Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Faculty of Arts
Department of English
and American Studies
Romana Havránková
Word-formation Processes
In Journalistic Texts
2013
I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently,
using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.
………………………………………...
Romana Havránková
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my supervisor doc. PhDr. Naděžda Kudrnáčová, CSc. for her
1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………….7
2. Theoretical Background……………………………………………………………10
2.3 Word-formation………………………………………..………………………..14
2.3.2.1. Derivation……………………………………………………………..15
2.3.2.2 Conversion……………………………………………………………..15
2.3.2.3 Back-formation………………………………………………………...16
2.3.2.4 Acronyms………………………………………………………………16
2.3.2.5 Clipping………………………………………………………………..16
2.3.2.6 Blends………………………………………………………………….17
2.4 Compounding……………………………….…………………………………..17
2.4.3.1 Spelling…………………………………………………………………21
2.4.3.2 Stress……………………………………………………………………21
3. Analysis……………………………………………………………………………...27
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..55
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………...58
Abbrevations…………………………………………………………………..............71
Resumé in English………………………………………………………………….…72
Resumé in Czech………………………………………………………………………73
Appendix……………………………………………………………………………….74
1. Introduction
Word-formation, the topic of this thesis, is the creation of new words on the
basis of already existing words or parts of words. After some research into the topic, I
decided to focus on the process of compounding, namely compound adjectives and their
because I think that due to the large number of diverse patterns that can be distinguished
within this group as well as their high productivity, compound adjectives represent a
English language. Because of these reasons, I believe that compound adjectives deserve
more attention.
in journalistic texts and to find out what types of compound adjectives appear most
The corpus was created using various articles that were found on TV news
websites. I decided to use these articles for several reasons. It has become a part of
everyday life of the majority of people to read news and the internet is the most widely
used source of information in the modern era. The language of those articles is up-to-
date and the occurence of adjective compounds in this type of texts is very high. The
primary sources that were used in this thesis include four major American TV news
www.nbcnews.com.
7
morphology and functions. Other principal sources used in this thesis that deal with
The thesis is divided into two main parts. In the first part, the area of word-
attention is devoted to the proces of compounding. The second part of the thesis is
concerned with compound adjectives found in the selected texts, their classification and
analysis.
The first part of the thesis opens with a discussion of the notion of the term
acronyms, clipping and blends are described. A separate chapter is dedicated to the
compounds and syntactic phrases are discussed. The main types of compounds are
described.
The second part of this thesis is concerned with compound adjectives. First, the
process of identifying compound adjectives in the corpus is described. The criteria used
for their classification are presented together with an overview of the classification used
for the purpose of this thesis. The largest part of this section is devoted to the analysis of
the compound adjectives found in the corpus. Each type of compound adjectives is
analysed according to the stated criteria and several examples of each type of compound
adjectives are provided. Their morphological and functional properties are discussed.
8
The characteristics that are usually ascribed to the class of adjectives are applied to the
compounds in order to test their adjectival status. Attention is devoted to the number of
occurences of the individual types of compound adjectives in the corpus, their position
in the sentence and their spelling patterns. For easier orientation, the results are
presented in tables.
Finally, conclusions are drawn from the presented findings. The most important
features of compounds and compound adjectives are summed up. It is evaluated, what
types of compounds occured most frequently in the corpus. Also their adjectival status
is discussed. The main differences between the discussed types of compound adjectives
are drawn from the observations made in the second part of the thesis. Results of the
9
2. Theoretical background
what the term 'word' actually stands for. Although speakers of a language usually have
some kind of intuitive feeling for what a word is, there is not a universal definition of
the term and it can be sometimes unclear what it refers to. The aim of this chapter is to
clarify the ambiguity in the term 'word'. First, word as a unit in speech or writing is
defined and the criteria used for its identification are presented. Secondly, different
Sapir (1921) defines word as "one of the smallest, completely satisfying bits of
isolated 'meaning' into which the sentence resolves itself" and which "cannot be cut into
without a disturbance of meaning" (p. 35). According to Crystal (2009), word is "a unit
The criteria used by Crystal (2009) for the identification of words include their
stable internal structure, uninterruptibility and the fact that word is "the smallest unit
which can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance" (p. 522). Plag (2002) identifies the
4) words (usually) are indivisible units (no intervening material possible) (p. 9).
Three main senses of the term 'word' are usually distinguished. In the first sense,
word is defined simply as a unit consisting of syllables which are built up of letters (if it
is understood as a unit in the writing system) or phonemes (if it is defined in terms of its
10
sound structure) (Matthews, 1974, p. 20; Plag, 2002, p. 4-6). Because it is the particular
522). A single term word form is often used to subsume both (Crystal, 2009, p. 522).
In a more abstract sense, word is defined as an abstract unit that represents "all
the possible shapes that the word can have" (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 11). Or, as described
by Crystal (2009), "the common factor underlying the set of forms which are plainly
variants of the same unit" (p. 522). For this sense of word the term lexeme is used
(Bauer, 2010, p. 11). Matthews (1974) says that lexeme is the "fundamental unit of the
lexicon of the language" (p. 22). Lexemes do not actually occur in a language. Instead,
they are realized by word forms because their "actual occurrences in speech or writing
function is to show how words work in the grammar (Crystal, 2009, p. 522).
it is necessary to take a look at the structure of the word and to identify its constituents.
Words may consist of one or more elements. Those elements are called
morphemes and they are the basic units of analysis recognized in morphology, a branch
of linguistics that deals with the internal structure of words (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 13).
11
Morphemes are defined as the smallest parts of words that have meaning or
As the minimal units of grammar, morphemes serve as the basis for larger units
such as words (Matthews, 1974, p. 78). Words in English may be either simple or
complex. Simple words are indivisible units composed of only one element that cannot
be further divided into its constituents (Adams, 1973, p. 7). Such forms are also called
free morphemes because they are the smallest units that can stand alone and still carry a
Complex words, on the other hand, consist of more than one element (Adams,
1973, p. 7). They may consist of free morphemes which are independent in other
contexts, or bound morphemes which do not appear independently (Adams, 1973, p. 7).
Bound morphemes can only be used in combination with other morphemes to produce a
word because they have no meaning on their own and therefore they normally cannot
Morphemes, though, are only "abstract elements of analysis" and they do not
Morphemes are realized by individual units known as morphs (Crystal, 2009, p. 313).
Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph depending on their position in a
word. These variants of morphs are termed allomorphs (Crystal, 2009, p. 313).
When a word is decomposed into its constituents, the terms affix, root, stem and
1
Morphemes with a specific lexical meaning are termed lexical morphemes. Morphemes with a more
abstract and general grammatical meaning are termed grammatical morphemes (Mair, 2008, p. 43).
