
- Fruitcake
- Almond pound cake
- Madeleines
- Gingerbread
PASTRY DESSERTS
- Lemon tart
- Fromage blanc tart
- Mixed berry tart
- Apple tart
- Alsatian apple tart
- Bourdaloue pear tart
- Chocolate pear tart
- Tarte Tatin
- Chocolate tartlets
- Lemon meringue tartlets
- French custard tart
- Cherry custard tart
- Raspberry Linzer torte
- Shortbread cookies
- Other small baked goods
LEAVENED DOUGH OR BATTER DESSERTS

- Savarin
- Croissants
- Pains au chocolat
- Almond swirls
- Kugelhopf
- Flaky brioches
PUFF PASTRY DESSERTS

- Millefeuilles
- Millefeuilles with mixed berries
- Pithiviers
- Fruit tart
- Apple turnovers
- Palmiers
- Apricot jalousies
CUSTARD DESSERTS
- Crème brûlée
- Crème caramel
- Crème viennoise
- Vanilla, coffee, and chocolate pots de crème
- Îles flottantes
- Rice pudding
- Riz à l’impératrice
- Strawberry gratin with champagne sabayon
ASSORTED COOKIES
- Cigarettes russes
- Chocolate macarons
- Almond tuiles
- Cannelés
- Financiers
- Coconut meringue rocks
- Vanilla shortbread cookies
- Other tuiles
SOUFFLÉS
- Liqueur soufflé
- Chocolate soufflé

- Raspberry, blueberry, and orange sorbets
- Vanilla and chocolate ice creams (custard base)
- Apricot ice cream (cream and milk base)
- Nougat ice cream
- Meringue with ice cream and Chantilly cream
- Baked Alaska
- Oranges givrées
- Vanilla vacherin
- Poire Belle-Hélène
- Strawberry sorbet
- Lemon and coconut nitro sorbet
MOUSSE DESSERTS
- Layered Bavarian cream
- Strawberry charlotte
- Dark chocolate mousse
SAVORY DISHES
- Quiche comtoise
- Cheese allumettes
- Cheese puffs
- Italian-style melon mousse
- Choux puffs with smoked salmon
- Saucisson brioché
- Cheese soufflés
CONFECTIONERY
- Chocolate-dipped candied orange
- Liquor-filled chocolates
- Caramel-dipped fruits déguisés
- Nougat de Montélimar
- Marshmallows
- Vanilla truffles
GENOISE SPONGE WITH CUSTARD
An entremets made with genoise sponge cake: eggs and sugar beaten to
ribbon consistency with the addition of flour and confectioners’ (icing)
sugar. Served with crème anglaise (a mixture of egg yolks, sugar, milk, and
vanilla) that is cooked to 83°C (181°F) and will coat the back of a spoon.
MATERIALS
• General-purpose bowls
• Stewpan
• Genoise cake pans
• Drum sieve
• Fine conical sieve
• Pastry brush
METHOD
1. Prepare your work area
Ingredients, preparation materials, and cooking/baking and plating
materials.
2. Prepare the cake pan
Melt the butter.
Grease and flour the cake pans with the melted butter and flour.
Set aside.
3. Make the genoise batter (see this page)
Break the eggs into a bowl.
Add the sugar.
Whisk vigorously.
Whisk the mixture over a water bath (bain-marie) to a ribbon
consistency.
Away from the heat, whisk until cool.
Sprinkle in the sifted flour.
Fold in the flour.
Scrape down the sides of the bowl.
4. Fill the genoise cake pan
Pour the batter two-thirds of the way up the prepared cake pan.
5. Bake the genoise
Bake at 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F) for 20 to 30 minutes. When done,
unmold and let cool on a wire rack.
6. Make the crème anglaise (see this page)
Bring the milk to a boil.
Add the vanilla.
Blanch the egg whites with the sugar.
Mix in the milk.
Cook the crème anglaise at 83°C (181°F) until it coats the back of a
spoon.
7. Plate the genoise sponge with the crème anglaise
Decorate the genoise sponge with confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
WORKSHEET 1
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© Adobe Stock
YULE LOG USING A MOLD
A traditional Christmas-time cake filled with cream, Morello cherries, and
ganache.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Probe thermometer
• Genoise sponge cake pans
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Stainless steel mold for the log
• Stand mixer
• Pastry brush
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the almond sponge (see this page)
Mix the flour and the ground almonds.
Sift them together.
Whisk the egg yolks with the sugar—the mixture will become foamy and
increase in volume.
Beat the egg whites to stiff peaks.
Add the sugar to stiffen the whites.
Sprinkle the flour-and-ground almond mixture into the sabayon.
Fold in the egg whites.
Spread the almond sponge batter on a silicone mat lined with parchment
(baking) paper.
Bake at 160°C (Gas Mark 3/325°F) to 180°C (Gas Mark 4/350°F).
Unmold and place on a wire rack.
3. Make the Chantilly cream (see this page)
Mix the chilled cream, sugar, vanilla, and soaked gelatin sheets (leaves).
Whip the Chantilly cream.
Whip until stiff.
4. Make the chocolate ganache with melted chocolate (see this page)
Melt the chocolate over a water bath (bain-marie). Add the cream.
Whisk until the mixture has cooled and thickened.
5. Assemble the log
Cut the almond sponge.
Line the mold with the sponge (don’t forget to line the ends of the mold).
Generously soak the sponge in the mold as well as the strips of sponge
that will go inside and on top of the log.
Pipe in the Chantilly cream and arrange the Morello cherries over it.
Add a strip of soaked sponge.
Add a layer of chocolate ganache.
Add another strip of soaked sponge.
Pipe in a layer of Chantilly cream.
Finish with a layer of soaked sponge.
6. Make the shiny chocolate glaze (see this page)
Put the cream, water, sugar, and cocoa into a saucepan.
Work the mixture over the heat until it is smooth and free of lumps.
Melt the gelatin in the mixture and reduce the temperature of the glaze.
Pass the glaze through a conical sieve.
7. Finish the log
Unmold the log.
Cover the log with shiny chocolate glaze.
Refrigerate the log so the shiny chocolate glaze sets.
8. Plate the log
Slice the log and decorate to your preference.
WORKSHEET 2
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© Adobe Stock
TRADITIONAL YULE LOG
A traditional Christmas-time cake, made of a rolled sponge filled with a
light chocolate ganache.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Pastry brush
• Silicone spatula (palette knife)
• Parchment (baking) paper
• Pastry (piping) bag
• Saint-Honoré tip
To make the sponge lighter and more supple, replace some of the flour with cornstarch (cornflour).
To give it more chocolaty taste, add unsweetened cocoa powder.
To finish the log, you can create a pattern in the chocolate by running a fork along it or use a pastry
(piping) bag fitted with a Saint Honoré tip.
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the almond sponge (see this page)
Mix together the flour, cornstarch (cornflour), cocoa powder and ground
almonds.
Sift these dry ingredients.
Whisk the egg yolks with half of the sugar.
Beat until frothy.
Transfer to a bowl.
Beat the egg whites in a stand mixer, gradually adding the remaining
superfine sugar until peaks form.
Using a silicone spatula (palette knife), gently fold the sifted dry
ingredients into the sabayon. Add the stiffly beaten egg whites and gently
fold them in without breaking the texture of the batter.
Spread the batter on a silicone mat or on a sheet of parchment (baking)
paper.
When done, place on a wire rack and set aside.
When the sponge has cooled, remove the silicon mat or parchment paper
and wrap the sponge in plastic wrap (clingfilm). Set aside at room
temperature.
3. Make the soaking syrup
Pour the water into a stewpan, add the sugar, mix and boil.
Add the cocoa powder and mix well. Strain the cocoa syrup through a
fine conical sieve, cover with plastic wrap and refrigerate.
4. Make the chocolate ganache with warm cream (see this page)
Break the chocolate into a bowl.
Boil the cream in a stewpan.
Add the boiling cream to the chocolate and let the chocolate melt.
Use a silicone spatula to gently mix until smooth, then add the butter.
Cover the ganache with plastic wrap in direct contact with the surface
and refrigerate briefly to achieve the desired texture.
5. Assemble the log
Place the sponge on a baking sheet, and using a paint-brush or a soaker
bottle, soak the sponge.
Place some of the chocolate ganache on it and use an offset spatula to
spread it evenly over the sponge.
Roll the sponge over itself tightly to form a nice cylindrical log.
Refrigerate to let the ganache set.
Coat the log with the remaining chocolate ganache according to the
desired decoration, either covering and scoring, or using a pastry (piping)
bag with a Saint Honoré tip (see the photograph for a presentation
suggestion).
6. Decorate the log
Lightly dust the log with cocoa powder and confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Decorate the log with Christmas decorations (small gifts, meringue
mushrooms, small marzipan snow-people, etc.).
WORKSHEET 3
www.bpi-campus.com
© Franck Geuffroy
BLACK FOREST CAKE
An entremets made with chocolate sponge, filled with Chantilly cream and
kirsch-flavored cherries.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Pastry brush
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the chocolate sponge (see this page)
Beat the egg yolks and sugar in a stand mixer.
Gently fold in the sifted flour and cocoa powder.
Beat the egg whites.
Add the remaining sugar and beat to stiff peaks.
Fold into the batter.
Fill the cake pan with the chocolate sponge batter and bake at about
170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F).
Drain the Morello cherries, making sure to reserve the liquid.
Set the cherries aside.
Prepare the soaking syrup by combining the kirsch and Morello cherry
syrup.
4. Cut the chocolate sponge
Cut the sponge horizontally into three disks.
Use a pastry brush to soak the sponge disks.
5. Prepare the Chantilly cream (see this page)
Mix the chilled cream, sugar, vanilla, and soaked gelatin sheets (leaves).
Whip until stiff.
Break the chocolate into a stewpan.
Melt the chocolate over a water bath (bain-marie).
Add the cream and whisk until cooled and thickened.
7. Assemble the Black Forest Cake
Alternate disks of soaked sponge, whipped cream, and Morello cherries.
8. Decorating and plating
Cover with a layer of ganache, almonds, and Morello cherries.
Decorate to your preference.
WORKSHEET 4
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
TWO-CHOCOLATE TRIANGLE ENTREMETS
An entremets made with chocolate sponge, filled with Chantilly cream and
a two-chocolate ganache.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Pastry brush
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the chocolate sponge (see this page)
3. Prepare the Chantilly cream (see this page)
Mix the cold cream, sugar, vanilla, and gelatin sheets (leaves) previously
soaked and dissolved.
Whip until stiff.
4. Make the chocolate ganache with warm cream (see this page)
Boil the cream and add it to the chocolate.
Work it to the desired consistency.
5. Assemble the sponge
Cut the sponge cake into uniform slices.
Assemble the dessert in a triangle.
Soak the sponge slices individually.
Alternate the soaked sponge slices, Chantilly cream, and ganache.
Refrigerate to let the layers set.
6. Prepare the shiny chocolate glaze (see this page)
Soften the gelatin.
Heat the cream and water.
Add the sugar and cocoa powder.
Stir over the heat until the mixture is smooth and free of lumps (heat the
mixture to about 80°C/175°F).
Add the gelatin and reduce the temperature of the shiny glaze to 30°C
(86°F).
Pass through a conical sieve.
7. Finish the two-chocolate triangle and plate
Cover with the shiny glaze.
WORKSHEET 5
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
MOCHA CAKE
A classic French cake, mocha cake consists of genoise sponge cake and a
coffee buttercream.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the pans
Butter and flour the pans.
3. Make the genoise batter (see this page)
4. Fill the sponge cake pans
Pour the batter two-thirds of the way up the prepared cake pans.
5. Bake the sponge cakes
Bake at 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F) for about 30 minutes.
When done, unmold and let cool on a wire rack.
6. Make the coffee buttercream
Soften the butter.
Cook the sugar with one-third of its weight in water to the soft-ball stage
(117°C/243°F).
Separate the eggs, putting the yolks into a bowl.
Lightly whisk the yolks.
Drizzle the sugar over the yolks, whisking briskly.
Whisk until the mixture has cooled.
Gradually add the mixture to the butter, mixing well until smooth and
even.
or
Gradually add the softened butter to the mixture.
Flavor with the coffee extract.
7. Assemble the mocha cakes
Cut the sponge cake into three regular disks.
Soak the first sponge disk and spread buttercream over it.
Do the same for the other two disks.
Use an offset spatula (palette knife) to spread the butter-cream all over
the mocha cake.
8. Finish the mocha cakes
Place the coffee-flavored icing on top of the mocha cakes.
Use a pastry (piping) bag to write "MOCHA" with the couverture
chocolate.
Add chopped almonds around the edge of the mocha cakes.
9. Plate the mocha cakes
Plate to your preference.
WORKSHEET 6
© Adobe Stock
LADYFINGERS
Light, soft sponge “fingers” used for charlottes and tiramisu.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Silicone mat
• Plain tip (nozzle)
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the ladyfinger batter
Mix together the flour and cornstarch (cornflour).
Beat the egg whites in a stand mixer, then add the super-fine (caster)
sugar until stiff peaks form.
Use a silicone spatula (palette knife) to gently fold in the egg yolks.
Add the sifted flour-and-cornstarch mixture and fold in gently.
3. Prepare the ladyfingers
Use a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a plain No. 14 tip (nozzle). Pipe
strips of ladyfinger batter, side by side, on a silicone mat or sheet of
parchment (baking) paper, making a row of ladyfingers of the same
height as your mold and enough to fit around its circumference.
Sprinkle with confectioners' (icing) sugar.
4. Bake the ladyfinger sponge
Bake at 190°C (Gas Mark 5/375°F) for about 8 minutes.
temperature.
WORKSHEET 7
© Adobe Stock
SAVOY SPONGE CAKE
A batter made with egg yolks, sugar, potato starch, flour, and beaten egg
whites.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheet
• Sponge cake pans
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the cake pans
Butter and flour the Savoy cake pans.
3. Make the Savoy sponge cake batter
Sift the flour and starch together.
Separate the eggs, put the yolks into a bowl, and add a whole egg and the
sugar (reserving 0.050 kg/1¾ oz/¼ cup to beat with the whites).
Add the flavoring.
Blanch by whisking vigorously. Whisk the mixture to a ribbon
consistency, remove the whisk, and use a spatula (palette knife) to gently
fold in the flour and starch.
Scrape down the sides of the bowl and the spatula.
Beat the egg whites to stiff peaks. Beat the reserved 0.050 kg (1¾ oz/¼
cup) of superfine (caster) sugar into the whites until firm.
Gradually fold the egg whites into the mixture.
4. Pour the batter into the cake pans
Fill the pans until three-quarters full, sprinkle the tops with slivered
(flaked) almonds, then sprinkle with confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
5. Bake the Savoy sponge cakes
Bake the sponge cakes at 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F) for about 1 hour
15 minutes (depending on the size of the cake pans).
Check with a needle; if it comes out dry, the sponge cakes are done.
Unmold as soon as you take them out of the oven.
WORKSHEET 8

ALMOND-FLAVORED SAVOY SPONGE
CAKES
A Savoy sponge flavored with a bitter almond extract.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
Butter and flour the cake pans.
3. Make the Savoy sponge with almonds
(same technique as for the Savoy sponge)
sugar (reserving 0.050 kg/1¾ oz/¼ cup to beat with the whites).
Add the flavoring.
Blanch by whisking vigorously.
Whisk the mixture to a ribbon consistency, remove the whisk, and use a
spatula (palette knife) to gently fold in the flour and starch.
Beat the egg whites to stiff peaks. Beat the reserved 0.050 kg (1¾ oz/¼
cup) of superfine (caster) sugar into the whites until firm.
Gently fold in the “tant pour tant” mixture with a spatula.
4. Pour the batter into the Savoy almond cake pans
Pour the batter into the pans until three-quarters full.
5. Bake the Savoy almond sponge
Bake at 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F) for about 1 hour 15 minutes (for a
medium-size cake pan).
Check if done in the same way as for a Savoy sponge.
WORKSHEET 9

POUND CAKE
Originally from Brittany, where this cake is known as quarter-quarts, its
French name refers to the four key ingredients, each making up one-quarter
of the total weight of the cake.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheet
• Cake pans
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the pound cake pans
Butter and flour the cake pans.
The pans can also be lined with silicone paper.
3. Make the pound cake
(same technique as for the Savoy sponge)
sugar (reserving 0.100 kg/3½ oz/½ cup to beat with the whites).
Before adding the flour and starch, stir in the warm melted butter.
Fold into the flour and starch.
Add the flavoring.
Blanch by whisking vigorously. Whisk the mixture to a ribbon
consistency, remove the whisk, and use a spatula (palette knife) to gently
fold in the flour and starch.
4. Pour the pound cake batter into the molds
5. Bake the pound cakes
Bake at 170°C to 180°C (Gas Mark 3½–4/340–350°F) for about 50
minutes.
Unmold as soon as you take them out of the oven.
WORKSHEET 10
© Adobe Stock
GENOA BREAD
A dense almond-flavored cake, originally from Italy.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Genoa bread pans
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
Grease and flour the cake pans.
3. Make the Genoa bread batter
Sift the flour and baking powder together.
Melt the butter.
Put the sugar and almonds into a bowl, add the yolks and whole eggs,
and beat well to blanch the mixture and make it foamy.
Add the flavoring.
Add the flour and baking powder.
Mix together.
Beat the egg whites until stiff, then fold them in gently.
Gently fold in the warm melted butter.
4. Pour the Genoa bread batter into the pans
5. Bake the Genoa bread
When done, unmold immediately and let cool on a wire rack.
A piece of paper, with the name of the establishment on it, is usually placed in the bottom of the cake
pan.
WORKSHEET 11
© Adobe Stock
OPERA CAKE
A chocolate and coffee entremets with layers of Joconde sponge soaked in
coffee syrup, with dark chocolate ganache and coffee buttercream, covered
with a chocolate glaze.
MATERIALS
• General-purpose bowl
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Offset spatula (palette knife)
• Silicone mat
• Knife
• Pastry brush
• Scraper
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the Joconde batter
In a stand mixer, beat the eggs, egg yolks, sugar (0.120 kg/4¼ oz/⅔ cup)
and ground almonds on high speed for 20 minutes.
Whisk the egg whites with the second amount of sugar.
Gently fold the beaten egg whites into the first mixture in three batches.
Add the flour, fold in with a silicone spatula (palette knife), then finish
with the cold melted butter.
Spread the batter to a thickness of 3–4 mm (⅛ inch) on a baking sheet
lined with a silicon mat.
3. Make the buttercream
Make a cooked sugar with the sugar and water.
Whisk the eggs and egg yolks together to 110°C (230°F).
Pour the sugar cooked to 121°C (250°F) over the egg-and-egg yolk
mixture.
Whisk until it cools to 25°C (77°F).
Add the softened butter and coffee extract.
4. Make the ganache
Heat the cream and the instant coffee to a simmer.
Pour it over the chocolate melted at 45°C (113°F).
Mix slowly to a smooth elastic texture.
Add the rum.
Bring the water and sugar to a boil to make the syrup.
Flavor with strong coffee (espresso + coffee extract).
6. Prepare the glaze and assemble the cake
Melt the compound coating and dark couverture over a water bath (bain-
marie) at about 50°C (122°F)—never directly over the heat.
Add the oil.
Reduce the temperature to 38°C to 40°C (100–104°F) for glazing.
Cut the Joconde sponge into three equal parts.
Fill the layers of sponge.
Assemble the Opera cake.
Glaze the Opera cake.
Trim the Opera cake.
Use a pastry (piping) bag to write "Opera" on the cake and decorate.
7. Plate the Opera cake
Set aside in a cool place.
Plate and serve.
WORKSHEET 12
© Adobe Stock
CARAMEL AND RUM RAISIN ENTREMETS
An entremets composed of a bottom layer of Genoa bread, with a light rum
and raisin Bavarian cream center, topped with a caramel mousse. The entire
cake is covered with a shiny caramel glaze.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Silicone insert mold
• Whisk
• Stand mixer
• Pastry ring
• Immersion (stick) blender
• Glazing funnel
• Scraper
METHOD
materials.
2. Make Genoa bread batter
In the bowl of a mixer fitted with a beater attachment, beat the almond
paste and sugar for 10 minutes to a ribbon consistency, gradually adding
the eggs while heating the mixture to 40°C (104°F).
Mix everything together, then fold in the sifted flour and baking powder.
Fold in the cold melted butter and bake in two buttered 18 cm (7-inch)
pastry rings at 160°C to 180°C (Gas Mark 3–4/325–350°F) for 15 to 20
minutes.
3. Prepare the rum and raisins
Make a syrup with the water and sugar, then add the rum and the raisins.
Let macerate (ideally for 6 hours).
4. Make the Bavarian cream (insert)
Soak the gelatin sheets (leaves) in cold water for at least 20 minutes.
Boil the milk and light (single) cream (Président professional).
Thicken with the gelatin.
Beat, then cool quickly in a blast chiller.
Add the rum and drained macerated raisins heated to 30°C (86°F), then
cool again to about 20°C (68°F; to the texture of yogurt).
Gently fold in the whipped cream.
Pour into two 16-cm (6¼-inch)-diameter pastry rings.
5. Make the caramel mousse
Soak the gelatin sheets in cold water for 20 minutes.
Make a dry caramel.
Stop the cooking process by adding 0.150 kg (5¼ oz/⅔ cup) of cream
heated in a large stewpan until hot.
Return to the heat to cook through and whisk to combine.
Pour this mixture over the egg yolks and milk, then, when it has reached
84°C (183°F), put it into a pastry (piping) bag.
Away from the heat, add the squeezed gelatin and mix.
cool quickly in a blast chiller to 30°C to 35°C (86–95°F).
Whip the cream, but not too stiffly, then, in three batches, fold in.
6. Prepare the glaze
Heat the water and cream in a stewpan.
Mix the 0.030 kg (1 oz/2½ tbsp) of sugar with the starch in a mixing
bowl.
Make a dry caramel, then stop the cooking process with the hot cream
and water.
Add the sugar-and-starch mixture and bring to a boil, whisking
constantly.
Away from the heat, add the squeezed gelatin and beat.
Pass through a fine conical sieve, then cover with plastic wrap in direct
contact with the surface. Set aside in a cool place to set the glaze.
7. Assemble the caramel and rum raisin entremets
Assemble the entremets upside down: put 0.330 kg (11⅝ oz/about ¾ cup)
of the caramel mousse into two 18-cm (7-inch) circles lined with plastic
wrap.
Add the rum-soaked Bavarian cream disk.
Add 0.080 kg (2⅞ oz/about ¼ cup) of the mousse.
Top with the Genoa bread sponge.
8. Finish the caramel and rum raisin entremets
Freeze quickly in a blast chiller.
Glaze: melt the glaze over a water bath (bain-marie) at about 25°C (77°F)
and cover the entremets.
Decorate.
WORKSHEET 13
© Adobe Stock
MASCARPONE, CHESTNUT, AND BLACK
CURRANT ENTREMETS
An entremets with an almond sponge bottom layer, a mascarpone cream
center, and black currant jelly, topped with chestnut mousse. The entire
entremets is covered with a mirror glaze.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Silicone center (insert) mold
• Whisk
• Mixer
• Pastry ring
• Glazing funnel
• Scraper
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the almond sponge
Combine the egg whites with the Trimoline® and whisk until stiff peaks
form.
Use a silicone spatula (palette knife) to gently fold in the dry ingredients,
then add the cold melted butter and mix.
Pipe the batter into rings.
Bake in a convection (fan-assisted) oven at 160°C (Gas Mark 3/325°F)
3. Make the mascarpone cream
Soak the gelatin sheets (leaves) in cold water for 20 minutes.
Make a crème anglaise.
Thicken with the gelatin.
Cool to 25°C (77°F).
Add the softened mascarpone and pour into the center (insert) molds.
4. Make the black currant jelly
Boil the water, sugar, and glucose to 103°C (217°F).
Away from the heat, pour over the condensed milk.
Add the hydrated and squeezed gelatin.
Pour in the white chocolate in three batches.
Add the food coloring.
Mix until the glaze is smooth.
refrigerate to set before using at 30°C (86°F).
5. Make the chestnut mousse
Soak the gelatin sheets in cold water for 20 minutes.
Whip the cream, without letting it become too firm.
Bring the light (single) cream, water, and sugar to a boil.
Away from the heat, add the softened gelatin.
Pour over the chestnut cream along with the rum and mix.
Gently fold in the lightly whipped cream in three batches.
6. Make the glaze
Heat the purees, glucose, and Trimoline® to 40°C (104°F).
Away from the heat, add the sugar and pectin while whisking.
Boil for 2 minutes.
Pour into the center molds and let set.
7. Assemble the mascarpone, chestnut, and black currant entrements
Melt the glaze over a water bath (bain-marie) at about 30°C (86°F) and
pour over the entremets.
WORKSHEET 14
Laurent Nadiras
SACHER TORTE
A soft chocolate-almond sponge, used in particular to make a Sacher torte.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stainless steel rings
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the Sacher torte batter
Cream the butter with 0.300 kg (10½ oz/1½ cups) of the sugar, gradually
adding the warmed yolks and whole eggs.
Add the melted couverture chocolate.
Sift the flour with the potato starch or cornstarch (corn-flour), then fold
in with the ground almonds and vanilla extract.
Whisk the egg whites until stiff, whisk in the remaining 0.200 kg (7 oz/1
cup) of superfine (caster) sugar, and fold gently into the mixture.
3. Pour the Sacher torte batter into the pans
Butter and flour the cake pans (or butter and line them with silicone
paper), then pour in the batter until three-quarters full.
4. Bake the Sacher torte sponge cakes
These sponge cakes are used to make entremets.

WORKSHEET 15
© Adobe Stock
FRAISIER CAKE
A truly gourmet cake made with genoise sponge cake, pastry cream, and
strawberries.
MATERIALS
• Drum sieve
• Paring knife
• Stewpans
• Baking sheet
• Wire rack
• Pastry brush
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the sponge cake
Sift the flour.
Whisk the egg whites, then add the superfine (caster) sugar and whisk
until firm.
Whisk the egg yolks.
Gently fold the yolks into the stiffly beaten whites.
Use a silicone spatula (palette knife) to fold in the sifted flour.
Use a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a plain 8-mm tip (nozzle) to pipe
rounds smaller than the diameters of the mousse disks onto a sheet of
Set aside immediately on a wire rack.
3. Prepare the soaking syrup
Bring the water and sugar to a boil.
Let cool.
Add the liqueur.
4. Make the light mousseline cream
Make a pastry cream.
Make a buttercream.
Strain the pastry cream.
Add the buttercream (0.300 kg/10½ oz/1⅛ cups), which should be at the
same temperature as the pastry cream (0.225 kg/8 oz/⅞ cup).
Emulsify.
5. Assemble the dessert
Line the ring with a Rhodoïd® acetate sheet and with strawberry slices.
Place a sponge cake disk inside.
Soak with syrup.
Add a layer of light mousseline cream, then strawberry pieces.
Place the second sponge cake disk on top.
Soak the disk with syrup.
Add a layer of light mousseline cream on top and smooth the surface.
Refrigerate.
Add a disk of almond paste.
Decorate.
WORKSHEET 16
© Adobe Stock
CREAM PUFFS
Small choux pastries filled with vanilla-flavored pastry cream.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Ladle
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the baking sheet
Grease the baking sheet and put it in the refrigerator.
3. Make the choux batter (see this page)
Heat a saucepan with the water, salt, and butter, cut into pieces.
Away from the heat, add the flour.
Dry the batter.
4. Pipe the choux batter
Pipe the choux batter.
Brush with glaze.
Score with a fork.
5. Bake the choux puffs
Bake at 160°C to 180°C (Gas Mark 3–4/325–350°F) for 35 to 40
minutes.
6. Make the pastry cream (see this page)
Put one-third of the sugar, the milk, and the split vanilla bean (pod) into a
saucepan.
Bring to a boil.
Separate the eggs.
Add the sugar and blanch.
Add the flour.
When it boils, pour over some milk and stir vigorously.
Transfer to a clean saucepan and return to a boil.
Stir briskly so that the cream doesn’t catch on the bottom of the
saucepan.
Boil for 1 to 2 minutes.
When cooked, place on a baking sheet, sprinkle with confectioners’
(icing) sugar so it does not form a crust, and cover with plastic wrap
(clingfilm) in direct contact with the surface.
Refrigerate.
7. Prepare the fondant (see this page)
Put the fondant into a saucepan and dilute with a little water.
Heat it on the stove or over a water bath (bain-marie), but no higher than
37°C to 38°C (98–100°F).
Check that the fondant reaches a ribbon consistency.
8. Fill the choux puffs
Make a small hole in the bottom of each choux puff.
Pipe pastry cream into the hole.
Dip in the fondant.
Plate.
Another option (as in the photo) is to cut across the choux puffs two-thirds of the way up and fill
them with cream.
WORKSHEET 17
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
COFFEE ÉCLAIRS
Elongated pastries made of choux pastry filled with coffee-flavored pastry
cream and glazed with coffee fondant.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Ladle
METHOD
materials.
4. Pipe the éclairs
Pipe the éclairs.
Brush with glaze.
Score with a fork.
5. Bake the éclairs
Bake at 160°C to 180°C (Gas Mark 3–4/325–350°F) for 35 to 40
minutes.
Before filling the éclairs, mix the coffee flavoring into the pastry cream.
7. Fill the éclairs
Cut and slice the eclairs at an angle.
Fill the éclairs with coffee pastry cream.
8. Prepare the fondant (see this page)
Put the fondant into a saucepan and dilute with a little water.
Heat it on the stove or over a water bath (bain-marie) but no higher than
37°C to 38°C (98–100°F).
Check that the fondant reaches a ribbon consistency.
Add the coffee extract.
9. Finish the éclairs
Glaze the éclairs with the coffee fondant.
WORKSHEET 18
www.bpi-campus.com
COFFEE AND CHOCOLATE RELIGIEUSES
A pastry made of a large choux puff topped with a smaller one. Filled with
coffee-flavored pastry cream, the choux are covered with fondant and
decorated with dots of buttercream.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Ladle
METHOD
materials.
4. Pipe and bake the choux puffs
Fill a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a plain No. 10 or 12 tip (nozzle).
Pipe 16 to 20 large choux and 16 to 20 small choux.
Glaze and score.
5. Make the pastry cream with custard powder (see this page)
Before filling the choux, flavor the pastry cream with either coffee or
chocolate.
You can also make an espresso pastry cream. In this case, bring the milk to a boil. Blanch the eggs
and sugar. Add the custard powder and mix. Pour the hot milk over this mixture and cook the pastry
cream for 1 to 2 minutes. Remove from the heat, add the butter, mix well, and add the espresso
coffee. Transfer to another container, cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) in direct contact with the
surface, and cool quickly in a blast chiller.
6. Make the buttercream (see this page)

