The ABC of Organic Agriculture Nuzie1 1 U1pcng 1 Dlfta9

PRACTICAL MANUAL
The ABC of
organic agriculture,
phosphites and stone meal
Jairo Restrepo Rivera

Julius Hensel
The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal
© Jairo Restrepo Rivera
jairoagroeco@gmail.com
Stone Meal
Julius Hensel
Copy editing
Erasmo Correa Riascos
Carlos Pons de Valcarcel
Illustrations
Camilo Heraso Ágredo (acuarela de portada)
Carlos A. Figueroa “Cabeto”
Translation
Adrian Woods
Photographs
Jairo Restrepo (Chapters 1 to 4)
Diagrams:
Rodrigo Valencia Saucedo
Carmen Cabello
This edition:
1st English edition, January 2017
Cooperativa Bosque Madre
La mierda de vaca
Ragmans Farm
Coordinator: Carlos Pons

carlos@mosaicproject.net
Printed in Spain on 100% recycled paper
General
index
Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 1
Fermented organic fertilisers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Chapter 2
Biofertilisers prepared and fermented
using cow dung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Chapter 3
Mineral Brews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
How to prepare liquid mineral mixtures to control some
nutritional deficiencies and crop diseases
Chapter 4
Phosphites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Substances prepared on the basis of ashes and calcined bone
ash for crop bio-protection
Chapter 5
Stone meal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Presentation
T
he ABC of Organic Agriculture introduces the work of Columbian scientist and far-
mer Jairo Restrepo. Although well known in South America, his message is new
on this side of the Atlantic, and this book adds a strong new voice to the English
literature for those who fight for diverse cropping systems and affordable healthy diets.
In this compendium of practical ideas and political discourse Jairo Restrepo lays
down a challenge for us - to re think our approach to the natural world. We have become
complicit in a food system that is fundamentally antibiotic. We are at war with nature,
deploying a wide range of poison against pests and plant disease, resulting in food of
poor nutritional quality. As the land empties of small farmers, our hospitals fill with
diabetics and oncology patients.
This book is a manual that explains that high quality food can be grown affordably on
small farms using minimal inputs. Starting with the basic chemistry of the soil it leads
the reader on a journey from the science of soil nutrition through mineral ferments mi-
micking the stomach of a cow, and onto the application of microbial brews to fortify the
living systems all around us. We can build natural fertility back into our soils without
having to resort to the drugs of the agricultural supply industry – we have the ingre-
dients for health and productivity under our noses.
Our companion on this journey, Jairo Restrepo, speaks with authority having been
a government scientist studying pesticides in Brazil in the 1970’s. Appalled by what
he learnt in this role, he decided to dedicate his life to understanding how we can work
with the natural world rather than against it. Few advocates of natural farming have
his scientific depth of knowledge of the true effects of industrial agriculture. Fewer still
have put together a practical manual for farmers and growers to learn a new system that
will help build long term fertility into their soil.
This is the sort of book that gets a bit tatty. Used again and again, it picks up the
sweet scent of the soil and grows well thumbed pages over the course of time. It is for
those who don’t mind a bit of dirt under their nails.
Presentation 5
This is more than a recipe book however. A recurring theme throughout the book is
that we need to reclaim our enquiry into the natural world. We need regain our sense
of wonder and at the same time to understand the scientific fundamentals behind our
actions. Otherwise we substitute one set of blind recipes for another. Our industrial
farms have filled with ‘operatives’ waiting for the next spray instruction (product/dose/
timing) received by text from the agronomist. Farmers have become deskilled. In con-
trast, Jairo Restrepo requires us to take back control of the health of our land from
the agricultural supply industry. It has not served farmers or consumers well. In his
teaching he passionately challenges the mass production of poor quality food describing
it as ‘dishonest food’. His vision of Organic Agriculture is not that of certification and
supermarkets, but instead he calls for a new food sovereignty that delivers equity as well
the right to an affordable and nutritious diet.
The process of beneficial inoculation is subtle. An infinitesimally small colony of
microbes starts to multiply and in the process slowly but surely changes the nature of
the medium itself. Once a preparation is applied to the land its true potential opens up
before us. This is what Jairo Restrepo intends with the ABC of Organic Agriculture – to ino-
culate our minds and the nature of farming itself; to help us realise what we can achieve
when we work with nature.
Matt Dunwell
Ragmans Farm November 2016
6 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

Note
by the author
T
he rights of this publication are not reserved, nor does any
law set forth in Articles and Criminal Codes protect them.
Those who reproduce all or part, WITHOUT ALTERING
IT, shall be encouraged and not punished with penalties of fines
or imprisonment.
Such reproduction is not subject to any condition of source
and/or sending one or more copies to the author. Moreover, its
storage on any computer system, its transmission by any form
or means, either electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording or
other means, even those not yet conceived, including extraterres-
trial ones, is allowed.
Do not forget. Reproduce all or part of it with credit to its
authors, WITHOUT ALTERING IT, NOT FOR PROFIT AND WITHOUT
ADVERTISING.
Cordially,
Presentation 7
Dedication
Tulio Enrique Restrepo (1918-2012) and Francisca Edilma Rivera (1923-2011), the author’s parents.
T
o the person who brought me into this world on the whole number, on
7th April, embedding in me perseverance for life.
To the person who was my mother, who always protected, encouraged
and unconditionally watched over me in all my moments of rebelliousness; who
always knew how to lovingly give me the most sensible advice at the right moment.
To the person who always provided me the strongest, most invigorating reason
to exist; the profound strength of her gaze framed by her face, who with certainty
and smiles appeared to foresee the success of investing in life for the future.
To the person who appeared to be the spread out skin of the universe, ta-
king on the pain of others, ignoring the bounds of distance to accompany the
tortured child.
Presentation 9
From left to right: Silvia, Gerardo, Angela, Tulio, Pachita (mama),
Holmes and Luz Marina, the author’s brothers and sisters.
To the person who, for a few moments, placed the possible course of the
family in her elder son’s hands.
To the person who, in her lucidness and untiring memory, called those who
were absent before leaving us.
To the person who taught me how hard it is to honestly seek what is fair to
live with dignity.
To the person who always spoke for solidarity with others and nurtured the
fantasies and dreams of my brothers and sisters.
To the person who was always attentive, to lend a hand and shelter those
pursued, at any time.
To the person who always took the trouble to quench the thirst and provide
rest for others who were weary, regardless of where she was.
To she whose prayers always sustained the faith to dream of a better, fai-
rer, more humane world among sons, grandchildren and great grandchildren,
in communion and universal festivity.
To the person who, in the harshness of her final agony, had sufficient stren-
gth to give me the last maternal caress and hug as she departed for another
dimension.
Beside the warmth and infinite sensitivity for humanity, remained the calm
contemplative gaze between Ángela and my father, Tulio Enrique, who depar-
ted in search of my mother on 8th December 2012, on the path of infinite joy
she traced for him when she went on ahead on 24th November 2011.