12
Affixes are those parts of word that can only occur when attached to a
morpheme. Thus, all affixes in English are bound morphemes (Yule, 2006, p. 63).
Based on their occurrence in word, three types of affixes are distinguished: prefixes,
Prefixes are added to the beginning of the word. Their role in English is purely
lexical because they are the constituents involved in the formation of new words
(Crystal, 2004, p. 198). Suffixes, on the other hand, are added to the end of the word.
They are divided into two groups. Most of them are purely lexical because their
function is to change the meaning of the base form (Crystal, 2004, p.198). There are
also a few purely grammatical suffixes2 that indicate how the word is used in a
sentence. These are called inflectional affixes (Crystal, 2004, p. 198). On rare occasions
in English, affixes can also be inserted inside the word. These are termed infixes and
they are used in a very restricted manner, usually to express emotion or emphasis, e.g.
The terms root and base are used for the part of the word that remains after all
affixes have been removed (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 20). A root is a term that is used to
refer to the base that canot be further analyzed into morphemes (Plag, 2002, p. 13). It is
the fundamental part that is always present in a lexeme and which remains after all
inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 20). The
term 'stem' is used to refer to the part of the word that remains after removing all
inflectional affixes (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 20). A base, on the other hand, is any part of a
word that affixes can be attached to (Plag, 2002, p. 13). Basically, any root or any stem
2
Examples of purely grammatical suffixes include the plural marker -s, the past tense -ed, and the
comparative -er (Crystal, 2004, p. 198).
13
can be termed a base, but not every base is also a root or a stem (Bauer, 1983/2010, p.
21).3
2.3 Word-formation
In the first part of this section, definitions of word-formation are provided. They
chapter.
Crystal (2009) makes distinction between two senses of the term word-
formation. He says that in general sense, word-formation denotes the whole process of
composition and derivation (Crystal, 2009, p. 523-524). Usually, however, the term
word-formation is used in the narrow sense, strictly separated from inflection.4 Štekauer
(1998) assumes that the basic difference between word-formation and inflection lies in
the fact that only word-formation, but not inflection, creates new naming units (p. 49).
Plag (2002) defines word-formation as a process of creating new words on the basis of
already existing words, including the addition and subtraction of phonetic (or
"the production of complex forms" (p. 30). By complex forms he means both products
3
Bauer (1983/2010) explains that in the word untouchable the constituent touchable can act as a base but
"it can not be referred to as a root because it is analysable in terms of derivational morphology, nor as a
stem since it is not the adding of inflectional affixes which is in question" (p. 21).
4
See Matthews (1974, p. 38)
14
of derivation and compounding although he admits that there are some other categories
of word-formation which cannot be completely subsumed under these processes (p. 30).
2.3.2.1 Derivation
Only derivational affixes can be used in the process because words with
different inflectional affixes are usually considered to be versions of the same word, i.e.
inflectional affixes do not generate new naming units (Feldman, 1993, p. 69).
creates lexemes that are members of the same word class as the original base, while the
the base (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 31). Most prefixes preserve word class, whereas most
2.3.2.2 Conversion
Conversion is a process by the means of which a new word is made on the basis
of another one without any change in its form, simply by changing its word class (Mair,
2008, p. 47).
Other labels for this highly productive process are 'category change', 'functional
shift', 'syntactic homonymy' and 'zero-derivation' (Yule, 2006, p. 56; Mair, 2008, p. 48).
15
2.3.2.3 Back-formation
the opposite of the usual pattern where the base form comes first and a new word form
2.3.2.4 Acronyms
Acronyms are words that are made up of the initial letters of the words they
represent (Yule, 2006, p. 57). Crystal (2004) makes a distinction between initialisms (or
alphabetisms) which are items that are pronounced as individual letters and acronyms
which he describes as initialisms pronounced as single units (p. 120). He subsumes both
of these processes together with clipping under the category of abbreviations (p. 120).
abbreviation for light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation (Mair, 2008,
2.3.2.5 Clipping
shortened so that only a part of the original lexeme is kept but its meaning and function
In most cases it is either the first or the last part of the original lexeme that is
kept, but cases where only the middle part is kept are also possible (Crystal, 2004, p.
120). Adams (1973) notes, that "clipped words are generally used in less formal
16
2.3.2.6 Blends
Blends are the result of merging the shortened forms of two other words together
(Crystal, 2004, p. 120). They are also called portmanteau words (Mair, 2008, p. 49).
Blending is usually carried by joining the beginning of one word with the end of
another word creating lexemes such as smog (smoke + fog) or brunch (breakfast +
lunch) (Mair, 2008, p. 49; Yule, 2006, p. 55). Other possible even though not very
common way of blending words together is to create a single unit from their beginnings,
as it was done in the word modem (modulator + demodulator) (Yule, 2006, p. 55).
2.4 Compounding
2006, p. 54). It generates a large number of different types of new naming units.
(1892) as "omitting minor or connecting parts of a full expression, and using only the
principal elements in more or less arbitrary association and frequently in inverted order"
Štekauer, 2006, p. 53). In the following section, definitions gathered from various
formed by joining two or more simple words" (p. 26). In A Dictionary of Linguistics
and Phonetics, Crystal (2009) gives a more detailed definition of compound saying it is
"a linguistic unit which is composed of elements that function independently in other
17
circumstances" (p. 96). He calls these elements free morphemes claiming that there are
two or more such elements in each compound (p. 96). Likewise, Adams (1973) sees
compound as "the result of the (fixed) combination of two free forms, or words that
have an otherwise independent existence" (p. 30). She adds that compounds, "though
clearly composed of two elements, have the identifying characteristics of single words"
(p. 30). Lipka (1992) claims that compound is made up of at least two lexemes, i.e.
"constituents which occur (or can in principle occur) in isolation" and which "may
compounds are combinations of two or more words that function as one word and a
single unit (p. 134). Kavka and Štekauer (2006) claim that the usual way of defining
compounds merely as combinations of two words is incorrect (p. 52). They say that
bases of originally independent words, i.e., the 'disinflected' parts of words", concluding
that "it is the compound as a whole that is inflected" (p. 52). Bauer (1983/2010) shares a
similar view, claiming that compound is "a lexeme containing two or more potential
stems that has not subsequently been subjected to a derivational process" (p. 29).
more elements. Different terms are used to name the elements that make up a
Plag (2002) claims that compound is in fact a combination of no more than two
(1983/2010) says that "most longer compounds can be analysed as combinations of two
18
Concluded, a compound can be defined as a combination of two or more
elements. If the compound is composed of more than two elements it is still analysable
important factors that are being used to define compounds (except for the number of
their constituents) are their function and meaning. Units that are labeled as compounds
The spelling of compounds varies. There are three possible ways to write a
compound. Compounds can be solid, i.e. written as one word, e.g. jellyfish, blackbird,
sunflower. Often compounds are spelt with a hyphen placed between the constituents,
e.g. blue-eyed, three-year-old, star-shaped. Many compounds are also spelt as separate
words, e.g. scuba dive, ice cream, human being. Some compounds may even be spelt in
two or even all three ways mentioned above, e.g. flowerpot, flower-pot and flower-pot.
or solid while novel compounds, on the other hand, are usually spelt separately. Kavka
and Štekauer (2006) propose that the degree of unity between the constituents and "the
writer's awareness about the novelty of the given compound" play a role in the way the
compound is spelt (p. 33). Similarly, Huddleston (1984) proposes that the transition in
diachronic, because it reflects the change that takes place throughout the time as the
originally novel compound gradually becomes established (Ryder, 1994, p. 12).5 Some
5
Ryder (1994) demonstrates the diachronic variation in spelling of compounds on the example of the
word suitcase which was originally spelt as suit-case (p. 12).
