THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
PSG 1110 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

SCIENTIFIC WRITING IN PSYCHOLOGY

Lecturer Mrs K.C. Nakazwe-Chanda
Scientists from various disciplines use specific scientific writing styles to communicate their
findings in a way that can be understood across many disciplines (Marek, 2016). By applying these
styles, they effectively organise their material; communicate with clarity, precision, and logic; and
cite source materials to avoid plagiarism (inappropriate use of someone else’s ideas). In
Psychology, familiarity with the APA (American Psychological Association) style will enhance
report and assignment writing. Understanding of scientific writing helps sharpen critical thinking
about ideas as well as how one evaluates conclusions.

Sourcing for information

Ideas in scientific writing are not written in a vacuum; rather they build on and extend prior
research. Therefore, all ideas in scientific writing must be supported by evidence, with appropriate
citations of the source of evidence. There are various sources out there from which information
can be drawn. However, it is important to distinguish between scientific material and articles
targeted at the general public that may not be firmly based on scientific research. Multiple sources
are available in Libraries and on the internet. These include, books, book chapters, journal articles,
conference papers, Thesis, webpages, newspaper articles, magazine articles, lecture notes, films,
personal communication e.g telephone conversations, interviews, podcasts etc.

• Settling for appropriate material that will be used in a piece of writing will take
considerable time.
• Further, reading the material will not be easy.

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 • Start with the abstract to get the general view of what the article is all about.
• To get details of the paper, one will need to read the whole paper.
• Before reading the whole paper, one must familiarize themselves with the general structure
and know what to expect in each section.
• Then take down some notes and remember to group similar ideas together from different
papers.
• One should also look out for contrasting ideas.

Writing style

General rules across all scientific writing

• Scientific writing in Psychology, like any other formal writing, requires a firm foundation
in English sentence construction, usage, and punctuation.
• Abbreviations used in ‘short message system’ (SMS), other instant messages, or tweets–
such as “luv, dis, bcoz etc…” are strongly discouraged. Instead, formal language is
encouraged as the typical audience for scientific papers include researchers and academics.
• Precise and clear writing is crucial, with adjectives or adverbs used only to advance
accurate and objective description. For instance, a scientific writer might describe
participants in an experiment as “preschool children”; in this case, the adjective
“preschool” helps to clarify the age and experience of the subjects. If the given writer had
written “cute little children,” the word “cute” would express only the writer’s opinion, and
the word “little” would be a less precise description of the participants’ age or experience.
• Use similar words appropriately. For instance, “then” and “than” are sometimes confused.
“Then” typically refers to a point in time (e.g., “Then, we ended the session with a
briefing.”). Whereas “than” is used in comparisons (e.g., “Women responded more quickly
than did men.” Other similar words that tend to be confused include “there,” “their,” and
“they’re.”
• Use apostrophes appropriately. They typically indicate possession (e.g., in singular
form…“the participant’s scores”). In plural (the participants’ scores).
• Use punctuation marks correctly.

Specific rules to APA style of scientific writing

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 • In psychology, the “ultimate source” for appropriate writing style is the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th edition.
• Avoid redundancy by using as few words as possible to express ideas. For instance, the
phrase “due to the fact that” can be consolidated into a single word, “because.”
• When referring to numbers 10 and above, use numerals except when the number
begins a sentence. To express numbers less than 10, APA style requires that you use words
rather than numerals most of the time. For instance, “The sample included 14 first-year
students, nine sophomores, 10 juniors, and five seniors.”
• The APA discourages addressing the reader directly saying “you.” Instead writers should
use such terms as “people” or “individuals.”

Report writing in Psychology

Title page
The title must be written on a separate page which is usually page one. The title should clearly and
concisely (maximum 12 words) indicate the topic of the report.

Abstract
An abstract summarizes a report in about 120 to 300 words. It should include the purpose of the
study, sample (number, type, age, sex of participants), Methods (Materials used, basic procedures),
major findings, and conclusion. The abstract must be prepared at the end as it summarizes the
entire paper. It should be written on a separate page which is usually page 2. Information here must
be consistent with what is in the report (Harris, 2010).

Introduction
This begins on page 3. It should be both brief and catchy. You need to grab the reader’s interest
and make him/her go on reading. In this section you should describe the main issue under
investigation and the importance of your research to persuade the reader that the results of the
study may be useful. This is also the part where you define all your key terms if any to make your
topic even clearer. Remember that the statements given must be supported by citations (Harris,
2010).