Introduction
The earth is the essence of mineral origins, where they originate and shelter
infinite relations and forms of healthy life; “only a live, healthy organism is
able to generate another live healthy organism”. It is the main “infinite base”
on which the spine and spinal cord are based to achieve a peasant-based orga-
nic agriculture with autonomy. It amounts to the best digestive and nutritional
media of natural origin, indispensable for gestation and to perpetuate healthy
life on the planet in harmony; as it is inconceivable to achieve healthy organic
agriculture without developing the presence of microbiology in the soil.
“Dust to dust and ashes to ashes; or we are stone meal in constant transfor-
mation and will return to being stone meal”, in the end. “Life is an animated
mineral”. V. Vernadsky.
An old man in India used to say: “The sun, the moon, the air and trees are
signs of my continuity. Social life shall continue while these continue to exist.
I was born as part of the earth, I go with them. He who created us all shall
feed us. If there is such variety and abundance on the earth, I need not worry
about my continuity”.
“The more scientists study and learn, the more they are convinced of the
awe inspiring, terrifying complexity of the nature of the earth and its myste-
ries. They discover that it is a world full of unlimited, impenetrable enigmas.
The amount of material for research that lies hidden in a simple grain of earth,
in a simple particle, unsettles thought and freezes the mind”. Lynn Margulis .
Introduction 11
Energy, soil and life
Without having an in-depth knowledge of the nature of life inside the soil
we work or aim to work with to produce healthy food, we are automatically
denying it all the necessary care to appropriately keep it healthy.
The soil, as a live organism, has an external skin and a deep basic struc-
tural skeleton: bedrock. Like all beings, soil is formed, grows, reproduces and
may die prematurely, feeds itself and breaths, evolves in time and space, per-
forms a macro and micro organic bio-digestion and is autochthonous within
it.
GRAPH I. Curve of growth, life and death
LIFE
ANIMATED MINERALS
ANIMATED
WORLD
out
h- p-
Deca
Deca nce
Birt uild u
Spr
L I F E
de
y-
B
EARTH ORGANIC WORLD
MINERAL WORLD
pos ion -
n
Res ting a
Spr
itio
t
Dec ntegra
urre
DEATH
ou
ctio ain
om
i
Dis
n-
g
INANIMATE
WORLD
DEATH
Actual physical and chemical soil analysis separates out all the mineral
elements without considering all the infinite animated relations that exist
between them, organic matter and life: laboratories are true necropolises,
halls of bio-incineration or biological cremation. Taking the elements analy-
sed separately holds no interest for farmer-driven organic agriculture, as the
comprehensive relation of all the parts of the soil and their environment are

what makes it fertile. Routine chemical soil analysis recommended by agro-
nomists and agricultural extension agents do not contribute anything. Their
teachings are limited, incomplete and, moreover, they confuse and disorient
more than they contribute. Laboratory analyses contribute a lot regarding a
few palpable elements without any animation; they provide nothing regarding
the reciprocal microbiological value of the set of elements plants may assimi-
late. On the other hand, it is very common for such analysis to only refer to a
few absolutely dead elements, to later recommend a couple of them. Likewise,
both agronomists and scientists, in their desire to partially resolve the failure
of their laboratory analysis and frustration of their recommendations in the
field, attempted to resolve this situation with the misnamed foliar analyses.
However, once more, life provides profound responses that are beyond any
intellectual scope that justifies having an in-depth knowledge of perfect nutri-
tion with which to attend to the metabolic needs of a plant or crop to assure
healthy development. More than four decades ago, the results of foliar analy-
ses were contested or invalidated due to all their limitations, when the scien-
tists were not able to understand the enzymatic and metabolic complexities
taking place every instant or second within the individual nature of each plant
or plant community, within the bowels of the earth, among their roots, the
macro and microbiology, where an autotrophic relation on the surface may be
directly linked to heterotrophic nutritional relations in the rhizosphere.
In order not to turn this short introduction to the Manual into a treatise on
the reciprocal relations between minerals that must be studied to understand
healthy nutrition in crops, we shall deal with some examples of such relations
in plant nutrition in Chapter II on bio-fertilisation with cow dung.
In industrial or conventional agriculture, the concern for the earth is eco-
nomic, so it produces and gives a yield. Plant growth is scheduled in controlled
industrial spaces and time-slots; fruit ripening and vegetable size is dictated
by the market and the price that pirates and certification bodies impose. They
do not consider or allow the existence of edaphological, geo-evolutionary or
physiological concerns that have a repercussion on the nutraceutical quality
thereof; the visual appearance or cosmetics such fruit or vegetables require
are what matters to ensure market plunder.
Through organic agriculture in farming hands, we get to know the earth
with its minerals transmuted into taste, color, aroma, hormones, vitamins,
enzymes and coenzymes; and by becoming friends with her, we contemplate it,
we rediscover ourselves and we change our attitude.
Minerals, organic matter and

soil microbiology are an inseparable
whole to understand the natural depth of life.
Introduction 13
The earth is the miraculously complex and scarcely known source and mel-
ting pot of all forms of healthy life that arise on the planet.
Industrial agriculture, intentionally, in bad faith and deceitfully, made
many farmers or producers show more concern for plants than the earth itself,
and when they did pay attention, it was only from the linear, physical and
chemical point of view, without considering the different roles and relations
of macro and micro-life.
Conventional agriculture turned the soil into a universal formula for me-
chanical cultivation, fertilisation and to be poisoned; it forgot the complex,
simple and fundamental relations that link the soil to micro-organisms and
plants. It forgot a principle: the transmutation and vivification of minerals,
the alchemy and historic as well as biochemical memory plants have to take in
or leave aside nutrients at a specific physical and biochemical moment.
Conventional agriculture contributes no knowledge whatsoever regarding
the living organisms in the soil, an invisible, discrete, permanent world, that
plays a fundamental role in the development and continuity of life on the
planet, by auto-regulation of the sources of carbon that are now suffocating
us. On the other hand, knowing the phenomenon of natural auto-regulation
of carbon sources through soil microbiology is not profitable for the global
warming hoax, a scheme used to speculate and commit fraud. Nor would its
discourse be “worthy” of a Nobel prize, as everybody would see the emperor
has no clothes. In fact, such a Nobel prize fits very well with those granted by
the humour magazine Annals of Improbable Research. The Ig-Nobel winners of
the 18th Edition in 2008 included, among others, the biology prize awarded
to Marie-Christine Cadiergues, Christel Joubert and Michel Franc, of the Na-
tional Veterinary School of Toulouse, France, for proving that “Fleas on a dog
jump higher than fleas on a cat”, in a paper in Veterinary Parasitology.
The micro-organisms are who bring

to life and mobilise the nutrients found
in the soil to deliver them to the plants.

