Sufism: Meaning, Features and Impact on India

By
Dr Sanjay Sen
Asst. Professor, Margherita College

Sufism was an important religious force in India during the medieval period. It is a form of
Islamic mysticism. Sufism was a revolt against orthodox Islam. The Islamic stress on equality
was respected by the Sufis far more than by the Ulemas. They sincerely believed that there
are many paths to reach God.
In the early centuries of Islam a group of religious minded people called sufis turned to
asceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing materialism of the Caliphate as a
religious and political institution. They were critical of the dogmatic definitions and
scholastic methods of interpreting the Qur’an and Sunna (traditions of the Prophet) adopted
by theologians. Instead, they laid emphasis on seeking salvation through intense devotion and
love for God by following His commands, and by following the example of the Prophet
Muhammad whom they regarded as a perfect human being. The sufis thus sought an
interpretation of the Qur’an on the basis of their personal experience.
Sufism is a path of selfless experiencing and actualization of the truth. The Sufi thought,
syncretic values, literature, education, and entertainment that has created an enduring impact
on the presence of Islam in contemporary India. Sufi Saints became popular because they
preached Indo-Muslim devotional music traditions in local dialects. In the above list of Sufi
Saints and their contribution will enhance the general knowledge of the readers.
Sufism is an old religious sect. It had penetrated into India prior to the establishment of the
Delhi Sultanate. But once the rule of the Muslims was firmly entrenched in India, a large
number of Sufi saints came to India and settled themselves in different parts of the country
and Sufism gained popularity.
Once Sufism settled down in India, it was influenced by Indian environment and included
within itself some Indian practices, ideas and philosophy, and, in turn, affected Indian
religious thoughts as well. Love towards God, non-violence, Tapa (practice of self-
discipline), keeping apart from the material comforts of life, etc. were common values
accepted among the Hindus, the Buddhist and the Jainas in India.
Sufi saints were influenced by these virtues and they accepted them as their own. Besides, as
they desired to convert the Hindus as well to their faith, they accepted many customs and
practices which were popular among the Hindus. That also influenced Sufism indirectly.
Many ceremonies and other practices such as remembering God by singing and playing of
musical instruments of sufi-saints, particularly of Chisti sect, were of Indian origin and were,
certainly, because of Indian environment. Group singing and remembering God in that way
by the Sufis was like the Kirtan of Chaitanya and his followers.
Love and liberalism were common to Sufism and Hinduism. Mystic discipline in both meant
moral development of individual and the society as well so that these could rise above the
barriers of caste, colour, creed, wealth, power and position. Like Hinduism, Sufism also
aimed at the intellectual and emotional communion with God as well as service to humanity.
In turn, Sufism also influenced Hindu society and religion. The saints of Bhakti-cult like
Kabir, Nanak, Dadu and Dayal were, certainly, influenced by Sufi-saints. Many among them
were influenced by monotheism of Islam. Efforts were made by several of them to remove
the barriers of caste. Probably the concept of Guru or the preceptor among the saints of
Bhakti-cult was also influenced by the concept of Pir among the Sufis.
The philosophy of Sufism believes in one God and regards every individual and everything
else as part of Him. The Sufi saints preached that ‘God is one’, ‘all is in God’, ‘nothing is
beyond or outside Him’ and ‘one can find God by renouncing everything except loving
devotion to God.’
The Sufis were devout Muslims who moved within the Shariat (laws of Islam) and believed it
as the true way to attain salvation. However, they attached no importance to dogmatic
formalism of Islam of the orthodox type but emphasised on the inner spirit of the Islam, that
is, while the orthodox Muslims emphasised on external conduct, the Sufis emphasised on
inner purity and love to God as means of searching God.
The Sufi saints led a simple or rather ascetic life and believed in renunciation of all worldly
possessions and pleasures. They did not believe in image-worship of any form. They
regarded God as kind and benevolent and therefore, they did not fear Him but loved Him.
That is why they emphasised on loving every living-being and avoided meat-eating.
They regarded Desire as the primary enemy of human being and therefore, emphasised on
giving it up. They believed in leading an ascetic life, devotion to God and remembering Him
always. Music inspired them to remember God and therefore, they engaged themselves in
music and dance with ecstasy while remembering God. They believed in Guru (Master)
whom they called Pir.
They believed that none can approach near God without the assistance of a Guru. They
observed Tauba (repentance over bad deeds), Vara (non-acceptance of what was not given
freely), Juhud (kindness), Fakar (poverty), Sabr (tolerance), Tauba (repentance of obligation),
Khauf (fear), Raj (Hope), Tawakhul (contentment) and Riza (surrender to God) in order to
achieve Vasl (salvation). They however did not believe in Namaz (daily prayers), Rauzas
(fasts) and pilgrimage to Haj.
Thus, the Sufi saints led their lives like Hindu ascetics (Sanyasins). However, they did not
live in forests. They preferred to live in cities or near them. Primarily, they emphasised on
love to God like those Hindu Saints who emphasised on Bhakti. The Sufis were divided into
different sects, most important of them being the Suravardi sect and the Chisti sect.
The influence of Suravardi sect remained limited only to Sind, Punjab and Multan but the
Chisti sect became popular all over India including Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Bengal, Orissa and south India. Sufism became quite popular in India in the seventeenth and
the eighteenth centuries.
Gradually evolving cooperation between the Hindus and the Muslims during the later Muslim
rule in India and the origin and development of Urdu language immensely helped in its
popularity during this period. Many Sufi saints became quite popular even during the period
of the Sultanate itself.
The philosophy and practices of Sufism may very aptly be stated in the words of Dr. Tara
Chand, “Sufism is a religion of intense devotion; Love is its manifestation, poetry, music and
dance are the instruments of its worship and attaining oneness with God is its ideal.”
Those saints among the Muslims who advocated a life of purity and renunciation were called
Sufis. Another view is that the word Sufi came out of the word Sooph meaning wool. Sufism
sprang from the doctrine of Wahadat-ul wajud or unity of being. This doctrine was
propounded by lbn- Ul-Arabi (1165-1240AD).