Soften the butter.
Cook the sugar with one-third of its weight in water to the soft-ball stage
(117°C/242.6°F).
Separate the eggs and put the yolks into a bowl.
Lightly whisk the yolks.
Pour the sugar over the yolks, whisking briskly.
Whisk until the mixture has cooled.
Gradually add the mixture to the softened butter, mixing well to obtain a
smooth cream, or gradually add the softened butter to the mixture.
Flavor with vanilla extract.
You can fill the large choux puffs with coffee pastry cream and the small ones with chocolate pastry
cream or vice versa. Glaze each choux puff with its corresponding flavor.
7. Fill and plate the religieuses

Fill the cold choux puffs with coffee or chocolate pastry cream.
Glaze with the corresponding fondant.
Fill a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a C5 fluted tip (nozzle) with
buttercream and decorate the religieuses.
WORKSHEET 19
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
SAINT-HONORÉ WITH CHANTILLY CREAM
A French pastry consisting of cream puffs on a puff pastry bottom layer,
filled with Chantilly cream.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Rolling pin
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Ladle
• Spatula (palette knife)
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the choux pastry dough (see this page)
3. Make the puff pastry (see this page)
4. Make the bottom layer of the Saint-Honoré
Make 3-mm (⅛-inch)-thick disks for the bottom layer by placing a
cookie cutter or ring on the dough and cutting off the excess.
Place on a lightly moistened baking sheet, turning the pastry over.
Prick the pastry dough.
Fit a pastry (piping) bag with a No. 10 plain tip (nozzle) and fill it with
choux pastry.
Pipe a ring of choux pastry 5 mm (¼ inch) from the edge.
Pipe a spiral of choux pastry in the center.
Pipe small choux puffs about the size of a small walnut on a lightly
buttered baking sheet.
Glaze and score the choux puffs with a fork.
Make the pastry cream, let it cool, then fill the choux puffs and glaze by
dipping them in the cooked sugar.
8. Fill the Saint-Honoré and serve
Dip the underside of the choux puffs in the sugar and attach them in a
circle around the edge of the bottom layer.
Fill each one with pastry cream and smooth with a metal spatula (palette
knife) to form a dome.
Finish the Saint-Honorés by decorating them with piped Chantilly cream
with a pastry bag fitted with an E5 fluted tip or a special Saint-Honoré
tip.
Place a choux puff in the center.
Can be decorated with caramel.
SIMILAR DESSERT
Saint-Honoré with Chiboust cream
• Saint-Honoré in which the Chantilly cream is replaced by Chiboust cream
(see this page).
WORKSHEET 20
© Adobe Stock
CROQUEMBOUCHE
A “pièce montée” made with small choux puffs filled with pastry cream,
then piled into a cone shape and decorated with caramelized sugar.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Ladle
METHOD
materials.
Pipe choux puffs about the size of a small walnut on a lightly buttered
baking sheet.
Glaze, score, and bake. Dry the choux puffs well and let cool.
When done, let cool.
5. Finish the choux puffs
Use a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a plain No. 6 tip (nozzle) to fill the
choux puffs from beneath with the cold pastry cream.
Glaze the choux with the sugar cooked to 152°C (305.6°F; stop the
cooking process by dipping the bottom of the pan in a bowl of cold
water).
6. Assemble the croquembouche
Lightly oil the inside of the “pièce montée” cone.
Place it upside down in a stand so that it is upright, and you can use both
hands.
Place one of the larger choux puffs in the bottom of the cone.
Dip one side of the choux puffs in the caramel cooked to 160°C (320°F)
and arrange them in a circle inside the cone, making sure they adhere
together well.
7. Make the nougatine (see this page)
Put the sugar, water, and glucose into a clean saucepan or copper bowl.
Place over high heat, stirring for a few moments with a spatula (palette
knife).
During cooking, skim and wash down any sugar splatter from the sides of
the saucepan, using a clean brush.
Cook until the sugar is lightly browned.
Remove from the heat and add the heated almonds.
8. Decorate the croquembouche
Make a nougatine base (plus “dents de loup,” aka wolf's teeth), and
attach and decorate with royal icing (see this page).
The croquembouches can also be assembled without a cone. This process requires more experience
but allows you to be creative with shapes (baskets, prams, etc.).
For a first communion or a christening, decorate with sugared almonds.
WORKSHEET 21
© Adobe Stock
PARIS-BREST
A traditional pastry in the shape of a bicycle wheel (in honor of the Paris-
Brest-Paris long-distance cycling event) made with choux pastry, filled with
praline mousseline cream and topped with slivered almonds.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Genoise sponge cake pans
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Ladle
METHOD
materials.
Check the consistency of the dough.
Draw the size with a pastry ring or pipe the choux batter in a pastry ring.
3. Pipe the choux pastry rings
Pipe a ring of choux pastry on a lightly buttered baking sheet, a second
ring on top of the first, then a third ring on top of the first two.
Glaze, score with a fork, and sprinkle with slivered (flaked) almonds.
4. Bake the choux pastry rings
When done, let cool on a wire rack.
5. Make the light praline mousseline cream
Make a pastry cream with custard powder (see this page).
Make the buttercream praline (see this page).
Strain the pastry cream.
Add the praline buttercream (0.300 kg/10½ oz/1⅛ cups), at the same
temperature, to the pastry cream (0.225 kg/8 oz/1⅛ cups).
Emulsify.
Set aside.
Preferably, fill the choux as soon as you have made the cream.
6. Fill and plate the Paris-Brest

Use a serrated knife to cut across the choux two-thirds of the way up. Use
a pastry (piping) bag with a fluted tip (nozzle) to fill with mousseline
cream. Put the top section back on and sprinkle with confectioners’
(icing) sugar.
WORKSHEET 22

BEIGNETS
Fried, puffed, and sweetened choux pastry fritters, also known in France as
“pets de nonne” (nun’s fart).
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Stand mixer
• Gastronorm pan
• Deep fryer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Spider skimmer
METHOD
materials.
3. Fry the beignets
Take a tablespoonful of batter (the size of a walnut) and carefully put it
into the hot oil (170°C/340°F).
Fry without touching it. After a few minutes, the beignets will come to
the surface and turn over on their own.
Remove them with a spider skimmer when puffed and golden. Drain and
place on a plate lined with a dish (tea) towel or (kitchen) paper towels.
Don’t fry too many beignets at the same time.
4. Finish the beignets

Gently roll the beignets in the superfine (caster) sugar.
Arrange the beignets in a pyramid on a round dish or as you want.
WORKSHEET 23

BUGNES OR ANGEL WING FRITTERS
Typical fritters from the region of Lyon, traditionally eaten during Mardi
Gras.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Deep fryer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the fritter dough
Sift the flour and make a well in the center.
Add the fine salt, orange blossom water or water, rum, and vanilla to the
center.
Dissolve the fine salt and sugar.
Add the softened butter and the eggs or egg yolks.
Mix well and gradually incorporate with the flour.
Knead the dough once or twice until smooth.
Shape into a ball without working the dough.
Lightly sprinkle the dough with flour.
Cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) and set aside in a cool place for 2
hours.
3. Shape the fritters
Roll out the dough to a thickness of 2.5 mm (a little less than ⅛ inch),
then prick with a roller docker or a fork.
Cut into small rectangles or diamonds using a pastry wheel or a knife.
You can slit the center of the rectangles or diamonds lengthwise and then
pass one of the ends through it by turning it over.
Place the fritters on a lightly floured baking sheet.
4. Fry the fritters
Carefully put the fritters into the hot oil (170–180°C/340–350°F) and fry
for about 2 minutes. Use a spider skimmer to turn them over, then fry for
about another 2 minutes, until golden.
Use a spider skimmer to drain the fritters and place them on a tray lined
with a dish (tea) towel or (kitchen) paper towels.
5. Plate the fritters
Sprinkle the fritters with confectioners’ (icing) sugar or superfine (caster)
sugar.
Plate to your own preference.
WORKSHEET 24

CHILLED CREAM-FILLED CHOUX
PASTRIES
CREAM PUFFS
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the choux batter
Make the choux batter.
Pipe small choux puffs about the size of a large walnut on a lightly
buttered baking sheet.
Glaze and score.
3. Make the pastry cream and fill the choux puffs
Make the pastry cream, then refrigerate it.
Pierce the choux puffs from beneath and use a pastry (piping) bag with a
No. 6 plain tip (nozzle) and fill them with pastry cream.
4. Decorate and plate the choux
Dust with confectioners’ (icing) sugar and place them in fluted paper
liners (cases).
SUGAR-GLAZED CHOUX PUFFS

METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare and plate the sugar-glazed choux puffs
Follow the same technique for the cream puffs.
When the choux puffs have been filled, glaze them with the sugar cooked
at 155°C (310°F).
Let cool, then place in fluted paper lines (cases).
RUM CHOUX PUFFS

METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare and plate the rum choux puffs
Follow the same technique for the cream puffs.
Flavor the cream with rum.
Glaze with white fondant flavored with rum.
Decorate with a small piece of red cherry and place in fluted paper liners
(cases).
CHOCOLATE ÉCLAIRS
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare and plate the chocolate éclairs
Follow the same technique as for the coffee éclairs.
Swap the coffee for chocolate.
WORKSHEET 25
CREPES
Thin pancakes from a runny batter (a mixture of flour, eggs, and milk)
cooked in a crepe pan or on a flat griddle.
MATERIALS
• Crepe pan
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Ladle
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the crepe batter (see this page)
Melt the butter.
Put the flour into a bowl and make a well in the center.
Add a pinch of salt.
Add the sugar.
Add the eggs and milk.
Mix together.
Cover in plastic wrap (clingfilm).
Let rest.
3. Cook the crepes
Cook in a crepe pan with butter.
4. Plate the crepes
As you prefer (sprinkled with superfine/caster sugar, with preserves,
fresh fruit, etc.).
WORKSHEET 26
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© Adobe Stock
CREPES NORMANDES
Thin pancakes of runny batter cooked in a crepe pan or on a flat griddle,
filled with buttery apples and flavored with calvados.
MATERIALS
• Crepe pan
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Ladle
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the apples
Wash and peel the apples.
Core the apples and rub them with lemon.
Set aside.
3. Make the crepe batter (see this page)
Melt the butter.
Put the flour into a bowl and make a well in the center.
Add a pinch of salt.
Add the sugar.
Mix together.
Cover in plastic wrap (clingfilm).
Let rest.
4. Prepare the apple filling
Cut the apples into small cubes.
Sauté in the butter.
Sprinkle with sugar.
Flavor with vanilla and calvados (apple brandy).
5. Cook the crepes
Cook in a crepe pan with butter.
6. Fill the crepes normandes
Fill the crepes with the apples sautéed in butter and flavored with
calvados.
WORKSHEET 27
© Adobe Stock
FAR BRETON
From the Brittany region in France, this dessert is similar to clafoutis, and is
most often made with prunes.
MATERIALS
• Cake pan or frame
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the filling
Pit (stone) the prunes.
Place the prunes in the bottom of the cake pan or frame.
3. Prepare the batter
Break the eggs into a bowl, then pour the sugar over them. Gradually add
the milk while whisking, then add the flour sifted with the baking
powder, melted butter, vanilla, and armagnac.
Pour the batter over the prunes to within 5 mm (¼ inch) of the rim.
4. Bake the far Breton
Bake at 160°C (Gas Mark 3/325°F) for 1 hour.
5. Plate
Let cool, sprinkle with confectioners’ (icing) sugar and arrange as you
prefer.
WORKSHEET 28
© Adobe Stock
APPLE FRITTERS
Battered and fried apple slices flavored with rum.
MATERIALS
• Deep fryer
• Gastronorm pan
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Spider skimmer
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the fritter batter (see this page)
Separate the eggs.
Reserve the egg whites.
Make a well in the flour.
Add the salt.
Beat the egg yolks with the flour.
Gradually add the beer, then the milk and oil.
Let the dough rest.
3. Prepare the apples
Peel and core the apples and rub them with lemon.
Cut them into slices.
Add the rum and sugar.
Let macerate.
4. Finish the fritter batter
Beat the egg whites to form stiff peaks.
Gently add the whites to the fritter batter.
5. Prepare the deep fryer
Heat the oil for deep frying to 170°C (340°F).
6. Make the apple fritters
Dip the marinated apples into the fritter batter.
7. Fry the apple fritters
Carefully put the battered apple slices into the oil.
Use a skimmer to baste them with the oil in the deep fryer.
8. Finish the apple fritters
Drain the apple fritters on (kitchen) paper towels.
9. Plate and decorate the apple fritters
Serve warm or hot.
WORKSHEET 29
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© Adobe Stock
ACACIA FLOWER FRITTERS
Battered and fried acacia flowers.
MATERIALS
• Deep fryer
• Gastronorm pan
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Spider skimmer
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the fritter batter
3. Prepare the acacia flowers
Choose open blossoms, remove the leaves, put the flowers on a plate, and
sprinkle with sugar and vanilla sugar.
Sprinkle with fine champagne, set aside in a cool place, and let macerate
until ready to fry.
4. Finish the fritter batter
Heat the oil for about 15 minutes before frying the fritters (frying
temperature: 180°C/350°F).
Finish the batter 10 minutes before frying the fritters (beat the egg whites
until stiff and fold in gently).
5. Make the fritters
Pour some batter into a Gastronorm pan. Add a few flowers, coat them
well with the batter, remove them with a spider skimmer, and drain the
excess.
6. Fry the acacia flower fritters
Put the fritters into the hot oil (180°C/350°F), gently shaking the spider
skimmer to separate the flowers.
Fry for about 3 minutes, turning the fritters over with a small spider
skimmer and frying the other side for 3 minutes, until golden.
When they are golden and puffed, drain on a tray lined with a dish (tea)
towel or (kitchen) paper towels.
7. Candy the acacia flower fritters
Place them on a tray, sprinkle with confectioners’ (icing) sugar, and
candy (caramelize) them for a few seconds in a salamander or a very hot
oven.
8. Plate the acacia flower fritters
Arrange the acacia flower fritters on a plate with crème anglaise
separately in a sauceboat or on a plate decorated with a drizzle of crème
anglaise.
WORKSHEET 30
© Adobe Stock
MERINGUE CHANTILLY
Sweet, dry shells of Italian meringue, topped with Chantilly cream.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the syrup
Heat the water with the sugar.
3. Make the Italian meringue (see this page)
Drizzle the sugar cooked to the firm-ball stage (118°C/244°F).
Whip until stiff.
4. Bake the meringues
Pipe onto a baking sheet with a fluted or plain tip (nozzle).
Bake at 95°C (200°F) for at least 4 hours.
Whip the very cold cream with the confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Whip until firm.
6. Plate and decorate the meringues Chantilly
Assemble the meringues with the Chantilly cream.
Decorate with fresh fruit.
(Suggested presentation: see photo)
WORKSHEET 31
www.bpi-campus.com
© Franck Geuffroy
PAVLOVA
A light dessert of meringue, Chantilly cream, and fruit.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make a Swiss meringue (see this page)
Put the egg whites and sugar into a clean bowl.
Whisk the mixture over low heat or over a water bath (bain-marie). As
soon as the mixture reaches about 60°C (140°F), remove it from the heat.
Beat in a stand mixer until the meringue clings well to the whisk
attachment.
Add a few drops of lemon to make it whiter and firmer.
Add the flavoring.
Use a pastry (piping) bag to pipe a spiral shape on lightly greased
parchment (baking) paper or on a silicone mat.
3. Bake the Swiss meringue
Bake at 95°C to 105°C (200–220°F) for 2 to 3 hours without steam.
5. Prepare the fruit
Wash, peel, and core the fruit.
Cut up the fruit.
6. Plate the pavlova
Spoon Chantilly cream over the baked Swiss meringue.
Decorate with fresh fruit.
WORKSHEET 32
© Franck Geuffroy
DACQUOISE WITH COFFEE MOUSSE
FILLING
A dessert consisting of two almond-based pastry disks, with a layer of
coffee mousse in between.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the dacquoise batter (see this page)
Whisk the egg whites to stiff peaks, then add the 0.250 kg (8¾ oz/1¼
cups) of superfine (caster) sugar and whisk until firm.
Gently fold in this “tant pour tant” mixture and the sifted flour.
3. Spread the dacquoise batter on a baking sheet
Use a pastry bag with a plain No. 10 tip (nozzle) or a metal spatula
(palette knife) to spread the batter on a baking sheet lined with silicone
paper or in buttered rings.
4. Bake the dacquoise batter
Bake at 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F) for about 1 hour 30 minutes.
5. Make a mousse
Make a mousse with softened butter, flavor it with coffee, and then
delicately fold in the almost cold Italian meringue with a spatula.
6. Assemble the coffee dacquoises in a ring
Place the ring on a piece of thin cardboard and spread the mousse around
the ring.
Place a dacquoise bottom layer inside, slightly smaller in diameter than
the ring.
Add a layer of mousse.
Put in the second dacquoise layer, smooth side up.
Use a metal spatula to smooth the mousse.
7. Decorate the coffee dacquoises
Cut strips from a piece of thin cardboard and make diamond shapes.
Sprinkle with confectioners' sugar.
Or sprinkle with confectioners’ sugar and make diamond shapes with the
spine of a serrated knife.
In addition, you can make rectangular sheets of marzipan.
You can also pipe inscriptions and borders with a paste made from sifted
cocoa powder and syrup at 1.2624 D.
WORKSHEET 33
© Adobe Stock
DACQUOISE WITH GANACHE FILLING
A dessert consisting of two almond-based pastry disks, with a layer of
chocolate ganache in between.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the dacquoise batter (see this page)
3. Make a ganache
Boil the cream with the vanilla.
Away from the heat, add the couverture chocolate, cut into small pieces.
Mix until smooth and let cool.
From time to time, stir so the mixture thickens evenly.
Add the flavoring as soon as it starts to thicken.
The ganache is ready to beat when it starts to stick to the whisk.
Beat the ganache in a stand mixer for 7 to 8 minutes (or whisk by hand).
4. Assemble the dacquoises with ganache filling
Place the ring on a piece of thin cardboard and spread the ganache around
the ring.
Place a dacquoise bottom layer inside, slightly smaller in diameter than
the ring.
Add a layer of ganache.
Put in the second dacquoise layer, smooth side up.
Use a metal spatula (palette knife) to smooth the dessert with ganache.
5. Decorate the dacquoises with ganache filling
Cut strips from a piece of thin cardboard and make diamond shapes.
Or sprinkle with confectioners’ sugar and make diamond shapes with the
spine of a serrated knife.
In addition, you can make rectangular sheets of marzipan.
You can also pipe inscriptions and borders with a paste made from sifted
cocoa powder and syrup at 1.2624 D.
WORKSHEET 34
© Adobe Stock
FRUITCAKE
A cake made with a leavened batter filled with candied fruits.
MATERIALS
• Loaf pan
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the candied fruit
Dice the candied fruit.
Soak them in the rum.
3. Make the cake batter
Cream the butter and sugar.
Incorporate the flour-and-baking powder mixture.
Transfer to a container.
4. Prepare the loaf pan
Line the loaf pan with parchment (baking) paper.
Butter the paper.
5. Finish the fruitcake batter
Drain the candied fruit.
Dust them with a little flour to stop them from sinking to the bottom of
the cake.
Mix them into the batter.
6. Transfer the batter to the loaf pan
Fill the loaf pan.
7. Bake the fruitcake
Bake at 180°C (Gas Mark 4/350°F) for 45 minutes.
8. Plate the fruitcake
Unmold the fruitcake.
WORKSHEET 35
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
ALMOND POUND CAKE
A type of leavened batter with (almost) the same weight of the key
ingredients (butter, sugar, flour, and eggs) to which almonds are added.
MATERIALS
• Loaf pans
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the pound cake dough
Soften the butter.
Mix in the sugar, combining well.
Mix the ground almonds with the sifted flour, starch, and baking powder.
Add the dry ingredients (flour, starch, baking powder, and ground
almonds) to the wet ingredients.
Add any flavoring.
3. Transfer the almond pound cake batter to the loaf pans
Fill the loaf pans (buttered and lined with parchment/baking paper) until
two-thirds full.
Sprinkle with the slivered (flaked) almonds.
4. Bake the almond pound cakes
Bake as for pound cakes (45 minutes).
5. Decorate the almond pound cakes
When baked, brush with the apricot glaze and decorate.
WORKSHEET 36
© Adobe Stock
MADELEINES
Small cakes (made with a leavened batter) baked in molds.
MATERIALS
• Madeleine molds
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the madeleine batter
Incorporate the flour-and-baking powder mixture.
3. Transfer the madeleine batter to the molds
Put the madeleine batter into the molds.
4. Bake the madeleines
Bake at 200°C (Gas Mark 6/400°F) for 10 to 12 minutes.
WORKSHEET 37
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© Adobe Stock
GINGERBREAD
A leavened cake made with rye flour, honey, and various spices (cinnamon,
nutmeg, anise, etc.).
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Loaf pans
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the gingerbread batter
Melt the honey completely in a saucepan by bringing it to a boil.
Let cool a little.
Put the flour and baking powder into a bowl and make a well in the
center.
Pour the honey into the well.
Add the sugar, one-third of the milk, and the eggs and dissolve the sugar.
Use a spatula (palette knife) to gradually stir in the flour until free of
lumps.
Gradually add the milk to the batter.
Stir in the spices and zests (cinnamon, grated nutmeg, ground anise,
lemon zest, vanilla, candied orange peel, and candied lemon peel).
Mix well until smooth.
3. Transfer the gingerbread batter to the loaf pans
Fill the buttered loaf pans, lined with parchment (baking) paper, until
three-quarters full.
4. Bake the gingerbread
Place in the oven immediately, two per baking sheet.
Bake at 140° to 150°C (Gas Mark 1–2/275–300°F) for about 60 minutes.
WORKSHEET 38
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© Adobe Stock
LEMON TART
A tart filled with lemon cream.
MATERIALS
• Pie pans
• Pastry rings
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the sweet pastry dough (see this page)
Rub in the flour, sugar, and butter in a cutter mixer.
Whisk the egg whites with the water.
Knead the dough and shape into a ball.
Refrigerate until ready to use.
Butter the pastry ring and line with the sweet pastry.
Prick the tart.
3. Make the lemon cream (see this page)
Wash the lemons and grate the peel, then squeeze the lemons to get the
juice.
Whisk the egg whites with the sugar.
Add the cornstarch (cornflour) while whisking.
Fold in the water, lemon juice, liqueur, and lemon zest.
Pour into a saucepan.
Bring to a boil to set and thicken.
Away from the heat, add the butter.
4. Fill the tart
Pour in the lemon mixture.
5. Bake the lemon tart
Bake at 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F) for 30 to 40 minutes.
Unmold the tart before it finishes baking.
Once it has baked, let set in the refrigerator.
6. Plate the lemon tart
WORKSHEET 39
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© Adobe Stock
FROMAGE BLANC TART
A dessert with a sweet pastry and a fromage blanc filling.
MATERIALS
• Pie pans
• Pastry ring
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the sweet pastry (see this page)
Combine the flour, confectioners’ (icing) sugar, and butter.
Add the eggs and water.
Set aside the dough in the refrigerator.
Remove the dough from the refrigerator and line the tart pans.
Prick all over.
3. Make the fromage blanc filling
Beat the fromage blanc until smooth.
Add the egg yolks, cream, sugar, sifted flour, and cornstarch (cornflour).
Mix together.
Gradually add the superfine (caster) sugar while beating to stiff peaks.
Gently fold the whites into the mixture.
Mix gently.
Whisk gently to smoothen the mixture.
4. Fill the tart
Pour in the fromage blanc filling (don’t pour it in all the way to the rim,
because it will rise while it bakes).
5. Bake the fromage blanc tart
Unmold the tart while the tart is baking.
When done, place it upside down on a wire rack to make sure the filling
doesn’t sink.
Let cool.
6. Plate the fromage blanc tart
You can also make this dessert with currants.

WORKSHEET 40
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
MIXED BERRY TART
Tartlets with a pastry cream and red fruit filling.
MATERIALS
• Pie pans
• Pastry ring
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the sweet pastry dough (see this page)
Combine the flour, confectioners’ (icing) sugar, and butter.
Set aside the dough in the refrigerator.
Remove the dough from the refrigerator and line the pastry ring.
Prick all over.
3. Bake the tart shell
Blind bake the tart shell (base).
Set aside on a wire rack.
Put the milk, one-third of the sugar, and the vanilla into a saucepan.
Bring to a boil.
Separate the eggs.
Add the remaining sugar.
Blanch the mixture.
Add the flour.
When it boils, pour the milk over the mixture a little at a time.
Pour the mixture into a saucepan.
Return the pan to the heat.
Stir well so that the cream does not stick to the bottom of the pan.
Boil for 1 to 2 minutes.
Wash, stem, and cut up the fruit.
6. Fill the tart
Make sure the pastry cream is free of lumps.
Fill the tart.
Add the fruit.
7. Decorate the red fruit tart
Decorate with a light caramel.
8. Plate
SIMILAR DESSERT
Contemporary mixed berry tarts
• Prepare a sweet almond paste.
• Bake the tart shells.
• Make a crème diplomate (see this page).
• Fill the almond tart shells with the crème diplomate and top with the fruit.
WORKSHEET 41
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APPLE TART
A tart with a basic (shortcrust) pastry (pâte brisée) filled with sliced apples
and apple compote.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Pie pans
• Pastry rings
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the sweet basic pastry dough (see this page)
Sift the flour over a marble pastry surface.
Cut the butter into small pieces and add to the flour.
Quickly rub in the butter.
Make a well.
Put the yolks, sugar, and fine salt into the well and dissolve with the
water.
Bring it together with your fingertips.
Knead twice to obtain a smooth pastry dough.
3. Make the apple compote
Peel the apples, cut them in half vertically, and remove the seeds and
core. Slice or chop the apples, put them into a saucepan, add 0.05 L (1¾
fl oz/3½ tbsp) of water, the sugar, and the vanilla or cinnamon. Cover and
cook over low heat for 10 minutes.
Pass the apples through a food mill or strain them as soon as they are
cooked. Set the compote aside in a stainless steel container and let cool.
4. Line the pastry ring
Butter the pastry ring.
Roll out the pastry dough.
Line the ring.
5. Fill the tart
Peel the apples.
Cover the bottom of the tart with the cooled compote.
Cut the apples in half vertically and remove the seeds and core. Cut the
apple halves into fine slices about 1.5 mm (1⁄16 inch) thick; make sure
you slice following the same initial vertical cut.
Arrange the apple slices attractively in a rosette pattern over the compote,
overlapping them.
6. Bake the apple tart
After two-thirds of the baking time, remove the circle and brush the
edges with glaze.
As soon as it comes out of the oven, put the tart onto a wire rack and let
cool.
7. Finish the apple tart
Brush with a hot smooth glaze.
WORKSHEET 42
© Adobe Stock
ALSATIAN APPLE TART
A dessert with a sweet basic (shortcrust) pastry (pâte brisée), filled with a
set cream and apple slices.
MATERIALS
• Pie pans
• Pastry rings
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the sweet basic pastry dough in a stand mixer (see this page)
In the bowl of a mixer, mix the flour, a pinch of salt, the sugar, and butter.
Use a dough hook to rub in the ingredients.
Work the dough until it no longer sticks to the sides of the bowl.
Peel the apples.
Cut the apples into quarters.
Rub them with lemon.
4. Make the sweetened setting cream (see this page)
Mix the eggs, vanilla, and sugar together.
Add the milk.
Strain through a fine conical sieve.
5. Fill the tart
Place the quartered apples in the tart.
6. Bake the Alsatian apple tart
Bake partway.
Unmold.
Pour in the cream mixture and continue baking.
7. Decorate the Alsatian apple tart
Sprinkle with confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
WORKSHEET 43
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BOURDALOUE PEAR TART
Dark, sweet shortbread pastry (pâte sablée) filled with pears and almond
cream.
MATERIALS
• Pastry ring
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the shortbread pastry dough (see this page)
In a cutter mixer, rub in the flour, sugar, and butter.
Knead and shape into a ball.
Peel the pears and rub them with lemon.
Cut them into quarters.
4. Make the almond cream (see this page)
Soften the butter.
Add the sugar, eggs, ground almonds, rum, and vanilla.
5. Prepare the pastry ring
Butter the pastry ring and set aside in the refrigerator.
Roll out the shortbread pastry dough.
Line the pastry ring.
6. Finish the tart
Fill the tart with almond cream.
Arrange the pear quarters in a rosette pattern.
7. Bake the Bourdaloue pear tart
Bake at 160°C (Gas Mark 3/325°F) for about 30 minutes. Don’t forget to
unmold the tart 10 minutes before the end of the baking time and then
finish baking it.
Let cool.
8. Plate the Bourdaloue pear tart
Sprinkle the edges with confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
WORKSHEET 44
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© Adobe Stock
CHOCOLATE PEAR TART
Almond shortbread pastry (pâte sablée) filled with chocolate and fresh
pears.
MATERIALS
• Pie pans
• Pastry rings
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
1. Make the almond shortbread pastry dough
Into the bowl of a cutter mixer, mix the flour, ground almonds,
confectioners’ (icing) sugar, salt (dissolved in a little water), and butter.
Let rest in a cool place.
2. Prepare the pastry rings
Butter the pastry rings.
Line the rings with the pastry and set aside in a cool place.
3. Make the filling
Put the eggs into a bowl.
Sprinkle the sugar over the eggs.
Whisk well.
Gradually add the cream, ground cinnamon, cocoa powder, and vanilla
extract.
Mix well.
4. Prepare the pears
Peel the pears.
Rub them with lemon.
Finely chop.
5. Fill the tarts
Place the pears in the pastry ring in a rosette pattern.
Pour in the filling to within 5 mm (¼ inch) of the edge.
6. Bake the pear and chocolate tarts
Bake at 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F) for about 35 minutes.
Transfer to a wire rack and let cool.
7. Decorate and plate the chocolate pear tarts
WORKSHEET 45
© Adobe Stock
TARTE TATIN
Caramelized apples covered with pastry, baked, and then turned over.
MATERIALS
• Tatin mold
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
• Stewpan
• Spatula
METHOD
materials.
3. Prepare the topping
Wash and core the apples.
4. Make the caramel
Melt the butter.
Add the sugar.
Let heat.
5. Cook the apples
Put the apples on top of the caramel.
Let them caramelize a little.
Cook in the oven.
Remove from the oven and let cool.
6. Make the basic (shortcrust) pastry dough (see this page)
7. Finish the tarte Tatin
Roll out the dough.
Cut out a circle.
Place the pastry over the apples and tuck it around the edges.
Finish baking in the oven.
8. Plate the tarte Tatin
Turn the tarte Tatin over onto a serving dish and serve the crème anglaise
separately.
WORKSHEET 46
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© Adobe Stock
CHOCOLATE TARTLETS
Almond shortbread pastry (pâte sablée) tartlets filled with chocolate
ganache.
MATERIALS
• Individual tartlet rings
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the almond shortbread pastry dough (see this page)
In the bowl of a cutter mixer, mix the flour, ground almonds,
confectioners’ (icing) sugar, salt (dissolved in a little water), and butter.
Let rest in a cool place.
3. Blind bake the tartlets
Line the pastry rings with the pastry.
Prick the tartlets.
Blind bake.
Unmold.
Chop the chocolate.
Add the cream.
5. Fill the tartlet shells
Fill the tartlet shells (cases) with chocolate ganache.
Let set in the refrigerator.
6. Plate the chocolate tartlets
Plate.
WORKSHEET 47
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© Adobe Stock
LEMON MERINGUE TARTLETS
A sweet pastry shell (case) filled with lemon curd and topped with
meringue browned with a blowtorch or in the oven.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Individual pastry rings
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Saint-Honoré tip (nozzle)
• Pastry brush
• Stand mixer
• Chef’s blowtorch
• Rolling pin
Ground almonds are included in the sweet pastry recipe to give more flavor and a crumbly texture.
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the sweet pastry dough
Sift the flour over a sheet of parchment (baking) paper.
Sift the confectioners’ (icing) sugar directly into the bowl of a mixer
fitted with a flat beater.
Add the butter and, using the flat beater, rub the butter into the sifted
confectioners’ sugar.
Add the ground almonds and salt. Mix gently, then add the egg and
continue mixing.
Pour the flour into the bowl and mix without overworking the dough.
When smooth, roll it out to a thickness of 2 cm (¾ inch), wrap in plastic
wrap (clingfilm) and refrigerate.
3. Bake the tartlets
Brush the pastry rings with softened butter.
Roll out the pastry to a thickness of 2.5 mm (⅛ inch).
Cut out circles with a diameter larger than the size of the pastry rings.
Line the rings and refrigerate. Heat the oven to 170°C (Gas Mark
3½/340°F).
Prick the tartlets and bake for about 15 to 20 minutes.
When done, unmold and place on a wire rack.
4. Make the lemon curd
Soften the gelatin in a bowl of cold water.
Wash the lemons, zest them, and cut in half. Squeeze the required amount
of juice.
Put the eggs and sugar into a stewpan and whisk well.
Whisk in the lemon juice and, while whisking, add the lemon juice.
Transfer to a bowl, add the lemon zest and gelatin, and mix well.
Add the butter and beat in the mixer for 2 minutes, until smooth.
5. Fill the lemon tartlets
Pour the lemon curd into the baked tartlet shells (cases) and let set in the
refrigerator.
6. Make an Italian meringue (see this page)
Gently beat the egg whites.
Pour the water into a stewpan and add the superfine (caster) sugar.
Cook to 118°C (244°F).
Pour the cooked sugar over the egg whites and whisk until the meringue
has cooled to the desired consistency.
7. Decorate the tartlets with the meringue
Fit a pastry (piping) bag with a Saint-Honoré tip (nozzle) and fill with the
Italian meringue.
Pipe a regular design from one edge to the other of each tartlet and
sprinkle with confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
8. Caramelize the meringue
Caramelize the meringue lightly with a blowtorch or in the oven at 210°C
(Gas Mark 6/410°F).
9. Plate the tartlets
Arrange the lemon meringue tartlets on a serving plate.
WORKSHEET 48
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FRENCH CUSTARD TART
A set vanilla custard filling in a shortbread pastry shell (case) or one made
from puff pastry scraps.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Whisk
• Sifter
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the shortbread pastry dough
Make a well.
Put the egg yolks, sugar, and fine salt dissolved in the water into the well.
Bring together with your fingertips.
Knead twice to obtain a smooth dough.
3. Make the custard filling
Boil the milk, cream, and split-and-scraped vanilla bean.
Blanch the eggs and egg yolks with the sugar, then add the custard
powder.
Pour the hot liquid over this mixture and cook, whisking constantly,
bringing it to a boil for 2 to 3 minutes.
4. Assemble the tart
Pour the hot custard into the rings lined with the tart shell (case).
Cool quickly in a blast chiller.
Let stand for at least 4 hours so that a crust forms.
5. Bake the traditional vanilla custard
Bake in the deck oven at 185°C (Gas Mark 4½/365°F) or at 175°C (Gas
Mark 4/350°F) at the top of an oven for about 1 hour 20 minutes.
Alternatively, bake in a convection oven at 160°C (Gas Mark 3/325°F)
for about 1 hour.
Let cool.
Unmold.
6. Add the finishing touches
Bring the glaze to a boil.
Glaze.
Sprinkle the tart with the sugar snow to decorate.
WORKSHEET 49
© Adobe Stock
CHERRY CUSTARD TART
A shortbread pastry shell (case) with a cherry, vanilla, and rum-flavored
custard filling.
MATERIALS
• Pie pans
• Pastry rings
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the shortbread pastry dough
Make a well.
Put the yolks, sugar, and fine salt into the well and dissolve with the
water.
Bring together with your fingertips.
Knead twice to obtain a smooth dough.
Let rest overnight in the refrigerator.
3. Prepare the pastry rings
Line the pastry rings and set aside in a cool place.
4. Prepare the cherries
Open the can of cherries in syrup or clean the cherries (if fresh)
thoroughly.
Drain the cherries.
5. Prepare the filling
Break the eggs into a bowl, add the sugar, and whisk. Add the custard
powder, then the milk, vanilla, and rum and mix well.
6. Finish the tart
Pour the batter over the cherries.
7. Bake the cherry custard tart
Bake at 160°C (Gas Mark 3/325°F) for 1 hour.
WORKSHEET 50
© Adobe Stock
RASPBERRY LINZER TORTE
An Austrian tart with a raspberry jam filling.
MATERIALS
• Pie pans
• Pastry rings
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the Linzer torte dough
Sift together the flour, confectioners’ (icing) sugar, baking powder, and
ground cinnamon.
Add the ground almonds and butter, cut into small pieces.
Quickly rub in.
Make a well in the center.
Put the eggs and vanilla extract into the well and use your fingertips to
bring everything together.
Use the palms of your hands to knead the dough twice, then shape into a
ball without overworking it.
Cover the dough with plastic wrap (clingfilm) and refrigerate.
Roll the dough out to a thickness of 3 mm (⅛ inch) and line the pastry
rings.
Refrigerate for about 1 hour before baking.
3. Fill the Linzer torte shells
Fill with raspberry preserves until two-thirds full.
Roll out the Linzer torte dough to a thickness of 2 mm (1⁄16 inch) and cut
5-mm (¼-inch)-wide strips.
Glaze the edges. Place the strips of dough across the tart to form
diamonds and press the edges to break off the excess dough.
Carefully glaze the strips.
4. Bake the raspberry Linzer tortes
Remove the pastry rings after three-quarters of the baking time.
When done, cool on a wire rack.
5. Decorate the raspberry Linzer tortes
Glaze with hot, smooth raspberry jelly.
You can also make this tart by spreading a layer of almond cream before adding the raspberry
preserves.
WORKSHEET 51