19
words may be spelt in two or even all three possible ways at the same time, because
even the various dictionaries list more alternate spellings of the same word. This is a
guidelines for a preferred spelling of compound words exist. According to APA style, a
hyphen should only be used in case it serves a purpose, i.e. if the meaning of the
spelling is commonly used in compound adjectives if the compound precedes the term it
modifies. But if the adjective is used in predicative position, it is usually not hyphenated
("When do you need to use a hyphen," n.d.). Usually compounds consisting of more
34).
treated as a compound or a free phrase. The main difference between compounds and
phrases lies in the fact that whereas compounds are naming units, phrases are "units of
syntax whose basic function is to combine signs for the sake of description" (Kavka &
Štekauer, 2006, 52). The problem is that the distinction between compounds and
phrases is rather vague and there are hardly any universally accepted criteria for
distinguishing between the two structures. The next section presents the most
commonly used criteria for distinguishing between compounds and free phrases.
20
2.4.3.1 Spelling
There may be a certain tendency to regard structures that are spelt solid or
hyphenated as compounds and to exclude the ones that are spelt separately. However, as
it was stated in the previous section, the spelling of compounds in English is very
2.4.3.2 Stress
concerning stress is that the main stress in compounds should fall on the left-hand
constituent while syntactic phrases have a level stress or they are stressed on the right-
hand constituent (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 54). However, there are numerous
carry double-stress (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 32). The stress pattern of adjective
compounds in general is more variable than the stress pattern of nominal compounds
(Adams, 1973, p. 92). Therefore, with regard to many compounds, the stress criterion is
of no use. Adams (1973) notes that this is especially the case of adjectival sequences
consisting of the combination adverb + adjective or participle where the stress pattern of
both compounds and phrases of this combination is the same (Adams, 1973, p. 90).
Usually when an adjective compound is in attributive position, the stress is on the first
21
2.4.3.3 Syntactic criteria
There are several syntactic criteria that are used by scholars for delimitating
morphemes should be attached to the right-hand constituent (Kavka & Šteakuer, 2006,
p. 59). Again, there are exceptions to this rule, e.g. compounds which pluralize both
and switching the order of their constituents would result in changing their meaning or
phrases (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 24). Jespersen (1974) argues that "we have a
compound if the meaning of the whole cannot be logically deduced from the meaning of
the elements separately" (p. 137). Accordingly, Kavka and Štekauer (2006) describe
compound as a combination of two or more words "which has a total meaning different
6
The exceptions to this rule are very rare, e.g. absobloominlutely (Adams, 1973, p. 8).
22
2.5 Main types of compounds
criteria. As Bauer points out (1983/2010) the usual way of classifying compounds is by
the function they play in the sentence (p. 201). This syntactic division is made
according to the word class of the compound as a whole and the word classes of the
individual constituents of the compound (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 31). Using the syntactic
criterion, compound nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc. can be distinguished (Bauer, 1983/
2010, p. 201). Using semantic criteria, compounds can be subdivided into several
groups based on the relationship between their constituents. They may be subordinative,
Most compounds in English are headed which means that one of the constituents
of the compound is dominant (head) and the other constituent is its modifier (Kavka &
Štekauer, 2006, p. 65). If this is the case, we speak of subordinative (or determinative)
include blackbird, cry-baby, compact-disc, etc. (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 65).
Semantically, the compound is a hyponym of its head (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 65).
appositional compound, e.g. maid-servant, woman doctor, bitter-sweet, etc. (Kavka &
Štekauer, 2006, p. 65-66). According to Bauer, (as cited in Kavka & Štekauer, 2006)
each of the elements of the compound "independently refers to some aspect of the
enitity denoted by the compound as a whole" (p. 65). Finally, there are coordinative
(Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 66). Coordinative compound is not a hyponym of either of
23
its elements. Instead the elements of coordinative compound "name separate entities
which combine to form the entity denoted by the compound" (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 31).
Kavka and Štekauer (2006) claim, that the basic difference between the two latter types
lies in the fact, that unlike appositional compounds, coordinative compounds constitute
this division, compounds are treated as two-constituent structures in which one of the
constituents is the determinant and the other determinatum. The determinatum (or head)
is a superordinate constituent which determines the lexical class and the grammatical
properties (number, gender) of the compound (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 62; Bauer,
2010, p. 30). The determinant functions as a modifying element of the head (Kavka &
(Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 62). For example, the compounds beehive and armchair
are both endocentric because beehive is a type of hive and armchair is a type of chair
compound (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 62). None of the constituents of exocentric
exocentric compound is a pickpocket because it is not a type of pocket but "a person
24
a hyponym of its head. According to the functional point of view, the head must be
such as tele-, micro-, scope-, that are usually Greek or Latin in origin. These elements
are termed combining forms (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 213; Adams, 1973, p. 31). Like
affixes, these forms can be combined with stems, or two combining forms may be
joined together to form a new word without using any lexical stem (Kavka & Štekauer
2006, p. 66).