In other words, it implies that the ideal before an individual should be to be one with God.
For the attainment of this ideal, intense devotion for God is needed in the individual.
Devotion is reflected in love. This love for the Almighty is expressed through three fold
activities on the part of the individual i.e. poetry of love towards God, music of love towards
God and dance of love towards God.

 Origin of Sufism:
It is generally believed that Sufism is derived from two Arabic words i.e. ‘Saf’ and ‘Suf. The
word ‘Saf means a carpet. Since the Sufis meditated upon God on a carpet, Sufism took its
birth i.e. pure people who meditated on a carpet.
The word ‘Sufi’ derives its name from another Arabic word ‘Suf which means wool. The
Muslim saints who wore garments of coarse wool began to be called Sufi saints. The first
epoch of Sufism is said to have begun in the seventh century A.D. Sufism entered India in the
12th century with Muslim invaders and became popular in the 13th century.
There were two chief orders (Silsila) of the Sufis in India. They were Chishti and Surhawardi
orders. The famous Chishti saints were Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, Bakhtiyar Khaki,
Nizamuddin Auliya and Naziruddin Chiragh-a-Dahlvi. The Chisti Sufis believed in
simplicity. Possession of private property was considered an impediment to the development
of the spiritual personality. Therefore, they lived mainly on charity. The Chisti Sufis became
popular by adopting musical recitations called Sama. They did it to create a mood of
connecting to god. They kept themselves aloof from state politics.
The founder of Surhawardi order was Shaikh Shihabudin Surhawardi. Other leaders were
Baha-ud-din Zakaria and Hamid-ud-Din Nagori. They established themselves mainly in the
north western part of India. However, they did not believe in leading a life of poverty. They
accepted services of the state and held important posts in the ecclesiastical department.
Sufi and Bhakti thought and practice were akin at various points. Both of them attracted the
attention of the lower classes as they not only preached equality, but also practised it. They
put stress on love as the basis of the relationship with God. Sufism has helped to shape large
part of Muslim society. The missionary activities of the Sufis influenced the common people.
 Main Features of Sufism:
1. Sufism derives is inspiration from Islam. While the orthodox Muslims depend upon
external conduct and blind observance of religious rituals, the Sufi saints seek inner purity.
2. According to Sufi saints, God is the beloved of the lover (‘Mashook”) i.e. the devotee and
the devotee is eager to meet his beloved (God).
3. The Sufis think that love and devotion are the only means of reaching God.
4. Along with Prophet Muhammad, they also attach great importance to their ‘Murshid’ or
‘Pir’ (Guru).
5. Devotion is more important than fast (Roza) or prayer (Namaz)
6. Sufism does not believe in caste system.
7. Sufism emphasizes upon leading a simple life.
8. Sufi saints preached in Arabic, Persian and Urdu etc.
9. The Sufis were divided into 12 orders each under a mystic Sufi saint. Prominent Sufi
Saints.