SHORTBREAD COOKIES
COFFEE COOKIES
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the cookie dough
Make the coffee-flavored cookie dough and refrigerate for 1 hour.
Roll out the dough to a thickness of 3.5 mm (⅛ inch), then prick the
dough with a roller docker or a fork.
Use a round, 50 mm (2-inch)-diameter fluted cookie cutter to cut out
small cookies and place them on a lightly buttered dampened baking
sheet.
Glaze once, then refrigerate for about 1 hour.
Glaze a second time and score with a fork.
3. Bake the cookies
These cookies can be made with different flavorings.
MARBLE COOKIES
METHOD
materials.
Make the cookie dough, then take half of it and spread it out a little with
your hands. Put the sifted cocoa powder in the center and mix well but
without overworking the dough. Refrigerate.
3. Make the cookies
Shape two logs of dough, a chocolate one and a vanilla one, then glaze
and gently roll them together, alternating the two doughs. Refrigerate for
about 20 minutes.
Cut 3.5 mm (⅛-inch)-thick slices, then proceed as for the vanilla cookies.
CHECKERBOARD COOKIES
METHOD
materials.
Follow the same technique as for the marble cookies.
3. Make the checkerboards
Roll out the chocolate and vanilla doughs to a thickness of 8 mm (⅜
inch).
Cut strips 8 mm (⅜ inch) wide.
Gently brush the sides of four strips—two vanilla and two chocolate—
and carefully stick them together, alternating them.
Brush the top with the glaze and place another four strips on top (vanilla
on top of chocolate and vice versa) doing so twice to make a
checkerboard of nine squares.
Cut into 3.5 mm (⅛-inch)-thick slices, then proceed as for the vanilla
cookies.
PINWHEEL COOKIES
METHOD
materials.
Make the dough. Divide it in two, flavor one with lemon and the other
with chocolate. Set aside in a cool place.
3. Make the cookies
Roll out the two pieces of dough to a thickness of 2.5 mm (1⁄16 inch).
Brush one piece of dough with the glaze, then place the other one over it.
Roll both up together to make a log shape 4 cm (1½ inches) in diameter.
Refrigerate.
Cut into 3.5 mm (⅛-inch)-thick slices, then proceed as for the vanilla
cookies.
WORKSHEET 52
OTHER SMALL BAKED GOODS
MÉMÈRE'S GALETTES
METHOD
Weigh, measure, and check your ingredients.
2. Prepare the batter
Blanch the egg yolks with the brown sugar.
Add the split and scraped vanilla bean.
Add the rum, flour, and softened butter.
Finish with the beaten egg whites.
LACE TUILES
METHOD
2. Make the batter
Cream the butter and the sugar.
Add the oranges juice and zest.
Finish with the flour and almonds.
RAISIN COOKIES
METHOD
2. Make the batter
Cream the butter with the confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Alternately fold in the egg whites, then the flour.
Shape into little balls and top each one with a rum-soaked raisin.
QUEEN’S COOKIES
METHOD
2. Make the batter
Cream the butter and sugar. Mix in the eggs, egg yolks, and milk. Finish
with the flour sifted with the baking powder and custard powder or
pudding mix.
3. Pipe the batter
Fill a pastry (piping) bag with the batter and refrigerate until ready to
bake.
SPRITZ COOKIES
METHOD
2. Make the batter
Cream the butter and the sugar.
Add the egg whites.
Finish with the flour, fleur de sel, and vanilla.
3. Pipe the spritz cookies
Fill a pastry (piping) bag with the batter and refrigerate until ready to
bake.
PALETS DES DAMES

METHOD
2. Make the batter
Add the egg whites.
Finish with the flour.
3. Finish the palets des dames
Place on a baking sheet and bake immediately.
FLORENTINES
METHOD
2. Make the batter
Boil the butter, glucose, honey, sugar, and cream.
Add the almonds, candied fruit, and flour.
3. Pipe and bake the florentines
4. Finish the florentines
Spread couverture chocolate on one side.
WORKSHEET 53
SAVARIN
A dessert made with a yeast dough (baker’s yeast) topped with Chantilly
cream and fruit.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Savarin molds
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the savarin batter (see this page)
Sift the flour.
Warm the milk.
Dilute the salt and yeast with two-thirds of the warmed milk.
Add the sifted flour, eggs, and sugar.
Work in a stand mixer.
3. Prepare the molds
Butter the molds.
4. Pour the batter into the savarin molds
Fill the molds and put them into the oven (at about 35°C/95°F).
5. Make the soaking syrup (see this page)
Combine the sugar and water.
Bring to a boil.
Add the rum.
Let cool.
6. Bake the savarins
Transfer to a wire rack.
7. Soak the savarins
Soak them with the syrup.
9. Prepare the ingredients for decorating
Wash and cut the fruit.
10. Plate the savarins
Place Chantilly cream and fresh fruit on top of the savarins.
WORKSHEET 54
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CROISSANTS
In the shape of a crescent moon, this pastry is originally from Vienna (a
reminder of Austria’s victory over the Ottomans). A triangle of leavened
dough or puff pastry is rolled over itself.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the croissant dough
Sift the flour onto a marble pastry surface and make a well in the center.
Add the fine salt, sugar, egg (if using), and almost all the milk or water.
Dissolve the fine salt and sugar in the liquid.
Pour the diluted yeast into the well with a little warm milk or water in
winter (never more than 40°C/104°F) and cold in summer.
Gradually incorporate all the flour with your fingertips and the remaining
milk.
Mix well to a smooth dough but do not overwork it.
Shape the dough into a ball and set aside in a lightly floured bowl with
enough room for it to expand to 3 times its volume.
This process can be done in a stand mixer.
3. First rise
Cover the dough to avoid crusting.
Let stand at room temperature (25°C to 30°C/77–86°F) away from drafts.
4. Controlled proofing
Shaping on the same day:
Let the dough rest for about 1 hour to double in size, punch it down
(knock back), and set aside on a chilled marble surface or in a cold room
at 5°C (41°F) for 2 to 3 hours to relax the dough and cool it.
Shaping the following day:
Let the dough rise for 20 to 30 minutes, depending on the room
temperature and the season, punch down, and keep it on a chilled marble
surface or in a cold room at 5°C (41°F) until the next day.
5. Turning
Cut the dough into balls weighing about 0.950 kg (2 lb).
Roll out the balls into a square with a thicker center and proceed as for
traditional puff pastry, sealing in the butter or dry butter.
Roll out the dough into a rectangle about 1 cm (⅜ inch) thick.
Fold from the lower edge into three equal sections and rotate a quarter
turn.
Make two-and-a-half turns, letting the dough, wrapped in parchment
(baking) paper or plastic wrap (clingfilm), rest in a cool place for about
15 minutes after each turn.
6. Shape the croissants
Roll out the dough into a 30 cm (12 inches) wide, 3 mm (⅛ inch) thick
rectangle.
Cut the dough along the middle.
Cut out isosceles triangles with a 16-cm (6¼-inch) base.
Roll the crescents, starting at the base and, with the palms of your hands,
spread apart, without crushing them.
Arrange the croissants on clean, lightly buttered baking sheets, with the
point just touching the sheet.
Glaze the first time.
7. Second rise
Put the croissants in a drying oven at 30°C (86°F) maximum.
When doubled in size, remove the croissants from the drying oven, let
them come to room temperature, then glaze a second time.
8. Bake the croissants
Bake at about 190°C to 200°C (Gas Mark 5–6/375–400°F) for 12
minutes.
9. Take the croissants out of the oven
As soon as they come out of the oven, put them onto a wire rack turned
upside down, which prevents the croissants from sliding off the rack. Do
not overlap them.
• Croissants and pains au chocolat can be packaged and frozen immediately.
• They are left to rise (at 30°C/86°F at the most) as and when needed.
• The preparation process should not be longer than 3 or 4 days.
• Nowadays, professionals have proofing cabinets that can be programmed
for perfect control.
• The croissants and pains au chocolat are shaped and put into a proofing
cabinet immediately.
• The cabinet is programmed for the desired day and time.
WORKSHEET 55
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PAINS AU CHOCOLAT
A Viennese pastry made from croissant dough folded like a wallet around
sticks of chocolate.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the croissant dough (see this page)
3. First rise (see this page)
4. Controlled proofing (see this page)
5. Turning (see this page)
6. Shape the pains au chocolat
Roll the dough to a 24-cm (9½-inch) square that is 3 mm (⅛ inch) thick.
Cut out rectangles 11 cm (4¼ inches) wide.
Place the chocolate sticks (batons) in the middle of the rectangle.
Moisten one side.
Fold the dry side three-quarters of the way over the dough with the
chocolate sticks in the middle, then fold the moist side over.
Place on a clean and lightly buttered baking sheet, with the seam
underneath.
7. Second rise
Put the pains au chocolat in a drying oven at 30°C (86°F) maximum.
When doubled in size, take the pains au chocolat out of the drying oven,
let them come to room temperature, and glaze a second time.
8. Bake the pains au chocolat
minutes.
9. Take the pains au chocolat out of the oven
As soon as they come out of the oven, put them on a wire rack turned
upside down, which prevents the chocolate from oozing out. Do not
overlap them.
WORKSHEET 56
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ALMOND SWIRLS
Known as escargots in France, croissant dough filled with almond cream
and rolled into swirls ressembling a snail's shell.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the croissant dough (see this page)
3. First rise (see this page)
4. Controlled proofing (see this page)
5. Turning (see this page)
Cut the butter into pieces into a bowl.
Soften the butter.
Stir in the sugar and blanch together with a spatula (palette knife).
Stir in the warmed eggs, one at a time, working well with a sauce whisk.
Add the almonds and mix.
Flavor with the rum and vanilla.
7. Shape the swirls
Roll out the dough to a rectangle 30 cm (12 inches) wide and 3 mm (⅛
inch) thick.
Cut out isosceles triangles with a 16-cm (6¼-inch) base.
8. Fill with the almond cream
Use a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a plain No. 6 tip (nozzle) and pipe a
5-cm (2-inch)-long strip of almond cream along the base.
Add the soaked Zante currants.
Roll up the dough, making sure not to let the almond cream ooze out.
Arrange the swirls on clean and lightly buttered baking sheets, with the
points just touching the sheet.
9. Second rise
Place the swirls in a drying oven at 30°C (86°F) maximum.
When doubled in size, remove the swirls from the oven, let them come to
room temperature, then glaze a second time.
10. Bake the almond swirls
minutes.
11. Set aside the almond swirls
As soon as they come out of the oven, put them on a wire rack turned
upside down, which prevents the swirls from sliding off the rack. Do not
overlap them.
WORKSHEET 57
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KUGELHOPF
A specialty from Alsace, it is made with brioche dough filled with raisins
soaked in kirsch and almonds. Its high, fluted shape with a hollow in the
center is characteristic of this dessert, traditionally prepared the day before
and eaten slightly dry.
MATERIALS
• Kugelhopf pans
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
1. Make the kugelhopf dough
Make a starter with 0.20 L (7 fl oz/⅞ cup) of warm milk, yeast, and the
first amount of flour.
Knead with the remaining ingredients except the butter.
Let rise once, then punch down (knock back).
Let rise a second time.
Sprinkle the moistened almonds in the bottom of the pans.
2. Put the kugelhopf dough into the pans
Put into the pans and let rise again.
3. Bake the kugelhopf
4. Finish the kugelhopf
After baking, remove from the pan and sprinkle with confectioners’
(icing) sugar.
WORKSHEET 58
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FLAKY BRIOCHES
The dough for flaky brioches is folded after the first rise of a traditional
brioche dough.
MATERIALS
• Scraper
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
• Rolling pin
• Pastry brush
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the brioche dough
In a stand mixer fitted with the hook, knead the flour, yeast, salt, eggs,
and water on medium speed for 10 minutes.
Add the sugar and knead on the same speed for another 10 minutes.
Add the softened butter and knead for another 10 minutes.
3. Let the dough rise
Let stand at room temperature for about 1 hour.
Make one turn and set aside in a cool place at 3°C (37.4°F) for 12 hours.
4. Turn the dough
Add the butter to the dough and proceed as for puff pastry.
Give the dough a double turn, let rest in the refrigerator for 30 minutes,
then give a single turn and rest again for 30 minutes.
5. Bake the puff pastry brioches
Butter the pans.
Shape the puff pastry brioches.
Let rest for 30 minutes at 28°C (82.4°F).
Bake in the deck oven at 180°C (Gas Mark 4/350°F) for about 40
minutes, depending on the shape.
6. Add the finishing touches
Sprinkle the puff pastry with confectioners’ (caster) sugar and caramelize
in a 210°C (Gas Mark 6/410°F) oven.
WORKSHEET 59
© Franck Geuffroy
MILLEFEUILLES
A cake made with layers of baked puff pastry and filled with pastry cream.
Decorate with fondant and chocolate or confectioners’ sugar.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the puff pastry (see this page)
Cut the puff pastry.
Prick all over.
Arrange the puff pastry on a moistened baking sheet.
Place parchment (baking) paper over it.
Flatten.
Place a wire rack on top of the parchment paper so that the puff pastry
lies flat.
3. Bake the puff pastry
Rotate the puff pastry three-quarters of the way through the baking.
Put the puff pastry on ice for a few minutes.
Whisk the sugar and egg yolks to blanch them.
Add the custard powder and mix.
Add the boiling hot milk.
Cook.
Transfer to another container.
Let cool.
5. Prepare the ingredients for finishing
Prepare the fondant.
Prepare the apricot glaze.
6. Assemble the millefeuilles
Cut the strips of puff pastry all the same size.
Top with the pastry cream.
Alternate layers of puff pastry and pastry cream.
Cover the top layer of puff pastry with apricot glaze.
7. Decorate the millefeuilles
Glaze with fondant.
Use a pastry (piping) bag to make lines of chocolate at regular intervals
(1 cm/¾ inch apart).
Run the tip of the knife across the lines of chocolate to obtain the
traditional millefeuilles decoration.
Refrigerate.
8. Plate
When cool, cut into individual portions or serve whole.
WORKSHEET 60
www.bpi-campus.com
MILLEFEUILLES WITH MIXED BERRIES
A dessert made with thin layers of puff pastry interspersed with pastry
cream and berries.
MATERIALS
• Stewpans
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
3. Make the pastry cream (see this page) thickened and flavored with
kirsch
Soak the gelatin sheets (leaves) in cold water.
Make the pastry cream (see this page).
Pour the pastry cream into a stainless or glass bowl.
Add the kirsch.
Sprinkle the custard with confectioners’ (icing) sugar and place in a blast
chiller.
4. Bake the puff pastry
Bake the puff pastry at 200°C (Gas Mark 6/400°F).
6. Make an Italian meringue (see this page)
7. Finish the cream filling
Before the pastry cream sets, gently fold in the Italian meringue and
Chantilly cream.
8. Assemble the millefeuilles with red fruit
Cut the strips of puff pastry all the same size.
Pipe a layer of cream on a strip of puff pastry using a pastry (piping) bag
fitted with a plain No. 8 tip (nozzle). Arrange the red fruit on top.
Place the second strip of puff pastry on top and add a layer of cream,
followed by red fruit.
Place the final strip of puff pastry, smooth side up.
Set aside in a cool place for at least 30 minutes to let the cream set.
Sprinkle with confectioners’ sugar and top with a few berries.
9. Decorate the millefeuilles with berries
As you prefer.
You can also assemble the millefeuilles in a pastry ring. In this case, you’ll have a circular
millefeuilles, usually for eight servings.
WORKSHEET 61
© Adobe Stock
PITHIVIERS
A puff pastry cake filled with almond cream.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
Soften the butter.
Add the sugar.
Mix in the eggs.
Add the ground almonds.
Add the vanilla.
Flavor with rum.
4. Assemble the pithiviers
Cut out the puff pastry.
Fill with the almond cream.
Cool in a blast chiller.
Cut out the tops.
Attach the tops.
Glaze.
Crimp the edges.
Glaze.
Make the decoration using the spine of a knife.
5. Bake the pithiviers
Place into a 200°C (Gas Mark 6/400°F) oven.
When done, transfer to a wire rack.
6. Plate the pithiviers
Plate.
This dessert can also be made with frangipane cream (see this page). It's then called “galette des
rois.”
WORKSHEET 62
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
FRUIT TART
A strip of puff pastry topped with pastry cream and fruit.
MATERIALS
• Stewpans
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the rough puff pastry (see this page)
4. Make the puff pastry strips
Cut the ball of dough in half.
Roll into two rectangles measuring 40 x 32 cm (15½ x 12½ inches) and
2.5 mm (⅛ inch) thick.
Cut the rolled-out dough in half. Cut each lengthwise into a 4-cm (1½-
inch)-wide strip, then cut them down the middle to make 2-cm (¾-inch)-
wide strips.
Use a roller docker to prick the dough (12 cm/4¾ inches), then put them
onto a slightly moistened baking sheet.
Glaze the edges without dripping any glaze on the baking sheet.
Gently put the strips in place and press lightly with your fingers. Crimp
the edges.
Glaze the strips twice and decorate with the tip of a paring knife.
5. Bake the puff pastry strips
Bake the puff pastry strips at first at 190°C to 200°C (Gas Mark 5–
6/375–400°F), then in a medium oven for about 30 minutes.
When done, transfer to a wire rack to cool.
6. Finish the strips of puff pastry
Top the strips with custard and arrange the well-drained fruits on top.
Brush with the apricot glaze, let set, then cut the strips and place in
rectangular paper trays.
7. Plate the fruit tart
WORKSHEET 63
© Adobe Stock
APPLE TURNOVERS
Puff pastry filled with apple compote.
MATERIALS
• Stewpans
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the inverse puff pastry (see this page)
3. Make the apple compote
4. Finish the apple turnovers
Roll the dough out to a thickness of 3 mm (⅛ inch).
Use a 14-cm (5½-inch)-diameter fluted cookie cutter to cut out disks.
Use a rolling pin to stretch the disks slightly to make ovals.
Brush the edges with the glaze.
Place a large spoonful of cold compote in the center of each oval.
Fold the dough over to enclose the compote, and seal the edges well with
your fingers.
Turn over and place the turnovers on a slightly moistened baking sheet.
Glaze, then refrigerate for about 15 minutes.
Glaze a second time without dripping any glaze on the baking sheet.
Hold the blade of a paring knife upside down between your thumb and
index finger.
Slash the dough in the shape of a leaf or a lattice pattern.
5. Bake the apple turnovers
About 5 minutes before the end of baking, sprinkle the turnovers with
confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Return to the oven to lightly caramelize the sugar and give a shiny
appearance.
Or brush with 1.2624 D syrup as soon as you take the turnovers out of
the oven for the same shiny effect.
WORKSHEET 64
© Adobe Stock
PALMIERS
Twice rolled dough cut into slices and decorated with sugar, evoking the
foliage of a palm tree when baked.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheets
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the rough puff pastry (see this page)
3. Make the palmiers
Turn the dough four times.
Give two turns, sprinkling with sugar.
At each turn, before folding the dough into three equal parts, sprinkle
well with sugar.
Roll out the sugared puff pastry to a 60 × 33-cm (23½ × 13-inch)
rectangle that is 5 mm (¼ inch) thick.
Fold the long side about 6 cm (2½ inches) inward, then fold again
leaving a gap of 1.5 cm (⅝ inch) along the center.
Repeat on the other side.
Fold one half over the other to obtain a 10-cm (4-inch)-wide rectangle.
Even out the dough with a rolling pin.
Use a chef’s knife to cut slices 1.5 cm (⅝ inch) wide. Place on lightly
buttered baking sheets with enough space between them and separate
them gently into a Y shape.
Refrigerate for about 15 to 20 minutes.
4. Bake the palmiers
Bake the palmiers at 200°C (Gas Mark 6/400°F) for 30 minutes.
Halfway through baking, use a spatula (palette knife) or a triangular
spatula to turn the palmiers over. Return to the oven. The palmiers should
be slightly caramelized on both sides.
Put the palmiers on a wire rack as soon as you take them out of the oven.
You can also fold the dough to make fans or rosettes.

WORKSHEET 65
© Adobe Stock
APRICOT JALOUSIES
A puff pastry dessert filled with apricot compote. The pattern is reminiscent
of window shutters (a series of slats that let you see outside without being
seen).
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
3. Make the apricot compote
4. Finish the apricot jalousies
Take half the dough and roll it out into a 25 x 60-cm (9¾ x 23½-inch)
rectangle that is 3 mm (⅛ inch) thick.
Even out the perimeter of the rectangle.
Cut the dough along the middle and place one piece on a slightly
moistened baking sheet.
Glaze the edges without dripping any glaze on the baking sheet.
Put the apricot compote in the center.
Carefully place the second layer on top, seal the two layers together,
crimp the edges, glaze, and let rest in the refrigerator for about 20
minutes.
Glaze a second time.
Make 6–7-cm (2½–6¾-inch)-long, spaced-out incisions with the tip of a
paring knife.
5. Bake the apricot jalousies
Sprinkle with confectioners’ (icing) sugar about 5 minutes before the end
of baking.
Return to the oven to lightly caramelize the sugar and give a shiny
appearance.
Or brush with 1.2624 D syrup as soon as you take the jalousies out of the
oven for the same shiny effect.
WORKSHEET 66
© Adobe Stock
CRÈME BRÛLÉE
An entremets made with egg yolks, cream, and sugar, sprinkled with sugar
and caramelized.
MATERIALS
• Crème brûlée molds
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the crème brûlée mixture
Mix the cream and vanilla.
Separate the eggs.
Skim the surface.
Fill the ramekins.
3. Bake the crème brûlée
Bake the crème brûlée at 95°C (205°F) for about 1 hour.
4. Plate the crème brûlée
5. Finish the crème brûlée
Sprinkle with brown sugar.
Caramelize.
WORKSHEET 67
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
CRÈME CARAMEL
An entremets made with eggs, milk, and sugar (a sweet setting custard).
The crème caramel is served unmolded—the caramel is thick.
MATERIALS
• Stewpans
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the caramel
Pour the sugar into a stewpan.
Add the water.
Cook to a caramel.
Dilute with a little water if necessary.
Line the molds with the caramel.
3. Make the sweet setting custard (see this page)
Blanch the eggs and sugar.
Add the milk.
Skim the surface.
Fill the ramekins.
4. Bake the crème caramel
Bake in a water bath (bain-marie) set in a deep baking sheet lined with
parchment (baking) paper. The water should come halfway up the
ramekins.
Bake at 160°C (Gas Mark3/325°F) for 35 to 40 minutes.
After cooking, set aside in a cool place until completely cold.
5. Plate
Run the tip of a knife around the side of the ramekin and unmold or serve
in its mold.
They can also be cooked in a steam oven at 90°C (195°F).

WORKSHEET 68
www.bpi-campus.com
© Franck Geuffroy
CRÈME VIENNOISE
An entremets made with eggs, milk, and sugar (a sweet setting custard) and
mixed with caramel.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the dry caramel
Pour the sugar into a saucepan.
Keep an eye on how the caramel darkens.
3. Make the sweet setting custard (see this page)
Blanch the eggs with the vanilla and sugar.
Add the milk.
4. Finish the crème viennoise
Add the custard mixture to the caramel.
Whisk to combine.
Pour into the molds.
5. Bake the crème viennoise
ramekins.
After cooking, remove and set aside in a cool place until completely cold.
6. Plate the crème viennoise
Run the tip of a knife around the side of the ramekin and unmold or serve
in its mold.
They can also be cooked in a steam oven at 90°C (195°F).

WORKSHEET 69
www.bpi-campus.com
© Franck Geuffroy
VANILLA, COFFEE, AND CHOCOLATE POTS
DE CRÈME
A “setting cream” flavored with vanilla, coffee, and chocolate.
MATERIALS
• Cream molds
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the mixtures
Melt the chocolate.
Separate the eggs.
Prepare the vanilla and put the seeds in the bowl.
Add the milk.
Prepare the three flavors.
3. Cook the pots de crème
Fill the ramekins.
ramekins. Bake at 140°C (Gas Mark 1/275°F) for 35 to 40 minutes.
Remove from oven.
WORKSHEET 70
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
ÎLES FLOTTANTES
Also known as floating islands, poached or baked egg whites served with
crème anglaise.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
Whisk the egg whites with the sugar.
Add the vanilla.
Cook until thick enough to coat a spoon or cook sous-vide.
Transfer to another container.
Let cool.
3. Make the French meringue (see this page)
4. Cook the îles flottantes
Pipe into a stainless steel or silicone mold.
Cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) and cook in a steam oven.
5. Plate
Plate the îles flottantes with the crème anglaise.
You can also cook the îles flottantes in a microwave.