The members of the class of adjectives are generally characterised as having the
Adjectives can occur before the noun they premodify, i.e. in attributive function
(Quirk et al., 1985, p. 402). They can also occur after the noun they modify. They can
complement (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 403). Sometimes, they can occur in postpositive
function, i.e. they immediately follow the noun (or pronoun) they modify (Quirk et al.,
1985, p. 418). Most adjectives are gradable, i.e. they can be premodified by intensifiers
such as very, so, extremely, etc. (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 435). They can also take
25
However, it must be stressed, that although the above mentioned characteristics
are regarded as important factors for determining the adjectivehood of a given entity,
not all members of the class of adjectives possess all of these properties (Quirk et al.,
1985, p. 403). The same holds true for compound adjectives. Important is whether they
criteria are used by linguists. Usually, both syntactic and semantic criteria are used.
admits that there are many possible logical relations between their elements (p. 162). He
twelve groups of compound adjectives. Again, he does not make distinction between
adjectives and participles. Kavka and Štekauer (2006) do not focus on compound
and compounds as syntactic adjectives of participle form. Plag (2002) outlines three
main types which he further analyses according to the semantic relationship between the
constituents. Adams (1973) offers a much more detailed classification that includes ten
classes of adjective compounds which are further subclassified. She also distinguishes a
them into endocentric and exocentric compounds and identifies the combinatory
26
3. Analysis
This part of the thesis is concerned with the classification and description of
compound adjectives that were found in the corpus. The corpus was created using
various articles taken from websites of four major American television stations: CNN
news, ABC news, NBC news, and FOX news. It includes over 39,000 words. The
whole corpus is The examined articles were chosen randomly. They cover a wide
things. First, I was looking for those formations whose function was to modify a noun
(or pronoun). These formations had to be composed of at least two constituents in order
noun was also included. The constructions I found were usually composed of two
elements, sometimes three and certain constructions appeared in the form of a whole
phrase.
When deciding whether the compounds identified in the corpus can be classified
as adjectives, two factors were taken into consideration: their position in the sentence
and their gradability (or non-gradability). I attempted to find out whether it was possible
to use the compounds attributively and/or predicatively and whether they were gradable
or not.
According to her, the construction can be considered a compound if the second element
cannot stand alone as a premodifier (Adams, 1973, p. 91). Furthermore, she assumes
that in the majority of established adverb-adjective sentences, the first element should
be neutral, i.e. an –ly adverb appears without the suffix (Adams, 1973, p. 91). However,
there are no universally accepted criteria and some expresions, if used often enough,
27
may be considered adjective compounds even though they do not meet all these criteria.
institutionalized and in this case, it will probably take on such a meaning that its
The classification used in this thesis is based on the word classes of the
not always clear what form class a particular element belongs to" (p. 202). The
compounds. Where it was possible, the compound adjectives were divided into several
groups according to the word class of their right-hand element. Compounds whose
according to the word class of their right-hand constituent. Following Kavka and
adjectives whose right-hand element consists of a noun stem and the adjective suffix
-ed. All these compound adjectives are formally endocentric, i.e. they function as
adjectives and at the same time their right-hand element (head) also functions as an
adjective. The remaining groups of compound adjectives are formally exocentric, i.e.
they function as adjectives, but their right-hand element is not an adjective. They
28
include compound adjectives whose right-hand element is a noun. In this group it was
of formations containing particles. Due to their diversity and marginal status I decided
to include compound adjectives that contain particles in one separate group as well as
Adams (1973) does. Last group consists of phrasal compounds whose function is to
questionable decision because they are often regarded merely as lexicalized syntactic
casess. It was sometimes quite difficult to decide whether such formations should be
and the productivity of such constructions in the examined texts. If the pattern appeared
The classification is made using only the compounds that were found in the
examined texts. Certain types identified by scholars were not found at all and therefore
were not included in the classification. Such patterns are very restricted in use and their
29
3) compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective
from a noun
7) phrasal compounds
the lexical class of the left-hand constituent. The following tables give an overview of
the classification used in this thesis. Examples of each type of compound adjectives are
provided.
constituent
Noun awe-inspiring
Adverb far-reaching
constituent
Noun Barcelona-based
Adverb full-fledged
30
3) Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective
constituent
Noun age-old
Adverb almost-daily
from a noun
constituent
Noun goat-headed
constituent
Noun space-age
Numeral 22-member
31
6) Compound adjectives containing particles
7) Phrasal compounds
Constituents Examples
Phrase one-of-a-kind
the corpus are introduced and described. Several examples of each type of compound
adjectives that were found in the examined texts are provided.7 The source of the
compound is indicated in parentheses. The formal and semantic properties of each type,
as well as the relationship between the constituents of the compounds are discussed. In
my description of different types of compounds that can be found in each group I rely
mostly on Adams' (1973) detailed classification and the classification proposed by Conti
(2007). The occurence of the properties that are usually ascribed to the word class of
This pattern was highly productive. However, Conti (2007) states, that "many ad
7
All compound adjectives found in the corpus are listed in the appendix.
32
hoc formations in predicative position raise doubts on their compound vs. phrasal
nature" (p. 148). Adams claims (as cited in Conti, 2007) that if such formations contain
present participles with a progressive function, they are no more than phrasal
constructions the nominal element is usually the object of the action expressed by the
smoke, a wine-producing region is a region that produces wine, envy inducing job
alerts are job alerts that induce envy, etc. In some cases, the nominal element
determines the location of the state or the action denoted by the verb, e.g. castle-
dwelling, seagoing. These compounds are endocentric and non-gradable. The majority
of the compounds were used attributively. The compound awe-inspiring was used in
33
both positions: something equally awe-inspiring and unnerving(CNN), the awe-
This type of compound adjectives was not very frequent in the selected
journalistic texts. The first element, although an adjective in its form, usually assumed
adjective because their form is often identical. The adverb functions as an adjunct of the
participle. It specifies the manner (e.g. slow-moving, fast-growing), duration (e.g. long-
action denoted by the participle. These compounds are endocentric. The majority of the
34
identified compounds is gradable, even though there are some exceptions, e.g. ever-
These formations constitute the second most numerous group in the examined
…a Shanghai-born singer…(CNN)
This type of compound adjectives appeared very often in the examined texts. It
can be further subclassified according to the semantic position of the nominal element
usually the agent, the instrument, or the cause (p. 149). In compounds such as Al-
functions as the agent that carries out the action expressed by the verb. It may also be
35
the instrument of the action denoted by the verb, e.g. graffiti-covered, currywurst-
fueled, handmade, or it may be the cause of the state denoted by the verb, e.g. panic-
stricken, etc. But the left-hand constituent can also function as a locative element, e.g.
latter type was very common in the journalistic texts that were examined. Very often,
Conti (2007) notes, that the compounds containing the head -based actually allow
double morphological reading because base can be a noun as well as a verb and
in" (p. 151). Therefore, the adjectival head -based may be either a participle or an
adjective derived from a noun. (p. 151). Similarly, compounds containing the
expressions -branded, -laced, -shaped, -sized, and -themed as their second element may
may be both the element determining location and the instrument of the action denoted
by the verb (p. 96). Examples of such compounds include airborne and seaborne.
The compounds in this group are endocentric. The majority of them are non-
…different-sized people…(ABC)
…faux-cobbled streets…(NBC)
36
The French-themed Be Our Guest restaurant…(CNN)
This type of compound adjectives is very similar in meaning to the noun + past
participle pattern. Only a few examples of this type were found because there was an
obvious preference towards the use of the noun + past participle. Again, the right-hand
fashioned may also be regarded as derivatives. The compounds are endocentric. The
…a long-planned overhaul…(CNN)
This pattern consisting of an adverb and past participle appeared quite often.