 Khanqahs and Silsilas:

By the eleventh century Sufism evolved into a well-developed movement with a body of
literature on Quranic studies and Sufi practices. Institutionally, the sufis began to organise
communities around the hospice or khanqah (Persian) controlled by a teaching master known
as shaikh (in Arabic), pir or murshid (in Persian). He enrolled disciples (murids) and
appointed a successor (khalifa). He established rules for spiritual conduct and interaction
between inmates as well as between laypersons and the master. Sufi silsilas began to
crystallise in different parts of the Islamic world around the twelfth century. The word silsila
literally means a chain, signifying a continuous link between master and disciple, stretching
as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad. It was through this channel
that spiritual power and blessings were transmitted to devotees. Special rituals of initiation
were developed in which initiates took an oath of allegiance, wore a patched garment, and
shaved their hair. When the shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah, a Persian term meaning
court) became the centre of devotion for his followers. This encouraged the practice of
pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave, particularly on his death anniversary or urs (or marriage,
signifying the union of his soul with God). This was because people believed that in death
saints were united with God, and were thus closer to Him than when living. People sought
their blessings to attain material and spiritual benefits. Thus evolved the cult of the shaikh
revered as wali.
Outside the khanqah some mystics initiated movements based on a radical interpretation of
Sufi ideals. Many scorned the khanqah and took to mendicancy and observed celibacy. They
ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism. They were known by different
names – Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris, etc. Because of their deliberate defiance of
the shari’a they were often referred to as be-shari‘a, in contrast to the ba-shari‘a sufis who
complied with it.

 The Chishtis:

Of the groups of sufis who migrated to India in the late twelfth century, the Chishtis were the
most influential. This was because they adapted successfully to the local environment and
adopted several features of Indian devotional traditions.

 Life in the Chishti khanqah

The khanqah was the centre of social life. We know about Shaikh Nizamuddin’s hospice (c.
fourteenth century) on the banks of the river Yamuna in Ghiyaspur, on the outskirts of what
was then the city of Delhi. It comprised several small rooms and a big hall (jama’at khana)
where the inmates and visitors lived and prayed. The inmates included family members of the
Shaikh, his attendants and disciples. The Shaikh lived in a small room on the roof of the hall
where he met visitors in the morning and evening. A veranda surrounded the courtyard, and a
boundary wall ran around the complex. On one occasion, fearing a Mongol invasion, people
from the neighbouring areas flocked into the khanqah to seek refuge.
There was an open kitchen (langar), run on futuh (unasked-for charity). From morning till
late night people from all walks of life – soldiers, slaves, singers, merchants, poets, travellers,
rich and poor, Hindu jogis (yogi) and qalandars – came seeking discipleship, amulets for
healing, and the intercession of the Shaikh in various matters. Other visitors included poets
such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir Khusrau and the court historian Ziyauddin Barani, all of
whom wrote about the Shaikh. Practices that were adopted, including bowing before the
Shaikh, offering water to visitors, shaving the heads of initiates, and yogic exercises,
represented attempts to assimilate local traditions. Shaikh Nizamuddin appointed several
spiritual successors and deputed them to set up hospices in various parts of the subcontinent.
As a result the teachings, practices and organisation of the Chishtis as well as the fame of the
Shaikh spread rapidly. This in turn drew pilgrims to his shrine, and also to the shrines of his
spiritual ancestors.