WORKSHEET 71
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
RICE PUDDING
A rice-based dessert cooked in vanilla-scented milk.
MATERIALS
• Ramekins or soufflé molds
• Stewpan
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare and blanch the rice
Wash and drain the rice.
Blanch it over high heat for 2 minutes (starting with cold water).
3. Cook the rice
Bring the milk to a boil with the vanilla (split in half lengthwise), fine
salt, and sugar.
Add the rice to the boiling milk. As soon as it starts to boil again, cover
the saucepan.
Then bake in the oven at 200°C (Gas Mark 6/400°F) for about 25
minutes.
Do not stir the rice.
4. Mold the rice
Set the rice aside in ramekins or glass or porcelain soufflé molds.
Let cool.
5. Plate the rice pudding
WORKSHEET 72
© Adobe Stock
RIZ À L’IMPÉRATRICE
A rice pudding dessert with candied fruit macerated in kirsch, with crème
anglaise and Chantilly cream.
MATERIALS
• Stewpans
• A soufflé mold or individual ramekins
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the gelatin
Soak the gelatin sheets (leaves) in the cold water for the jelly and crème
anglaise.
3. Cut up the candied fruits and macerate them
Dice the candied fruits and macerate in the kirsch.
4. Line the bottom of the mold with the red currant jelly
Melt the red currant jelly. When it has fully melted, add the well-drained
gelatin sheets.
Pour a 3 to 4-mm (⅛-inch) layer of the gelatin mixture into the lightly
oiled mold/s and chill.
5. Make the thickened crème anglaise (see this page)
6. Make the rice pudding
Wash and drain the rice.
Blanch it over high heat for 2 minutes (starting with cold water).
Bring the milk to a boil with the vanilla (split in half lengthwise), fine
salt, and sugar.
Add the rice into the boiling milk.
As soon as it starts to boil again, cover the saucepan.
Then bake at 200°C (Gas Mark 6/400°F) for about 25 minutes.
Do not stir the rice.
Set the rice aside and let cool.
7. Finish the riz à l’impératrice
Stir the cold rice and candied fruit into the custard as it starts to set along
with the whipped cream.
Fill the mold/s.
Let set in the refrigerator for 2 hours.
Take out from the refrigerator. Place the bottom of the mold/s in very hot
water.
8. Plate and decorate the riz à l’impératrice.
If using a single mold, unmold onto a round dish.
Decorate with Chantilly cream to your preference.
(Presentation suggestion: you can also serve in a coupe glass as in the
photo.)
Use star-shape ice cream molds or charlotte molds.

The red currant jelly can be replaced with a syrup at 1.2095 D or 25° Baumé with added carmine
food coloring, thickened with gelatin and flavored with kirsch (water: 0.20 L/7 fl oz/7/8 cup; sugar:
0.200 kg/7 oz/1 cup; kirsch: 0.05 L/1 3/4 fl oz/3 1/2 tbsp; gelatin: 5 sheets [leaves]).
WORKSHEET 73
© Franck Geuffroy
STRAWBERRY GRATIN WITH CHAMPAGNE
SABAYON
Vanilla ice cream and fresh strawberries, topped with a champagne sabayon
gratinated for a few seconds.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Suitable coupes or dishes
• Ice cream maker or Pacojet
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Put the coupes into the freezer to chill
3. Make the custard (see this page) for the vanilla ice cream
Boil the milk with the vanilla.
Slowly add the milk to the egg-and-sugar mixture.
Cook until thick enough to coat the back of a spoon or cook sous-vide at
83°C (181°F).
4. Finish the ice cream
Pour the crème anglaise into a Pacojet beaker or churn in an ice cream
maker.
5. Prepare the strawberries
Wash and hull the strawberries.
6. Make the champagne sabayon
Whisk the yolks and sugar over a water bath (bain-marie) to a ribbon
consistency.
Away from the heat, gradually add the champagne, whisking the mixture
until thick and frothy.
7. Plate the strawberry gratin with champagne sabayon
Place the ice cream in the coupes or dishes and arrange the fruit over it.
Cover the strawberries with sabayon and place them in a salamander or
very hot oven for a few seconds.
Serve immediately.
WORKSHEET 74
© Adobe Stock
CIGARETTES RUSSES
Small dry, tubelike cookies shaped by drying them rolled around wooden
cylinders as soon as they come out of the oven.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheet
• Template
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the cigarette batter (see this page)
Cream the butter with the confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Fold in the egg whites.
Whisk.
Gently fold the flour into the mixture.
The mixture should be smooth with a silky consistency.
3. Use a template
Use a template to shape the cookies on the baking sheet.
4. Bake the cigarettes russes
Bake at 200°C (Gas Mark 6/400°F) for a few minutes.
As soon as they come out of the oven, immediately roll them around a
wooden or metal utensil to give them the shape of cigarettes.
WORKSHEET 75
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
CHOCOLATE MACARONS
Small, soft cookies made with ground almonds, sugar, and egg whites,
indifferent colors and filled with a range of flavors.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the macaroon batter
In a cutter mixer, mix the ground almonds with the confectioners’ (icing)
sugar and cocoa powder.
Sift.
Cook the sugar syrup.
Beat half of the egg whites until stiff.
Prepare the syrup.
Add the sugar cooked to a soft-ball stage (about 118°C/244°F) to the
beaten egg whites to make an Italian meringue.
Beat the Italian meringue until stiff.
Add the remaining half of raw egg whites to the sifted mixture.
Loosen with the meringue.
Mix by “cutting” the dough (macaronner) to avoid “breaking” its texture.
3. Pipe the macarons
Fill a pastry (piping) bag with a plain tip (nozzle).
Let stand for 30 minutes to crust.
4. Bake the macarons
Bake for 8 minutes at about 150°C (302°F).
Melt the chocolate.
Add the cream and whiskey.
6. Fill the chocolate macarons
Spread some ganache on half of the macarons on their flat side.
Place another macaron half on top and press gently so that the filling is
flush with the macarons.
Assemble all of the macarons.
WORKSHEET 76
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
ALMOND TUILES
Little dry almond cookies.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the almond tuile batter (see this page)
Mix together the confectioners’ (icing) sugar, ground almonds, chopped
almonds, sifted flour, and lemon zest.
Gradually add the egg whites and whole eggs.
Mix well to obtain a batter free of lumps.
Let rest for at least 1 hour.
3. Spoon onto a baking sheet
Use a spoon to place small amounts of batter on the baking sheet, spacing
them out well and spreading the batter with a moistened but not dripping
fork (the diameter of the tuiles should be about 5 cm/2 inches).
4. Bake the almond tuiles
Bake the tuiles at 210°C (Gas Mark 6/410°F) for about 7 to 8 minutes.
Take them out of the oven as soon as the edges of the tuiles are a light
brown.
5. Finish the almond tuiles
Use a triangular spatula (palette knife) to lift and place them on a tuile
shaping sheet, then place on a wire rack lined with silicone paper when
they have hardened.
Plate.
WORKSHEET 77
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© Adobe Stock
CANNELÉS
Small cakes formed in a fluted cylindrical shape, with a soft custardy
interior flavored with rum and vanilla and a crisp caramelized outer shell.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Cannelé molds
• Baking sheet
• Whisk
• Piston funnel
• Pastry brush
• Wire rack
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the cannelé batter
In a stewpan, bring the milk and split-and-scraped vanilla bean and seeds
to a boil. Let infuse for 5 minutes.
Soften the butter until creamy over a water bath (bain-marie) or in a
microwave.
Add the superfine (caster) sugar, egg yolks, eggs, flour, and salt and
whisk gently.
Add the rum and finish with the hot vanilla-flavored milk. Mix gently
and strain through a fine conical sieve.
Cover with plastic wrap (clingfilm) and set aside in the refrigerator for at
least 12 hours.
3. Pour the batter into the molds
Use a pastry brush to butter the inside of the cannelé molds and set them
aside in the freezer for 10 minutes.
Butter the molds a second time.
Use a piston funnel to fill the fluted molds to four-fifths full.
4. Bake the cannelés
Preheat the oven to 220°C (Gas Mark 7/425°F).
Bake the cannelés for about 15 minutes, then reduce the temperature to
180°C (Gas Mark 4/350°F) and continue baking for about 25 minutes, or
to the desired color and degree of caramelization.
After removing from the oven, let cool for a few minutes and turn out
onto a wire rack.
When cooled, arrange the cannelés on a serving dish.
WORKSHEET 78
© Adobe Stock
FINANCIERS
In the shape of a bar of gold, they are made with ground almonds and
hazelnuts, flour, confectioners’ sugar, and egg whites.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Financiers molds
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• No. 6 tip (nozzle)
• Pastry brush
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the financier batter
Make a beurre noisette in a stewpan.
Strain the hazelnut butter through a fine conical sieve over a bowl and let
cool.
Sift the confectioners’ (icing) sugar, ground almonds, ground hazelnuts,
and flour together over a sheet of parchment (baking) paper.
In a mixing bowl, whisk the sifted dry ingredients together with the egg
whites.
Add the still-warm beurre noisette and mix gently.
Set the financier batter aside in a cool place.
3. Pour the financier batter into the molds
Use a pastry brush to butter the inside of the financier molds, then use a
pastry (piping) bag fitted with a plain No. 6 tip (nozzle) to fill them two-
thirds full.
4. Bake the financiers
Preheat the oven to 180°C (Gas Mark 4/350°F).
Bake the financiers for 8 to 12 minutes, depending on the size of the
molds.
Unmold while hot.
Set aside on a wire rack and, after cooling, arrange the financiers on a
serving dish.
WORKSHEET 79
© Adobe Stock
COCONUT MERINGUE ROCKS
Sweetened, baked beaten egg whites with shredded coconut to make the
rocks.
MATERIALS
• Water bath (bain-marie)
• Baking sheets
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the Swiss meringue (see this page)
Put the egg whites and sugar into a very clean bowl.
Whisk the mixture over low heat or over a water bath (bain-marie). As
soon as the mixture reaches about 60°C (140°F), remove it from the heat.
Beat vigorously until the meringue clings to the whisk.
Add a few drops of lemon juice to make it whiter and firmer.
Add the flavoring.
Grease and flour the baking sheets or butter silicon mats, then use a
pastry (piping) bag fitted with a fluted tip (nozzle) to make cannelés or a
spoon to make different shapes and sizes.
3. Make the coconut rocks
Add the shredded coconut powder to the Swiss meringue.
Use a pastry bag fitted with a plain No. 8 tip or a spoon and pipe small
walnut-size meringues onto a buttered and floured baking sheet or onto
silicone paper.
4. Bake the meringues and the coconut rocks
Bake in a low oven at 95°C to 115°C (200–240°F) for 2 to 3 hours
without steam.
WORKSHEET 80
© Adobe Stock
VANILLA SHORTBREAD COOKIES
Vanilla-flavored shortbread cookies.
MATERIALS
• Baking sheet
• Cookie cutter
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the shortbread dough (see this page)
Let the dough rest in a cool place for 1 hour.
3. Make the cookies
Roll out the dough to a thickness of 3.5 mm (⅛ inch), then prick the
dough with a roller docker or a fork.
Use a round, 5-cm (2-inch)-diameter fluted cookie cutter to cut out small
cookies and place them on a lightly buttered and dampened baking sheet.
Glaze once and let stand in a cool place at 6°C (42.8°F) for about 1 hour.
Glaze a second time and score with a fork.
4. Bake the cookies
Bake at 170°C to 180°C (Gas Mark 3½–4/340–350°F) for about 15
minutes.
WORKSHEET 81
© Adobe Stock
OTHER TUILES
ALMOND LACE TUILES
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the almond lace tuiles
Put the chopped almonds, sifted flour, and confectioners’ (icing) sugar
into a bowl and mix with a spatula (palette knife).
Use a spatula to gradually fold in the egg whites, orange juice, and
orange zest, then the melted butter and vanilla extract, mixing well to
obtain a smooth batter.
Let rest in a cool place for at least 1 hour.
4. Bake the almond lace tuiles
brown.
5. Finish the almond lace tuiles
Use a triangular spatula to lift and place them on a tuile shaping sheet,
then place on a wire rack lined with silicone paper when they have
hardened.
ORANGE TUILES
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the orange tuiles
In a large mixing bowl, mix the chopped almonds, sifted flour,
confectioners’ (icing) sugar, orange zest, white ground almonds, and
finely chopped candied orange peel.
Add the whole eggs, egg whites, melted butter, and vanilla extract and
mix well to obtain a smooth batter.
4. Bake the orange tuiles
brown.
5. Finish the orange tuiles
Use a triangular spatula to lift and place them in a tuile shaping sheet,
then place on a wire rack lined with silicone paper once they have
hardened.
CHOCOLATE TUILES
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the tuiles
In a mixing bowl, add the chopped almonds, sifted flour, and
confectioners’ (icing) sugar and mix with a spatula (palette knife).
Use a spatula to gradually add the whole eggs, egg whites, and vanilla
extract and mix well to obtain a smooth paste.
4. Bake the tuiles
brown.
5. Finish the chocolate tuiles
Use a triangular spatula to lift and place them in a tuile shaping sheet,
then place on a wire rack lined with silicone paper when they have
hardened.
After cooling, brush the tuiles with the compound coating melted over a
water bath (bain-marie) or with couverture chocolate prepared according
to the basic technique.
WORKSHEET 82
LIQUEUR SOUFFLÉ
A hot pastry cream-based dessert, flavored with liqueur and enriched with
egg yolks and stiffly beaten egg whites.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Soufflé molds
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the soufflé batter (see this page)
Heat the milk.
Separate the eggs.
Blanch four egg yolks with the sugar.
Incorporate the flour into the mixture.
Away from the heat, add the boiling milk.
Return to the heat and cook the cream.
Enrich with two raw egg yolks.
3. Prepare the ladyfingers
Cut the ladyfingers (sponge fingers) into small cubes.
Soak them in Grand Marnier®.
Butter and sprinkle with sugar.
5. Beat the egg whites
Add the vanilla extract.
6. Finish the liqueur soufflés
Fold the stiffly beaten egg whites into the pastry cream.
7. Pour into the molds
Pour a layer of the batter in the molds.
Add the diced ladyfingers.
Pour the remaining batter into the molds to 1 cm (⅜ inch) from the top.
8. Bake
9. Decorate the liqueur soufflés
Serve immediately.
WORKSHEET 83
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
CHOCOLATE SOUFFLÉ
A dessert made with a soufflé batter and chocolate-flavored pastry cream.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Soufflé molds
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
METHOD
materials.
Butter and line the molds.
3. Make the pastry cream
Add the cocoa powder.
4. Beat the egg whites
Add the sugar and whisk until stiff peaks form.
5. Finish the soufflé batter
Use a spatula (palette knife) to delicately fold the beaten egg whites into
the pastry cream.
6. Pour the soufflé batter into the molds
Fill the molds halfway (1 cm/⅜ inch from the rim).
Smooth well with a spatula.
7. Bake the chocolate soufflés
Bake at 180°C (Gas Mark 4/350°F) for about 30 to 35 minutes.
8. Decorate the chocolate soufflés
Serve immediately.
WORKSHEET 84
© Adobe Stock
RASPBERRY, BLUEBERRY, AND ORANGE
SORBETS
Frozen fruit mixtures prepared with a Pacojet.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• 1 Pacojet
METHOD
materials.
Wash and drain the raspberries and blueberries.
Peel the oranges and reserve the juice.
Put the fruit into the Pacojet beakers (fill to the height of the line inside
the beaker).
Add a little lemon to the raspberries.
3. Make a syrup
Mix the sugar, water, and glucose.
Bring to a boil.
Fill the Pacojet beakers with the syrup.
Put the lid on the beakers.
Let firm in the freezer.
4. Make the sorbet
When about to serve, place a beaker in the Pacojet.
Set the machine to the quantity of sorbet desired.
Use a spoon to shape the sorbets.
WORKSHEET 85
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
VANILLA AND CHOCOLATE ICE CREAMS
(CUSTARD BASE)
A flavored crème anglaise, processed and frozen in a Pacojet beaker or
churned in an ice cream maker.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Pacojet
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the sous-vide-cooked custard (see this page) for the vanilla and
chocolate ice creams
3. Make ice creams with a Pacojet
Fill the beakers to the required height.
Put the lids on the beakers.
Freeze.
Or make the ice creams in an ice cream maker
Pour the crème anglaise into the ice cream maker.
Churn.
Remove and store in an ice cream freezer.
4. Plate the ice creams
Pacotize the necessary quantities of the ice creams on demand.
Plate.
Or use an ice cream scoop to take the ice cream from the ice cream
maker and plate.
WORKSHEET 86
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
APRICOT ICE CREAM (CREAM AND MILK
BASE)
A frozen dessert made with an apricot-flavored cream.
MATERIALS
• Stewpans
• Ice cream maker
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the cream
In a saucepan, add the milk, sugar mixed with the stabilizer, glucose, and
fresh cream.
Cook at 84°C (183°F) for 4 minutes, until it coats the back of a spoon.
3. Prepare the apricots
Poach the apricots in a lemon flavored syrup to 1.1247° density (16°
Baumé) for about 10 minutes.
Drain the apricots.
Blend them.
Gradually pour the cream over the fruit pulp, mixing well.
Add the flavoring.
Chill in the ice cream maker.
Freeze at -18°C (-0.4°F).
Mix the stabilizer and sugar well.

Add the glucose after blanching the egg yolks and sugar.
Fruit in syrup, frozen fruit, or frozen fruit pulp can be replaced with fresh fruit.
When using fruit in syrup, reduce the amount of sugar by 100 g (3½ oz/½ cup).
The glucose or invert sugar and stabilizer are optional.
WORKSHEET 87
© Adobe Stock
NOUGAT ICE CREAM
An iced dessert made with Italian meringue with blossom honey, whipped
cream, crushed nougatine, and candied fruit.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Silicone mat for the nougatine
• Cake pans for the nougat
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the nougatine
Prepare a light caramel.
Add the hazelnuts, almonds, and pistachios to the caramel.
Cook.
Transfer to another container when the caramel has reached the desired
color.
Let cool.
3. Make the whipped cream
Whip the cream in a mixer.
Set aside.
4. Prepare the Italian meringue with honey
Gradually add the honey heated to 120°C (248°F).
Whisk until very firm.
Set aside.
5. Finish the nougat ice cream
Crush the nougatine.
Mix the whipped cream, Italian meringue, crushed nougatine, and
macerated candied fruit.
Pour into a mold.
Place in a blast chiller at -20°C (-4°F) to freeze it, then store in the
freezer.
6. Plate
Unmold the nougat ice cream and decorate to your preference.
WORKSHEET 88
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
MERINGUE WITH ICE CREAM AND
CHANTILLY CREAM
Egg-white shells, sweetened and dried, filled with Chantilly cream and ice
cream.
MATERIALS
• Stewpans
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the Italian meringue (see this page)
Add the sugar cooked to the firm-ball stage (121°C/250°F).
Whisk until firm.
3. Bake the meringues
Use a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a plain or fluted tip (nozzle) to pipe
the meringue onto a lightly greased sheet of parchment (baking) paper or
onto a silicone mat.
Bake at 95°C (205°F) for at least 4 hours.
Mix the cold cream, sugar, and vanilla.
Whip until stiff.
Set aside.
5. Make the crème anglaise (see this page) for the vanilla ice cream
Slowly add the milk to the mixture.
maker.
7. Plate
Assemble the meringue, ice cream, and Chantilly cream in a bowl or
ring.
Decorate with fruit.
(Suggested presentation: see photo.)
WORKSHEET 89
www.bpi-campus.com
© Franck Geuffroy
BAKED ALASKA
An entremets made with genoise sponge cake that is topped with vanilla ice
cream, covered with meringue, and baked in a hot oven. The originality of
this dessert lies in the contrast between the cold interior and the hot outer
layer.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Genoise sponge cake pan
• Drum sieve
• Stand mixer
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the genoise sponge (see this page)
Make a genoise sponge batter flavored with vanilla extract.
3. Bake the genoise
Pour the genoise sponge batter into a rectangular or square pan and bake.
Note: You can use ladyfingers (sponge fingers) instead of genoise sponge cake.
maker.
6. Assemble the dessert
Use an oval stainless steel dish.
Cut two 1.5 to 2-cm (⅝–¾-inch)-thick by 10 to 12-cm (4–4¾-inch)-wide
slices of the desired length, rounding off the corners.
Place one slice in the dish and soak with syrup and liquor or liqueur.
Cover with a layer of ice cream, then set aside in the freezer.
7. Make the Italian meringue (see this page)
8. Finish the baked Alaska
Use a metal spatula (palette knife) to completely cover with the
meringue.
Fill a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a plain tip (nozzle) with meringue
mixture and decorate.
Sprinkle lightly with confectioners’ (icing) sugar and wipe the edges of
the dish.
Bake at 240°C (Gas Mark 9/475°F) for about 1 minute.
Serve immediately.
WORKSHEET 90
© Adobe Stock
ORANGES GIVRÉES
A frozen dessert made with an orange sorbet served in a hollowed out
orange.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Stand mixer or blender
• Ice cream maker
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the oranges
Slice off the top of the oranges (stem side). Use a spoon to scoop out the
pulp without damaging the rind.
Put the orange shells into the freezer.
3. Make the orange sorbet
Put the pulp into a blender, add the syrup and flavoring, and keep an eye
on the density.
Chill the sorbet.
4. Assemble the oranges givrées
Use a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a large fluted tip (nozzle) to fill the
orange shells.
Freeze.
5. Decorate the oranges givrées
Just before serving, decorate with a marzipan leaf.
WORKSHEET 91
© Adobe Stock
VANILLA VACHERIN
An entremets made of alternating layers of meringue and vanilla ice cream,
covered with Chantilly cream.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Ice cream maker
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the French meringue (see this page)
3. Bake the French meringue
On a buttered and floured baking sheet or on silicon paper, pipe disks of
the desired diameter using a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a No. 10 or 12
plain tip (nozzle).
Bake the meringue in a low oven without steam for 2 hours 30 minutes to
3 hours.
maker.
Mix the cold cream, sugar, and vanilla.
Whip until stiff.
Set aside.
7. Assemble the vacherin
Chill a 6-cm (2½-inch)-deep pastry ring slightly larger than the disks,
then place it on a piece of thin cardboard.
Place the first meringue disk in the bottom, spread with a layer of vanilla
ice cream about 2 cm (¾ inch) thick, and press it down well on the disk
with a pastry scraper.
Add a second meringue disk, spread it with a second layer of ice cream,
and place the third meringue disk, smooth side up, on top, making sure
the vacherin is level.
Freeze at -20°C (-4°F) until set.
8. Finish the vacherin
Cut the thin cardboard flush with the circle.
Use a chef's blowtorch to remove the ring.
Use a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a C5 fluted tip (nozzle) to cover the
entire vacherin with Chantilly cream.
9. Decorate the vacherin
Decorate the sides and top with rosettes of Chantilly cream.
Return to the freezer.
10. Plate the vanilla vacherin
WORKSHEET 92
© Adobe Stock
POIRE BELLE-HÉLÈNE
Pear poached in syrup, served with vanilla ice cream and covered with
chocolate sauce.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Stand mixer
• Ice cream maker
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
3. Make a syrup
In a saucepan, combine the water, sugar, vanilla extract, and lemon zest.
Bring to a boil and skim off the scum.
4. Poach the pears
Place the pears in the boiling syrup.
Keep them immersed for about 20 minutes.
Set aside.
5. Make the chocolate sauce
Add the butter, crème fraîche, and milk.
Mix until smooth.
Keep warm until ready to serve.
6. Plate the pears
Place the ice cream in chilled coupes and add a well-drained pear.
Pour the chocolate sauce into a sauceboat.
Serve immediately.
Pour the hot chocolate sauce over the pears at the table in front of the
diner.
WORKSHEET 93
© Adobe Stock
STRAWBERRY SORBET
A frozen dessert that contains no cream, milk, or eggs. Usually made with a
fruit puree or juice—in this case, it’s strawberry.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Ice cream maker
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the syrup
Mix the sugar and stabilizer. Put the water, sugar, and glucose into a
saucepan.
Stir with a spatula (palette knife) and bring to a boil.
3. Prepare the strawberries
Wash and hull the strawberries.
Blend them, then strain the strawberry pulp through a conical sieve.
Cool as quickly as possible.
4. Finish the strawberry sorbet
Add the lemon juice and vanilla.
Check the density, which should be 1.1425 (18° Baumé).
Chill the mixture.
Transfer the sorbet to an ice cream tray and store in the freezer at -18°C
(-0.4°F).
5. Finish the strawberry sorbet
If the sorbet is served in silver or stainless steel coupes, chill them
beforehand.
WORKSHEET 94
© Adobe Stock
LEMON AND COCONUT NITRO SORBET
A sorbet that doesn’t need to be frozen, thanks to the nitrogen.
MATERIALS
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Precautions
Wear cryogenic protective gloves to minimize the risk when handling
liquid nitrogen.
3. Make the lemon and coconut sorbet
Put the lemon pulp and coconut flesh into a bowl.
Add a little liquid nitrogen.
Whisk well.
Gradually add the liquid nitrogen to the desired texture.
WORKSHEET 95
LAYERED BAVARIAN CREAM
A dessert made with a thick crème anglaise and whipped cream with
different flavorings.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
Heat the milk, some of the sugar, and the vanilla flavoring.
Soften the gelatin.
Blanch the egg yolks with the remaining sugar.
Quickly mix some of the milk into the blanched mixture.
Cook the crème anglaise to 84°C (183°F).
Away from the heat, add the gelatin.
3. Prepare the three flavors for the Bavarian cream
Get three bowls.
Put the coffee extract into one bowl and the cocoa into another.
Divide the crème anglaise into three equal parts so that one is vanilla
flavored, one coffee flavored, and one chocolate flavored.
4. Whip the light cream
Add the same amount to each of the three mixtures.
5. Make the layered Bavarian cream
Pour in the chocolate mixture to one-third of the height desired.
Cool in a blast chiller between each layer.
Pour in the vanilla mixture to two-thirds of the height desired.
Finish with the coffee mixture to have three equal layers.
6. Plate
Decorate.
WORKSHEET 96
www.bpi-campus.com
© Franck Geuffroy
STRAWBERRY CHARLOTTE
A molded entremets, encircled with a strip of genoise sponge cake or
ladyfingers (sponge fingers), with a strawberry Bavarian cream, mirror
glaze, and fresh strawberries.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
• Baking sheet
• Drum sieve
• Charlotte mold
• Pastry brush
• Silicone mat
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the ladyfinger batter
Mix together the flour and cornstarch (cornflour).
Beat the egg whites in a stand mixer, then add the super-fine (caster)
sugar until stiff peaks form.
Use a silicone spatula (palette knife) to gently fold in the egg yolks.
Add the sifted flour-cornstarch mixture and fold in gently.
Use a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a plain No. 14 tip (nozzle). Pipe
strips of ladyfinger (sponge finger) batter side by side on a silicone mat
or sheet of parchment (baking) paper. The whole strip of ladyfingers
should be the same height of your molds and as long as the
circumference of your molds.
temperature.
Pour the water into a stewpan, add the sugar, lemon zest, and lemon
juice, then mix and boil.
Add the strawberry liqueur and mix well.
Strain the syrup through a fine conical sieve, cover with plastic wrap, and
refrigerate.
4. Make the charlotte mixture
In a bowl, soften the gelatin in the cold water.
Use a mixer to whip the cream and sugar together, then set aside in a cool
place.
Heat some of the strawberry pulp and add the gelatin to melt it, mix well,
and add the strawberry liqueur.
Cool the mixture slightly.
When the mixture starts to set, use a spatula (palette knife) to gently fold
in the cold whipped cream.
5. Make the charlotte
Wash and hull the strawberries for the filling and cut them in half.
Trim the strip of ladyfingers to form a circle inside the mold. Place the
sponge layer inside, then use a pastry brush to soak it all with the syrup.
Pour in half of the charlotte mixture and top with strawberries.
Pour in the remaining charlotte mixture and smooth the top. Set aside in a
cool place.
6. Make the mirror glaze (see this page)
In a bowl, rehydrate the gelatin in cold water. Pour the water into a
stewpan, then add the sugar and bring to a boil. Add the gelatin and
finally the strawberry liqueur.
Strain the glaze through a fine conical sieve, cover with plastic wrap, and
set aside in a cool place.
7. Decorate
Sprinkle the ladyfingers lightly with confectioners’ sugar.
Use a pastry brush and lightly coat the top of the charlotte with the glaze.
Wash and hull the strawberries (keep some with the stalks).
Trim with strawberries and decorate the top of the charlotte. (Suggested
presentation: see photo.)
WORKSHEET 97
www.bpi-campus.com
© Franck Geuffroy
DARK CHOCOLATE MOUSSE
A melted chocolate base, mixed with whipped cream and egg whites.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the dark chocolate mousse
Melt the chocolate in a water bath (bain-marie) at 50°C (122°F)
maximum or in a microwave oven.
Whip the light cream.
Beat the egg whites until stiff (add a little sugar at the end).
3. Finish the chocolate mousse
Stir until smooth.
Fold in the whipped cream.
Mix together.
Mix together.
4. Plate
Serve in individual ramekins.
WORKSHEET 98
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
QUICHE COMTOISE
A hot dish with a basic (shortcrust, or pâte brisée) pastry shell (case) filled
with diced bacon and Comté cheese.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Pie pans and pastry rings
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the basic (shortcrust) pastry dough (see this page)
Rub in the flour and butter.
Incorporate the egg yolks and water.
Dust with flour and set aside in a cool place.
Butter the inside of the pastry rings and pie pans.
4. Line the pastry rings
Dust the marble pastry surface with flour.
Roll out the dough.
Roll to a large disk that is 3 cm (1¼ inches) wider than the diameter of
the pastry ring.
Line the pastry ring with the dough.
Shape the edge and pinch all around the dough with your fingers.
Prick the pastry dough.
Place the tart on a pie pan.
5. Prepare the custard filling mixture
Beat the eggs.
Add the milk and cream.
Season with salt, pepper, and a little nutmeg.
6. Prepare the savory filling ingredients
Cut up the pork side into lardons (small pieces).
Blanch (refresh in cold water).
Refresh the pork lardons well.
Sauté the pork lardons.
Dice the Comté cheese.
7. Finish the quiche comtoise
Arrange the pork lardons and diced Comté in the bottom of the tart.
Pour in the filling mixture.
8. Bake the quiche comtoise
9. Plate the quiche comtoise
Glaze after unmolding the tart.
WORKSHEET 99
www.bpi-campus.com
© Adobe Stock
CHEESE ALLUMETTES
A hot snack made with puff pastry and a mixture of milk, egg yolks, and
cheese (Mornay sauce).
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
3. Make the Mornay sauce
Make a roux.
Season (nutmeg, Cayenne pepper, etc.).
Add the egg yolk and Gruyère cheese at the end of the cooking time.
Dab the surface with butter to prevent crusting.
4. Make the cheese allumettes
Roll out the puff pastry.
Cut out a rectangle.
Cut two strips measuring about 18 × 30 cm (7 × 11¾ inches).
Use a pastry (piping) bag to pipe small amounts of Mornay sauce onto
the pastry (the sauce should be 3 to 4 cm/1¼–1½ inches apart).
Place the second rectangle of puff pastry on top.
Use the handle of a wooden spatula to mark the cheese allumettes.
Cut along the marked lines.
5. Bake the cheese allumettes
Place them on a slightly moistened baking sheet.
Place the allumettes upside down on the baking sheet.
Glaze and crimp the allumettes.
Place a small diamond of Gruyère on each allumette.
Bake at 190°C to 200°C (Gas Mark5–6/375–400°F).
6. Plate and decorate the cheese allumettes
Glaze with butter.
Decorate.
WORKSHEET 100
www.bpi-campus.com
© Franck Geuffroy
CHEESE PUFFS
Small choux puffs, known as gougères in France, flavored with Gruyère
cheese.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the choux batter (see this page) with milk
Add the shredded Gruyère and diced Gruyère to the choux pastry.
Season with salt.
3. Pipe the cheese puffs
Pipe as for choux puffs.
Glaze and top the puffs with a thin slice of Gruyère.
4. Bake the cheese puffs
5. Plate the cheese puffs
Serve hot or warm.
WORKSHEET 101
© Adobe Stock
ITALIAN-STYLE MELON MOUSSE
A mousse made from melon pulp served with cured ham (jambon de
Bayonne, Parma ham, etc.).
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Cocktail coupes or verrines
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the melon mousse
Soak the gelatin sheets (leaves) in cold water.
Remove the rind and seeds from the melons. Process the pulp with a
cutter mixer (you will need 0.75 L/1¼ pints/3 cups of pulp).
Heat the 0.10 L (3½ fl oz/⅓ cup + 1½ tbsp) of port wine, add the
squeezed gelatin sheets, then add to the melon pulp. Mix well.
Whip the cream, season, and add to the mixture as soon as it starts to set.
3. Pour the melon mousse into the coupes
Pour the mixture into cocktail coupes or verrines.
Refrigerate until firm.
4. Decorate the Italian-style melon mousse
Top with a generous slice of ham shaped like a rosette.
Decorate with a fresh basil leaf.
WORKSHEET 102
© Adobe Stock
CHOUX PUFFS WITH SMOKED SALMON
A savory entremets of small choux puffs stuffed with smoked salmon
accompanied by horseradish whipped cream and chives.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
3. Pipe the choux puffs
Pipe small balls of choux pastry onto a lightly buttered baking sheet.
Glaze and score.
4. Bake the choux puffs
Bake the puffs at 190°C (Gas Mark 5/375°F).
Let cool.
5. Decorate the choux puffs with smoked salmon
Fill the puffs with a touch of horseradish whipped cream and julienned
salmon.
Put the lid back on and top with a chive stalk.
WORKSHEET 103
© Adobe Stock
SAUCISSON BRIOCHÉ
A specialty of Lyon, sausage brioches are served sliced and hot.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Stand mixer
• Baking sheet
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the brioche
Sift the flour onto a marble pastry surface.
Make a well in the center.
Put into the well, the fine salt, sugar, eggs, and yeast dissolved in a little
warm milk (30–35°C/86–95°F).
Quickly mix the ingredients in the well, then bring in the flour with your
fingertips.
Work the dough well and gradually add the remaining eggs until you
have a smooth, full-bodied dough.
Take one-quarter of the dough and add the softened butter (the butter
should be the same consistency as the dough).
Add the remaining dough and knead until it no longer sticks to your
hands or the marble pastry surface. It should be very smooth.
Flour a bowl. Add the dough, dust with flour, cover with a cloth, and let
rise in a warm place for about 1 hour to 1 hour 30 minutes. When the
dough has doubled in size, punch down (knock back) and knead a little to
give it more body, then set it aside in a cool place (cold room at
5°C/41°F). The next day, take out the dough and punch down without
kneading it.
Cut and shape according to the desired results.
Place in a drying oven (30–35°C/86–95°F).
When the pieces have risen (doubled in size), remove them from the
drying oven.
Let stand for a few minutes.
Brioche dough can be made in a planetary mixer.
3. Cook the sausage