Some of the expressions, e.g. well-known and so-called are well established.. The first
37
element functions as an adjunct of the past participle. The function of the adverb is
sometimes intensifying e.g. compare: needed vs. much-needed, known vs. best-known.
According to Adams (1973), the first element in these expressions should be always
neutral, i.e. an –ly adverb should appear without the suffix (p. 91). Conti (2007) notes,
that most of these compounds, "although mainly appearing in attributive position, admit
predicative use" (p. 158). The majority of these compounds can be graded, except for
the ones containing adverbs in the comparative or superlative form (Conti, 2007, p.
develops and specifies the meaning of the adjectival head. The members of this group of
semantic patterns that can be recognized within this group. Adams (1973) distinguishes
38
between several types of compound adjectives according to the semantic relationship
through a comparison with the quality that is denoted by the nominal modifier (Adams,
1973, p. 97). Adams (1973) further subdivides comparative adjectives according to the
semantic relationship between their constituents into intensifying and particularizing (p.
malt-heavy, ice-cool, age-old, sky-high, etc. These compounds are usually non-gradable,
even though their adjectival head is usually gradable (e.g. heavy-heavier-heaviest, old-
older-oldest, etc.). Conti (2007) describes the compound sky-high as a borderline case
between intensifying and particularizing compounds that describe dimensions (p. 131).
She claims that in the case of the the nominal modifier sky the meaning is only
metaphorical because it does not denote a specific measurable quality (p. 131).
(1973) within comparative compounds. She divides them into adjectives of extent or
measurement and adjectives denoting colour (p. 98). Examples of adjectives that
describe dimensions include lifelong, worldwide, decade-long. Again, they are normally
non-gradable.
instrument of the action or the state expressed by the adjectival head, e.g. oil-rich,
39
will be linked by preposition, e.g. tourism-worthy = worthy of tourism. Adams (1973)
as a subject of the adjectival head, e.g. duty-free, which can be paraphrased as free from
All the compounds in vhich the nominal element modifies the adjectival head
are endocentric.
…Southeast Asia…(CNN)
This pattern was used to describe a relationship between the two constituents
denoting cardinal points were found, e.g. west-northwest, south-west. These compound
within the structures and both constituent parts are equally important.
40
According to the semantic relationship between the constituents, these
majority of the identified examples denote qualities that complement each other and
moist.
Three examples of subordinate compounds were also found. These include faux-
French, nuclear-free and quirky-chic. Formally, all compound adjectives in this group
3.3.3 Adverb-adjective
Only three examples of this marginal type were found in the corpus. However, it
the second element can stand alone as a premodifier of a noun, e.g. first kiss, popular
41
…the fictional 6-year-old heroine… (FOX)
…a 20-year-old gunman…(FOX)
constituents that are connected by hyphens. The singular form of the nominal element is
usually used, even though it has a plural quality. This type of compounds was very
frequently used to describe people's age, but it can also describe a duration, e.g. the two-
they can also be used in predicative position. However, they must fulfill the condition of
functions as a noun, e.g. the arrested man is 86-year-old X the 86-year-old was
arrested.
This group consists of compounds in which the adjective is derived from noun
stem by the means of adding the adjective suffix -ed (Adams, 1973, p. 99). Adams
42
(1973) uses the term derivational compounds to term these structures with respect to the
process involved in the formation of their right-hand elements. Only one example of
found. These include compounds whose right-hand element is -based, -laced, -shaped, -
themed, -sized, -cobbled and -fashioned. Compounds containing such elements allow
double morphological analysis. This is because the words base, lace, shape, theme, size,
cobble and fashion may be both nouns and verbs. Therefore it is sometimes not clear
them in the group of adjective compounds whose right-hand element is past participle.
examples were found in this group. According to Adams (1973) the second element in
derivational compound adjectives often contains a human or animal attribute, which can
be both mental or physical (p. 100). Four out of five compound adjectives identified in
the corpus cotained such element. The compounds dead-eyed, empty-handed and long-
haired contain a physical human attribute while the compound open-minded contains a
mental attribute.
43
3.4.3 Adverb + adjective derived from a noun
This is a marginal type of compound adjectives. Only one example of this type
…a love-hate relationship…(CNN)
…self-service technology…(CNN)
…space-age skyscraper…(CNN)
compounds are formally exocentric, because the lexical class of the compound as a
whole is not determined by the right-hand constituent, i.e. in the example a space-age
modify the noun skyscraper and therefore it formally functions as an adjective. All the
identified members of this group of compounds can be used in attributive position only.
44
There are two types of noun + noun compound adjectives. In the first type, the modifier-
head distinction is possible, e.g. space-age, world-class, lifestyle, etc. The second type
formations should be included in the class of compound adjectives or not and their
productive, e.g. resort-style, apartment-style, lifestyle, etc. On the other hand, I decided
not to include formations such as car bomb, as in a car bomb blast because they have a
modifying function only if they are used attributively. If they are used predicatively,
45
This type was quite productive in the selected texts. Members of this class pose a
similar problem as the noun + noun type. It was sometimes quite difficult to decide
the word-class of the right-hand element is different of that of the whole compound.
Semantically, however, these formations are endocentric because the adjective modifies
This pattern combining numeral and noun was highly productive in the selected
type of texts. The elements of the compounds were almost always joined by a hyphen.
These compounds are formally exocentric and semantically endocentric. They are non-
gradable. They are often used to describe either the amount or number, e.g. 22-member,
size, e.g. 28-acre, or duration, e.g. 87-year. This type is similar to the previously
46
mentioned numeral-noun-adjective pattern but in this case the adjective is ommitted.
The meaning, though, is very similar. Although the numerals are in plural, the noun that
used after the noun they modify, they would have to be rephrased using a relative clause
with the noun in plural, e.g. the Arab League that has 22 members. The main reason for
writing these expressions like this is to save space and keep the text more readable
because relative clauses, repeatedly appearing throughout the text, would be rather
disturbing.
case. Again, it was difficult to decide whether some of these formations should be
four types were distinguished: particle + present participle, particle + past participle,
verb + particle and particle + noun. All the types are discussed here. In the majority of
cases, these combinations were used attributively. The formations ongoing and
overwhelming were used both attributively and predicatively, e.g. …an investigation
Examples follow:
47
3.6.1 Particle + present participle
…a pop-up hotel…(NBC)
…pop-up hotels…(NBC)
…pop-up restaurants…(NBC)
…pop-up shops…(NBC)
Pop-up hotels…(NBC)
48
3.6.4 Particle + noun
…indoor/outdoor nightclub…(ABC)
…overweight passengers…(ABC)
…underwater excavation…(NBC)
…a hassle-and-worry-free trip…(FOX)
…out-of-state visitors…(NBC)
49
These phrasal formations represent a borderline case between morphology and
syntax because their components include words that are typically used in synax, such as
articles, conjunctions and prepositions (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 70). Therefore, as
Bauer (1983/2010) notes, "it may be questionable whether such formations should
207). Conti (2007) remarks that this is because "no morphological process is actually
are an interesting marginal pattern. In the case of phrasal formations, the whole phrase
behaves as a single unit. The constituents are hyphenated to reinforce the integrity of the
expression. Expressions joined by the word and, e.g. hassle-and-worry-free, which are
not in accordance with the uninterruptibility criterion of wordhood, also fall into this
category.
particular context and only very few of them actually become established.