 Chishti devotionalism:
 Ziyarat and qawwali Pilgrimage, called ziyarat, to tombs of Sufi saints is prevalent all over
the Muslim world. This practice is an occasion for seeking the Sufi’s spiritual grace (barakat).
For more than seven centuries people of various creeds, classes and social backgrounds have
expressed their devotion at the dargahs of the five great Chishti saints (see chart on p.154).
Amongst these, the most revered shrine is that of Khwaja Muinuddin, popularly known as
“Gharib Nawaz” (comforter of the poor). The earliest textual references to Khwaja
Muinuddin’s dargah date to the fourteenth century. It was evidently popular because of the
austerity and piety of its Shaikh, the greatness of his spiritual successors, and the patronage of
royal visitors. Muhammad bin Tughlaq (ruled, 1324-51) was the first Sultan to visit the
shrine, but the earliest construction to house the tomb was funded in the late fifteenth century
by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khalji of Malwa. Since the shrine was located on the trade route
linking Delhi and Gujarat, it attracted a lot of travellers. By the sixteenth century the shrine
had become very popular; in fact it was the spirited singing of pilgrims bound for Ajmer that
inspired Akbar to visit the tomb. He went there fourteen times, sometimes two or three times
a year, to seek blessings for new conquests, fulfilment of vows, and the birth of sons. He
maintained this tradition until 1580. Each of these visits was celebrated by generous gifts,
which were recorded in imperial documents. For example, in 1568 he offered a huge cauldron
(degh) to facilitate cooking for pilgrims. He also had a mosque constructed within the
compound of the dargah.
Also part of ziyarat is the use of music and dance including mystical chants performed by
specially trained musicians or qawwals to evoke divine ecstasy. The sufis remember God
either by reciting the zikr (the Divine Names) or evoking His Presence through
Sama‘(literally, “audition”) or performance of mystical music. Sama‘was integral to the
Chishtis, and exemplified interaction with indigenous devotional traditions.

 Languages and communication

It was not just in Sama‘that the Chishtis adopted local languages. In Delhi, those associated
with the Chishti silsila conversed in Hindavi, the language of the people. Other sufis such as
Baba Farid composed verses in the local language, which were incorporated in the Guru
Granth Sahib. Yet others composed long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine love
using human love as an allegory. For example, the prem-akhyan (love story) Padmavat
composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi revolved around the romance of Padmini and
Ratansen, the king of Chittor. Their trials were symbolic of the soul’s journey to the divine.
Such poetic compositions were often recited in hospices, usually during Sama‘. A different
genre of Sufi poetry was composed in and around the town of Bijapur, Karnataka. These
were short poems in Dakhani (a variant of Urdu) attributed to Chishti sufis who lived in this
region during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. These poems were probably sung by
women while performing household chores like grinding grain and spinning. Other
compositions were in the form of lurinama or lullabies and shadinama or wedding songs. It is
likely that the sufis of this region were inspired by the pre-existing bhakti tradition of the
Kannada vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of the sants of Pandharpur. It is
through this medium that Islam gradually gained a place in the villages of the Deccan.

 Sufis and the state

A major feature of the Chishti tradition was austerity, including maintaining a distance from
worldly power. However, this was by no means a situation of absolute isolation from political
power. The sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political elites. The
Sultans in turn set up charitable trusts (auqaf) as endowments for hospices and granted tax-
free land (inam). The Chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind. Rather than accumulate
donations, they preferred to use these fully on immediate requirements such as food, clothes,
living quarters and ritual necessities (such as Sama‘). All this enhanced the moral authority of
the shaikhs, which in turn attracted people from all walks of life. Further, their piety and
scholarship, and people’s belief in their miraculous powers made sufis popular among the
masses, whose support kings wished to secure. Kings did not simply need to demonstrate
their association with sufis; they also required legitimation from them. When the Turks set up
the Delhi Sultanate, they resisted the insistence of the ulama on imposing Sharia as state law
because they anticipated opposition from their subjects, the majority of whom were non-
Muslims. The Sultans then sought out the sufis – who derived their authority directly from
God – and did not depend on jurists to interpret the sharia. Besides, it was believed that the
auliya could intercede with God in order to improve the material and spiritual conditions of
ordinary human beings. This explains why kings often wanted their tombs to be in the
vicinity of Sufi shrines and hospices. However, there were instances of conflict between the
Sultans and the sufis. To assert their authority, both expected that certain rituals be performed
such as prostration and kissing of the feet. Occasionally the Sufi shaikh was addressed with
high-sounding titles. For example, the disciples of Nizamuddin Auliya addressed him as
sultan-ul-mashaikh (literally, Sultan amongst shaikhs).
The most important among them were Shaikh Muin-ud-din Chisti, Baba Farid-ud-din, Nasir-
ud-din Mahmud, Nizamuddin Auliya, Chirag-i-Dehlvi, Khwaja Shaikh Taki-ud-din,
Muhammad Gaus of Gwalior and Malik Muhammad Jaysi.