Prick the sausage casing.
Poach it, starting with cold water, for about 1 hour.
Remove the casing and let cool.
Brown the sausage.
4. Wrap the sausage with the brioche
Take a piece of dough (depending on the size of the sausage) and roll it
out to a thickness of 4 mm (⅛ inch).
Place the sausage on the dough.
Wrap it with the dough, cut off the excess, and seal the edges.
Place on a baking sheet and glaze twice.
Let rise in the drying oven.
5. Bake the sausage brioche
Bake at 200°C (Gas Mark 6/400°F) for about 20 to 30 minutes, until
doubled in size.
WORKSHEET 104
Photo by Bartosch Salmansk for 128 dB, pâtisserie:

Christian Strasbourg
CHEESE SOUFFLÉS
Known for their airy texture, soufflés are made with beatened egg whites,
egg yolks, and a béchamel sauce, then topped with cheese.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Soufflé molds
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
Butter and flour the molds.
3. Make the soufflé batter
Prepare a white or blond roux.
Let cool.
Pour the boiling milk over the roux, stirring with a sauce whisk.
Season.
Bring to a boil and cook for 2 minutes, whisking constantly.
Remove from the heat.
Immediately add 8 yolks.
Let cool, then add 8 yolks and the shredded Gruyère.
Mix well.
Beat the egg whites to very stiff peaks.
Gently fold into the batter.
4. Pour the batter into the soufflé molds
Fill the molds to within 1 cm (⅜ inch) of the rim.
Smooth with an metal spatula (palette knife).
Decorate with diamonds of Gruyère (from the quantity of Gruyère cheese
on the list above).
5. Bake the cheese soufflés
Bake the soufflés at 190°C (Gas Mark 5/375°F) for about 35 minutes for
19-cm (7½-inch) diameter molds and 15 minutes for individual molds.
6. Plate the cheese soufflés
Prepare round serving dishes lined with wafer paper.
When done, put straight on the serving dishes.
Serve immediately.
WORKSHEET 105
© Adobe Stock
CHOCOLATE-DIPPED CANDIED ORANGE
Thin slices of candied orange peel coated in dark chocolate.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Silicone mat or grille
• Dipping fork
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the oranges
Wash and brush the oranges.
Score the rind of the oranges to obtain four equal sections.
Remove only the rind without the flesh.
3. Blanch the oranges
Starting with cold water, blanch the oranges in a stewpan in a generous
amount of water.
Repeat this operation two times to remove any bitterness.
Drain and let cool.
4. Cut the oranges
Cut the orange rind into large, equal strips.
5. Make the syrup
Make the syrup with the 0.500 kg (1 lb 1⅝ oz/2½ cups) of sugar and 1.00
L (1¾ pints/4¼ cups) of water.
Add a vanilla bean and a few peppercorns.
6. Candy the orange strips
When the syrup boils, immerse the strips into it.
Let simmer for 3 minutes, then let cool.
Repeat this process another two times.
The strips should be swollen with the syrup and translucent.
Remove from the syrup and let dry overnight on a perforated tray or wire
rack.
7. Dip the candied orange strips in the chocolate
Heat the chocolate to about 31°C (88°F). It should be glossy.
Dip the strips halfway up.
Place on a silicon mat or wire rack until the chocolate sets and cools.
WORKSHEET 106
© Adobe Stock
LIQUOR-FILLED CHOCOLATES
Chocolate bonbons with liqueur or liquor centers.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
• Pastry bag
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the liquor-filled chocolates
Put the water and sugar into a copper pan or a very clean stainless steel
pan.
Cook the sugar to the firm-ball stage (119°C/246°F).
Let stand for a few moments for the bubbles to disappear.
Pour the liqueur or liquor in a bowl. Pour the sugar over it, whisk a little
and pour once or twice into another container to perfect the mixture.
Check the density, which should be between 1.2624 and 1.2850.
3. Make the liqueur or liquor centers
Fill a piston funnel.
Fill the silicone molds.
4. Crystallize the liqueur or liquor centers
Place in a drying oven at 35°C to 45°C (95–113°F) maximum for 4 to 5
hours. Make sure that it is not subjected to any shaking or vibrations, and
is not handled in any way.
Place a board the size of the tray on top, turn it over, and put it back in
the drying oven for a further 4 to 5 hours.
Check the crystallization: the crust must be smooth, thin, and resistant.
5. Finish the liqueur or liquor centers
Gently unmold the centers, and gently clean off any excess.
Precoat, let set, and coat a second time.
Let set.
WORKSHEET 107
© Adobe Stock
CARAMEL-DIPPED FRUITS DÉGUISÉS
Déguisé fruits are fruits decorated with almond paste (which can be
flavored) and coated in cooked sugar.
MATERIALS
• Food storage pan
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the candied déguisé cherries
Flavor the almond paste with kirsch. Drain the candied (glacé) cherries
well, cut them in half, and set aside on a wire rack.
Roll the almond paste into a rope, cut off small pieces, roll them, and
place half a cherry on each side.
Roll across the mesh of a sieve to form a criss-cross pattern.
Set aside on a wire rack and let crust.
Cook the sugar to 152°C (305°F). Use skewers or dipping sticks and dip
the fruit in the sugar. Place them on a sieve to let drain and let the sugar
harden.
Cut off the excess sugar with scissors, and place in fluted paper liners
(cases).
3. Make the déguisé dates
Pit the dates by splitting them lengthwise. Flavor the almond paste and
color it pink. Roll into a rope and cut off even pieces.
Roll and shape each piece into a large olive.
Stuff the dates, then roll across the mesh of a sieve to form a criss-cross
pattern. Let crust and then proceed as for the cherries.
4. Make the déguisé prunes
Use the same technique as for the dates. Flavor the almond paste with
Armagnac or vieille prune eau-de-vie and color it green.
5. Make the déguisé orange wedges
Separate the orange sections and dip them in the cooked sugar.
6. Make the déguisé walnuts
Use the same technique as for the candied cherries. Flavor the almond
paste with the walnut liqueur and color it a pale yellow.
WORKSHEET 108
© Adobe Stock
NOUGAT DE MONTÉLIMAR
Made with almonds, honey, sugar, and egg whites beaten to stiff peaks,
nougat de Montélimar was born in part thanks to the cultivation of almond
trees that are typical of this region.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking frame
• Chef’s blowtorch
• Stand mixer
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the nougat mixture
Cook the honey to the firm-ball stage (121°C/250°F).
Drizzle the honey over the stiffly beaten egg whites, then add the sugar
cooked to 140°C (284°F).
Add the flavoring.
Run the mixer on the second speed, then dry with a chef's blowtorch over
a water bath (bain-marie) until the desired consistency is reached (about
15 minutes).
Or in a water bath with a spatula (palette knife), then beat in the mixer.
3. Finish the nougat mixture
Remove from the mixer and stir in the lightly toasted skinned almonds
and hot pistachios so they do not harden the mixture.
4. Shape the nougat de Montélimar
Pour the nougat into a baking frame or between confectionery rulers
placed on a sheet of plastic sprinkled with confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Flatten.
Let cool.
5. Cut the nougat de Montélimar
If cutting into pieces, do so before it has cooled completely.
• For hard nougat, cook the sugar to between 145°C and 148°C (293–298°F).
• Nougats can be sold as is or wrapped in cellophane.
WORKSHEET 109
© Adobe Stock
MARSHMALLOWS
A confection made with sugar, egg whites, and gelatin, which can be
colored and flavored to taste.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Baking frame
• Scraper
• Baking sheet
• Pastry brush
• Acetate sheet
• Candy (sugar) thermometer
• Drum sieve
METHOD
2. Make the marshmallow
Grease a baking frame, then place it on a baking sheet lined with a lightly
greased sheet of acetate.
Soften the gelatin in a bowl with the cold water.
Add the egg whites and the smaller amount of superfine (caster) sugar
(0.010 kg/⅜ oz/2½ tsp) to the bowl of a mixer fitted with a whisk
attachment.
In a stewpan, combine the remaining 0.300 kg (10½ oz/1½ cups) of sugar
with the water. Bring to a boil, then increase the temperature to 110°C
(230°F).
When the syrup reaches this temperature, start to beat the egg whites
until stiff peaks form, and continue to cook the syrup to 130°C (266°F).
At 130°C (266°F), stop the cooking process with the hydrated gelatin.
Pour the cooked sugar in a stream over the egg whites while whisking.
Continue to whisk on medium speed until the meringue cools to room
temperature.
Add the food coloring and flavoring when the marshmallow is almost
cool and just before pouring into the baking frame.
3. Shape the marshmallow
Pour the marshmallow mixture into a baking frame.
Use an offset spatula (palette knife) to smooth the top of the
marshmallow.
Set aside for 24 hours at room temperature or for a few hours in a cool
place.
4. Finish the marshmallow
Sift the confectioners’ (icing) sugar and cornstarch together over a
baking sheet lined with parchment paper.
Unmold the marshmallow and sprinkle with equal quantities of
confectioners’ (icing) sugar and cornstarch (cornflour).
Use a guitar cutter to cut strips of marshmallow, then cut them into cubes.
Roll the cubes in the confectioners’ sugar-cornstarch mixture.
Tap the marshmallow cubes well to remove the excess confectioners’
sugar-cornstarch mixture.
As you finish them, place the cubes on a baking sheet lined with
Store in a dry place.
WORKSHEET 110
© Adobe Stock
VANILLA TRUFFLES
After vanilla-flavored chocolate ganache hardens, it is rolled into spheres.
Truffles are typically eaten during New Year’s Eve celebrations.
MATERIALS
• Stewpan
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
• Drum sieve
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the buttered ganache
Boil the cream with the vanilla.
Away from the heat, add the couverture chocolate, cut into small pieces.
Mix until smooth and let cool.
Stir from time to time so that the mixture thickens evenly.
Add the flavoring as soon as it starts to thicken.
Beat the ganache in a stand mixer fitted with a whisk attachment and
whisk for 7 to 8 minutes (or whisk by hand).
The ganache is ready to beat when it starts to stick to the whisk.
3. Pipe the ganache for the truffles

Either: Let harden a little, then pipe small balls of the desired size onto a
sheet of plastic using a pastry bag fitted with a No. 12 tip (nozzle).
Let harden, then roll into spheres between the palms of your hands.
Place on a sheet of parchment (baking) paper or a sheet of plastic and set
aside in a cool place.
Or: Pour the ganache immediately onto a sheet of plastic between
confectionery rulers and let it harden. Cut with a guitar cutter, roll into
spheres, and place on a sheet of parchment paper or plastic. Set aside in a
cool place.
4. Precoat the vanilla truffles
Take a small amount of the prepared couverture chocolate in the palm of
your hand.
Roll two truffles at a time and place them on a sheet of plastic.
Let set.
5. Coat the vanilla truffles
Dip the truffles in the prepared couverture.
Remove the truffles with a candy dipping ring and place them on a
baking sheet lined with sifted unsweetened cocoa powder.
Use a dipping fork to roll the truffles.
Place on a sieve to remove the excess cocoa.
Arrange the truffles on a tray or wire rack lined with parchment paper.
WORKSHEET 111
© Adobe Stock
OceanofPDF.com
PLATED DESSERTS
© Adobe Stock
Recipes by Chef Jean-Michel Loessel (Les Semailles restaurant, La
Wantzenau)
- Sweet cherry, chocolate cream, almond crunch, and Morello cherry sorbet
- Light strawberry cheesecake with Opalys® chocolate and basil ganache
- Apples, vanilla cookie, mascarpone cream, caramel, and hazelnuts
- Velvety Dulcey® chocolate Bartlett pear
Recipes by Chef Joëlle Lorentz (Mon Paris! restaurant, Paris 9)

- Destructured banofee
- Black Forest
- Chocolate sphere
- Tiramisu in a meringue shell
Recipes by Chef Alexandre Haudenschild (La Hache restaurant,