The following section contains tables which provide information about the
distribution of the individual classes of compound adjectives (CAs) that were found in
the corpus as well as their prevailing syntactic position and spelling patterns.
50
3.8.1 CAs whose right-hand constituent is present participle
N+P-ing 23 22 1
Adj+P-ing 1 1 0
Adv+Ping 8 8 0
Total 32 31 1
N+P-ed 87 81 6
Adj+P-ed 9 9 0
Adv+P-ed 24 21 3
N+Adj 26 25 1
Adj+Adj 14 14 0
Adv+Adj 3 3 0
Num+N+Adj 29 23 6
Total 72 65 7
51
N+Noun-ed 1 1 0
Adj+Noun-ed 5 3 2
Adv+Noun-ed 1 1 0
Total 7 5 2
N+Noun 13 13 0
Adj+Noun 32 32 0
Num+Noun 63 63 0
Particle+P-ing 9 6 3
Particle+P-ed 1 1 0
Verb+particle 10 10 0
Particle+Noun 14 14 0
Total 34 31 3
Phrasal 14 13 1
52
3.8.8 Spelling patterns of CAs
separately
16 332 39
The occurence of compound adjectives in the examined texts was very high.
Altogether, 387 compound adjectives were found. The most numerous group consisted
adjective. Compounds containing particles represented the fourth most numerous group.
They were followed by compounds whose right-hand element is present participle. The
whose right-hand constituent is an adjective derived from a noun constituted the least
numerous group of all. However, some compound adjectives in which the second
constituent was treated as past participle actually allow double morphological analysis
homogenous group. The vast majority of compound adjectives (332 out of 387) was
hyphenated, 39 of them were spelt as one word and only 16 were spelt separately.
Compound adjectives show a strong preference towards attributive use. Altogether 364
compound adjectives were used attributively and only 23 of them were used
predicatively.
53
The main function of compound adjectives is to modify a noun. Compound
adjectives carry a combined meaning of two or more words. The meaning of most
compound adjectives can be easily derived from the meaning of their constituents. The
reason for the frequent use of compound adjectives in journalistic texts is probably the
advantage of not having to use relative clauses whose repetitive use throughout the text
would be rather disturbing. The use of compound adjectives saves space in the text and
54
Conclusion
The main objective of this thesis was to map the occurence of the different types
three or more elements, or even a whole phrase, also appear. But even compounds that
element may be hiearchically higher than the other, while the other element functions as
its modifier. The superordinate element is called the 'head' of the compound. The notion
Compounds that have a head are termed subordinative. If, on the other hand, both of the
compounds are called coordinative (or copulative). The vast majority of the compounds
divided into endocentric compounds in which the central constituent determining the
lexical class and the grammatical properties of the compound is formally expressed, or
Compounds behave as single units. They take over the function of one word
class as a whole, i.e. the function of compound as a whole may be different from that of
its individual constituents. Also, the resulting meaning of a compound is different from
55
adjectives are concerned, their meaning can be easily derived from the meaning of their
constituents.
attributive use, predicative use, possible premodification by intensifiers such as very and
the possibility to take comparative or superlative forms. Those features are also
applicable to the class of compound adjectives. The research conducted in this thesis
shows that most compound adjectives are used attributively. Some of the compounds
(especially those whose head is a noun) behave as adjectives only if used attributively.
As for the gradability, not all compound adjectives can be graded. Moreover, in some
groups that were distinguished, both gradable and non-gradable compound adjectives
can be found. As far as the spelling is concerned, the majority of compound adjectives
was hyphenated. Some words were also spelt in more possible ways.
For the purpose of this thesis a corpus was created using a large number of
were identified in the corpus and classified. Usually, compounds are classified
several criteria. The system of classification used in this thesis is based on the word
between the elements of the compounds is also taken into consideration. Only the types
of compounds that were found in the corpus were classified. Therefore, some marginal
subsume all these patterns of compound adjectives were established to allow easier
56
present participle, 2) compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is past
containing particles, and 7) phrasal compound adjectives. The first four groups are
formally endocentric, because the compounds function as adjectives and at the same
time their right-hand element (head) also functions as an adjective. Some classifications
do not even make distinction between participles, adjectives and adjectives derived
from nouns. The last three groups are formally exocentric because they function as
adjectives even though their right-hand constituent is not an adjective. They are
regarded as borderline cases and sometimes it is not clear whether such formations
should be regarded as compound adjectives at all. This is especially true for phrasal
compounds which were included in the classification mainly because they serve as an
They can be easily formed and they are highly productive, especially in written
distinct patterns of compound adjectives were identified in the corpus. Altogether, 387
examples were found. The research conducted in this thesis proves high occurrence of
numerous possible classifications, but at the same time, makes it hard to provide an
exhaustive and widely accepted classification. Therefore, this area is certainly suitable
57
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old-who-admitted-mercy-killing-of-ailing-elderly-wife?lite&lite=obnetwork
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to-ship-this-month/
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Teal, H. F. (1892). English compound words and phrases. London, UK: Funk &
http://archive.org/stream/englishcompoundw00tealuoft/englishcompoundw00tea
luoft_djvu.txt
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When do you need to use a hyphen for compound words? (n.d.). In APA Style.
Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
70
Abbreviations
Adj = Adjective
Adv = Adverb
N = Noun
Num = Numeral
ABC = http://abcnews.go.com/
CNN = http://edition.cnn.com/
FOX = http://www.foxnews.com/
NBC = http://www.nbcnews.com/
71
Resumé in English
journalistic texts and to find out what types of compound adjectives appear most
frequently in the selected terminology. In order to do so, a corpus was created using
general and provides the theoretical background necessary for understanding the various
to compounding. Definitions of compound words are provided together with the criteria
that are usually used for distinguishing between compounds and syntactic phrases. The
main types of compounds are described. The properties that are usually ascribed to the
class of adjectives (i.e. syntactic position and gradability) are also discussed.