1. Khawja Moin-ud-Din Chisti (1143-1234 A.D.):

He came to India towards the close of the 12th century. Initially he stayed at Lahore. Then he
moved to Delhi and finally settled at Ajmer. On account of his pious and simple life, people
of different faiths looked upon him as their spiritual teacher.
He mixed freely with the lower classes of both Hindus and Muslims. He used to hold
devotional musical gatherings. On account of his virtues of renunciation, meditation and
selfless service, people from different parts of India came to his place at Ajmer.
His ‘dargah’ (tomb) at Ajmer (Ajmer Sharif) has become a place of pilgrimage for the
Muslims as well as the Hindus. His devotees believe that by offering prayer at his tomb, their
wishes (‘minit’) are fulfilled.

2. Baba Farid-ud-Din Ganj-i-Shakar (13th century):

His outlook was broad and humane. Some of his devotional verses are found in ‘Adi-Granth’
of the Sikhs. Thousands of his devotees visit his tomb at Faridkot in the Punjab.

3. Nizam-ud-Din Aulia (14th century):

He laid great stress on love as a means of the realization of God. He said, “O Muslims! I
swear by God that he holds dear those who love Him for the sake of human beings and also
those who love human beings for the sake of Him. This is the only way to love and adore
Him.”
During his life time he was held in great esteem by several Sultans of Delhi as well as the
general public. He also used Hindi in his teachings. His tomb at Nizam-ud-Din in Delhi has
become a place of pilgrimage for both Muslims and Hindus.

 Different Sufi Orders:

The Sufis were organised into several orders or Silsilahs. Abul Fazl mentioned fourteen such
orders. Some of them became quite popular in India.
i. The Chisti Order:
Among Sufi orders, the most popular one in India was the Chisti order. It originated outside
India and its founder saint was Khwaja Abdul Chisti. In India, it was introduced by Khwaja
Muinuddin Chisti. Muinuddin Chisti was born in Persia.
He visited different places of Islamic learning in Central Asia and, finally, reached India in
1200 A.D. He settled himself at Ajmer and became very popular all over northern India. Both
the Hindus and the Muslims paid homage to him.
After his death, he was buried at Ajmer itself. The Mughal emperor, Akbar paid homage at
his Dargah and even, in modern times, his Dargah is visited by lakhs of devotees both the
Hindus and the Muslims. Another famous Chisti saint was Shaikh Farid or Baba Farid.
He raised the Chisti order to the status of an all-India organization. However, the most
famous Chisti saint was Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya who was the disciple of Baba Farid. He
settled himself near Delhi. He had the chance of watching reigns of several Sultans of Delhi.
Some historians have blamed him of becoming a party to the murder of Sultan Ghiyasuddin
Tughluq though the majority of historians have rejected the view. But, certainly, Sultan
Muhammad Tughluq revered him. Yet Shaikh Nizamuddin kept himself away from the court
of the Sultan. One of his disciples, Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib settled himself at Daultabad
in the Deccan and gathered a large number of followers around himself.
Another famous disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin was Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dehlvi
who settled down at Delhi. He also earned all-India reputation. One of the disciples of
Chiragh-i-Dehlvi, Khwaja Muhammad Gesudaraz settled down at Gulbarga in 1398 A.D. and
got admiration of Sultan Ahmad Shah Bahmani.
One popular Chisti saint was Shaikh Salim Chisti who was revered by the Mughul emperor,
Akbar. He died in the lifetime of Akbar and was buried at Fatehpur Sikri where a beautiful
marble mausoleum was constructed on his grave.
The saints of Chisti order led a life of simplicity or rather, poverty. Their simple and pure
lives were responsible for the popularity of Sufism in India. The Chisti order remained
popular in India. The Chisti order remained popular in larger part of India both in the North
and the South.