Strasbourg)
- In the spirit of a Black Forest to share
- Choconoisette delights
- Pavlova with rhubarb and fresh strawberries
- Pear and sesame tartlet
SWEET CHERRY, CHOCOLATE CREAM,
ALMOND CRUNCH, AND MORELLO
CHERRY SORBET
A dessert that combines the lusciousness of chocolate, the acidity of
cherries, and the sweetness of almonds.
MATERIALS
• Saucepan
• Whisk
• Silicone mat
• Tip (nozzle)
• Pacojet
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the 64% chocolate crémeux
Boil the milk.
Soak the gelatin in very cold water.
Melt four-fifths of the 64% dark chocolate.
Drain, squeeze, and add the gelatin to the boiled milk.
Pour the milk over the chocolate in three batches to obtain a glossy,
elastic texture.
Add the cold cream to this preparation, mixing without incorporating air.
Strain through a sieve and keep in a cool place for at least 12 hours.
Use a spatula (palette knife) to loosen the ganache when it has
crystallized and put it into a pastry (piping) bag with a plain tip (nozzle).
Let stand for another 12 hours before using.
3. Make the amaretto cookies
Mix all the ingredients with a silicone spatula until smooth.
Pour the batter into 3-cm (1¼-inch)-diameter Flexipan® (food-grade
silicone) semisphere molds.
Bake at 180°C (Gas Mark 4/350°F) for 10 minutes, then at 150°C (Gas
Mark 2/300°F) for 5 minutes (depending on your oven).
4. Make the Morello cherry jelly
Mix the agar (agar-agar) powder with the sugar.
Boil half of the cherry pulp.
Add the sugar-and-agar mixture and boil for 3 minutes.
Remove from the heat and add the remaining pulp and the kirsch.
Set aside in a cool place. When set, blend and put into a squeeze bottle.
5. Make the charcoal streusel
Put all the ingredients (except for the charcoal) into the bowl a mixer
fitted with a flat beater attachment and beat to a smooth dough.
Set aside for 2 hours in a cool place.
Grate the dough over a baking sheet to give it a crumbly texture.
Crumble the dough when it has cooled and add the charcoal.
6. Prepare the Morello cherry sorbet
Make a syrup with the water and Trimoline.®
Mix the sugar and super neutrose.
Pour the syrup over the Morello cherry pulp and add the super neutrose
(stabilizer) while mixing in the mixer.
7. Plate
Pipe a circle of Morello cherry jelly on a circular, flat plate.
Add the streusel and pipe the ganache prettily.
Add three amaretto cookies, the sweet/Burlat cherries (previously pitted
and cut), and the candy pieces.
Finish by placing a quenelle of Morello cherry sorbet in the center of the
circle, topped with a pitted cherry and garnished with Morello cherries.
WORKSHEET 1
LIGHT STRAWBERRY CHEESECAKE WITH
OPALYS® CHOCOLATE AND BASIL
GANACHE
Inspired by traditional cheesecake, this lighter version of the dessert is
enhanced with basil and strawberries.
MATERIALS
• Stand mixer
• Stewpan
• Rolling pin
• Whisk
• Squeeze bottles
• Pacojet
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the cheesecake mixture
Whisk the sugar and egg yolks together in a mixer.
Add the cream cheese to the mixture.
Soak the gelatin in a bowl with a little very cold water.
Melt the rehydrated gelatin sheets in warm water.
Add this gelatin mass to the frothy mixture and whisk for another minute
or so.
Gently fold in the whipped cream.
Immediately pour into rectangular Flexipan® molds.
Let set in the freezer.
3. Make the whipped Opalys® chocolate and basil ganache
Bring the 0.100 kg (3½ oz/⅓ cup + 2 tbsp) of cream to a boil and add the
basil.
Remove from the heat and let infuse for 2 hours.
Strain this infusion through a fine conical sieve.
Bring back to a boil with the granulated glucose.
Pour over the Opalys® white chocolate disks in three batches, checking
the consistency of the emulsion.
Mix in 0.150 kg (5¼ oz/⅔ cup) of chilled cream.
Just before serving, whip the ganache (as for whipped cream) in a mixer
fitted with a whisk attachment.
Transfer the ganache to a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a Saint-Honoré
tip (nozzle).
4. Make the strawberry basil sorbet
Make a syrup with the water, sugar, Trimoline®, and glucose.
Mix the cold syrup with the strawberry pulp and lemon juice.
Pour the mixture into a Pacojet beaker and top with the chopped basil.
When ready to serve, Pacotize the entire contents so the basil is
distributed throughout the beaker.
5. Make the basil jelly
Bring the water, sugar, and agar to a boil for 3 minutes.
Cool, then blend and add the finely chopped basil.
Put into a squeeze bottle.
6. Make the strawberry jelly
Bring the strawberry pulp and agar to a boil for 3 minutes.
Cool and then blend.
Put into a pipette.
7. Prepare the speculoos cookies
Crush the speculoos cookies.
Add the feuilletine flakes, grated lime zest, and melted white chocolate to
the crushed speculoos.
Spread this mixture in as fine a layer as possible between two sheets of
parchment paper.
Cut the cookies to the size of the rectangular Flexipan® molds used for
the cheesecake mixture.
Keep cool.
8. Plate
Place a speculoos cookie on a plate and top with the cheesecake.
Pipe a squiggle of ganache on top.
Decorate with strawberries, the jellies, basil shoots, small pieces of silver
leaf, and dehydrated strawberry powder.
Decorate with a quenelle of strawberry basil sorbet.
WORKSHEET 2
APPLES, VANILLA COOKIE, MASCARPONE
CREAM, CARAMEL, AND HAZELNUTS
A dessert combining the lightness of the vanilla mascarpone cream and the
lusciousness of caramelized apples.
MATERIALS
• Skillet
• Saucepan
• Whisk
• Rolling pin
• Tip (nozzle)
• Silicone mat
• Squeeze bottle
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the vanilla cookies
Add 60 g (2⅛ oz/½ cup) of the flour, the confectioners’ (icing) sugar,
butter, ground hazelnuts, salt, vanilla, and egg to the bowl of a mixer
fitted with a flat beater attachment.
Mix until smooth, then add all of the remaining flour to prevent the
dough from becoming elastic.
Roll out the dough to a thickness of 2 mm (1⁄16 inch) and use a cookie
cutter to cut out ovals with pointed ends.
Bake on a silicon mat to prevent the dough from deforming at 160°C
(Gas Mark 3/325°F) for about 12 minutes.
3. Prepare the vanilla mascarpone cream
Beat all the ingredients in the bowl of a mixer fitted with a whisk
attachment and whip as you would for Chantilly cream.
Set aside in a pastry (piping) bag with a plain tip (nozzle).
4. Make the vanilla caramel
Infuse the vanilla bean (pod) in the cream.
Put the sugar into a saucepan and heat to a blond caramel.
Away from the heat, add the cream.
Cook until the sugar has dissolved completely.
Mix and reduce, if necessary, to obtain a creamy texture.
5. Prepare the apple brunoise and compote
Cut the apples into brunoise, reserving the scraps.
Melt the butter and brown sugar in a skillet.
Add the apple brunoise, sear well, and let cook.
Deglaze with the dark rum.
Transfer to a container and set aside in a cool place.
Make a traditional compote with the apple scraps.
6. Make the toasted hazelnut paste and toasted hazelnuts
Dry-roast the hazelnuts.
Process half of the hazelnuts.
Reserve the remaining toasted hazelnuts.
7. Plate
Place an oval cookie in the center of the plate.
Pile the brunoise, compote, and hazelnut paste on top of each other to
make a “mountain” in the center of the cookie.
Pipe the vanilla mascarpone cream on top to make a cloud.
Add a few dots of caramel on top and also on the plate.
Sprinkle some toasted hazelnuts over the dessert.
WORKSHEET 3
VELVETY DULCEY® CHOCOLATE
BARTLETT PEAR
This velvety autumnal dessert combines Bartlett (Williams) pears with
Breton caramel, enhanced with a pear center flavored with atsina and lime.
MATERIALS
• Acetate sheets
• Whisks
• Stand mixer
• Silicone mold and mat
• Squeeze bottle
• Pacojet
• Stainless steel pastry ring
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the Breton pastry dough
Combine all the ingredients.
Use 0.020 kg (⅜ oz) of this dough to fill 3-cm (1¼-inch)-diameter
stainless steel circles.
Bake at 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F) for 8 minutes.
3. Make the Bartlett pear and Dulcey® chocolate ganache
Bring 0.700 kg (1½ lb/3 cups) of cream to a boil.
Pour it over the Dulcey® chocolate in three batches while stirring,
making sure it emulsifies, then blend in the pear pulp, cream, and gelatin
mass (0.016 kg/½ oz/8 gelatin sheets/leaves rehydrated in very cold
water, then dissolved in 0.070 kg/2½ fl oz/¼ cup + 2 tsp water).
Let rest for 12 hours in a cool place.
4. Prepare the pear jelly
Bring the pear pulp and agar (agar-agar) powder to a boil for 3 minutes,
cool, then blend.
Pour one-half into a squeeze bottle and reserve the other half for the pear
centers (inserts).
5. Make the Bartlett pear centers
Wash, peel, and cut the Bartlett (Williams) pears into brunoise.
Mix this brunoise with the pear jelly, the zest of 1 lime, and the chopped
atsina cress leaves (reserving some for decorating).
Pour the mixture into silicone molds 3 cm (1¼ inches) in diameter and 2
cm (¾ inch) deep.
6. Make the pear sorbet
Make a syrup with the water and superfine (caster) sugar.
When cool, mix the syrup with the pear pulp and pour into a Pacojet
beaker.
Pacotize when needed.
7. Assemble the entremets
Put the Breton cookies into stainless steel pastry rings 6.5 cm (2⅝ inches)
in diameter and 4.5 cm (1¾ inches) deep.
Cover with a pear center.
Fill the rings with the Bartlett pear and Dulcey® chocolate ganache
previously whipped in a mixer.
Smooth and let set in the freezer.
8. Prepare the caramel glaze
Cook the sugar and water to a dark caramel.
Stop the cooking process with the cream and milk, then add the starch.
Pour this mixture over the white chocolate while mixing in the mixer.
Add the gelatin rehydrated in a little cold water.
9. Unmold the entremets
Unmold the entremets.
While frozen, arrange them on a wire rack with a drip tray.
Coat the entremets with the caramel glaze, cooled to about 25°C (77°F).
Refrigerate for at least 3 hours so they can thaw.
10. Make the Bartlett pear chips
Make a syrup with the water, sugar, and lemon juice.
Wash and slice the pears thinly with a mandoline.
Dip the thin pears slices into the syrup and lay them out flat on a silicon
mat.
Dry in the oven at 75°C (167°F) for 6 to 7 hours.
11. Prepare the Dulcey® chocolate
Temper the Dulcey® chocolate according to the temperature curve
recommended by the manufacturer.
Spread the Dulcey® chocolate between two acetate sheets.
12. Make the caramel tuiles
Cook the sugar to a dark caramel.
Stop the cooking process with the semisalted butter.
Immediately use a rolling pin to roll this mixture between two sheets of
13. Prepare the caramel sauce
Stop the cooking process by adding the cream. Add the salt.
Reduce for a minute or so to obtain a syrupy consistency.
14. Plate
Place an entremets in the center of each plate.
Place a large dab of pear gel in the center of the dessert.
Insert the pear chips, caramel tuiles, tempered Dulcey® chocolate chips,
and arrange the atsina cress sprouts harmoniously on the dessert.
Decorate the plate with dots of pear jelly and caramel, and serve with a
quenelle of pear sorbet.
WORKSHEET 4
DESTRUCTURED BANOFEE
A gourmet dessert made with caramelized bananas, speculoos and
mascarpone cream.
MATERIALS
• Saucepans
• Silicone mat
• Baking sheet
• Pastry (piping) bag and tip (nozzle)
• Whisk
• Stand mixer
• Pacojet or ice cream maker
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the speculoos pastry dough
Mix the butter, muscovado sugar, and superfine (caster) sugar in a bowl.
Put the flour, cinnamon, and yeast into another bowl and mix well.
Combine the two mixtures.
Let rest in the refrigerator.
Break up the speculoos when it is cooked.
3. Make the caramel sauce
Make a caramel.
Stop the caramel cooking process by adding the hot cream.
Season with fleur de sel.
4. Prepare the caramelized bananas
Make a caramel.
Add the butter and sliced bananas.
Caramelize the bananas.
5. Make the vanilla ice cream
Heat the milk, cream, and vanilla beans.
Pour over the sugar, instant milk powder, atomized glucose, and
stabilizer mixture.
Cook at 82°C (180°F), then cool and churn in an ice cream maker or put
into a Pacojet beaker.
Pacotize just before serving.
6. Prepare the Chantilly mascarpone cream
Whip the cream and mascarpone with the sugar and vanilla as if for a
Chantilly cream.
7. Make the banana tuiles
Heat the banana puree.
Add the pectin and sprinkle in the sugar.
Heat for 1 minute and add the gelatin.
Spread on a silicon mat and bake at 80°C (175°F) for about 1 hour 30
minutes to 1 hour 45 minutes.
Cut and shape as desired when they come out of the oven.
8. Plate
Arrange the crumbled speculoos on the plates.
Add the caramelized bananas and some dots of caramel sauce.
Add the mascarpone Chantilly cream, vanilla ice cream, and banana
chips.
WORKSHEET 5
© Joëlle Lorentz
BLACK FOREST
A soft chocolate sponge, vanilla Chantilly cream, and a Morello cherry
preserves.
MATERIALS
• Saucepan
• Silicone mat with raised edges
• Ice cream maker or Pacojet
• Round cookie cutter
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the cherry-raspberry coulis
Heat the two purees, then cool them.
3. Prepare the soft chocolate cake
Melt the chocolate and butter together.
Blanch the eggs with the sugar, then add the flour.
Combine the two mixtures.
Bake on a silicone mat with raised edges at 180°C (Gas Mark 4/350°F)
Let cool, then cut out disks of different sizes.
4. Make the vanilla Chantilly cream
Split the vanilla bean and scrape out the seeds.
Mix the vanilla seeds with the confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Whip the cream with the confectioners’ sugar and vanilla seeds.
5. Prepare the chocolate
Heat the dark chocolate, then spread it over a sheet of Rhodoïd® paper.
When ready to plate, break off pieces of chocolate.
6. Prepare the cherry preserves
Heat the cherry puree.
Mix the sugar and pectin.
Pour this mixture over the sour cherry puree and cook for about 1 minute.
Let cool.
Mix in a mixer, then pour into a pastry (piping) bag fitted with a plain tip
(nozzle).
7. Make the candied Morello cherries
Cook the cherries over low heat with the brown sugar.
8. Prepare the Morello cherry sorbet
Heat the cherry puree with the water.
Add the sugar and stabilizer mixture.
Cook for 1 minute.
Cool, then churn.
9. Plate
Put a small ladle of Morello cherry and raspberry coulis in the middle of
the plate and spread it out with a spoon.
Arrange three disks of chocolate sponge on the plate.
Pipe the vanilla Chantilly cream onto the largest one and decorate with
pieces of chocolate.
Put the Morello cherry preserves and candied Morello cherries on the
other two sponge disks.
Place a quenelle of Morello cherry sorbet on the plate.
Finish with a few candied Morello cherries to complete the composition
of the plate.
WORKSHEET 6
© Joëlle Lorentz
CHOCOLATE SPHERE
A chocolate sphere filled with chocolate mousse, cocoa crumbs, and
chocolate ice cream.
MATERIALS
• Chocolate semisphere molds
• Saucepan
• Pacojet or ice cream maker
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the chocolate half-spheres
Melt the chocolate with the cocoa butter.
Pour into special semisphere chocolate molds.
Remove any excess chocolate.
Unmold the chocolate semispheres when the chocolate has crystallized.
Store until ready to use in an airtight container in the refrigerator.
3. Make the chocolate mousse
Heat the cream and make a crème anglaise.
Pour it over the melted chocolate.
Whisk the egg whites, then add the superfine (caster) sugar and beat until
firm.
When it has cooled, fold the whites into the ganache.
4. Prepare the cocoa crumbs
Mix all the ingredients for the crumbs.
5. Make the chocolate ice cream
Heat the milk and sugar.
Pour over the chocolate mixed with the cocoa.
Chill the mixture, then churn or put it into a Pacojet beaker and freeze.
Pacotize before serving.
6. Make the chocolate sauce
Heat the milk and cream.
Pour it over the melted chocolate.
7. Plate
Put a little chocolate mousse on the bottom of one semi-sphere to “glue”
it to the plate.
Fill with chocolate mousse, cocoa crumbs, and a scoop of chocolate ice
cream.
Enclose with another chocolate semisphere.
Serve with hot chocolate sauce to melt the chocolate sphere.
WORKSHEET 7
© Joëlle Lorentz
TIRAMISU IN A MERINGUE SHELL
A meringue shell filled with coffee ice cream, ladyfingers (sponge fingers),
and mascarpone mousse.
MATERIALS
• Saucepan
• Silicone semisphere molds
• Silicone mat
• Whisk
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the meringue shells
Whisk the egg whites to stiff peaks, then add the 0.080 kg (2⅞ oz/⅓ cup
+ 1 tbsp) of superfine (caster) sugar and whisk until firm.
When the whites have been thoroughly beaten, add the remaining 0.040
kg (1⅜ oz/2½ tbsp) of sugar.
Pipe into semisphere molds and dry in the oven at 80°C (175°F).
3. Prepare the caramelized almonds
Toast the almonds at 150°C (Gas Mark 2/300°F) for about 15 minutes.
Make a syrup heated to 118°C (244°F) and coat the almonds with this
syrup.
Caramelize the almonds.
4. Make the coffee ice cream
Heat the milk and cream to make the crème anglaise.
Combine the two mixtures and cook to 82°C (180°F).
Add the coffee extract.
Cool, then churn or put in a Pacojet beaker and freeze.
Pacotize just before serving.
5. Prepare the mascarpone mousse
Fold in the mascarpone, followed by the whipped cream.
6. Make the ladyfingers (sponge fingers)
Whisk the egg whites, then add the sugar and beat until firm.
Beat the egg yolks with the sifted flour.
Spread on a silicon mat.
Sprinkle with the confectioners' (icing) sugar.
7. Plate
Soak the ladyfingers.
Pipe a little mascarpone mousse in the bottom of a meringue semisphere.
Place a disk of ladyfingers on top.
Place a scoop of coffee ice cream on top.
Pipe some mascarpone cream over the scoop of coffee ice cream.
Sprinkle with cocoa powder and a few caramelized almonds.
WORKSHEET 8
© Joëlle Lorentz
IN THE SPIRIT OF A BLACK FOREST TO
SHARE
Soft chocolate sponge cake, soaked in a kirsch-flavored syrup, topped with
a light mascarpone Chantilly cream and decorated with crispy cocoa tuiles,
Griottines® (a brand of liquor-infused cherries), and a Morello cherry and
kirsch jelly.
MATERIALS
• Stand mixer
• Drum sieve
• Whisk
• Fondue pot
• Medium stewpan
• Baking sheet
• Silicone mat
• Ice cream scoop
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the Marigny sponge batter
Whisk the egg whites with the superfine (caster) sugar.
Gently fold in the egg yolks, then the sifted dry ingredients, and finish
with the melted butter.
Pour 0.180 kg (6⅜ oz) of the mixture into the pans, greasing just the
bottom (not the sides).
Add the Griottines® cherries.
3. Make the mascarpone Chantilly cream
Infuse the vanilla in the cream.
Mix all the ingredients and whisk to a Chantilly.
4. Make the Morello cherry and kirsch jelly
Boil the Morello cherry pulp with the kirsch and sugar.
Add the agar (agar-agar) flakes and boil again.
Let cool.
Mix to obtain a jelly.
5. Prepare the mixed berry sorbet
Heat the water with the sugar and Trimoline®.
Add the mixed berry pulp.
Strain into an ice cream maker or a Pacojet.
6. Make the cocoa tuiles
Put all the ingredients, except for the egg whites, into the mixer.
Gradually add the egg whites, beating to a smooth mixture.
Spread on silicon mat (not too thin or too thick).
7. Prepare the kirsch syrup
Bring the water, sugar, kirsch, and Griottines® juice to a boil.
Let cool.
Soak the Marigny sponge with this syrup.
8. Plate
Arrange the Marigny sponge in the fondue pot.
Soak generously with the kirsch syrup.
Pipe the mascarpone Chantilly cream over the sponge.
Place a scoop of ice cream in the center of the pot.
Decorate with pieces of cocoa tuiles, Griottines® cherries, and a few dots
of Morello cherry and kirsch jelly.
Sprinkle with a little confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
WORKSHEET 9
© Alexandre Haudenschild
CHOCONOISETTE DELIGHTS
An entremets made with a chocolate brownie bottom layer, with a crispy
praline, topped with a layer of hazelnut and chocolate crémeux, decorated
with a Caramelia® ganache and chocolate tuiles.
MATERIALS
• Stand mixer
• Whisk
• Baking sheet
• Baking frame
• Silicone mat
• Thermometer
• Medium stewpan
METHOD
materials.
2. Make the brownie
Melt the chocolate and butter.
Add the melted chocolate, then the flour.
Bake at 180°C (Gas Mark 4/350°F) in an entremets baking frame for 20
minutes.
3. Prepare the praline crisp
Melt the chocolate with the praline.
Add the remaining ingredients to the bowl of a mixer fitted with a flat
beater attachment.
Add the melted chocolate and praline.
Spread over the cooled brownie.
Be sure to spread the mixture around the edges to fill in any gaps.
4. Make the chocolate hazelnut crémeux
Make a crème anglaise.
Pour over the chocolate in three batches and mix in the mixer.
Pour the warm crémeux into the frame over the crispy mixture and let
harden.
5. Prepare the whipped Caramelia® ganache
Heat the cream with the glucose and honey.
Immediately pour it over the chocolate in three batches, beat in the mixer,
and add the chilled cream.
When cold, whip it as for a Chantilly cream.
6. Make the chocolate tuile
Put all the ingredients, except for the egg whites, into the mixer.
Pour in the egg whites gradually, whisking to a smooth mixture.
Spread over a silicone mat (not too thin or too thick).
7. Plate
Unmold the entremets.
Cut the entremets into 3.5 x 10-cm (1⅜ × 4-inch) sections.
Cut each slice into three small pieces.
Use a pastry (piping) bag with a plain tip (nozzle) to pipe dots of ganache
onto the entremets.
Place the pieces of entremets on the plate and decorate with pieces of
chocolate tuile.
WORKSHEET 10
PAVLOVA WITH RHUBARB AND FRESH
STRAWBERRIES
Soft meringue with a rhubarb and fresh strawberry compote, covered with a
light mascarpone whipped cream.
MATERIALS
• Stand mixer
• Baking sheet
• Silicone mat
• Medium stewpan
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the meringue
Whip the egg whites, adding the sugar gradually until stiff peaks form.
Pipe onto a baking sheet.
Bake at 130°C (Gas Mark ¾/265°F) for 50 minutes.
3. Make the rhubarb compote
Peel the rhubarb and cut the stalks into small pieces.
Mix the rhubarb with the sugar and let drain.
Cover and cook the rhubarb over a low heat.
Then remove the lid and reduce the compote.
Let cool and set aside.
4. Make the mascarpone Chantilly cream
Mix all the ingredients and whisk to a Chantilly.
5. Plate
Cut the strawberries into quarters, then mix with the rhubarb compote
and a little mixed berry coulis.
Fill the meringues with this mixture, then pipe the Chantilly cream over
it.
WORKSHEET 11
PEAR AND SESAME TARTLET
Sweet pastry filled with black sesame almond cream, poached pear, and
pear preserves, served with pear sorbet and sesame tuile.
MATERIALS
• Pastry rings
• Baking sheet
• Silicone mat
• Medium stewpan
• Sous-vide pouch
• Stand mixer
• Scraper
• Whisk
• Ice cream scoop
METHOD
materials.
2. Prepare the sweet pastry dough
In the bowl of a stand mixer fitted with a flat beater attachment, cream
the butter, superfine (caster) sugar, and ground almonds.
Add the fleur de sel and eggs.
Finish by adding the flour (do not overwork the dough).
Set aside.
3. Make the almond sesame cream
Beat the butter, sesame paste, and brown sugar together.
Add the eggs and cream, then the ground almonds.
Finish with the toasted sesame seeds.
4. Prepare the poached pears
Make a syrup and, when it boils, add the eau-de-vie and let cool.
Steam the pears at 90°C (194°F) with the cold syrup.
5. Finish the tartlets
Roll out the sweet dough, then cut out 10-cm (4-inch)-diameter circles.
Grease the pastry rings (8 cm/3¼ inches in diameter) with butter and line
with the dough.
Pipe in the almond sesame cream and add a poached half pear before
baking.
Bake at 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F) for 15 to 20 minutes, then 10
minutes without the ring.
6. Make the pear preserves
Simmer the diced pears, pear puree, and vanilla.
When the compote is completely cooked, add the eau-devie and
rehydrated gelatin.
Let cool.
7. Make the pear sorbet
Heat the water, sugar, and Trimoline® together.
Add the fruit pulp.
Put into an ice cream maker or a Pacojet.
8. Prepare the sesame tuiles
Put all the ingredients into the small bowl of a mixer fitted with a flat
beater attachment.
When the dough is smooth, shape into a thick rope.
Freeze.
Slice into fine disks.
Bake at 170°C (Gas Mark 3½/340°F) for 8 minutes.
9. Plate
Place a tartlet in the center of the plate.
Cover with cold pear preserves.
Place a scoop of pear sorbet on the tartlet and top with a sesame tuile.
WORKSHEET 12
OceanofPDF.com
© Adobe Stock
A
Absolute zero—0 kelvin is equal to -273.15º Celsius and -459.67º
Fahrenheit.
Acceptable Daily Intake—Or ADI, expressed in milligrams of additive per
kilogram of body weight, is the amount of food additive that can be
ingested daily over a lifetime without risk to humans. ADI is based on an
evaluation of the available toxicological data and is established by
identifying the No Observed Adverse Effect Levels (NOAEL). In the most
sensitive of a series of animal studies with a test substance, and by
extrapolation to humans, NOAEL is divided by a safety factor generally
equal to 100. ADI is not a threshold of toxicity; it represents a safe level of
consumption.
Acid—There are different acids. There are acids that offer acidity
(mouthfeel), such as citric acid. Some molecules are called acids (e.g.
amino acids, fatty acids, ascorbic acid), whose structure is characterized by
a function called “acid.” Among them are organic acids that contain this
COOH group, called “acid”: a carbon atom, bonded to an oxygen atom by a
double bond and bonded to a hydroxyl group (OH) by a single bond;
together they are called a carboxyl group. Regardless, they can influence
pH levels.
Acidity regulator—A substance that modifies or limits the acidity or
alkalinity of a food.
Acrylamide—Acrylamide is a product that can occur spontaneously when
food is cooked at temperatures above 120ºC (248°F). It is a molecule that is
considered by the WHO to pose a risk to human health. It is created during
high-temperature cooking processes (frying, roasting, etc.) of foods high in
carbohydrates (starch, sugars) and proteins.
Cooking temperature, the water content of the food, and the “browning”
(charring) of foodstuffs greatly influence the creation of acrylamide.
The substance is synthesized mainly when asparagine, a natural amino acid,
reacts with natural sugars, such as glucose; this is known as the Maillard
reaction, named after the French chemist who first identified it. It is
precisely this reaction that gives fried foods their characteristic taste,
consistency, and brown color.
The foods most affected by the creation of acrylamide are mainly cereal-
based foodstuffs, breads and pastries, and generally all foodstuffs subjected
to high temperatures, such as coffee or roasted almonds.
Activity of water (Aw)—Water is essential for life, especially for bacteria.
Bound water (mixed with other substances) is unavailable to
microorganisms, while open or unbound water is. Aw measures the
available water. The “drier” a foodstuff is, the lower its Aw, and therefore
fewer bacteria can survive.
It is advisable to first put foodstuffs in a cool place without protection (such
as plastic wrap/clingfilm so that the cold, combined with the movement of
air, reduces the surface Aw). These steps must be taken before sous-vide
packing for cooking later at a controlled temperature.
Additives—An additive is defined as “any substance not normally
consumed as a food in itself and not normally used as a typical ingredient in
food, whether or not it has nutritive value, whose intentional addition to
food for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the
manufacture, processing, preparation, or treatment of food . . . results . . . in
it or its by-products becoming, directly or indirectly, a component of the
food.”
Adsorption—The process by which solids or solutions retain molecules or
ions on their surface.
Aerate—To incorporate air into a preparation to make it lighter, such as a
mousse.
Aerobic—Refers to organisms that need oxygen to live.
Agar—E406, also known as agar-agar. Thickener, gelling agent.
Agneau pascal or “Lammele”—An Alsace pastry made with a special
mold in the shape of an Easter lamb. It is sprinkled with confectioners’
(icing) sugar or dipped in fondant.
Aigrette—A twist on a pièce montée.
Airbrush—Compressed-air spray gun for spraying a decoration or color on
the surface of a cake, entremets, or any other dessert.
Albedo—Another name for the pith of citrus fruits, referring to the white
layer.
Alcoholize—To add alcohol.
Alginate—E401. Thickener, stabilizer.
Allergen—An antigen that produces antibodies in some people. When
those individuals come in contact again with that antigen, it results in an
allergic reaction.
Allergy—The body’s abnormal reaction to a pathogen or to particular
substances. A range of food—altered and not—can cause an allergic
reaction: strawberries, shellfish, crustaceans, etc. The symptoms manifested
may be edema, chronic urticaria, rhinitis, asthma, etc.
Allumette—A food cut into matchsticks. Often made with puff pastry.
They can be sweet or savory.
Alveograph—The alveograph curve is obtained with a Chopin alveograph.
It is used to assess the baking performance of flours used in baked products
(baking strength, tenacity, extensibility, expansion, and elasticity).
Amandine—A circular tartlet made with sweet pastry filled with preserves,
almond cream, or pastry cream. Slivered (flaked) almonds are used for
decoration.
Amaretto—An Italian liqueur with a bitter almond taste.
Amino acids—The basic constituents of proteins.
Amylopectin—Branched polymers of glucose found in plants; together
with amylose, it becomes starch. It creates a clear gel that is not particularly
strong.
Amylose—A polymer that is a chain of glucose units found in plants;
together with amylopectin, it becomes starch. It creates a solid opaque gel.
Anaerobic—Refers to organisms that don’t need oxygen to live.
Analysis of danger (Cod; NF)—Hazard analysis. The process of gathering
and evaluating data on hazards and the factors that cause them to occur in
order to decide which hazards pose a threat to food safety and therefore
should be addressed in an HACCP plan.
Anaphylaxis (cf. an aphylactic shock)—A state of physiological distress
following the ingestion of an allergenic foodstuff. Biogenic amines
(histamine) can lead to this condition.
Angelica—An aromatic plant. Often used candied. Green color.
Anis de l'abbaye de Flavigny—Small, round flavored dragées made with
aniseed coated with flavored sugar.
Anise—An aromatic plant. Used in confectionery (for l’abbaye de Flavigny
dragées), for distilling (for anisette, ouzo, pastis, raki), in pastry making (for
fougasses, gingerbread).
Anthocyanin—Anthocyanins (from the Greek anthos, meaning “flower,”
kuanos, meaning “dark blue”) are natural water-soluble pigments that range
from red to blue in the visible spectrum. They belong to the class of
compounds called flavonoids.
Antifungal—A chemical substance capable of destroying or inhibiting the
growth of microscopic fungi, such as molds.
Antioxidant—Helps to improve texture and homogeneity, and to prevent
spoilage and rancidity of preparations.
Antiseptic—Destroying or inhibiting microorganisms.
Appareiller—Meaning “match” in French, refers to stacking together
sponge disks or fruit to cut them to the same size.
Appertization—A process using heat to destroy all microorganisms.
Apricot preserves for glazing—To brush the surface of a cake, usually a
tart with an apricot glaze. A hot neutral glaze, apricot preserves, or a
reduced syrup can be used.
Arabica—A variety of coffee.
Arrowroot—Frequently used and recommended in older books on pastry
making, especially for thickening. Most often it is a mixture of several
starches extracted from the rhizomes of various tropical plants. The most
probable etymology of “arrowroot” is that it is a “root against wounds”
caused by arrows.
Ascorbic acid—Another name for vitamin C, an antioxidant. E300.
Attelet—A small ornamental metal or wooden skewer.
Attereau (or Hâtereau)—Various ingredients, such as organ meat (offal),
shellfish, fruit, and vegetables, cut into rectangles, squares, or scallops
(escalopes), then breaded and fried.
B
Baba—A type of individual cake or one that serves a number of people.
Made with leavened dough, it can contain raisins and is often topped with
Chantilly cream.
Bacterial flora—A group of germs that grow in an ecosystem.
These include lactic flora, intestinal flora (microbiota to be more precise),
gastric flora, etc., aerobic, anaerobic, facultative anaerobic flora, etc.
Bactericide—A substance that kills bacteria, for example, bleach, alcohol,
etc.
Bacteriostatic—A substance that slows the growth and the multiplication
of microorganisms without destroying them.
Bain-marie—See “water bath.”
Bake—To cook in an oven.
Baked Alaska—A rectangular entremets made of ice cream on a sponge
cake layer, covered in Italian meringue that is caramelized in the oven.
Baker’s yeast—Another name for fresh yeast.
Ball—a.) A stage in the cooking of sugar.
b.) To roll dough into an even spherical shape.
Banana split—A dessert made with bananas and ice cream. Covered with
chocolate sauce and a mixed berry coulis. Topped with Chantilly cream,
candied (glacé) cherries, toasted slivered (flaked) almonds, etc.
Basicity—Basicity or alkalinity is the opposite of acidity. The pH in this
case is more than 7.
Baste—Pouring a liquid (syrup, alcohol) over a preparation to flavor it,
give it a glossy appearance, or prevent it from drying out.
Batch cooking—The organization of pastry production in batches. It is
what all organized bakers do, yet without calling it by a specific name.
Bâton de Jacob/Caroline—A small choux pastry resembling a half éclair,
filled with pastry cream and topped with a glaze.
Batter—A mixture of several substances used in the composition of a
dessert before it is baked, for example, sponge cake batter, tuile batter, etc.
Baumé degree—An old unit of measurement to gauge the density of sugar
syrups. To obtain an approximate relation between a Baumé degree and
density, use the following calculation: subtract 4 from the Baumé degree,
then add 1 before the decimal point and 2 zeros at the end; for example, 18º
Baumé / 1.1400.
Bavarois—Or Bavarian cream, a flavored, gelatin-thickened mixture with
the addition of whipped cream.
Beat—To work a mixture vigorously to obtain a smooth consistency, such
as egg whites, whipped cream, batters, etc.
Beggar’s purse—A savory or sweet preparation enclosed in a crepe and
gathered at the top.
Belle-Hélène—A dessert of ice cream, poached fruit, coated with hot
chocolate sauce, and topped with toasted slivered (flaked) almonds.
Bergamot—A lemon-shaped citrus. The skin contains an essential oil used
as a flavoring.
Berlingot—A cooked sugar candy that comes in various colors.
Bêtise—A mint-flavored cooked sugar candy.
Bind—a.) Action of thickening by mobilizing different binding agents:
cereal starch, eggs, cream, etc.
b.) To give body to a dough.
c.) To add a concentrated product to a preparation in order to reinforce a
flavor.
Binge eating—An eating disorder. It is referred to as an uncontrolled binge
eating syndrome.
Biogenic amines—Substances, such as histamine, dopamine, cadaverine,
etc., derived from basic or aromatic amino acids that occur naturally in
some plant foods (for example, pineapple) or are produced by certain
microorganisms (for example, clostridium) in foods of animal origin.
Birewecke—An Alsatian specialty made with bread dough, dried fruits,
walnuts, and hazelnuts. It has a long shelf life. Also called pain de Noël
(Christmas bread) in Alsace.
Black Forest—A chocolate genoise sponge cake with ganache cream,
Chantilly cream, cherries soaked in alcohol, and chocolate shavings.
Blanch—a.) An operation with different objectives that involves either
placing a food in cold water and bringing it to a boil, or immersing a food in
boiling water. In some cases, the boil is maintained for 3 to 4 minutes.
Blanching is used to:
- Remove excess salt (salted pork belly).
- Remove the pungency of certain vegetables and facilitate handling
(lettuce); in this case, boiling water is used from the start.
- Remove the skin from almonds, fruits (peaches), vegetables (tomatoes),
etc. by plunging them into boiling water briefly and then putting them
into cold water.
- Prepare fruits or vegetables for freezing by first putting them into boiling
water.
b.) In pastry making, blanching consists of working egg yolks and sugar
together until the mixture becomes frothy (for a custard).
Blancmange—An almond-flavored dessert with a cream held together with
gelatin.
Blast chiller—A piece of equipment for quickly reducing the temperature
of a food product in an efficient and hygienic way.
Blender—Similar to a mixer, used to emulsify ingredients to make them
smooth in texture. Used to make smoothies, milk shakes, and frozen
preparations.
Blinis—Small thick pancakes made with a leavened batter. They are cooked
in a skillet of the same name.
Bloom (degree)—Gelling capacity is expressed as the mass that must be
moved using a cylindrical plunger to push it 4 mm (⅛ inch) into the gel
obtained under standard conditions. Bloom degrees are used in particular
for gelatin. The scale ranges from 50 to 300º.
Body—A particular texture of a mixture whose consistency (elasticity,
reaction to stretching as well as pressing) is not desired.
Bombe—A specific mixture for a dessert made with sugar syrup and egg
yolks.
Border—The edge around the perimeter of a pastry or other item.
Bourdaloue—A culinary name for when almond or frangipane cream is
used in fruit tarts.
Bourre-goule (or Teurgoule)—A rice pudding from Normandy that is
flavored with cinnamon.
Bread—To coat a food or mixture with bread crumbs or other crumbs.
Bread crumbs—Crumbs of varying sizes obtained by grinding dried bread
or rusks. Originally, they were made with dried or oven-dried bread, then
crushed with a mortar and pestle or with a rolling pin.
Breakpoint—The temperature that causes a nonreversible reaction. This is
called the “break temperature” or “key” temperature.
Brix (Brix degree)—Measures the amount of sugar in a sweet foodstuff
(fruit jellies, preserves, etc.) with a refractometer. The Brix scale is used to
measure the fraction of sucrose diluted in a liquid (i.e., percent of soluble
dry matter). The higher the Brix, the sweeter the sample.
For 1° Brix, there is 1 g (1⁄32 oz) of sucrose per 100 g (3½ oz) of solution.
Broil—Or grill in the UK. In pastry making, the act of putting an ingredient
very close to the element in a broiler.
To brown foods, e.g. in an oven.
Brownie—A chocolate sponge filled with chocolate chips.
Browning—To brown food in hot fat to form a crust that traps the juices
and adds flavor and color.
Brown sugar—Unrefined or partially refined sugar extracted from
sugarcane.
Brunoise—Fruit or vegetables that are cut into small dice (2 to 3–mm/1⁄16–
⅛-inch squares).
Brush—To coat with a liquid or semiliquid preparation.
Bulking agents—Substances that increase the volume of a food, or
contribute to a particular function without increasing energy values. See, for
example, bulking sweeteners.
Bun—A round, briochelike little bread.
Bunching onion—Also known as Welsh onion and spring onion, this onion
is similar to a scallion (spring onion) and chive, etc.
Burned—Cooked beyond what is expected of it.
Burst rice—To soak rice in cold water, then bring it to a boil for a few
minutes so that the grains “burst.”
Butter—a.) To coat a pastry ring or pan with softened butter to prevent the
food from sticking during baking.
b.) To add butter to a dough (for example, water dough).
Butter, kneaded—Butter that has been worked and softened by hand
before being incorporated into a dough.
Butter, softened—“Beurre en pommade” in French, butter that has been
heated to soften it.
Butter manié—Butter mixed with flour and used as a thickener for sauces.
Used to make inverse puff pastry.
Buttermilk—The residual liquid obtained after churning cream to obtain
butter.
C
Cake comb—A utensil with serrated sides for decorating cakes.
Calcium citrate—Can be used either to enhance a product with calcium or
used in a bath to spherify an alginate preparation.
Calisson—A candied melon and almond confection on an unleavened
bread base, flavored with orange blossom. Typical of Aix-en-Provence.
Candy—To immerse fruit, fondant, or marzipan into a sugar syrup.
Candying pan—A pan used for candying fruit, etc.
Canistrellu—Sweet, dry brittle Corsican cookies.
Cannelé—A small cake from Bordeaux with a soft dough flavored with
rum and vanilla. They are baked in molds of the same name.
Caramelize—To coat a pan or container with caramel.
Caramelize with an iron, salamander, chef’s blowtorch.
Caramelizing iron—Used to caramelize surfaces.
Caroline/Bâton de Jacob—A little éclair.
Carotene—An orange pigment important for photosynthesis. The dimer (a
type of two-molecule compound) of vitamin A, it comes in two forms,
alpha-and beta-carotene (provitamin A). A food additive, E160.
Carotenoids—Carotenoids are orange and yellow pigments found in many
living organisms. They are liposoluble and are usually easily assimilated by
organisms. It is generally accepted that their metabolic pathways are similar
to those of lipids. They are synthesized by all algae, all green plants, and by
many fungi and bacteria.
Carrageenan—A gelling agent derived from red algae.
Carrot cake—A cake made with carrots.
Casein—From the Latin caseus, meaning “cheese.” They are protein
substances comprising most of the nitrogenous compounds in milk. During
cheese making, it precipitates the action of acid or rennet on milk. Not
sensitive to heat.
Cassata—A typical Sicilian frozen dessert.
Cellulose—Cellulose is a carbohydrate, a polymer of glucose (or glucose
polysaccharide), whose formula is (C6H10O5)n (n between 200 and
14,000) and is the main constituent of plants and in particular of their cell
walls.
C.F.I.—For “collective food-borne illness,” it must be reported to the health
authorities. A CFI must be reported immediately so that information
regarding it can be gathered quickly and an investigation can be conducted
properly. A CFI is defined as the appearance of at least two similar cases
with the same symptoms, usually of a gastrointestinal nature, that can be
linked to the same food origin.
Char—To subject a food to too much heat.
Charlotte (with fruit)—A sweet entremets made with fruit puree, whipped
cream, and sugar syrup. The name comes from the traditional mold used to
make it.
Chausson—A stuffed, semicircular Viennese pastry made with puff pastry.
Cheesecake—A cake made with sweetened cream cheese.
Cheesecloth—Or muslin, a type of cloth used to filter a preparation to
retain unwanted solids. A fine conical sieve is a metal utensil that performs
the same function.
Chelator—The property of one substance to make up another by
sequestering an atom. Sodium citrate has the ability to chelate calcium in
water. This is necessary when you want to disperse alginates in order to
carry out spherification. A large amount of calcium would immediately
create a thick gel with the alginates.
Chiffonade—To very finely slice. Sorrel, mint, or other greens or
vegetables shredded or cut into thin strips.
Chill—a.) To churn a mixture in an ice cream maker to chill and thicken it.
b.) To immerse an ingredient in ice water.
c.) To cool quickly.
Chlorophylls—The main pigments in plants. There are several different
kinds: A, A', B, B', C, D, ranging from blue to green and yellow.
Chop—To cut ingredients into small pieces.
Chopin alveograph—A machine that is used to inflate a piece of dough;
the resulting bubble is inflated until it bursts. The properties of the baking
strength are recorded on a curve.
Chouquette—A small choux puff topped with grains of sugar.
Churn—To subject a mixture to a cold environment to achieve a specific
consistency.
Churros—Deep-fried dough typical of Spain.
Ciqual—Refers to the French food nutritional composition table issued by
the French National Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational
Health and Safety (ANSES).
Citric acid—An acidifier and acidity regulator. Used to increase the pH
(acidity) of a preparation.
Citron—A large citrus fruit similar to a lemon, oval in shape and with a
bumpy surface.
Clafoutis—Originating from the region of Limoges, a cake filled with fruit
(cherries or other fruit).
Clarified butter—Butter melted to remove the whey and protein residue.
Clarify—To gently heat a fat in order to separate the two parts: the water-
base element (whey), the fat-base element (the latter being lighter, floats),
impurities in the case of butter.
Clean (Cod; NF)—Removal of dirt, food residue, grime, grease, or other
undesirable substance.
Coat—To cover a cake, entremets, or other food. To coat with sugar, fritter
batter, etc.
Coat (the back of a spoon)—The consistency of a preparation that is thick
enough to coat the back of a spoon or spatula. Custard reaches this
consistency at about 85ºC (185°F).
Cocoa butter—The fatty substance extracted by pressing whole cocoa
beans.
Codex Alimentarius—International Commission on Food Standards,
Chemicals, and Trade.
COFRAC—French Accreditation Committee.
Cold chain—The steps followed so that food is subjected to a specific
temperature, ensuring that conditions are favorable to prevent the
multiplication of microbes. See also “Hot and Cold Chain.”
Collapse—Refers to a dough that loses its shape, its consistency. After
kneading, while rising, during baking, etc.
Complete—Add.
Compote—To gently cook certain fruits or vegetables in the liquid they
release.
Conceal—To cover a preparation with a fine layer of cream, sauce,
softened butter, or stuffing.
Conch—To work chocolate to make it homogeneous, uniform, and smooth.
Condé fruit—Poached fruit that is used to top a flavored rice pudding.
Conglomerates—Pearls stuck together with jelly or other substance to
resemble a plant structure, made up of little sacs. Fibers (cf. Hervé This).
Contaminant (NF)—Any biological or chemical agent, foreign material, or
other substance not intentionally added to a foodstuff that may compromise
safety or health.
Contamination (NF)—The introduction or presence of a contaminant to a
foodstuff or food environment.
a.) Initial: originally contained in the foodstuff.
b.) External: due to foreign elements.
c.) Persistent: it remains and can be concentrated.
d.) By multiplication: due to factors linked to microbial development.
e.) Cross-contamination: by direct or indirect contact with a contaminated
carrier or other foodstuff.
Control (Cod; NF)—a.) Situation in which procedures are followed and
criteria are met.
b.) To take all necessary measures to ensure and maintain compliance with
the criteria outlined in the HACCP system.
Control (ISO N)—Inspection.
Conformity evaluation by observation and judgment accompanied as
appropriate by measurement, testing, or gauging.
Conversation pie—A puff pastry pie or individual pie with a filling.
Topped with a thin layer of puff pastry.
Cooked (regarding eggs)—The appearance of egg yolks in contact with
sugar when the mixture is not made immediately.
Cookie—Or biscuit, a small individual dry cake.
Cooking—It has been proven that the body cannot absorb raw foods as
well as they can cooked foods. When you cook food, it is heated. The heat
makes the molecules in the food move and crash into each other; these
shocks cause chemical reactions between molecules, which can react with
each other. Heat causes the molecules to break down into smaller ones.
Thus, after cooking, food becomes softer and the molecules that comprise it
become more easily absorbed by the human body. Cooking is also used to
produce flavors and colors that can make food more appealing.
Cool—To place in the refrigerator.
Cordon—A line of sauce, cream, or coulis put into a squeeze bottle and
applied around a dessert.
Cornet—A small pastry (piping) bag usually made with parchment
(baking) paper.
Cotton candy—Also known as candyfloss, sugar baked and spun into a
large soft cloud.
Counteraction (when kneading dough)—Contre frasage or contre fraser
in French, the action of adding flour to a dough while it is being kneaded to
correct an unexpected slackening or a measuring mistake.
Couverture—a.) A fine chocolate paste, high in cocoa butter, used to coat
various pastry preparations and for molding.
b.) Used to flavor creams.
Crack—A stage in the cooking of sugar.
Craquelin—A flour, sugar, and butter mixture applied to choux puffs. The
aim is to obtain even surfaces after baking.
Cream—a.) To blend a substance to a cream, for example, butter or
margarine.
b.) Mixing a fat with, usually, sugar.
Crimp—a.) To make slight dents with a paring knife around the edge of a
puff pastry pie to ensure it puffs up during baking.
b.) To embellish the edges of a preparation with a pastry crimper.
Critical control point (CCP; Cod; NF)—The point at which a control
measure can be applied (and is essential) to prevent or eliminate a food
safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.
Critical limit (Cod; NF)*—Critical limit.
A criterion that distinguishes acceptability from nonacceptability.
Cromesquis—Cooked ingredients wrapped in a thin crepe, then battered
and fried.
Croquante—Another name for nougatine.
Croquants—Small dry cookies (biscuits) made in different regions of
France.
Crumbly—Of a dough that is not sufficiently hydrated.
Crumb topping—Or crumble topping, a coarse, crumbly mixture of flour,
butter, and sugar. Fruit is topped with a layer of crumbs and baked in the
oven.
Crush—To chop or coarsely grind (almonds, hazelnuts, etc.).
Crust or base—A pastry dough or other element that is the lower part of a
preparation; for example, tart shell (case), genoise sponge cake layer, or
crumb crust (biscuit base).
Cryoconcentration—The process of isolating the noble elements of a food
by subjecting it to intense cold and centrifugal force. Orange juice, for
example, is frozen gradually. The first flakes obtained are of water and are
eliminated in a centrifuge.
Cryophilic—The ability of certain microorganisms to grow normally at
low temperatures.
D
Dab—To apply a little fresh butter to a preparation to give it a glossy
appearance.
Dacquoise—A dacquoise is a cake from the southwest of France. It
consists of two or three disks of almond meringue separated by layers of
variously flavored buttercream, sprinkled with confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Dame-blanche—Vanilla ice cream, Chantilly cream, and hot chocolate
sauce.
Dampfnudel—Leavened dough cooked in a covered sauté pan. Served
with conserves, compotes, etc.
Danger (Cod; NF)—A hazard.
A biological, biochemical, or physical agent or condition in foodstuffs that
has the potential to cause adverse health effects.
Regulation (EC) 178/2002:
“A biological, chemical, or physical agent present in food or animal feed, or
a condition of such food or feed, that may have an adverse effect on health.”
Danicheff—A kirsch soaked genoise sponge cake with a pineapple and
meringue filling.
Dariole—A pastry made with puff pastry and baked in a mold of the same
name.
Dartois—A pastry made with puff pastry dough. A variety of fillings can
be used.
Dash—In a recipe, a few drops of an ingredient.
Synonymous with a pinch.
Decant—Separating liquid elements from solid elements.
Decorate—Add an element to enhance the aesthetics of a preparation.
Deep-freezing—To subject a food to intense cold to cause its water content
to freeze immediately. Deepfreezing is fast and limits cell damage. Freezing
is the same operation but takes longer and the temperature is higher than for
deep-freezing. It is more suitable for large, thick foodstuffs and ingredients.
Densimeter—A device that measures the sugar density of a liquid; it
replaces the old syrup scale.
Density—The ratio of the mass of a homogeneous foodstuff to the mass of
the same volume of pure water at 4ºC (40°F). By definition, water has a
density of 1.
Désir du roi—A choux puff filled with vanilla ice cream. Served with a hot
chocolate sauce.
Determination of gluten—Performed in a laboratory using a device called
a glutomatic. It assists in the gluten in a test dough being extracted to obtain
an initial appreciation of its flexibility and tenacity.
Détrempe—See “water dough.”
Dextrorotatory—A molecule that has the property of deflecting the plane
of polarization of light to the right (R). The opposite property (left) is the
levorotatory position (L).
Dice—To use a knife to make vertical and horizontal cuts through an onion
or shallot, for example, then cut it evenly and finely into tiny squares.
Dietetics—The science of studying the dietary value of foodstuffs and the
diseases caused by poor nutrition, as well as determining suitable portion
sizes for different categories of consumers.
Dilute—To add a liquid (soda, soft drink) to water down the base
ingredients of a cocktail, syrup, etc.
Diplomat—An entremets that can be made with ladyfingers (sponge
fingers), pieces of brioche, etc. and baked with a setting custard.
Disinfection (Cod; NF)—Using chemical agents or physical methods, the
reduction of the number of microorganisms in the environment to a level
that will not compromise the safety or wholesomeness of foods.
Doigt de fée—A small baked good made with flavored Swiss meringue.
Double pan—To place an extra pan or other utensil under the one
containing the food so that it cooks more gently.
Draft/outline—To plan the steps for a pastry project.
Drips—Excess glaze or coating that drips off.
Dry oven—Subjecting a food to gentle heat.
To place in a drying oven to rise (fermentation).
Dry out—Working a choux pastry dough continuously over the heat with a
wooden spatula to make some of the moisture evaporate.
Duja—A paste made with dried fruit and confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Dumpling—Pastry wrapped around a filling of fresh fruit.
Dust—a.) To sprinkle flour lightly, for example, on a marble pastry surface
to roll out dough.
b.) To sprinkle flour on a food or preparation.
E
Échaudé—Dough cooked in water and dried in the oven.
Elastomoule—A brand made by BUYER, flexible silicone molds.
Emulsion—Buttercream, almond cream, etc. Emulsions are named after the
French surgeon Ambroise Paré, who introduced the term in 1560. He
borrowed the term from the Latin emulgere, which means “to milk.” Cows
are milked to obtain milk, and milk, with fat dispersed in water, is precisely
that: an emulsion. In Alchimistes aux fourneaux. Pierre Gagnaire—Hervé
This. Flammarion. 2007.
Enrobe—To cover a food with fondant or cooked sugar.
Enterobacteria—Bacteria found in the digestive tract of animals and
humans. Salmonella, Shigella, E. coli, Yersinia are among them.
Due to their origin, food can be contaminated if there is a lack of hygienic
practices.
Enterotoxin—A toxin produced by microorganisms that are particularly
active in the intestines; for example, Staphylococcal enterotoxin and
Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin.
Enzyme—A soluble organic substance that causes or accelerates a
biochemical reaction.
Escargot—A Viennese pastry made with leavened dough and raisins, rolled
into a spiral, like an almond swirl.
Essential oils—Concentrated hydrophobic liquids from the volatile
aromatic compounds of a plant, obtained by distillation or chemical
extraction with solvents (water, alcohols). Contrary to what the name
implies, these extracts are not necessarily oily. The use of these oils is
increasing as food flavorings. Sometimes these are referred to as plant-
based oils.
Eutectic plate—A plate capable of storing cold and releasing it. Used, for
example, in carts to obtain a temperature that is compatible with the food
transported.
Exudate (or exudation)—Expulsion of physiological fluids from plant
tissue (water from fruit and vegetables) linked to a particular treatment.
F
Far Breton—A flan with fruit.
Fatty acids—The components of lipids.
Festooning—To decorate the edges of a dish with different decorative
elements.
F.I.F.O.—For “first in first out,” which means that a foodstuff that is stored
first must also be taken out and used first.
Fill—a.) To put the filling inside a preparation.
b.) To fill a cornet, pastry (piping) bag, or mold.
Financier—Ladyfinger (sponge finger) batter and ground almonds.
Firm—To add sugar or salt to stiffly beaten egg whites while continuing to
beat to make them stiff.
Firm up—To let rest to become firm, set.
Flakes—Chocolate decorations in the form of small hollowed tubes.
Flambé—Lightly heated alcohol poured over a dish and ignited. Some
alcoholic liqueurs and liquors (spirits) don’t need to be heated.
Flavedo—Another name for citrus peel. Orange, yellow, or green in color.
Flavor—To add a flavoring, alcohol, or fragrance to a preparation.
Fleurons—Small pieces of baked puff pastry.
Flexipan (mold made of)—Trademark. A flexible mold made with
fiberglass and a silicone material. Baked foods do not stick to the surface. A
material developed by the French chemist Guy Demarle.
Floating island (or île flottante)—a.) Poached egg whites in custard.
b.) A decorated Savoy sponge, surrounded by a circle of custard.
Flour—To sprinkle or dust with flour.
Fold—To gently add one ingredient to another.
Fondant—A sugar-based paste.
Food hygiene (Cod; NF)—Food suitability. All conditions and measures
necessary to ensure the safety and wholesomeness of food at all stages of
the food chain. A guarantee that food, when consumed in accordance with
its intended use, is acceptable for human consumption.
Note: “Food hygiene” as a medical term referring to the reasoned choice of
foods (nutrients, dietetics) should not be confused with “food hygiene” as
defined here.
Food safety (Cod; NF)—Assurance that food will not cause harm to the
consumer when it is prepared and/or is eaten according to its intended use.
Note: Food safety is a term that refers to the safety of food supplies in terms
of quantity and quality.
Fougasse—A large flat bread made with brioche dough flavored with
orange flower water.
Frangipane—A pastry cream flavored with almond cream or ground
almonds.
Freeze—To deep-freeze a preparation to cool it for subsequent culinary
operations.
Frost—See “Ice.”
Frozen nougat—Egg yolks and sugar made into a sabayon, with sugar and
honey cooked to soft-ball stage (117ºC/243°F), whipped cream, egg whites
beaten to stiff peaks with sugar, and almonds, hazelnuts, and other
caramelized nuts.
Fruit coulis—Mixed fruits, blended to a semiliquid mixture.
G
Galactomannan—A type of polymer found in the endosperm of many
seeds, guar flour (E412), carob (E410), tara gum (E417), konjac (E425).
Galette des rois—A pastry made with puff pastry dough and filled with an
almond or frangipane cream.
It is often made with brioche batter.
Ganache—A mixture of chocolate and cream.
Gastronomy—By Brillat-Savarin, in 1825, The Physiology of Taste:
“Gastronomy is the reasoned comprehension of everything connected with
the nourishment of man.”
Gel—A gel is a liquid contained in a netlike structure.
Gelatin, as a “paste”— Gelatin can be used to attach a decoration to the
surface of certain cold dishes.
Gelatin, as a thickener—To add gelatin.
In sheet (leaf) form: Soak in cold water to soften it, then squeeze before
adding to a mixture to give it consistency (jelly, bavarois).
In powder form: Dilute in a liquid.
Generation time—With the right conditions (temperature, pH, etc.), the
time needed for a microorganism to divide and therefore multiply.
Gianduja—A paste made with toasted hazelnuts, confectioners’ (icing)
sugar, and milk chocolate (in equal quantities).
Gland—A choux pastry cone or pear-shape pastry.
Glaze—a.) To coat with a layer of gelatin or other preparation to give it a
glossy appearance.
b.) To pour melted butter or syrup over a hot preparation to give it a glossy
appearance.
c.) The use of various ingredients: whole eggs, only yolks, or yolks and
water or cream so that foods turn golden when cooked/baked.
Glucose—The basic molecule of sugars. A sweetener frequently found in
fruits. A component—along with fructose—of table sugar (sucrose).
Gougère—Choux pastry with cheese added to it.
Gouttière—A semitubular mold for making logs.
Gradient—The gradation of a color or temperature.
Grainy—a.) Used to describe beaten egg whites that lose their
homogeneity.
b.) Said of a sugar that crystallizes during cooking.
Granita—A sorbet with a low sugar content.
Grate—To reduce the size of an ingredient into tiny pieces, using a grater.
Grease—To smear with butter, e.g. molds.
Griddle—Or grill in the UK. To cook on a flat, smooth cast-iron surface; a
griddle plate is also known as a plancha.
Grid pattern—To mark the surface of a dessert with a grid pattern using
the spine of a knife blade.
Grill—To brown foods, e.g. on a BBQ or in a skillet.
Grind—To crush, pulverize. To crush finely.
Guignolet—A cherry-based liqueur.
Guitar—A utensil used to slice cakes cleanly.
H
HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point; Cod; NF)—A system
that identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards that are important for food
safety.
HACCP Plan (Cod; NF)—A document prepared in accordance with
HACCP principles to control food safety hazards in regards to the section
of the food chain under consideration.
Halophile—Requiring high concentrations of salt to live.
Halotolerant—Can multiply in environments with high concentrations of
NaCl.
Hazard—From the Arabic, az-zahr, meaning “a dice game,” synonymous
with luck. Hazard in English means danger.
Health mark—A mark in a prescribed form on a foodstuff showing that it
has been prepared in an establishment that has been approved from a health
standpoint.
Healthy carrier—A human or animal carrying germs, parasites, etc.
without showing any clinical signs of this condition.
Homogeneous—A liquid or solid that is perfectly uniform in texture.
Host—Someone who invites others to dine at their home and who is known
for his or her hospitality.
Hot and cold chain—A system that consists of separating the production
from the distribution of meals.
A distinction is made between hot and cold chains.
Hot: The hot part of a meal is kept at a temperature that is compatible with
the hygiene requirements of the meal.
Unless special measures are taken, these foods are kept at a minimum
temperature of above 63ºC (145°F).
Cold: The hot and cold foods are kept cold. The maximum temperature is
3ºC (37.4°F).
Hull—To remove the stem or stalk from a fruit.
Hydrocolloids—Substances that can form a gel when they come in contact
with water. Xanthan, guar, and carob gums are hydrocolloids. They are
frequently used in the food industry.
Hydrophile—A person or something attracted to water.
Hydrophobic—A person or something that repels water.
Hygrometry—The level of humidity in the atmosphere.
Hysteresis—The difference in temperature between when a gel sets and
when it melts. For example, to make a gel “work,” it has to be boiled. Gels
set at around 40ºC (104°F) and below, while melting occurs at around 85ºC
(185°F) and above.
I
Ice—a.) To cover the surface of an entremets or certain pastries with
fondant, “glazing paste,” ganache, etc.
b.) To sprinkle confectioners’ (icing) sugar on an entremets or pastry and
place it in the oven to caramelize the sugar (e.g. apple fritters).
c.) To cool over or in ice.
Ice cream—A frozen preparation made with milk, cream, sugar, and
flavorings.
Impression—A mark to identify something on a product; for example, a
mark on puff pastry to indicate the number of turns made.
Incise—To make cuts to help saturate a food or help it cook faster.
Incision—To cut and insert a decorative element and/or flavoring
ingredient.
Individual quick freezing (I.Q.F.)—A technique for freezing individual
foodstuffs.
Infuse/steep—a.) To put an aromatic substance into a liquid so that it takes
on its properties.
b.) To soak a food or ingredient in an aromatized liquid.
Inhibit—To slow down, stop an activity.
Inhibition—The action of slowing or stopping the multiplication of germs.
Institut de veille sanitaire (InVS)—French Institute for Public Health
Surveillance. A public institution responsible for the permanent monitoring
of the state of health of the population.
Invert—A sweet mixture with the same amount of glucose and fructose.
J
Jalousie—An entremets made with two layers of puff pastry and with a
filling.
Join—To fill any gaps in a pastry dough.
Julienne—To cut various ingredients into thin strips 6 to 7 cm (2½–2¾
inches) long.
K
Kaab el Ghazal—Small Middle Eastern pastry in the shape of a crescent,
also called gazelle horns.
Knead—To mix several elements to obtain a homogeneous dough by
working them with the palms of your hands on a marble pastry surface,
pushing it in front of you to make it homogeneous and smooth (for
example, basic/shortcrust or shortbread pastry dough).
Kouign-amann—A dense, caramelized, puff pastry cake from Brittany.
Kugelhopf—A round cake made in a special mold. Made with a leavened
dough that includes raisins and whole almonds. Savory versions also exist.
Kurti, Nicholas (1908–1998)—Born in Budapest (Hungary) in 1908,
Nicholas Kurti studied at the Minta Gymnasium. A fine gourmet and pastry
enthusiast, he gave a lecture to the Royal Society in 1969 entitled “The
Physicist in the Kitchen.” In 1985, he met the French physical chemist
Hervé This, with whom he invented the discipline of “molecular and
physical gastronomy,” renamed “molecular gastronomy” after his death in
1998. He organized many international symposiums on molecular
gastronomy in Erice, Sicily (Italy), now renamed after him.
L
Lactose—Milk sugar, a combination of one molecule of glucose and one
molecule of galactose.
Laminating machine—A device for rolling dough evenly.
Latticing—To place small, even strips of dough at regular intervals over
the surface of a cake so that they crisscross diagonally.
Lecithin—Phosphatidylcholine is better known as lecithin after the Greek
word Lekithos, the egg yolk from which it was originally extracted. It is a
lipid formed by a choline, a phosphate (the hydrophilic pole), a glycerol,
and two fatty acids (the lipophilic pole). It would be more accurate to speak
of lecithins, because it is not a single molecule but a group, whose fatty acid
composition varies from one molecule to another. Thus, lecithins have
different colors according to this composition, from yellow for plant
lecithin to brown for fish lecithin. Phospholipids are major components of
cell membranes, enabling them to function properly.
Legislation—Regulation (EC) 178/2002.
All the laws, regulations, and administrative provisions governing
foodstuffs in general and their safety in particular at an EU or national level.
Food law covers all stages of production, processing, and distribution of
food and also of animal feed intended for or fed to food-producing animals.
Levain—A dough made by mixing flour, water, and fresh yeast.
Levogyre—See dextrorotatory.
Levulose—Another name for fructose.
Line—a.) To lay ingredients as flat as possible on a dough or mold.
b.) To line the inside of a pie pan or pastry ring with rolled-out pastry
dough; to apply a layer of dough, jelly, filling, or ice cream to the
bottom and inner sides of a pan or mold.
Lipophilic—Someone who likes lipids (fats).
Lipophobe—Someone who dislikes fat.
Loosen—To make a batter or mixture more fluid by adding a liquid
ingredient.
Lot—A series of units of a foodstuff that has been produced, manufactured,
or packaged under pratically identical circumstances.
Lunette (eyeglasses/spectacles)—A small oval shortbread cookie made of
two superimposed layers with a filling. The top layer has two cutout circles,
hence the name.
Lyophilization—Also known as freeze-drying, and formerly
cryodesiccation, is the drying of a previously frozen foodstuff by
sublimation (going from a solid state to a gaseous state without going
through a liquid state). The sublimated element is the water contained in the
food.
M
M (5M or 7M)—The components that make up a cause-effect diagram for
hazard analysis.
- Raw materials
- Environment (premises, water, air)
- Equipment
- Methods (technical worksheets, operating procedures, instructions)
- Manpower (personnel).
5 and/or 7 M?
- Money (available financial resources)
- Management.
Macaronner—To make a batter to a consistency similar to that of a
macaron batter.
Mace—The aril, or seed covering, around a nutmeg (orange-red in color).
Macerate—To soak dried or candied fruit in sugar, eau-de-vie, or liqueur
so that they absorb the taste and aroma.
Maillard, Louis Camille (1878-1936)—A physician and chemist from
Nancy.
While working on the structure of proteins, and in particular on their
synthesis when heated, he chanced upon aromatic and colored substances
that he identified as melanoidins; these brown polymers are responsible for
the color and flavor of many foods: bread crusts, roasted coffee, chocolate,
and beer.
He reported his surprising discovery to the Academy of Sciences on
January 8, 1912.
The details were described in the article Genèse des matières humiques et
des matières protéiques (The Genesis of Protein and Humic Materials).
Mandarine Napoléon—A brand. A liquor made with Sicilian mandarin
peels macerated in cognac.
Mandoline—A utensil used to grate, slice, julienne, or peel fruits and
vegetables.
Manqué—A kind of Savoy sponge.
Marbled—A cake made by pouring two batters, one of a different flavor
and color, into a mold.
Marble pastry surface—A marble work surface, usually chilled.
Marbling—To glaze with fondant by piping parallel lines with a
contrasting color fondant. Draw the tip of a paring knife across the lines to
achieve a marbled look, for example, on millefeuilles pastries.
Marignan—A cake made with a flavored savarin batter.
Marinate—To steep ingredients in an aromatic liquid.
Marron glacé—A candied chestnut.
Mass—A mixture of a significant quantity.
Maturation—The time during which a preparation is transformed and
refined.
Mazagran—a.) City in Algeria.
b.) Hot or cold coffee served in a glass of the same name.
Melon baller—To use a special spoonlike utensil to scoop regular pieces of
different shapes (round, oval) from fruit.
Mendiant—Originally made with leftover bread or stale cakes, the recipe
has evolved and more elegant ingredients are now used but the name has
remained.
Meringue—To pipe a layer of meringue.
Meringues—Regular, Swiss, and Italian meringues.
Microbiological aging test (Cod; NF)—The study of the evolution in a
food of populations of microorganisms that are usually present, regardless if
they are detectable or not.
Microbiological challenge testing (Cod; NF)—The study of the evolution
of a population of microorganisms added to a food, including the size of the
initial deliberately added population.
Microbiological shelf-life (Cod; NF)—The period of time from the date of
production during which a foodstuff remains within the set microbiological
limits for consumption.
Mignardises—Small confections served at the end of a meal.
Milk shakes—Drinks made with a milk base.
Minimum infective dose (M.I.D.) —The minimum amount of
microorganisms (or toxins) present in a food to cause a pathogenic effect in
an individual. This dose varies according to the microorganism. It is also
different for different people.
Miscibility—The ability of two elements to become one. The resulting
mixture is said to be homogeneous. Conversely, liquids are said to be
immiscible if they cannot be mixed and form a heterogeneous mixture;
several layers can be seen. The product with the lower density will rise
above the other one.
Mise au point—The action of working a mixture (for example, couverture
chocolate) into a precise structure. See Temper.
Mix—a.) Synonymous with “mixture.” The food industry offers ready-to-
use mixes.
b.) To process in a mixer.
Mocha—A genoise sponge cake with a coffee buttercream filling, topped
with roasted slivered (flaked) almonds around the edge.
Model—To give something a specific shape.
Modified starch—Substances obtained by treating starch in a number of
specific ways, changing its functional properties.
Moisten—a.) To add a liquid: water, milk, syrup, wine, alcohol, etc.
b.) To gently pour a liquid and/or aromatic preparation over another food.
Mold—To place batter or dough in a pan or other mold.
Monomer—An organic molecule that has the ability to polymerize—that
is, to self-assemble—and thus serves as the basic structural unit for
polymers. Glucose is the basic monomer of starch.
Muffin—A small, dense round cake made with a leavened dough.
Muscovite—A dessert that is similar to a bavarois, or Bavarian cream.
N
Navette—An individual cake shaped like the shuttle of a loom. Ingredients
include a shortbread pastry, almond paste, and orange flower water, custard,
raisins, preserves, etc.
NF Food Hygiene Label—In regards to equipment designed for the food
industry, it guarantees compliance with regulations. It certifies that
technical actions are respected: cold, hot, insulation, and quality of
cleaning.
Nid d’abeilles—A circular cake made with brioche dough and covered
with slivered (flaked) almonds, butter, and sugar. It consists of two disks
filled with pastry cream.
Nitrogen—A chemical with the symbol N and atomic number 7. In
everyday language, nitrogen refers to the diatomic gas N2. Most of the
earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen, which constitutes 78 percent of
the air.
Nonfat dry milk (N.D.M. or N.F.D.M.)—A high level of milk proteins,
hence its effect on whipping.
Nougat—A confectionery made with egg whites, honey and almonds, nuts,
and unleavened bread.
O
Oil—To use oil to baste, brush, or prevent an ingredient from sticking to its
surrounding.
Opera cake—An entremets made with several layers of Joconde sponge
cake, coffee buttercream, chocolate ganache, and chocolate glaze.
ORAC (value or index)—ORAC is the acronym for oxygen radical
absorbance capacity. This index is used to determine the antioxidant
capacity of a foodstuff. The idea is simple: the higher the ORAC index, the
more antioxidant properties the food has in quantitative terms.
Dark red fruits, cocoa, and dark chocolate contain large amounts.
Orangeat—An almond confectionary made of chopped candied orange
peel and white fondant.
Organoleptic (qualities)—Characteristics of foods including their
appearance, color, shape, texture, aroma, and flavor.
Oxidation—When something is combined with oxygen and, in general, a
reaction in which an atom or ion loses electrons.
P
Packaging—The process of protecting foodstuffs with a first wrapper or
container in direct contact with the food and sometimes with another
wrapper or container.
Palate cleanser—A sorbet or other small morsel, usually chilled and
sometimes even with alcohol, served between the courses of a meal.
Palet Breton—Made with Breton butter (and baking powder), these
cookies are circular and crumbly.
Palet de dame—A dry shortbread cookie.
Panache—A series of similar ingredients but with different colors and/or
flavors.
Panade—A mixture of boiling water, flour, and butter (choux pastry
without the addition of eggs).
Pancake—A thin, flat cake cooked in a pan; in France, these are considered
thick crepes, sometimes called American crepes.
Panettone—A cylinder-shape brioche studded with raisins, candied fruit,
and citrus peel.
Pan juices—Caramelized elements from the residual liquid produced
during roasting or sautéing. Essential for creating a flavorsome jus.
Pannequet—A small stuffed pancake that is rolled or folded.
Papillote (a cooking technique)—Consists of enclosing one or more
ingredients (raw and/or precooked) in parchment (baking) paper or
aluminum foil to ensure that they tightly sealed in. The food inside is steam
cooked.
Pare—To remove any unwanted elements from a food.
Parfait—A creamy frozen entremets.
Paris-Brest—A crown-shape pastry made with choux pastry, praline
mousseline cream, and slivered (flaked) almonds.
Pascalization—The use of high pressure as a means of destroying
microorganisms. It gives good results, for example, with fruit juices.
Pasteurization value (PV)—PV is expressed as a number. It reflects the
combined action of a temperature and the length of a heat treatment. The
aim is to pasteurize a preparation.
Pasteurize—To subject to a temperature that will reduce the pathogenic
microbial load.
Pastillage—A nonedible paste made from confectioners’ (icing) sugar,
gelatin, and water.
Pastis—A circular puff pastry cake (rolled by hand until thin) that has a
crumpled look.
Pathogenic—The term pathogenic (from the Greek for “birth of pain”)
means “to cause disease.” Pathogenic germs or bacteria cause diseases and
illnesses.
The pathogenicity of a bacterium is therefore its ability to cause disorders in
a host. It depends on its virulence (ability to spread into tissues and
establish an infection site or sites), and its toxicogenicity (ability to produce
toxins). Many viruses are also pathogenic.
Pâton—A finished, ready-to-use dough, especially puff pastry.
Paucimicrobial—Characterizes an environment or surface that has a low
level of microbes. If a microbial population increases, it goes from being
paucimicrobial to being polymicrobial.
Pavlova—A dessert made with meringue, whipped cream, and fresh fruit.
Paysanne (cut)—A series of ingredients sliced into thin square slices about
1 cm (⅜ inch) on each side and 1 mm (1⁄16 inch) thick.
Peel—To remove the skin of a fruit or vegetable. See also “Blanch.”
Pestle—A tool for crushing or grinding ingredients in a mortar.
Pet de nonne—Literally “nun’s fart,” a fragrant fritter made of choux
pastry and fried.
pH—Abbreviation for potential of hydrogen. A scale for measuring the
acidity of a product. A measure of the quantity of H+ ions. When close to
pH 7, it is neutral. Below pH 7 is considered acidic. Higher than pH 7 is
considered alkaline or basic.
Phase—The state in which a compound may exist, for example, solid,
liquid, gas. It includes the chemical composition and density. In fact, a pure
body in one state (solid, liquid, or gas) generally constitutes a single phase.
Phospholipids—A group of phosphate lipids.
A combination of two fatty acids, glycerol, and phosphate, they constitute
cell membranes. Lecithins are phospholipids.
Pie—Composed of two layers of dough with a filling in between.
Pièce montée—A large pastry, most commonly made of stuffed choux
pastries stuck together with caramel and shaped into a cone.
Pie pan—A mold used for baking pies.
Pinch—A small quantity of a substance.
Pipe—To use a pastry (piping) bag, often fitted with a tip (nozzle), to pipe a
thick batter or mixture onto a baking sheet to the desired shape before
baking, such as choux puffs, ladyfingers (sponge fingers), meringues, and
Duchess potatoes.
To pipe a preparation attractively onto a plate or dish.
Pith—The bitter white part just below the outer layer of skin of a citrus
fruit.
Pithiviers—A dessert made of two layers of puff pastry and filled with
frangipane or almond cream.
Platter—An oval serving dish. Platters and salvers are serving dishes that
are part of a set of platers or dinnerware.
Plombières—An ice cream made with almond extract flavored with kirsch
and studded with candied fruit, similar to tutti frutti ice cream.
Plum pudding—A sweet dessert of English origin and made with many
ingredients.
Poach—To cook in a simmering liquid.
Pogne—A brioche cake in the shape of a crown.
Poire Belle-Hélène—A poached pear on a layer of vanilla ice cream,
slivered (flaked) almonds, and topped with hot chocolate sauce.
Polka—A sweet pastry layer topped with choux pastry, frangipane cream,
and whipped cream and/or pastry cream.
Polyols (or sugar alcohols)—Or “polyalcohol,” an organic compound
characterized by a number of -OH (hydroxyl) groups. They contain at least
two alcohol groups. Used as sweeteners.
Pound—To crush vigorously in a mortar and pestle.
Pound cake—A cake traditionally made with a pound (450 g) each of
flour, sugar, eggs, and butter.
Precise temperature (single ingredient)—To apply a specific heat to a
food.
Precise temperature for sous-vide—The application of a specific heat to a
food that has been hermetically sealed in a heat resistant pouch, the
atmosphere of which has been modified (via a vacuum, with or without the
addition of liquid).
Press—To push a mixture, cream, or coulis through a sieve or cheesecloth
(muslin) using a regular motion.
Prick—To make small holes in a pastry shell (case) with a roller docker or
fork to prevent it from rising in the oven.
Procedure (ISO N)—A specified way of performing an activity or process.
Process (ISO N)—A set of interrelated or interactive activities that
transforms inputs into outputs.
Profiterole—A choux puff filled with Chantilly cream and served with a
hot chocolate sauce.
Proof—The time it takes for a dough to rise between making it and baking
it.
Proofing/proofed—A dough that shows a change in volume, that has
“grown.”
Pudding—A dessert, but it can also be savory.
Pulling (sugar)—The process of stretching cooked sugar and folding it
over itself several times to make it smooth.
Punch down (knock back)—To stop the fermentation of a leavened dough
by kneading several times so that it can develop better.
Putrefaction—The transformation of protein-rich foodstuffs by the action
of microorganisms, also called putrid fermentation. Leads to ptomaines.
Q
Quality management (ISO N)—Coordinated activities for directing and
controling an organization in regard to its quality.
Note: The direction and control of an organization in regard to quality
usually includes the establishment of a quality policy and quality objectives,
quality planning, quality control, quality assurance, and quality
improvement.
Quality Manual—A manual that sets out the main provisions of the quality
system and a company’s processes.
It allows for customers, auditors, and staff to understand and trust the
organization.
Quantum satis—Quantum satis means that there is no maximum amount
given. It is therefore advisable to use only the amount of an ingredient
strictly necessary to obtain the desired technological effect.
Quince cheese—A paste made from quinces.
R
Ramekin—A small, round, individual container used for cooking in a
water bath (bain-marie) and/or oven.
Rare—In cooking, said of a food that is served almost raw.
Reduce—To cook, uncovered, to evaporate a certain amount of liquid by
using intense heat to obtain a more syrupy base and/or a concentration of
flavor by reducing the volume.
Reduction—Prolonging the action of heat to evaporate water.
Religieuse—An individual cake made with two stuffed choux puffs, the
smaller one being placed on top of the larger one. It is decorated with
Chantilly cream.
Reserve/set aside—To place raw or cooked food temporarily on or in a
plate, tray, or pan to be used later.
Rest—To let a preparation sit for a period of time without handling it or
adding any ingredients.
Rhodoid—A trademark. A semirigid plastic sheet.
Ribbon—The appearance of a mixture after being whisked or beaten well,
forming a thick and continuous ribbon when allowed to fall from the whisk
or spatula.
Ridge—To form a lip with your fingers around the outer edge of rolled-out
pastry dough to hold the filling in place during baking.
Rim—To apply fine salt or sugar to the rim of a glass.
The edge of a dish or plate.
Rise—To let a dough increase in volume, either during baking or during
fermentation. The volume of a leavened dough can be increased by placing
it at a suitable temperature in a warm draft-free place.
Risen—Referring to a fermented dough that has increased in volume.
Risk—A dangerous situation in which the possibility of chance may be
involved. To expose oneself to danger in the hope of gaining an advantage.
(Cod; NF).
A measure of the likelihood or severity of an adverse health effect resulting
from one or more hazards in a food.
Risk analysis (NF)—The process of analyzing risks.
A process with three parts: scientific risk assessment, risk management, and
risk communication.
a.) Risk analysis on sanitary and phytosanitary measures is required by the
agreement on the application. It affects international trade. Individual
countries also conduct risk analysis for domestic use.
b.) Risk analysis is conducted on generic types of food or products.
c.) The three components of risk analysis are interconnected.
Roast—To subject an ingredient to a source of heat to create color, taste,
and flavor.
Roll out—To roll out a dough or mixture (by hand, with a rolling pin, or
using a dough sheeter) to a particular shape and desired thickness to place,
for example, in a mold or pastry ring.
Rondeau—A cooking vessel with deep sides.
Rounds—Vegetables, fruits cut into regular circular slices.
Royal icing—A mixture of egg whites and confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Rub in—To rub ingredients together to the texture of sand or coarse
crumbs.
S
Sabayon—A mixture of eggs and alcohol whisked over heat for it to
thicken.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae—A living yeast cell, whose name means “sugar
fungus” and whose species name “cerevisiae” comes from the Latin for “of
beer.” Nowadays, it is made industrially using molasses, the residue left
behind when sugar is extracted from sugar beet.
Sag (degree)—Refers to the strength of pectin. Commercial pectins are
often 150º Sag.
Saint-Honoré—A circular pastry, individual or large, made with a layer of
sweet or puff pastry, choux pastry, and Chiboust cream.
Salamander—An electric or gas appliance used to heat the tops of dishes.
For gratins: to glaze, caramelize.
Salambo—A small choux pastry, slightly oval in shape, filled with pastry
cream, topped with a green glaze.
Salpicon—A filling consisting of one or more ingredients always cut into
small cubes, held together with a sauce, various creams, hot or cold, and
also used to stuff appetizers, croustades, pies, and timbales.
Sanitary approval—Prior authorization issued by the relevant authority to
allow an establishment to sell foodstuffs or animal products.
Satinizing—The process of stretching and folding sugar after it has been
cooked to a certain temperature to make it opaque, before making flowers,
leaves, etc.
Scallop—Or escalope, a fairly thick slice of meat cut at an angle.
Score—To make shallow incisions on a surface to form a decoration.
Scoring an apple—To lightly score an apple around its circumference with
the tip of a knife to prevent it from bursting while baking.
Scour—To remove large visible dirt from floors, equipment, and work
surfaces.
Scrape—The act of removing most residue from a plate or other container
before washing it properly.
Scrape down—To scrape a bowl with a scraper to leave behind as little
batter or mixture as possible.
Scraps (trimmings)—Pieces obtained after trimming: peelings, surplus,
pieces of unused dough.
Sculpting tools—Used to make decorative designs.
Sealing dough—Flour mixed with egg white or water. The consistency
should be as thick as needed. It is used to seal cooking vessels so that no
steam can escape.
Seal with pastry—To seal the lid of a container with a dough made of flour
and water to let the food retain its flavor and prevent evaporation. This is
called luter in French. The dough, placed around the lid of the cooking
vessel, creates a perfect seal, which is called a lut in French.
Sear—To start cooking a food.
Season—To add a condiment, salt, pepper, etc.
Seed—(Also deseed) to remove the seeds from a fruit or vegetable.
Self-monitor—The control someone has over their own work according to
specific instructions.
More generally, it is the control carried out at a company level and at the
company’s initiative. It is a key element of the control system within the
framework of HACCP procedures. Self-monitoring may affect
microbiological analyzes, time/temperature parameters, staff hygiene,
compliance with instructions, etc.
Shape—To give form.
Shell—To remove the shells from hard- or soft-boiled eggs or from nuts.
Shrinkage—Refers to a loss of volume or height of a mixture or
preparation.
Sift—To pass an ingredient through a sifter or sieve.
Silicone spatula—A rubber, plastic or silicone spatula for mixing and for
scraping down the sides of utensils used in pastry making.
Silpat—A trademark. Nonstick pastry mats and baking mats that are sheets
of fiberglass and rubberized silicone. Material developed by the French
chemist Guy Demarle.
Simmer—Simmering refers to the state of a liquid that is close to boiling
but does not actually boil.
Skim—To remove the scum from the surface of sugar, syrup, preserves, etc.
while being cooked.
Skin—To remove the skin from a nut, such as an almond, or fruit.
Slice—Cutting fruit (apples) into slices, strips, or thin rounds.
Sliver—Or flake, to cut almonds (or other nuts) into fine slices.
Smooth—a.) A stage in the cooking of sugar.
b.) To make smooth, without any lumps.
Soak—To saturate a preparation (such as a sponge cake) with an aromatic
liquid by dipping it in or brushing it with the liquid. For example, to
saturate a savarin, a sponge cake layer (such as mocha) with a mixture of
syrup and alcohol.
Sodium citrate (Na)—The sodium salt of citric acid.
An acidity regulator, calcium chelator and reduces water hardness. It is used
for reverse spherification in an alginate solution. The water can, in fact, be
high in calcium but its action is to limit the thickening of the spherification
bath.
Sous-vide/vacuum cooking—The technique of packaging a food in a
special plastic bag. The aim is to compress it as close as possible to the food
by removing the air; this results in an even cooking. Vacuum packing
allows for the plastic packaging to be in close contact with the contents.
The food can then be cooked in a more or less aqueous medium (steam,
water). Good hygienic practices and technical knowledge are necessary to
carry out this type of preparation properly.
Speckling—To spray small dots of coloring or chocolate.
Spoom—A sorbet made with sugar and Italian meringue.
Spore—A form of bacterial resistance where environmental conditions are
difficult (lack of food, inadequate temperature, excessive acidity, etc.). As
soon as the conditions return to normal, the bacterium returns to its
vegetative state, which allows it to resume its normal metabolism.
Sporulation—A germ that is capable of sporulating, taking on the form of
a spore.
Spread—To distribute a thin even layer of an ingredient over another
surface.
Sprigs—The leaves of parsley, chervil, mint, etc. separated from the stem.
Sprinkle—To scatter various ingredients.
Squeeze—An action that consists in minimizing a volume, a consistency.
For example, to get the most out of aromatic compounds.
Stabilize—To make stable in one of different ways. This can include the
addition of a stabilizer.
Starch—Starch molecules are macromolecules made up of thousands of
glucose molecules. Specific properties allow for a distinction to be made
between amylose and amylopectin.
Starting date (ISO N)—The date chosen as the starting point for the life
cycle.
Note: The starting date is set by the manufacturer and corresponds to a
stage of manufacture that he or she considers appropriate and relevant and
which, for a given food, is always the same.
In commercial or collective baking, where baking or cooking is involved,
the starting date is the date when a foodstuff or a group of foodstuffs is
cooked or baked.
Steam—The vapor produced when baking in an oven.
Steep—See “Infuse.”
Sterilization—An action or process used to reduce or control microbial
contamination of foodstuffs.
Sterilize—To use heat to destroy all bacteria or other living
microorganisms to be able to preserve the foodstuff.
Sterilizing value (F)—F is the duration of a heat treatment (in minutes) at a
temperature of 121ºC (250°F) that is necessary to achieve a sterilized
product.
Stewpan—A large cooking vessel.
Sticky dough—The state of a dough, worked carelessly, that becomes
elastic and sticky.
Stir—To mix a sauce or cream with a utensil to make it smooth and prevent
a skin from forming on the surface.
Stop the cooking process—This practice is used primarily for cooking
caramel. It consists of adding a liquid to the cooked sugar to reduce the
temperature.
Strain—To pass a liquid through a utensil, such as a conical sieve, to
remove unwanted ingredients.
Striate—To make deep cuts.
Stuff—To insert a stuffing or filling into another foodstuff.
Stuffing—A more or less homogeneous mixture of ingredients.
Succès—A cake made with almond meringue disks and cream, similar to a
gâteau russe or dacquoise.
Sucrology—a.) Glycophilia refers to collecting small, intact sugar packets
or sachets. Collectors and lovers of these little packets of sugar are called
sucrologists.
b.) Periglycophilia refers to collecting empty sugar packets. Enthusiasts and
collectors are periglycophiles.
Sucrose—Another name for saccharose. The scientific name for table
sugar.
Sugar lamp—A lamp that gives off a regular temperature for working with
sugar.
Sugar loving/sugar bashing—Refers to the perception of sugar by some
consumers. For some, the former is a matter of pointing out the pleasure
and energy derived from sugar. For others, it embodies a reluctance and
concern about using sugar.
Supreme—A section (segment) of a lemon or orange without the
membrane.
Suspension—Similar to an emulsion, but the liquid fat is replaced by solid
particles.
Suzette (crepes)—Crepes, butter with mandarin, orange, or lemon zest,
fruit juice, Grand Marnier, or Mandarine Impériale.
Sweat—Cooking over moderate heat to let the water in ingredients to
evaporate.
Sweet and sour—Fruit and vegetables prepared with sweet and sour
flavors.
Sweeten—To add sugar, preserves, or honey.
Syneresis—A phenomenon in which the two parts of a preparation
separate. One part is solid and the other is liquid. This is the case with
traditional starches that cannot withstand high and/or prolonged variations
in temperature.
T
Talmouse—A flaky pastry shell (case) filled with pastry cream and/or
frangipane cream.
Talmouses are usually triangular in shape.
Tant-pour-tant—It literally means “so much for so much” and refers to
equal amounts of two or more ingredients.
It is generally used for mixtures of whole raw almonds (or hazelnuts) and
sugar (confectioners’/icing sugar or superfine/caster sugar).
Tartaric acid—E334. It is a substitute citric acid.
It acidifies cooked sugars and enhances gelification.
Tarte Tatin—An apple tart that is cooked (and caramelized) “upside
down.”
Tear—The eponymous shape of a mold.
Telluric—Something that proceeds from the soil.
Temper (classic method)—To lay a layer of chocolate on a marble pastry
surface. It is then worked to the desired consistency and shine.
Tempering—Bringing a mixture to the right temperature for it to be used.
Template—A flat utensil made of different materials used to make shapes
for making cookies or other small baked goods or for decorating cakes.
Also, the act of using a template.
Thermoresistant—The ability for an organism to survive in a high
temperature.
Thermosensitive—Said of an organism that cannot tolerate high
temperatures.
Thickener—Gives consistency but does not give shape, because it is not a
gelling agent. Thickened foods should be presented in a container (glass,
spoon, plate, etc.).
Thixotropy—A fluid is said to be thixotropic if, when under constant stress
(or velocity gradient), its viscosity changes over time.
Thread—A stage in the cooking of sugar.
Timbale—A filling enclosed in dough.
Tiramisu—An Italian layered dessert made with ladyfingers (sponge
fingers) or genoise sponge cake soaked in coffee syrup, mascarpone,
slivered (flaked) almond praline, and cocoa powder.
Toothpick (or cocktail pick)—A small metal or wooden skewer used to
hold food in place decoratively.
Traceability (ISO standard)—To track.
The ability to follow the documentation, production, and location of
foodstuffs and ingredients in question.
Note: In the case of a foodstuff, it can involve:
- the origin of ingredients and components;
- the way a foodstuff is produced;
- the distribution and location of the foodstuff after delivery.
Trim—A technique to give a foodstuff a neater appearance; for example, to
remove excess drips of chocolate or fondant or to shape crepes evenly.
Tropézienne—A brioche pastry dessert filled with a rum and
confectioners’ (icing) sugar mousseline cream.
Truffle—A spherical bonbon. Flavored chocolate, rolled in cocoa powder
and sometimes also in confectioners’ (icing) sugar.
Tuile—A small, dry curved cookie (biscuit) shaped like a roof tile, made
with confectioners’ (icing) sugar, egg whites, flour, chopped almonds.
Orange and lemon are sometimes used to make tuiles.
Tulip—A thin dough or wafer shaped like a basket to serve food in.
Turn—To perform various operations to make dough with a rolling pin or a
dough sheeter. A word used specifically for making puff pastry.
Turron—A rectangular or round confection made with honey, sugar, egg
whites, and almonds.
Tutti frutti—In Italian it means “all fruit.” An ice cream containing many
fruits and flavors.
U
Unmold—To remove from a mold.
V
Vacherin—A meringue- and ice cream-based entremets, with Chantilly
cream and chocolate shavings, etc.
Vacuum-sealing—See “Sous-vide.”
Value of fermentation—The ability of a flour to ensure a balanced
fermentation.
It is mainly the amylases (enzymes) contained in the flour that influence its
fermentative properties.
The amylasic strength of flour is measured by the Hagberg falling number
method or a Brabender amylograph.
Fermentation activity is measured using a Chopin rheofermentometer or
zymotachygraph.
Vandyke cut—To use the tip of a paring knife to cut a lemon or orange
with a zigzag along its circumference. To separate the two halves.
Vanilla extract—An aromatic substance obtained by macerating vanilla
beans in alcohol.
Veil—A term from French baking, to sprinkle a “veil” of sugar onto a
preparation.
Viennoiserie pastries—A generic term for a range of Viennese pastries
made with leavened dough: brioches, rolls, croissants, etc.
Vol-au-vent—A large, round pastry shell (case).
W
Waffle—A rectangular, honeycombed pastry.
Water bath—Also known as a bain-marie. a.) Cooking in a container filled
halfway with boiling water, such as for pot de crème, crème caramel.
b.) A small, deep container used to keep foodstuffs warm (sauce, juice).
This container is placed in a larger container of boiling water, called a
“water bath box.”
c.) Thermostatically controlled water bath that allows for the cooking water
to move constantly and at a precise programmable temperature.
Water dough—A mixture of flour, water, and salt in the first step to make
puff pastry dough.
Water hardness level—The degree of water hardness that is obtained by
measuring the compounds of calcium in it. It is an indicator of the level of
minerals in the water. It is mainly proportional to the concentration of
compounds of calcium and magnesium. Water hardness is classified as: less
than 60 mg/L is considered soft; between 60 and 120 mg/L is considered
medium hard; between 120 and 180 mg/L is considered hard; more than
180 mg/L is considered very hard. The scale ranges from 0 to more than
180. A generally moderate value is considered to be around 150 mg/L
concentration of calcium carbonate.
Weigh—To quantify the weight of the ingredients needed.
A syrup is weighed by evaluating the sugar content—in other words, its
density.
Well (of flour)—A mound of flour with a “cavity” in the center.
Whif—The art of indulging through inspiration, in this case like enjoying a
drag of chocolate. The “whif” is a chocolate inhaler, with fewer calories
than chocolate, but less dangerous than a cigarette.
Whip—To beat briskly with a whisk (by hand or with a machine) to
incorporate as much air as possible into a preparation; for example,
whipped egg whites, whipped cream, etc.
Wok—A semispherical cooking utensil used in some Asian countries.
Work—To mix, knead, whisk, or give body to a preparation.
X
Xenobiotic—A substance with toxic properties, even when it has low
concentrations of it.
A substance that is foreign to animal life.
Z
Zest—To cut away the outer layer of the skin (zest) of a citrus fruit (lemon
or orange).
Zester—A utensil used to remove the outer layer of the peel of a lemon or
orange without any of the pith. The zest is the colored part of the skin of a
lemon, lime, or orange. It can be used to make vertical incisions along the
surface of lemons, oranges, carrots, etc. to create striped slices for
decorating.
Zooglea—A cluster of bacteria in a “recess.”
Zymase—An enzyme found in bakers yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).
During the fermentation of bread dough, it converts glucose into alcohol
(ethanol) and into carbon dioxide (CO2).
OceanofPDF.com
INDEX OF SEARCHABLE TERMS
Additives, food
Agar (agar-agar)
Airbrush
Alcohols
Alginate
Allergens
Allergies
Almond paste
Almonds
Alveograph, Chopin’s
Amandines
Animal welfare
Apicius
Appetizers (dough for)
Apple turnover
Arrowroot
Ascorbic acid
Ash content
Aspartame
Avicenna
Baba
Bacteriological testing
Baking powder
Baking quality
Barley
Base
Batter, brioche
Batter, cake
Batter, genoise cake
Batter, madeleine
Batter, meringue
Batter, sponge cake
Baumé (degree)
Beans
Bloom (value)
Bonbons, chocolate
Brazil nuts
Breton sponge cake
Brioche
Brioche, Nanterre
Brix (degrees)
Buckwheat
Butter
Buttercream
Café Procope
Cake
Candy
Candy sugar
Cannaméliste (Le cannaméliste français)
CAP Pâtissier- Confiseur-Glacier
Caramel
Carême, Antonin
Carrageenan
Carré, Ferdinand
Caseins
Cashew nuts
Cassava (manioc)
Celiac disease
Celsius, Anders
Centers (inserts)
Charlotte
Chestnuts
Chocolate, working with
Chocolate confectionery
Chopin
Choux pastry
Churning
Citric acid
Cocoa
Cocoa bean
Cocoa butter
Cocoa powder, unsweetened
Cocoa tree
Coffee
Coloring, food
Colostrum
Compotes
Condiments
Convenience food, processed food
Cooking (Maillard reaction)
Cooking equipment
Cooking sugar
Corn (maize)
Coulis
Couverture chocolate
Cream
Cream, almond
Cream, Chantilly
Cream, mousseline
Cream, pastry cream
Cream, whipping
Cream of tartar
Creativity
Crème fleurette
Crepe batter (oublies)
Croissants
Crystallization
Custard (crème anglaise)
Dangers
Danicheff
Dartois
Deep-freezing
Degree (Brix) (see Brix)
Delessert, Franklin
Design
Designations of origin (PDO/PGI)
Dextrose
Diplomat cream
Dornic (degree)
Dough, basic (shortcrust) pastry
Dough, croissant dough
Dough, shortbread pastry
Dough, sweet pastry
Dry butter
Egg products
Enhancers
Entremets
Fahrenheit, Gabriel
Felder, Christophe
Fermentation
Flavorings
Flour
Flour, semi-whole wheat
Fondant
Food safety plan (PMS)
Forward flow
Fraisier
Freeze-drying
Freezing
Fructose
Fruit, candied
Fruit, déguisé
Fruit, dried
Fruit, fresh
Fruit, tropical
Fruit pastes
Functional properties
Galette
Ganache
Gelatin desserts
Gelatin mass
Gelatin sheets (leaves)
Gellan gum
Genoa bread (Pain de Gênes)
Genoise cake batter
Gianduja
Glaze
Glucose
Gluten
Good hygiene practices
Gouffé, Jules
Guild
Gum, arabic
Gum, carob bean
Gum, guar
Gum, tragacanth
HACCP
Hazelnuts
History
Honey
Humoral theory
Hygiene, food
Hygiene, equipment
Hygiene, premises
Ice cream
Influence, Arabic
Influence, Italian
Influence, religious
Invert sugar syrup
Irradiation
Isomalt
Jalousie
Joconde sponge
K
Kelvin (degree)
Kirsch
Laboratory
Lactose
Ladyfingers (sponge fingers)
L’Art de bien traiter (book) LSR
Lebanon
Lecithin
Levain
Liqueurs
Liquid nitrogen
Liquors
Lucullus
Macadamia nuts
Macarons
Madeleines
Malt
Maple syrup
Margarine
Margraff, A. S.
Mascarpone
Meringues
Meunerie
Microwave
Milk
Millefeuilles
Minutal
Mix
Mocha
Modified starches
Molecular
Mono- and diglycerides
Mousses
Mussels
Nanoparticles
Nanterre brioche
N.A.S.H.
NFDM
Nostradamus
Nougat
Nougatine
Nutritional claims
Nuts (see also “specific nuts”)
Oats
Occupational Risk Assessment Document (ORAD)
Ohmic treatment
Oils, edible
Oils, essential
Oilseeds
Opera cake
Operating procedures
Organic
Organization (of premises)
Ovens
P
Palmiers
Paris-Brest
Pascalization
Paste, almond
Paste, fruit
Paste, glazing
Pastillage
Pastry (piping) bag
Pecans
Pectin
Phoenicians
Pithiviers
Polka
Pollution
Polyols
Potatoes
Poulain, Jean-Pierre
Praline
Preservation methods
Preserves
Procurement
Production materials
Proteins
Range (of products)