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 Literature review: This section shows empirical evidence/research conducted on the
topic at hand in details. It gives the reader a report on relevant studies (the aim, methods, context
of those studies and main findings), and what their strengths and weaknesses are. It basically
provides the reader with the background necessary to understand what was done and why it was
done. Do not simply summarize a series of articles sequentially. Rather, integrate material from
multiple articles into paragraphs focused on specific subtopics linked to the purpose of your
practical (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013).
Aims/purpose: A statement about why the practical was conducted (why it was
important).

Methodology
Design
Is it a quantitative or qualitative or mixed method approach? Is it experimental or Non-
experimental? If non experimental, indicate if it will descriptive, correlation or case studies
e.t.c. Also clearly state the dependent and independent variables.
Participants
Give a brief description of participants (number, type, age, sex of participants).
Data collection tools
brief description of the tools used. For instance, paper, pen, computer, pictures e.t.c.
Procedure
How was the practical carried out? Should include the instructions given during the
experiment.

Results
This section should include what you found (comprehensive findings/results). They can be
presented in form of descriptive tables, the cross tabulations, graphs e.t.c. Do not be tempted to
interpret (saying what you think they show, or possible reasons behind those results). That comes
in the discussion.
Discussion

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You are required to discuss the meaning of the results in relation to the literature review. This is
the section where you say what you think they show, or possible reasons behind those results. You
indicate if they are either in line with previous findings in the literature or background, or not.
Also, give possible reasons for either outcome.

Conclusion
What conclusion can you draw from the practical?
References
APA format should be used for both in-text citation and reference page
Appendices (if any)
Tables/charts/instruments/other tools or additional information that had no place in the structure
could come here.

ESSAY WRITING IN SOCIAL SCIENCES (PSYCHOLOGY)

It is very important for every student who gets into higher education to understand how to put what
they know into writing in a way which is very understandable. This is because failure to do this as
a student can be costly through the academic journey as well as life after school. Academic writing
also teaches us to communicate effectively to any audience we target to inform. There are different
types of essays you may be required to write in Psychology. Among them are discussion essays
and sometimes you are required to write scientific research reports.

✓ Before you write your essay it's important to analyse the task and understand exactly what
the essay question is asking. It is possible your lecturer will give you some advice - pay
attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.
✓ Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes as well as other sources. At
this stage it's not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you
should at least have a general 'gist' of the literature. You can refer to Google scholar to get
some of the latest researches done.
✓ After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a
summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompass the entire argument of
your essay in just a few sentences).

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 ✓ After writing your plan conduct supplementary reading and refine your plan and make it
more detailed.
✓ It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and just write the first draft while reading at
the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier,
quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Now let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important
features.

1. A Global Structure - structure the material in a way that allows for a logical sequence of
ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay
should 'flow'. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.

Each paragraph should comprise a main theme which are illustrated and developed through
a number of points (supported by evidence).

2. Knowledge and Understanding - recognise, recall and show understanding on a range of

scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
3. Critical Evaluation - arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or
theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight and evaluation of the
evidence.
4. Quality of Written Communication - writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use
of paragraphs, spelling and grammar. All sources referenced accurately and in line with
APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical
evaluation of at least one main point.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for
about a 60/40 split if possible. Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge
and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

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It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed
through a number of points (supported by evidence). Choose relevant points only, ones that most
reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don't make the mistake of
writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no
unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Plagiarism
According colorado college. Edu (2019), Plagiarism is defined as "The practice of taking
someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own.”

Direct Plagiarism

Direct plagiarism is the word-for-word transcription of a section of someone else’s work,

without attribution and without quotation marks. The deliberate plagiarism of someone
else's work is unethical, academically dishonest, and grounds for disciplinary actions,
including expulsion.

Self- Plagiarism

Self-plagiarism occurs when a student submits his or her own previous work, or mixes
parts of previous works, without permission from all professors involved. For example, it
would be unacceptable to incorporate part of a term paper you wrote in high school into a
paper assigned in a college course. Self-plagiarism also applies to submitting the same
piece of work for assignments in different classes without previous permission
from both professors.

Mosaic Plagiarism

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 Mosaic Plagiarism occurs when a student borrows phrases from a source without using
quotation marks, or finds synonyms for the author’s language while keeping to the same
general structure and meaning of the original. Sometimes called “patch writing,” this kind
of paraphrasing, whether intentional or not, is academically dishonest and punishable –
even if you footnote your source!

Accidental Plagiarism

Accidental plagiarism occurs when a person neglects to cite their sources, or misquotes
their sources, or unintentionally paraphrases a source by using similar words, groups of
words, and/or sentence structure without attribution. for mosaic plagiarism.) Students must
learn how to cite their sources and to take careful and accurate notes when doing research.
Lack of intent does not absolve the student of responsibility for plagiarism. Cases of
accidental plagiarism are taken as seriously as any other plagiarism and are subject to the
same range of consequences as other types of plagiarism.