ii. The Suravardi Order:

The Suravardi order of the Sufis was established by Shaikh Shahabuddin Suravardi at
Baghdad. Several of his disciples came to India and preached the philosophy of Sufism here.
The Suravardi order of the Sufis became popular in the north-western part of India. The first
popular saint of the Suravardi order was Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya who settled down at
Multan. He differed from Chisti saints in several respects.
He did not observe simplicity, led a comfortable life and received wealth and land from his
rich disciples. He emphasized the external form of Islam and rejected the practice of bowing
before Shaikhs and certain other ceremonies which the Chisti order had accepted from its
Indian environment. He also did not believe in fasting, self-mortification, etc. with a view to
purify souls.
Another Suravardi-Sufi Saint, Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya Manairi propagated Sufi-doctrines in
Bihar. He was a good scholar and compiled several books. He laid great stress on the service
of humanity.
iii. Qadri Order:
The Qadri order of the Sufis was introduced in India by Shah Niamatullah and Makhdum
Muhammad Jilani. They lived towards the middle of the 15th century. Shaikh Musa and
Shaikh Abdul Qadir of Agra and Shaikh Daud Kirmani and Shaikh Abdul Mali Qadri of
Lahore were also among the popular sufi Saints of Qadri order.
iv. The Naqshbandi Order:
The Naqshbandi order of the Sufis was introduced in India by Khwaja Baqi Billah in the 16th
century. This Order emphasized on observance of the laws of Shariat and denounced all
innovations which were added afterwards to Islamic doctrines. It decried several assumptions
of other Sufi-orders.
It observed that the relation between man and God is that of slave and Master and not that of
lover and beloved as was believed by other Sufis. Some other prominent saints of this order
were Shaikh Abdul Latif, Shaikh Burhan, Shah Waliullah, etc. One more important saint of
this order was Khwaja Mir Dard. He, however, was liberal in his views. He considered
himself to be both a slave and a lover of God. Thus, several Sufi-orders flourished in different
parts of India all throughout the medieval period.

 Impact of Sufism:
 Religions impact:
The efforts of Sufi saints helped to lessen religious fanaticism in India. Hindus in larger
numbers became followers of Sufi saints. The tombs built after their death has continued to
become places of worship for the Muslims as well as the Hindus. Their belief in unity of God
helped to remove mutual differences.

 Social Impact:
Their stress on social welfare led to the establishment of works of charitable nature i.e.
opening of orphanages and women service centres. The efforts of Sufi saints helped to
promote equality and lessen the evils of casteism. They also tried to infuse a spirit of piety
and morality.

 Political Impact:
Some of the renowned Sufi saints on account of their virtuous and saintly life motivated some
of the Delhi Sultans to follow a liberal policy.

 Cultural Impact:
The sacred places built in the memory of the Sufi saints clearly demonstrate the development
of a new type of architecture. The Dargah’ of Khawaja Muin-ud-Din Chisti at Ajmer and the
Tomb of Nizam-ud-Din Aulia at Delhi have a special place in architecture.
Sufi saints popularized devotional music and songs.
Several Sufi saints composed literary works in vernacular languages.
Amir Khusro, a disciple of Nizam-ud-Din Aulia, was a noted ‘guzzle’ writer. The poetry of
Khusro was so full of sweetness that he was called ‘Tutiy-i-Hind. He is credited with more
than 90 works on different subjects i.e. historical and romantic as well.
The Sufi Movement was a movement to establish a religion of intense devotion, love as its
passion; poetry, song and dance, worship and passing away from God as ideal” rather than
namaz, hajj and celibacy. Here, we are giving the list of Sufi Saints and their Contribution for
general awareness.