In the second part of the thesis, the compound adjectives that were identified in
the corpus are classified. The classification used in this thesis is based on the lexical
compound adjectives were distinguished. They were subsumed under seven main
groups which were usually determined by the right-hand (central) element of the
compounds. The formal and semantic properties of each type, as well as the relationship
between the constituents of the compounds are discussed. This section also provides
information about the distribution of each type of compound adjectives in the corpus as
72
Resumé in Czech
terminologii. Za tímto účelem byl vytvořený korpus, který byl sestavený z různých
Popsány jsou hlavní typy kompozit. Vlastnosti, jež jsou obvykle připisovány
Druhá část práce se zabývá klasifikací kompozitních adjektiv, jež byly nalezeny
prvků, z nichž se kompozita skládají. Celkem bylo rozlišeno 21 různých typů. Ty byly
zahrnuty do sedmi hlavních skupin, jež byly obvykle určeny na základě centrálního
prvku v kompozitech. V rámci jednotlivých typů jsou dále rozebrány jejich formální a
sémantické vlastnosti, stejně tak jako vztah mezi jednotlivými prvky v rámci kompozit.
V této části jsou shrnuty poznatky ohledně výskytu jednotlivých typů kompozitních
adjektiv v korpusu a také ohledně jejich převládající pozice ve větě a způsobu, jakým se
píší.
73
Appendix
Sources:
ABC: http://abcnews.go.com/
CNN: http://edition.cnn.com/
FOX: http://www.foxnews.com/
NBC: http://www.nbcnews.com/
74
Smoke-breathing smoke-breathing, 400,000-brick welcome dragon (NBC)
Sun-watching NASA's sun-watching Solar Dynamics Observatory
(FOX)
Title-winning Sergio Aguero's title-winning strike (CNN)
Wine-producing France's major wine-producing regions (CNN)
75
*Apple-shaped even for apple-shaped people (FOX)
Awe-struck awe-struck patrons (NBC)
*Bangkok-based a Bangkok-based regional carrier (CNN)
*Barcelona-based a Barcelona-based former politician (CNN)
Battle-hardened the most battle-hardened Yuletide veteran (CNN)
Bikini-clad bikini-clad women (NBC)
*California-based video by California-based film-maker (NBC)
*Cannabis-themed several cannabis-themed events (NBC)
*Castle-themed castle-themed play area (NBC)
21-century-designed a 21-century-designed hotel room (FOX)
*Chef-branded celebrity chef-branded hotel venture (ABC)
*Child-sized child-sized buffet station (NBC)
*Christmas-themed Christmas-themed rides (CNN)
Climate-controlled climate-controlled flower dome (CNN)
Climate-controlled climate-controlled biomes (CNN)
*Cone shaped the structure is cone shaped (NBC)
*Cone shaped The mysterious structure is cone shaped (NBC)
Currywurst-fueled a currywurst-fueled glühwein (CNN)
*Delaware-based A Delaware-based consulting firm (FOX)
*Denver-based Denver-based entrepreneurs (NBC)
Drug-related drug-related violence in Mexico (CNN)
Drug-related killed in drug-related violence (CNN)
Drug-related because of drug-related violence (CNN)
Drug-related drug-related crimes surged (CNN)
*Earth-sized the newfound Earth-sized planet (NBC)
*England-based England-based Merlin Entertainment Group (CNN)
*Florida-based The Florida-based hospitality company (CNN)
Force-fed hunger strikers are being force-fed (ABC)
Government-held the government-held heart of the city (NBC)
Graffiti-covered the graffiti-covered cars (CNN)
Graphite-moderated graphite-moderated reactor (ABC)
*Ground-based a ground-based missile defense site (FOX)
Handmade The handmade wooden toys (CNN)
Handmade handmade wooden instruments (CNN)
76
*Heart-shaped served on a heart-shaped tin plate (CNN)
*Heritage-themed multiple heritage-themed outdoor gardens (CNN)
Home-brewed home-brewed beer (NBC)
Homemade homemade chutneys and cheeses (CNN)
Homemade attempting to plant home-made explosives (CNN)
*Horticulture-themed horticulture-themed leisure destination (CNN)
Human-made They say it is definitely human-made (NBC)
Internet-connected those futuristic, Internet-connected glasses (ABC)
LEGO-filled LEGO-filled moat (NBC)
*LEGO-themed LEGO-themed wallpaper (NBC)
*LEGO-themed LEGO-themed items (NBC)
*Los Angeles-based a Los Angeles-based firm (FOX)
Man-made We therefore conclude that it is man-made (NBC)
*Nick-themed play Nick-themed games (FOX)
Nicky Henderson-trained The Nicky Henderson-trained winner (CNN)
Pakistan-administered town in Pakistan-administered Kashmir (ABC)
Panic-stricken Panic-stricken women (NBC)
*Pear-shaped than their pear-shaped counterparts (FOX)
Pot-related specific, pot-related interests (NBC)
Rock-influenced traditional rock-influenced interiors (CNN)
*Rock-themed such rock-themed hotels (CNN)
Scandal-rocked Scandal-rocked Pompeii (CNN)
Seaborne the seaborne criminal gangs (CNN)
Security-obsessed Security-obsessed Israel (NBC)
Self-proclaimed claim to naming rights in space is a self-proclaimed one
(NBC)
Self-styled a self-styled mystic leader (NBC)
Shanghai-born a Shanghai-born singer (CNN)
*Space-based several space-based observatories (FOX)
Spirit-fortified spirit-fortified variation (CNN)
State-run Mexico's state-run Notimex news agency (CNN)
State-run state-run Phillipine news agency (CNN)
State-run the Chinese state-run news agency (CNN)
Sugar-induced with sugar-induced temper tantrums (CNN)
77
Sun-kissed sun-kissed beaches (NBC)
*Toronto-based Toronto-based company (NBC)
*Toronto-based Toronto-based agency (CNN)
*U.K.-based U.K.-based price-comparison website (NBC)
United Nations-mandated a United Nations-mandated mission (CNN)
U.N.-outlawed U.N.-outlawed uranium and plutonium enrichment
program (FOX)
*U.S.-based the money went to U.S.-based operations (ABC)
*Weight-based The weight-based fare (ABC)
World-renowned world renowned dive sites (NBC)
78
Much-criticized "200 times better" than the much-criticized 2012 model
(CNN)
Much-needed much-needed tourist dollars (CNN)
Much-needed it will provide much-needed momentum (CNN)
Newfound the newfound Earth-sized planet (NBC)
Soft-spoken He is very soft-spoken (CNN)
Short-lived made a shaky and short-lived run for Senate (FOX)
Short-lived a short-lived radio communications blackout (FOX)
So-called a so-called "fat tax" (ABC)
So-called many so-called loyalty programs ´(FOX)
So-called so-called "accessible luxury" (CNN)