APA REFRENCING IN PSYCHOLOGY

Citing a book in print

APA format structure:

Author, A. (Year of Publication). Title of work. Publisher City, State: Publisher.

APA format example:

Finney, J. (1970). Time and again. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Notes: When citing a book in APA, keep in mind:

• Capitalize the first letter of the first word of the title and any subtitles, as well as the first
letter of any proper nouns.
• The full title of the book, including any subtitles, should be stated and italicized.

Citing an e-book from an e-reader

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E-book is short for “electronic book.” It is a digital version of a book that can be read on a
computer, e-reader (Kindle, Nook, etc.), or other electronic device.

APA format structure:

Author, A. (Year of Publication). Title of work [E-Reader Version]. Retrieved from http://xxxx or
DOI:xxxx

APA format example:

Eggers, D. (2008). The circle [Kindle Version]. Retrieved from http://www.amazon.com/

Citing a book found in a database

APA format structure:

Author, A. (Year of Publication). Title of work. Retrieved from http://xxxx or DOI:xxxx

APA format example:

Sayre, Rebecca K., Devercelli, A.E., Neuman, M.J., & Wodon, Q. (2015). Investment in early
childhood development: Review of the World Bank’s recent experience. DOI: 10.1596/978-1-
4648-0403-8

Notes: When citing an online book or e-book in APA, keep in mind:

• A DOI (digital object identifier) is an assigned number that helps link content to its
location on the Internet. It is therefore important, if one is provided, to use it when creating
a citation. All DOI numbers begin with a 10 and are separated by a slash.

How to Reference a Newspaper in APA

Citing a newspaper article in print

APA format structure:

Author, A. (Year, Month Date of Publication). Article title. Newspaper Title, pp. xx-xx.

APA format example:

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Rosenberg, G. (1997, March 31). Electronic discovery proves an effective legal weapon.The New
York Times, p. D5.

Notes: When creating you newspaper citation, keep in mind:

• Precede page numbers for newspaper articles with p. (for a single page) or pp. (for multiple
pages).
• If an article appears on discontinuous pages, give all page numbers, and separate the
numbers with a comma (e.g., pp. B1, B3, B5-B7).

Citing a newspaper article found online

APA format structure:

Author, A. (Year, Month Date of Publication). Article title. Newspaper Title, Retrieved from
newspaper homepage URL

APA format example:

Rosenberg, G. (1997, March 31). Electronic discovery proves an effective legal weapon.The New
York Times, Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com

Notes: When citing a newspaper in APA, keep in mind:

• APA does NOT require you to include the date of access for electronic sources. If you
discovered a newspaper article via an online database, that information is NOT required
for the citation either.
• Multiple lines: If the URL runs onto a second line, only break URL before punctuation
(except for http://).

Citing a journal article in print

APA format structure:

Author, A. (Publication Year). Article title. Periodical Title, Volume(Issue), pp-pp.

APA format example:

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Nevin, A. (1990). The changing of teacher education special education. Teacher Education and
Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for
Exceptional Children, 13(4), 147-148.

Citing a journal article found online

APA format structure:

Author, A. (Publication Year). Article title. Periodical Title, Volume(Issue), pp-pp.
doi:XX.XXXXX or Retrieved from URL

APA format example:

Jameson, J. (2013). E-Leadership in higher education: The fifth “age” of educational technology
research. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(6), 889-915. doi: 10.1111/bjet.12103

Notes: When creating your online journal article citation, keep in mind:

• APA does NOT require you to include the date of access/retrieval date or database
information for electronic sources.
• You can use the URL of the journal homepage if there is no doi number assigned and the
reference was retrieved online.
• Example: Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1467-
8535;jsessionid=956132F3DE76EEB120577E99EE74CE9C.f04t01
• A doi (digital object identifier) is an assigned number that helps link content to its
location on the Internet. It is therefore important, if one is provided, to use it when
creating a citation. All doi numbers begin with a 10 and are separated by a slash.

Note: Please, always refer to the APA manual when you are writing any work in psychology. Take
the manual as your handbook. Spending a full day on referencing and citing is very important to
avoid the traps discussed under plagiarism and also to avoid average grades.

Sources

http://www.bibme.org/citation-guide/apa/

https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychology-essay.html

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(https://www.coloradocollege.edu/academics/dept/psychology/resources/avoiding-
plagiarism.html)

APA manual 6th edition

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