TABLE I. Soil organism pyramid based
on length and population
(The numbers in brackets are in scientific notation)
Approximate Individuals per

Organisms
length (mm)a thousand cm3b
0,02 a 0,2 Protozoa 1.000.000.000 (1x109)
0,2 a 2,0 Nematodes 30.000 (3x104)
0,2 a 2,5 Acari (Acarina) 2.000 (2x103)
0,2 a 10 Collembola (Springtails) 1.000 (1x103)
0,2 a 1 Rotifers 500 (5x102)
1 a 30 Arthropods 100 (1x102)
1 a 60 Enchytraeidae (potworms) 50
15 a 85 Earthworms 2
a. Data from Wallwork (1970).
b. One thousand cubic centimetres (cm3) has the same volume as a cube of earth with 10 centimetres on each side.
Source: Coyne Mark. Soil microbiology: an exploratory approach. Editorial Paraninfo. 2000
Industrial technicism knows very little or nothing about the plant macro-
organisms on land that are plant roots. In spite of these being fairly volumi-
nous in relation to the above ground part, they are less known to the conven-
tional agronomists trained by the “green revolution”. However, it is impossible
to separate the whole root system that geo-bio-envolves inside the earth from
the other part of the part that bio-evolves on the surface through the force of
solar energy. Conventional agriculture ignores tat a crop or plant may easily
send its roots down to a depth of 10 to 100 metres to search for water and
some minerals; it also ignores the different root metabolic exudations and
their biochemical functions, these being rich in carbon, phytamins , vitamins,
enzymes and hormones, that nourish the tissue of the micro-life within the soil,
making it prosperous and healthy.
Micro-organisms in the soil

release or send only the nutrients the plants need.
Introduction 15
TABLE 2. Relative contribution by soil organisms to the
ground biomass of a meadow in a temperate climate
Organism Biomass
(Kg per hectare)
Plant roots 20.000 a 90.000

Fungi 2.500
Bacteria 1.000 a 2.000
Actinobacteria 0 a 2.000
Protozoa 0 a 500
Nematodes 0 a 200
Earthworms 0 a 2.500
Source: Killhamm, 1994
Little does it know about amoeba as regulators in the microbial world. It

knows much less, or nothing, of the types of organisms that are able to bring
about fusion between the mineral material in the earth and energy from the
sun; those able to merge the sun’s energy with the organic matter in the soil;
those able to merge the chemical energy in the soil with the mineral matter
of the earth itself; and finally, they also know nothing of the micro-organisms
that may take the organic matter from the earth and make it enter the infinite
world of life in animate form partially thanks to the chemical energy of the
earth.
To provide their technicians with a timely reminder of the probable mineral
transmutation that takes place within the divine melting pot of life within the
soil would be to snub them, to affirm their insensitivity to life and cause them
an upheaval regarding something about which they know little or nothing. It
would be a shock to their brain when they realise that what they supposedly
learned at university were just some utilitarian techniques to serve destruc-
tion of life, including that of their families and other loved ones.
Fertilisation by the living

organisms in the soil
Mineralisation and nutrition of the soil microbiology, as a safe and long
lasting mechanism to nourish plants has never interested industrialised
agriculture. However, nor has it dared to deny the importance of life in the
soil having a fundamental role in its structure, circulation and redistribution
of minerals in a form that is available and may be assimilated as plant
nutrient.

The same as we must fertilise plants, life in the earth must also be nouris-
hed to achieve improvement of cropland, for which it is essential to know the
different micro and macro-inhabitants of the soil, their relations and needs
according to their ecological niche, be it linked to the organic part, the plant
roots or the mineral world.
Soil micro-organisms are infinite natural dynamic entities so that, at each
moment, different microbial groups “dominate” the medium, depending on
different epochs, seasons of the year, climates and plant covers. There are at
least five characteristics that show that the earth is a live system: movement,
respiration, heat generation, digestion and evolution.
TABLE 3. Distribution of the mass of micro-organisms in the soil

(As a percentage)
Grupos Tipos Biomasa

Microbes Bacteria and fungi 80%
Mesofauna and microfauna Nematodes, collembola and 2%
acari
Macrofauna Enchytraeidae and ear- 14%
thworms
Others -- 4%
(Adaptation based on Richards, 1987).
Source: Mark. Soil microbiology: an exploratory approach. Editorial Paraninfo. 2000.
Earth microbiology may be defined as the study of the natural organisms

that inhabit it, this being characterised by it having a metabolism, functions,
an energy flow and an infinite nutritional inter-cyclical tissue,
Like plants and animals, micro-organisms have certain basic requirements
for survival: a favourable environment with adequate acidity, an appropriate
temperature and suitable conditions of oxidation and reduction; on the other
hand, they require water, mineral nutrients, sources of energy and carbon;
electron donors and acceptors, as well as growth factors. Once more, we are
faced with the reason we must always pay attention to diversified soil remine-
ralisation using stone meal.
Micro-nutrients are metallic cofactors required by enzymes. A cofactor is
a non protein compound required for enzymes, coenzymes and other bioche-
mical compounds to function properly.
In terms of nutritional interdependence, it is very difficult to precisely
establish where a biochemical or enzymatic reaction starts or ends in the soil,
microbiology, plants, animals and in humans. One thing we are sure of, as hu-
Introduction 17
man beings interdependent on all kinds of nutrition, is that we are the weakest
species in this complex tissue of bio-transformation as we turn the soil into
animated food. Everything that happens to the soil and biology in terms of
blocking, nutritional and mineral deficiencies will have a direct impact on
animals and human beings. The biochemistry of our health metabolism is the
biochemical and metabolic expression of everything that happens in the earth
and in our surroundings. Everything that lies on the earth is a true X-ray of
the whole live complexity that takes place under it, and everything found un-
derneath the earth is a true X-ray of all the energetic complexity that takes
place and is transformed above it; above and below do not exist, they are cou-
pled or merge into a sole infinite expression: LIFE. Where everything appears
to end for one is the beginning for the other. In a sort of count-back, human
beings are contained within the memory of all the transformations that make
animals and plants, while animals are contained within the whole memory
of the metabolic transformations that make plants, that are the result of all
the bio-transformations and geo-diverse transmutations that form the micro
and macro-life in the soil. If we were to try to continue that count-back, we
would run into the fine enigma of the miracle of life, and our lips would utter
the age-old bewildering question: “WHAT IS LIFE?”. The reply is as miraculous
as life itself, it is something as indescribable as what is felt; attempting to
fathom its definition and origin is inane, it is to renounce the contemplation
and the dream.
In the words of Lynn Margulis and Dorion Sagan , “SO, WHAT IS LIFE?
Life is a planetary exuberance, a solar phenomenon. It is the astronomically
local transmutation of Earth’s air, water and sun into cells. It is an intricate
pattern of growth and death, dispatch and retrenchment, transformation and
decay. Life is the single expanding organization connected through Darwinian
time to the first bacteria and through Vernadskian space to all beings on the
biosphere. Life as God and music, and carbon and energy is a whirling nexus
of growing, fusing and dying beings. It is matter gone wild, capable of choo-
sing its own direction in order to indefinitely forestall the inevitable moment
of thermodynamic equilibrium - death. Life is also a question the universe
poses to itself in the form of a human being.
“What happened to living matter to make it so different? The answer is both
scientific and historical. Life is its own inimitable history. From an everyday,
uncontentious perspective, “you” began in your mother’s womb some nine
months before whatever your age is. From a deeper, evolutionary perspective,
however, “you” began with life’s daring genesis - its secession, more than
4,000 million years ago, from the magic potion of the early Earth.”
Nature is perfect. Its perfection is manifest in the harmony of all things
and in natural behaviours, in the misnamed balance. We were equipped with