Ready mixes
Refractometer
Refrigerant
Refrigeration
Refrigeration equipment
Rice
Risks
Rolled sponge cake
Royal icing
Rub-in pastry dough
Rum
Rye
Sag (degree)
Saint-Honoré cake
Salt
Savarin
Savoy sponge cake
Shelf life
Shortbread pastry
Siphon
Soaking
Sorbet
Sorbitol
Soufflés
Soy
Spices
Standards
Starch
Storage
Succès or Russe cake
Sucrose
Sugar
Sugarcane
Sugar syrup
Surfactants
Sustainable development
Sweeteners
Sweet pastry doughs
T
Taillevent
Tarte Tatin
Tea
Technical information
Tellier, Charles
Temperature control
Tempered chocolate
Template
Thermalization
This, Hervé
Thuriès, Yves
Tiramisu
Traditional specialties guaranteed (TSG)
Triticale
Truffles (chocolate)
Ultrasound
UNESCO
Use-by date (UBD)
Vanilla
Vanillin
Viandier, Le
Villehardouin, Geoffroy de
Vinegar
Vol-au-vent shells (cases)
Walnuts
Waste
Waste sorting
Weights and measures
Wheat
Wheat, milled
Whey
Wines
Workshops, experimental
World Health Organization (WHO)
X, Y, Z
Xanthan gum
Yeast
Yule log
Zeleny (test and index)
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INDEX OF WORKSHEETS
Acacia flower fritters