So-called the so-called "Internationally Recommended Transit
Corridor." (CNN)
So-called the so-called Arab Peace Initiative (NBC)
Well-known The other is well-known criminal lawyer (CNN)
Well-known the well-known House of the Gladiators (CNN)
Well organized its people were clearly well organized
Well-organized well-organized society (NBC)
79
LEGO-legal the models are all LEGO-legal (NBC)
Lifelong my lifelong hero (NBC)
Malt-heavy producing malt-heavy Christmas beers (CNN)
Month-long after a month-long break (CNN)
Oil-rich campaign by the oil-rich Gulf (CNN)
Pot-friendly pot-friendly hotels (NBC)
Reischauer-like a Reischauer-like appointment (FOX)
Sky-high their sky-high latrines (FOX)
Snack-free Snack-free zones (CNN)
Star-like a bright star-like object (CNN)
Starlike the brightest starlike object (CNN)
Tourism-worthy the city's tourism-worthy places (CNN)
Worldwide collaborative worldwide research (NBC)
Worldwide IHG worldwide hotels and resorts (FOX)
Worldwide the chain's worldwide hotels and resorts (FOX)
80
Ever-popular the ever-popular Julform Popup market (CNN)
Almost-daily on an almost-daily basis (FOX)
81
4. Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective derived from
a noun
82
5.2 Adjective + Noun
Cutting-edge cutting-edge horticultural mega project (CNN)
Fast-track This pioneering, fast-track crew (CNN)
Fast-track Crew takes first fast-track flight (CNN)
First-degree first-degree murder (NBC)
Full-service a full-service butler (NBC)
High-end high-end hotels (CNN)
High-end no high-end, intimate properties (CNN)
High-end high-end clients (CNN)
High profile A few high profile instances of recidivism (CNN)
High-profile a high-profile sequester cut (FOX)
High-quality a high-quality trip (CNN)
High-speed High-speed bomb-detecting airport boarding gate (CNN)
High-speed The high-speed bomb-detecting gate from Hitachi (CNN)
High-tech a high-tech hunt for pirates (CNN)
High-tech The high-tech course (CNN)
High-tech The high-tech hunt for pirates (CNN)
High-tech this high-tech ship (CNN)
High-tech high-tech flowers (CNN)
Large-scale providing large-scale equipment (CNN)
Long-term focused primarily on the long-term problem (FOX)
Long-term part of the long-term U.S. strategy (FOX)
Low-fat …low-fat local cuisine (CNN)
Military-style a military-style semi-automatic rifle (FOX)
Military-style holding a military-style rifle. (FOX)
Modern-day heavier than most modern-day warships (NBC)
Multiple-choice multiple-choice vocabulary tests (NBC)
Multiple-choice the multiple-choice test (NBC)
Red carpet Red carpet treatment (CNN)
Straight-line to increase straight-line speed (CNN)
Top-flight in 54 top-flight appearances (CNN)
Top-notch top-notch scuba diving (CNN)
Top-tier the chain’s top-tier hotels (FOX)
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5.3 Numeral + noun
28-acre the 28-acre LEGOLAND California theme (NBC)
74-acre a heavily fortified 74-acre (30 hectares) site (NBC)
400,000-brick smoke-breathing, 400,000-brick welcome dragon (NBC)
22-caliber a 22-caliber rifle (FOX)
10-course the 80-square-kilometer, 10-course Mission Hills Hainan
resort (CNN)
11-day over 11-day carnival (CNN)
11-day the 11-day carnival (CNN)
6.5-hectare a 6.5-hectare piece of property (CNN)
54-hectare The 54-hectare section (CNN)
101-hectare the 101-hectare venue's three gardens (CNN)
18-hole 18-hole golf course (CNN)
18-hole the 18-hole course (CNN)
46,000 horsepower With a 46,000 horsepower engine (CNN)
2.5-hour including a 2.5-hour ferry ride (CNN)
48-hour He broke a 48-hour curfew (CNN)
42-inch 42-inch rattlesnake found abandoned in backpack (FOX)
42-inch a 42-inch rattlesnake (FOX)
5-megawatt The 5-megawatt, graphite-moderated reactor (ABC)
4x5 meter 4x5 meter room (CNN)
46-meter The 46-meter pool (CNN)
22-member the 22-member Arab League (NBC)
57-member The 57-member Organization of Islamic Cooperation
(NBC)
30-minute A 30-minute YouTube video (NBC)
45-minute 45-minute speedboat (CNN)
80-minute three 80-minute flights (CNN)
18-month an 18-month counterinsurgency campaign (CNN)
18-page the 18-page order (CNN)
139-page the 139-page bill (FOX)
45-person a 45-person company (CNN)
250-room the three-story, 250-room hotel (NBC)
250-room the 250-room hotel (FOX)
84
285-room a 285-room luxury hotel (CNN)
40,000 square-foot 40,000 square-foot casino (ABC)
65,000 square-foot 65,000 square-foot indoor/outdoor nightclub (ABC)
80-square-kilometer the 80-square-kilometer, 10-course Mission Hills Hainan
resort (CNN)
150,000-square-meter the 150,000-square-meter Mission Hills Centreville
(CNN)
22-story The 22-story Hard Rock Hotel (CNN)¨
15-time a 15-time grand slam winner (CNN)
48-villa the 48-villa resort (CNN)
11-year the sun's normal 11-year cycle (FOX)
44-year he last season helped end a 44-year wait (CNN)
64-year in the sport's 64-year history (CNN)
87-year during its 87-year history (NBC)
Multi-million-dollar A multi-million-dollar construction project (CNN)
Five-star five-star resorts (CNN)
Five-star the five-star Meydan Hotel. (CNN)
Four-match he was given a four-match ban (CNN)
Four-time four-time world champion (CNN)
Six-cylinder they must use six-cylinder turbo engines (CNN)
Six-hour This six-hour jaunt (CNN)
six-night a six-night stand (CNN)
Six-party to resume six-party talks (FOX)
Six-star Qatar's six-star hotel (CNN)
Three day three day hunger strike (CNN)
Three-judge a three-judge panel (CNN)
Three-member Its three-member crew (CNN)
Three-mile the final fence of the three-mile steeplechase (CNN)
Three point a three point turn (CNN)
Three-story the three-story, 250-room hotel (NBC)
Three-year three-year contract (CNN)
Two-day the normal two-day adventure (CNN)
Two-hour the rocky two-hour ferry ride (CNN)
Two-night The two-night stay (NBC)
85
6. Compound adjectives containing particles
86
On-stage even the best on-stage spellers (NBC)
Outdoor Venues include indoor and outdoor events (CNN)
Outdoor indoor/outdoor nightclub (ABC)
Outdoor outdoor gardens (CNN)
Overweight overweight passengers (ABC)
Underwater an underwater archaeological expedition (NBC)
Overseas the city’s overseas tourism promotional advisor (CNN)
Underwater Underwater excavation (NBC)
Overall the quickest overall time (CNN)
87