reason based on evolution of emotion and senses. There is no law of advan-
tage. Had we received double the divine gift of feeling life, explaining it and,
at the same time, of having it available in a laboratory to take it apart and
put it together again, then we would no longer exist. Perhaps it is due to that
very natural harmony that animals, who lack reasoning, cohabit and sha-
re, without self-destruction. On the other hand, one must not forget that the
French researcher, Gabriel Bertrand (1867-1962), managed to prove that the
“dust” of the earth, that is, a mineral element in a vestigial or trace state, was
indispensable for live cells to function. This was long before the paternity of
agro-chemistry at the hand of Justus Von Liebig and the servile obedience of
many agronomists .
Organic agriculture is undertaking the task of digging up and recovering
the old dream that has not been exhausted in the most humble and wise agra-
rian societies, which practiced and guaranteed the food sovereignty of their
communities for a long time, through designing authentic models of rural fa-
mily ventures, where people brought together wisdom, knowledge, tastes and
skills to guarantee sustainability and respect for nature that brought us into
being. That same agriculture is much more than a simple revolution in for
farming and husbandry production techniques; it is the practical foundation
of a spiritual alliance movement, of a revolution to change the way in which
human beings cohabit with Mother Earth.
Introduction 19
CHAPTER 1
Fermented organic
fertilisers
Index
Before beginning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
General aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
• Process of preparing fermented organic fertiliser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Bocashi type fermented organic fertiliser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

• Ingredients and their main functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
• Nine ways to prepare bocashi type fermented organic fertiliser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
• Ways to maximise and replace some ingredients when preparing the fertiliser. . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
• Preparation and storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
• Some formulations to take advantage of coffee
and banana crop “waste”. Area: Colombian coffee growing biome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Mass reproduction of native forest micro-organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

• What do native forest micro-organisms consist of? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
• Preparation and use of micro-organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
• Preparation of multiple mixes from
bioactivated minerals with native forest microorganisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
• Scientific checking the effects of applying bio-ferment to the soil by molecular
biology laboratory analysis in Costa Rica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Addenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1. Reasons why a high row is less efficient than an adequately
sized row when preparing fertiliser or compost heaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2. Metamorphosis of cow dung toward decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3. Analysis of different types of dung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4. Healthy soil is the natural environment for antibiotic producing micro-organisms. . . . . . . . . . . 111
5. Relative number of antibiotics produced by different microbial groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6. Some physical, chemical and biological inputs obtained from organic matter
and green fertiliser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7. Main advantages of green manure crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
8. Mathematical calculation to prepare organic fertilisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
9. Influence of soil pH in plant nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Before
beginning...
Doing things is undoubtedly very good, but

the true way to achieve bio-rebelliousness
against the industrial agriculture empire lies
not only in knowing how to do things,
but rather to understand why we do them.
R
Remember to read each one of the recommendations provi-
ded to prepare the different bocashi type fermented organic
fertilisers, biofertilisers, mineral brews, phosphites and stone
meals again and again. Many of these recommendations may seem
the same to you, but in fact they are not, due to the very specific
characteristics of preparation and handling each fertiliser, biofer-
tiliser, mineral brew, phosphite and stone meal application, accor-
ding to each place we are and the materials available.
For example, the good final quality of an organic fertiliser or

another biofermented preparation depends on many factors, such
as the origin, how the dung was collected, stored and its humidity.
These must be as natural as possible or local, as the activity of the
microbiological memory will be the greatest and most authentic.
If the dung, or the fertiliser prepared with it suffers prolonged ex-
posure to sunlight or rain, or if too much water is added to them
during preparation, or bad storage deteriorates them, their quality
will be inferior. The ideal approach is to collect them, mainly from
stables, barns, sheepfolds, rabbit hutches and henhouses, among
other sources, and to clearly understand what activity or practice
we are going to assign them to.
It is also very important for the animals used as a source of dung to

be healthy and preferably also have been bred ecologically. Initially,
Fermented organic fertilisers 23

the latter condition will probably not be possible, products. “Step by step and with a firm hand”.
but as part of the plan to manage an “ecological” The most important thing is to be creative to try
estate or for organic production, animals must to make the most of the materials available on
be introduced at some point to close the healthy each plot or local production unit. Go ahead and
nutrient cycle try! We wish you great initiative and daring!
The moment of application is also a key factor If there are natural deposits of rocks in your
to optimise fertiliser activity. Some of the recipes area that contain any of the micro-nutrients or
are highly sensitive to sunlight at the moment of minerals required to prepare fertiliser, grind or
application, as are the crops, so fertilisers, biofer- crush the rocks until obtaining meal of a talcum
ments and some mineral brews must be applied fine texture; experiment with these by mixing
very early in the morning or after dusk, or in the them into dung, fertilisers, biofertilisers, or coat
fresher hours of the afternoon. seeds with them for storage or taking out to sow;
Do not be afraid to make changes in the way compare the results and share them with your
of preparing or applying the fertilisers and other neighbours and other farmers.

General
aspects
Only he who dares to experiment achieves

success in his work or an understanding
of every detail of his failure, to continue
renewal and the search for new ways
to survive.
P
reparation of fermented organic fertilisers may be unders-
tood as a process of aerobic semi-decomposition (in the
presence of oxygen) of populations of chemoorganotrophic
micro-organisms1, that exist in the actual waste, under controlled
conditions, and that produce partially stable, slowly decomposing
material under favourable conditions, which are able to fertilise
plants and at the same time to nourish the soil.
The advantages fermented organic fertiliser preparation process
are:
a. No toxic gases are formed, nor do bad smells arise due to the
checks performed at each stage of the fermentation process,
avoiding any commencement of putrefaction, which is mainly
caused by excess humidity.
b. It facilitates handling the volume of fertiliser, its storage, trans-
port and laying out the materials to prepare it. (It may be pre-
pared in small or large volumes according to the financial con-
ditions and the needs of each producer).
c. It may be prepared in the majority of environments and climates
where agricultural and husbandry activities are carried out.
d. “Pathogenic agents” are self-regulated in the earth through na-
1. These are the micro-organisms that tural biological inoculation, mainly by bacteria, actinomycetes,
are able to take organic matter from fungi and yeast, among others.
the ground and to bring it into the living
world thanks to the chemical energy of e. It provides the possibility of using the final product on crops,
the earth. over a relatively short period, at very low costs.

f. The materials are gradually transformed by k. The different materials that are available in
inoculation and reproduction of native micro- the different work areas, plus the farmers’
organisms present in the local soil and yeast, creativity, means the formulas or recipes may
into nutrients of excellent quality available to be changed, making them more appropriate
the earth, the plants and the actual feedback for each farming activity or rural condition.
of biological activity. l. During or at the end of the preparation, they
g. Plant growth is stimulated by a series of may be enhanced with locally produced stone
phytohormones and natural phytoregulators dust or rock meal.
that are activated through the fermented fer- m. Finally, farmers may experience a conversion
tilisers. process from a poisoned agriculture to orga-
h. The organic fertilisers activate a series of nic agriculture of a period of time that may
rhizobacteria that promote plant growth and range from one to three years of permanent
bio-protection. work; under their own control and guarantees,
i. It does not require very high financial inves- without suffering deceit by the certification
tments in rural infrastructure works. bodies, which offer bureaucratic control ser-
j. The materials used to prepare them are well vices and processes, that in some causes are
known to the producers and easy to obtain lo- plagued with corruption or fraud.
cally.
Process to prepare the fermented organic fertiliser