Almond-flavored Savoy sponge cakes
Almond pound cake
Almond swirls
Alsatian apple tart
Apple fritters
Apple tart
Apple turnovers
Apricot jalousies
Beignets
Black Forest cake
Bourdaloue pear tart
Bugnes or angel wing fritters
Caramel and rum raisin entremets
Cherry custard tart
Chocolate pear tart
Chocolate soufflé
Chocolate tartlets
Coffee and chocolate religieuses
Coffee éclairs
Cream puffs
Crème brûlée
Crème caramel
Crème viennoise
Crepes
Crepes normandes
Croissants
Croquembouche
Dacquoise with ganache filling
Dacquoise with coffee mousse filling
Dark chocolate mousse
Far Breton
Flaky brioches
Fraisier cake
French custard tart
Fromage blanc tart
Fruitcake
Fruit tart
Genoa bread
Genoise sponge with custard
Gingerbread
Îles flottantes
Kugelhopf
Ladyfingers
Layered Bavarian cream
Lemon meringue tartlets
Lemon tart
Liqueur soufflé
Madeleines
Mascarpone, chestnut, and black currant entremets
Meringue chantilly
Millefeuilles
Millefeuilles with mixed berries
Mixed berry tart
Mocha cake
Opera cake
Pains au chocolat
Palmiers
Paris-Brest
Pavlova
Pithiviers
Pound cake
Raspberry Linzer torte
Rice pudding
Riz à l’impératrice
Sacher torte
Saint-Honoré with Chantilly cream
Savarin
Savoy sponge cake
Strawberry charlotte
Strawberry gratin with champagne sabayon
Tarte Tatin
Traditional yule log
Two-chocolate triangle entremets
Vanilla, coffee, and chocolate pots de crème
Yule log using a mold

Apricot ice cream (cream and milk base)
Baked Alaska
Lemon and coconut nitro sorbet
Meringue with ice cream and Chantilly cream
Nougat ice cream
Oranges givrées
Poire Belle-Hélène
Raspberry, blueberry, and orange sorbets
Strawberry sorbet
Vanilla and chocolate ice creams (custard base)
Vanilla vacherin
ASSORTED SMALL BAKED GOODS

Almond tuiles
Cannelés
Chilled cream-filled choux pastries
Chocolate macarons
Cigarettes russes
Coconut meringue rocks
Financiers
Other small baked goods
Other tuiles
Shortbread cookies
Vanilla shortbread cookies
SAVORY DISHES
Cheese allumettes
Cheese puffs
Cheese soufflés
Choux puffs with smoked salmon
Italian-style melon mousse
Quiche comtoise
Saucisson brioché
CONFECTIONERY
Caramel-dipped fruits déguisés
Chocolate-dipped candied orange
Liquor-filled chocolates
Marshmallows
Nougat de Montélimar
Vanilla truffles
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Second quarter 2022
English translation: Cillero & de Motta
© Éditions BPI
1, bd des Bouvets
92000 Nanterre
www.editions-bpi.fr
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The Pastry Chef Handbook - Jean Michel Truchelut

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The Pastry Chef Handbook - Jean Michel Truchelut

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To Anne, my children, and my mom.

Our Education Partners wish to offer their expertise, their educational

Limit of liability / Disclaimer of warranty:

Already available in French

Digital version included

Editions BPI 2022—ISBN: 978-2-85708-935-3

BASIC TECHNIQUES AND PREPARATIONS,

TO ACCESS THE VIDEOS ONLINE

scan the QR code with a smartphone or tablet,

Making pastry requires acquiring the skills necessary to execute recipes

Sponge cake batters

Rolling dough with a dough sheeter

Genoise sponge cake batter

CHOUX PASTRY DESSERTS

CREPE BATTER DESSERTS

LEAVENED DOUGH OR BATTER DESSERTS

PUFF PASTRY DESSERTS

ICE CREAMS AND SORBETS

Recipes by Chef Jean-Michel Loessel (Les Semailles restaurant, La

INDEX OF SEARCHABLE TERMS

INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF HUMANITY

WE MUST NOT BE DEPRIVED OF DESSERT!

A VITAL ROLE IN CULINARY EXCELLENCE

AT THE END OF THE MEAL

©All rights reserved

FERMENTATION, AN ESSENTIAL DISCOVERY4

MEDIEVAL HISTORY—THE FIFTH TO FIFTEENTH

©All rights reserved

FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES: UNDER

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY: THE BIRTH OF GOOD TASTE

CONTEMPORARY HISTORY: 1789 TO THE PRESENT

©All rights reserved

The CAP Pâtissier-Confiseur-Glacier vocational diploma in pastry,

©All rights reserved

ROUND AND FLAT HONING STEELS

Used exclusively for peeling certain fruits and vegetables.

V-CUT GARNISHING KNIFE

STRAIGHT AND OFFSET ICING SPATULAS

Used for efficient scraping.

FINE CONICAL SIEVE AND CONICAL SIEVE

Used for controlling the direction and quantity of flow.

• Sheet cake pan

Used for measuring the temperature of sugars, syrups, etc.

Utensil used specifically for cooking sugar.

FRENCH SKILLET (SAUTEUSE PAN)

FOOD STORAGE TRAY

Used for precision cutting of chocolates, ganaches, and cakes.

The planetary mixer is an indispensable part of any commercial pastry

An appliance for large-scale production specifically for industrial pastry-

Bermixer Pro Turbo portable mixer © Electrolux Professional

K45 food processor (cutter mixer) with special emulsifier © ElectroluxProfessional

© Sinmag Europe—All rights reserved

SPRING PLUS 803TN AFINOX 600*400 positive cold refrigerated prep

© All rights reserved

© All rights reserved

© All rights reserved

A machine used for applying an even and homogeneous coating of an

GIORIK Unika 900 6—10KW high performance gas stove © Eberhardt

POT RECOGNITION SENSOR

D3700-1 TECNOX single-burner induction cooktop © Eberhardt

GIORIK Unika 900 stainless steel stove glass-ceramic cooktops © Eberhardt

GIORIK Steambox H combi oven with Symbiotic System® (boiler + injection)