One may say there are two well defined sta- on, the fertiliser goes through the second pha-
ges in the organic fertiliser preparation pro- se, which is maturing, in which the degrada-
cess: stabilisation and maturing. tion of the organic materials that still remain
The first stage fermentation of the fertiliser is slower, to then reach its ideal state for im-
undergoes is stabilisation, when the temperatu- mediate use.
re may reach between 70°C and 75°C if we do
not control it adequately, due to the increase Factors that affect preparation of the
in microbial activity. Subsequently, the tempe- fertiliser
rature of the fertiliser begins to fall again due
The following stand out among the main
to exhaustion or decrease in the energy source
factors that affect the fermented organic fer-
back-feeding the process. At that moment sta-
tiliser preparation process:
bilisation of the fertiliser begins and only the
materials that had a greater difficulty to break
a. The temperature: This is according to the
down in the short term stand out. From there

increase in the microbiological activity of der 35%, a very slow aerobic decomposition
the fertiliser, that begins after the stage of of the organic materials forming the com-
mixing all the ingredients. Approximately pound takes place. On the other hand, when
14 hours after having prepared it, the fer- humidity exceeds 60%, the amount of water
tiliser must reach temperatures that may free pores is very small, which hinders oxyge-
easily exceed 50°C, which is a good sig- nation of the fermentation, causing a rotting
nal to continue with the other stages of the anaerobic process, which is linked to a phase
process. The microbiological activity may of reduction of the organic matter, which is
be harmed by lack of oxygenation, very not desirable or ideal to obtain a good qua-
high temperatures and excess or scarce hu- lity fertiliser. In most cases, when the prepa-
midity. ration goes from the ideal humidity content,
b. The pH (acidity): Preparation of such ferti- from one day to another, it is still possible to
liser requires the pH to lie within a range correct that fault by adding some more dry
between 6 and a maximum of 7.5, as extre- materials such as earth and/or stone meal.
me values inhibit microbiological activity d. Aeration: The presence of oxygen or good
during the material breakdown process. aeration is necessary to ensure there are no
However, when beginning fermentation, limitations in the aerobic process of the fer-
the pH is quite low, but it gradually self- tiliser fermenting. The minimum amount it is
corrects with the biological evolution of calculated must exist is from 5% to 10% of
the fermentation or maturing the fertiliser. oxygen concentration in the macro-pores of
the mass. However, when the micro-pores are
in an anaerobic state (without oxygen) due to
excess humidity, that may harm aeration of
GRAPH I. Alterations in the pH values and the process and a bad quality product is thus
temperature in the compost obtained. (See the attached document on well
decomposed compost at the end of this chap-
ter).
e. Ingredient particle size: Reduction in fertiliser
component particle size may have the advan-
Temperature 1/4 C
tage of increasing the area for microbiolo-

gical decomposition. However, an excess of
very small particles may easily cause these
pH
to compact which favours development of an

anaerobic process, which is not ideal to ob-
tain a good fermented organic fertiliser. In
TIME
A - MESOFILE B -THERMOFILE C - COOLING D - MATURING
some cases, this phenomenon is corrected by
adding filling materials with larger particles
to the fertiliser, such as pieces of shredded
c. The humidity: The optimum humidity to achie- wood, coarse charcoal, etc. On the other hand,
ve maximum efficiency in the fertiliser fer- the way to prepare the fertiliser is varied and
mentation process ranges from 50% to 60% adapts to the conditions of the machinery and
(in weight), that is, the materials are linked materials each farmer has available on his
to an oxidation phase. When humidity is un- property or in his community. That is, there is

Sebastián Hernández and Jairo Restrepo prepare organic fertiliser. Pieve Torina, Macerata, Italy.
no sole recipe or formula to prepare the fer-

tilisers. What is most important is the enthu-
siasm and availability of time to be creative
and thus try to overcome the crisis farmers
have “inherited” from conventional agricultu-
re with its poisons and highly soluble chemi-
cal fertilisers.
f. Carbon-nitrogen ratio: The theoretical and
ideal ratio to prepare a good, fast fermen-
ting fertiliser is calculated to be 1 to 25-35.
Lower ratios may cause considerable losses
of nitrogen due to volatilisation; on the other
hand, higher ratios cause slower fermenting
and decomposition, and in many cases this is
convenient. At some moments, that are quite
different from the farming world, academics
enjoy calculating the carbon to nitrogen ra-
tios that exist in the different materials used
for fertilisers. In order to facilitate that exer-
cise for them, the addendum at the end of this
chapter contains a series of tables of these
ratios, while setting a practical exercise. See
addendum: Mathematical exercises to prepare Crushing mill. Guayaquil, Ecuador.
organic fertilisers.

Bocashi type
fermented
organic
fertiliser
In the olden days, both pirates and usurers were
only concerned with finding the golden metal. Nowa-
days, gold has changed colour: what is now coveted
lies between the black of footprints of life on earth
and the healthy green of crops; between humus
and the quality of live mineral in food.
T
he word bocashi is from the Japanese language and, in
the case of preparing fermented organic fertilisers, it
means precooking the organic matter on it’s own steam,
taking advantage of the heat generated by their aerobic
fermentation. It may also be understood as pre-digestion
of organic matter through the heat generated by decomposi‑
tion.
Ingredients and their main functions

Main inputs of the ingredients used to prepare bocashi type orga-
nic fermented fertilisers and some recommendations.
Charcoal
Improves the physical characteristics of the soil, as well as its
structure and texture, which facilitates better distribution of the
roots, aeration and absorption of humidity and heat (energy). Its
high degree of porosity benefits the macro and microbiological
life in the earth, while it operates with a “solid sponge” type
effect, that consists of the capacity to retain, filter and gradually
reduce useful nutrients from plants, decreasing their loss and
leaching out of the soil. On the other hand, carbon particles allow
good oxygenation of the fertiliser, so there are no limitations in
the aerobic fermentation process; another property this element

has is to act as a thermal regulator for the
plant root system, making them more resistant
against the low temperatures at night recorded
in some areas. Finally, the total decomposition
of that material in the ground will provide
humus as an end product. In order to go into
greater depth regarding the importance of
using sources of carbon in regeneration and
construction of fertile soil, we remain you
do a web search for pages related to “terra
preta” (“Indian black earth” or “Amazonian
black earth”). The term refers to formation
of a type of very dark and fertile earth,
mainly found in the Amazonian river basin in Taking advantage of waste from flower crops to make
organic fertiliser. Quito, Ecuador.
Brazil. Both reading as well as understanding
that information are essential to the mental transplanting or direct sowing. For swift reconstruction
regeneration of many agronomists, who lack of the structure and texture of clay earth and achieve-
the basic knowledge regarding the origin and ment of proper stability of the organic matter we may
fertility of the Amazon earth before European include in these, constant addition of charcoal dust or
pirates sailed those seas. leonardite is a good recommendation. Leonardite da-
tes back to the Carboniferous Period of the Paleozooic
Era, consisting of intermediate materials between turf
and lignite that are very rich in organic matter, and
one of the greatest sources of humus is found in these.
They may be dissolved in an alkaline medium with a
Recommendations solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) to obtain a lar-
Uniform particle size will influence the good quality ge concentration of humic acid for subsequent appli-
of the fertiliser to be used it the field. Based on this cation to the soil or by foliar application, associated
practice, it is recommended for the particles or pieces with biofertilisers.
of charcoal not to be very large. The measurements are Applying a mixture of charcoal from a plant source,
quite varied and this must not become a limiting factor leonardite and stone meal favours both nutrition of
to prepare the fertiliser; measures from half to one and the earth, as well as fertilisation of the crops, due
a half centimetres long by one and a half centimetres in to the continuous synergic action between them
diameter (length = 0.5 to 1.5 cm; diameter = 1.5 cm) and the minerals that are in the soil formation,
constitute the ideal approximate size. When you wish to chemical compounds for the root absorption being
work with vegetables in the greenhouse to create plugs highly available. The unblocking and transformation
in flats, the carbon particles to be used in preparing of elements such as phosphorus, and forming iron
the fermented fertiliser must be smaller (tiny or semi- based chelated compounds for use by the crops, are
pulverised charcoal), as that facilitates filling the flats a clear example of those benefits; mainly in soils with
and allows the seedlings to be removed without dama- a clayey origin.
ging their roots, to then transplant them definitively in
the field. On the other hand, a good mixture of equal
parts between charcoal particles and stone meal also
strengthens the health of the plants at the moment of

Poultry manure or dung avoid putrefaction, control humidity and biodegrade
antibiotic waste in these cases are fundamental tools
This is the main source of nitrogen to prepare
to maximise and take advantage of such manure.
fermented organic fertilisers. Its greatest input
On the other hand, some farmers have successfully
consists of improving the vital and nutritional
experimented with use of other dung from rabbits,
characteristics of the earth and fertility of the
guinea pigs, horses, sheep, goats, pigs, cows, quails
crops with some nutrients, mainly with phos-
and ducks, while not using hen or chicken manure. In
phorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron,
some very specific cases, with a lot of knowledge and
manganese, zinc, copper and boron, among other technical skill, the dung or poultry manure may be
elements. Depending on their origin, a amend- partially or totally replaced by blood meal, feathers,
ment of microbiological inoculum and greater or crushed fresh bone and fish remains; this situation
lesser amounts of other organic materials may be will depend as much on the economic conditions of
provided, that will improve the biological, chemi- each producer, as well as the conditions under which
cal and physical conditions of the ground where such materials are on offer in each place, mainly
the fertiliser is applied. when there are companies that slaughter animals and
that do not know how to manage the waste genera-
ted by such facilities. Likewise, due to the high nitro-
Recommendations
gen content some dung, it is very important to have
The experience developed by many farmers throug- stone meal available, or even wood fire ash, instead
hout Latin America has proven that the best poultry of preparing them, in order to maximise that nitroge-
manure to prepare organic fertiliser is that obtained nation element, which is easily volatilised and causes
from breeding laying hens under a roof and with the some imbalances when preparing the fertilisers and
ground covered with dry materials such as coffee developing the crops. In many cases, it is recommen-
grounds, sawdust, husks, chaff, straw, sugar cane ba- dable to use 5% to 20% of stone meal or ash in such
gasse and rice hulls; that may also be enriched with preparations.
stone meal, such as that originating from ground ba- Finally, in many cases highly appropriate manage-
salt, serpentine, slate, apatite or phosphoric rock and ment may be achieved through separate collection of
granite, among other minerals. In order to established animal urine, mainly from rabbits and guinea pigs.
a deeper understanding of these matters, we recom- When such collection is possible, then the urine is
mend reading: Geochemistry for Everyone, by Alexander left to ferment for more than 15 days in dark recep-
Fersman and Stone Meal by Julius Hensel. In many tacles with a mixture of stone meal, to then use them
cases farmers avoid the use of the chick mature from directly for foliar spraying of crops and in doses that
chickens bread for fattening, because it has a greater may vary from 1% to 5%. Do not forget to experi-
amount of water, is rotten and, in many cases, conta- ment each new technique or dosage only on some
ins waste from coccidiostats and antibiotics which in plants. Observe and reach your own conclusions, to
many cases interfere with the process of fermenting thus be able to adjust your measurement and each
the fertilisers. However, a good knowledge of how to recommendation in the most precise way.

Rice or nally, in order to make all the materials we may find
near each property viable, in many cases some saw-
parchment coffee hulls
dust or wood remains, we may semi-calcine or turn
These ingredients improve the physical cha- them into charcoal or ash in order to add them at
racteristics of the earth and organic fertiliser, some moment during preparation of the fertilisers.
facilitating aeration, absorption of humidity,
dosage and filtering nutrients.
They also benefit increased macro and
microbiological activity in the earth, at the
same time as stimulating uniform, abundant
development of the plant root system, as well as
its symbiotic activity with the microbiology of Rice powder or bran,
the rhizosphere. It is also a silicon rich source, or grain bran or semolina
which benefits the plants, as it makes them This is one of the ingredients that favour
more resistant to insect and disease attacks. In fermentation of fertilisers and enzymatic acti-
the long term, they become a source of humus. vities to a great extent, which are increased by
In the form of semi-calcinated or carbonised the presence of complex vitamins in the powde-
hulls, they mainly provide silicon, phosphorus, red rice or bran, also grain bran or semolina in
potassium and other minor amounts of trace many countries. It provides nitrogen and is very
minerals and help to correct soil acidity. Finally, rich in other highly complex nutrients when their
rice and parchment coffee hulls are more ideal carbohydrates are fermented; the minerals, such
to prepare phosphite enhanced with calcinated as: phosphorus, potassium, calcium, zinc and
bone meal. magnesium, among other trace elements, that
are important for the soil and the crops, are also
present.
Recommendations
In many cases, rice or parchment coffee hulls may
occupy up to one third of the total volume of ingre-
dients of organic fertilisers. They may be substituted
by dry coffee grounds, crop waste or dry and finelly
shredded straw. In some cases, in a lesser proportion, Recommendations
wood chip or sawdust may also substitute it, depen- In many cases, due to the difficulty farmers find to
ding on the type of wood they are from, as some are achieve this material, they replace it with another kind
able to halt the fermenting microbiological activity of raw material that is easier to acquire, such as maize,
of fertilisers due to the toxic substances they con- wheat and barley bran. That experience is an adapta-
tain, mainly tannins and aromatic or oily substances. tion that growers in Central America and Mexico have
When sawdust is used, it is best for them to be semi- been testing in the different rural communities with
decomposed and with scarce humidity. When there some success. However, due to the major results and
is only wood sawdust and we find no other alternati- experience there is in use of bran, ground rice or semo-
ves to avoid using it when preparing fertilisers, in that lina, it is worth the effort to obtain that ingredient.
case we recommend doubling the suggested amounts
of sugar cane molasses and yeast in some recipes. Fi-

tion of such sweetened water and the respective fer-
mentation also provides the possibility of totally elimi-
nating the use of yeast to prepare fertilisers. In many
cases, when there is an abundance of coffee and cocoa
processing by-products, these may totally replace the
volume of water to be used, both in preparing the di-
fferent modes of solid organic fertilisers, as well as in
the biofertilisers. In many places, these are stored, mi-
xed with volumes of milk whey, for subsequent use in
making up bio-formulas based on pumpkin (squash or
chayote) and cow dung fermentation, enhanced with
minerals, ash or stone meal. Finally, it is worth mentio-
Big scale molasses application. Aranueces Farm, ning use of the concentrated sugar water from coffee
Sonora, México. and cocoa processing as an alternative to control and
breakdown plant remains or organic materials present
in the middle of the main crop.
Sugar cane molasses or
unrefined cane sugar called panela
This is the main source of energy to ferment
organic fertilisers. It favours multiplication of
the microbiological activity, is rich in potassium,
calcium, phosphorus and magnesium; and conta-
ins micronutrients, mainly boron, zinc, mangane-
Yeast, virgin soil
se, iron and copper, among other trace elements. or forest duff and bocashi
The vitamin B complex group is also present to These three ingredients constitute together
a major extent. with the manure the main source of microbiolo-
gical inoculation to prepare fermented organic
fertilisers. This is the starter or the seed to fermen‑
Recommendations
tation.
Moreover, in order to achieve a homogeneous appli- In order to develop their first experience in
cation of the molasses during preparation of fermen- preparing fermented fertilizers, the Central Ame-
ted organic fertilisers, it is recommended to dilute it in
rican farmers successfully used solid or powde-
a part of the volume of water that shall be used at the
red baker’s yeast, virgin forest soil, or the two
beginning of preparing the fertilisers, in many cases it
ingredients together. After some time, with ex-
is replaced by panela, cane molasses or jaggery, cane
perience, they selected a fair amount of the best
syrup or brown sugar, as it is called in other places
mature fertiliser of the bocashi type (fermented
throughout Latin America. In coffee and cocoa produ-
seed), to use it constantly as the main source of
cing countries, it is common to have a large concentra-
inoculation, accompanied by a certain amount of
tion of the sweetened water excess from treating the
yeast. They eliminated use of virgin soil or forest
fruit available, liquids of an excellent quality to use
them both to prepare the fermented organic fertilisers
duff, to avoid the severe consequences of dete-
as well as liquid biofertilisers due to their high sugar riorating the soil and duff or surface covering of
content, which in many cases totally replaces use of the woods.
molasses or jaggery. On the other hand, the concentra-

up to 20% of the total amount of soil to be used in
Recommendations
preparing some fertilisers may be replaced with stone
After having managed to prepare the first fermented meal. All preparation or processing of organic material
fertiliser, and successfully testing it on the crops, it is to produce a good fermented organic fertiliser must
recommendable to set a little of that fertiliser aside to have at least 30% soil. It is recommendable to use es-
apply it as a source of inoculation in preparation of a oil from the same quarries, terraces or fields where the
new fertiliser; in some cases it may be accompanied new crop is to be established to prepare fertilisers in
by yeast to speed up the fermentation process, mainly order to regenerate and rapidly increase the constant
during the first two or three days. Due to the difficulties microbiological enhancement of the cultivated land.
to conserve the live yeast, due to the lack of a cooling
system in many rural areas where there is no electricity,
it is recommended to use tablet or dry yeast, as it is
easier to conserve.
Plain soil Calcium carbonate

or agricultural lime, or wood ash
In many cases it occupies up to a third of the
If the main purpose is to regulate the acidity
total volume of the fertiliser one wishes to pre-
arising during the whole fermentation process,
pare. Among other inputs, it has the function of
when the organic fertiliser is prepared; depending
providing better physical homogeneity to the fer-
on its origin, either natural or manufactured, the
tiliser and distributing its humidity; with its volu-
input may be accompanied by useful minerals
me it increases the appropriate medium in which
for the plants. In rural Latin America, this is
the microbiological activity of the fertiliser may
commonly known as agricultural lime or dolomite
develop and, thus, achieve proper fermentation. lime.
On the other hand, it works like a sponge,
due to having the capacity to retain, filter and
gradually release the nutrients to the plants ac-
Graph 2. Availability of micro-nutrients for
cording to their needs. According to their origin,
the plants according to the ground pH
they may contribute various types of clay, ino-
culating microorganisms and other indispensable MO
mineral elements for normal development of the
Available of micro-nutrients
plants.
Recommendations
In some cases it is convenient to screen sift the soil in
order to remove stones, large lumps, wood and other
Zn, Fe, B, Mn, Cu
foreign bodies from it. That soil may be obtained from
the sides of the field or the internal paths on the pro-
perty itself, or the roadside. The best soil to prepa- 5 6 7 8
soil pH
re that fertiliser is that of clayey origin, because this
Source: Mortvedt, J.J. Calcium, Magnesium, Sulfur, and the Microntrients,
facilitates formation of silicate complexes and humic In. The Fertilizer/Handbook. The Fertilizer Institute, pp. 99/100, 1982.
acid, along with organic matter. On some occasions,

fingers and a crumbly lump is formed in the hand. If
Recommendations
excess humidity is noted, the recommendable thing is
In many cases, farmers replace this ingredient with to immediately bring it under control by adding more
ash from their stoves, that provides excellent results rice hull or coffee grounds to the mix, or in some
due to the contribution of other mineral elements to cases more dry earth or stone meal may be added.
the crops. Use of stone meal or recycling the stone Finally, in many cases, when large volumes of liquid
meal left over from marble companies or builders biofertilisers or their remains are available, they may
that break up or crush these, often provides an be used as a source of humidity to enhance the fer-
excellent substitute material for agricultural lime. Use tilisers.
of 25 to 50 kilos of stone dust or meal, or 25 kilos of
plant ash, is a good measure to add to each tonne of
bocashi fertiliser one wishes to prepare. Finally, we
cannot forget that, to the extent that the soil recovers Figure 1. Fist test.
a large amount or percentage of organic matter in
its composition, it performs a buffer function that
regulates the pH of the soil cultivated. In many cases,
constant spraying or application of lime to crop
land, may cause structural deterioration due to swift
oxidation of the organic matter they contain.
Observation
To prepare bocashi type fermented fertilisers, the
water is only used once while mixing the ingre-
dients; it is not necessary to use it in the other
Untreated or spring Wate stages of the fermentation process. Finally, while
The purpose of this is to homogenise the hu- we gain practice in obtaining ideal humidity, it is
midity of all the ingredients comprising the fer- initially better for the fertiliser to tend toward dry
tiliser. It encourages ideal conditions for proper and not to very wet. Do not forget, once the bo-
performance of the activity and and reproduc- cashi type organic fertiliser is prepared, more wa-
tion of aerobic microbiology during the whole ter must never be added during its procesing.
fermentation process, when the organic fertiliser
is being prepared.
Recommendations Premises or site

Both lack of humidity as well as excess thereof are Preparation of fermented organic fertilisers
damaging to finally obtain a proper fermented or- must be done on premises that are protected
ganic fertiliser. The ideal humidity of the fertiliser from the sun, wind and rain, as these interfere
is gradually achieved, to the extent that it increases with the fermenting process, halting it or affec-
the water in the mix of ingredients little by little. The ting the final quality of the fertiliser prepared.
most practical way of progressively testing the ideal The ground must preferably be covered with
humidity is by the handful or fist test, which consists
brick or lined with cement, or in the last case, it
of taking a small handful of the mix and squeezing it
must be well beaten earth with some side chan-
tightly so no drops of water come out between one’s
nels, to avoid accumulation of humidity as much

Machine to prepare bocashi. Mareeba, Australia.
as possible, or bogging down the premises where Tools

the fertiliser is prepared.
Spades, pitchforks or garden forks, plastic
As to the measurements of the space required
buckets, a hose for clean water, dust mask for
to prepare the fertiliser, in general terms, one
protection and good boots are the most common
the recommended minimum is an area of 2 to
and easily obtainable tools in any place, to pre-
2.5 square metres for every cubic metre of raw
pare such fertiliser. In some cases, while there is
material to be prepared or composted.
no available experience and manual sensitiveness
to control the temperature, buying a thermome-
ter to control the temperature is recommended,
especially during the first days of the process.
Recommendations
In some places where there are economic difficul-
ties to build a minimum of infrastructure to prepare
the fertilisers, the farmers prepare it outdoors, pro-
tecting it with a layer of dry straw or a plastic canvas, Recommendations
that must be separated from the surface of the fer- In cases were it is necessary to prepare large volumes
tiliser to avoid accumulating excess humidity and it of organic fertilisers, either for sale or application an
being exposed to direct sunlight. On the other hand, large crop areas, there are machines available on the
the summer season must be considered to avoid rain market designed to produce or process from 10 to 800
while preparing the fertilisers. Having sufficient clarity tonnes of fertiliser per hour.
regarding the volume of fertiliser that shall be used
includes planning its preparation and immediate use,
as the quicker it is taken to the field, the better the
crops will respond.

Time to document: Reasons for which a high row is
prepare the fertilisers less efficient than an adequate sized row when
preparing fermented organic fertilisers, fertiliser
Farmers who are beginning to prepare
or compost piles.
fermented organic fertilises generally perform
When it is necessary to calculate or estimate
the activity within approximately 15 to 20 days.
the time a farmer must spend on preparing his
More experienced producers do so in 10 to 15
fertilisers, and based on the principle that the
days. Due to this, during the first three to five
materials are available on the premises for the
days of fermenting, they mix or turn the pile over
work, he will spend approximately 20 to 25 hours
twice a day in some cases (in the morning and
of work to prepare four tonnes of bocashi. In a
in the afternoon). They later turn it over only
month, with normal daily working hours spent
once a day, controlling the height (maximum of
exclusively on that task, a farmer or worker is
one metre twenty centimetres, at the moment of
able to prepare 25 to 30 tonnes of fertiliser.
preparation, which gradually goes down until
reaching a final height of approximately 50 to
30 centimetres, and the width of the pile up to
two and a half metres, so it is most appropriate
to assure good aeration. See the attached
Original formula
Basic ingredients to prepare bocashi2 type

fermented organic fertilisers bocashi2
• Manure from laying birds or other dung (cow, sheep, horse, pig, goat, etc.).
• Charcoal broken into small or crushed particles (crushed charcoal).
• Milled rice, semolina or bran.
• Rice or coffee hulls or well milled straw or stubble.
• Dolomite lime or agricultural lime, stove ash or stone meal.
• Sugar cane molasses or syrup or its juice.
• Baker’s yeast, in granules or fresh.
• Well sifted soil, preferably clayey.
• Water (only once and at the moment of preparing it), that may also be
enriched with biofertiliser.
2. The term bocashi, from the Japanese language, means fermenting

organic matter, or organic fertiliser fermented by native microorga-
nisms from the soil or the forest duff.

Nine ways to prepare
bocashi type fermented organic fertilisers
Comment
Do not forget that the materials to prepare fertilisers and biofermented products are not
fixed, there are local alternatives and materials with which you can make fertiliser and even
a better one. If necessary, read the function of each ingredient again and the possible alter-
natives for these when they are not available. Remember that a good cook is not one who
prepares good food with a list of ingredients, but the one who prepares good food with the
ingredients available and, at the same time, is able to prepare diverse dishes using the same
ingredients.
Ingredients to prepare a sample of basic

bocashi type fermented fertiliser
• 2 quintals or sacks of well sifted soil.
• 2 quintals or sacks of rice hull, coffee grounds or stubble.
• 2 quintals or sacks of manure.
• 1 quintal or sack of well broken up crushed charcoal.
• 5 kilos of milled rice or rice bran.
• 5 kilos of dolomite lime or agricultural lime or stove ash.
• 5 kilos of black earth or virgin forest duff or bocashi.
• 1 litre of sugarcane molasses or syrup or sugarcane juice.
• 100 grams of baker’s yeast, in granules or fresh.
• Water (according to the fist test and only once).
Ingredients to prepare fermented fertiliser

for nursery (Panama, 1994)
• 2 quintals or sacks of earth.
• 1 quintal or sack of milled rice or rice bran.
• 1 quintal or sack of coal crushed into small particles.
• 1 quintal or sack of rice or coffee hulls.
• 1 quintal or sack of poultry manure (from laying birds).
• 1 litre of molasses or syrup or sugarcane juice.
• 10 pounds of dolomite lime or agricultural lime.
Source: Communication and personal work with Panamanian farmers, 1994.

Ingredients to prepare fermented
organic fertiliser (Panama, 1995)
• 8 quintals or sacks of earth.
• 6 quintals or sack of poultry manure (from laying birds).
• 4 quintals or sack of rice or coffee hulls.
• 1 litre of molasses or syrup o sugarcane juice.
• 5 kilos of dolomite lime or agricultural lime
Source: Communication and personal work with Panamanian peasant women who produced vegetables in their family yards, 1995.
Basic recipe to prepare the bocashi type fermented organic fertiliser initially requi-
red to cover an area of one hectare to produce vegetables and grain.
Ingredients to prepare de 68 quintals3 or sacks of bocashi

fermented organic fertiliser (Tapezco, Costa Rica, 1994)
• 20 quintals or sacks of poultry manure (from laying birds).
• 20 quintals or sacks of rice hulls.
• 20 quintals or sacks of earth (sifted).
• 4 quintals or sacks of well broken up charcoal (crushed).
• 1 quintal or sack of dolomite lime or agricultural lime.
• 1 gallon of sugarcane molasses or syrup.
• 2 pounds of baker’s yeast, in granules or fresh.
Source: Personally reported by Juan José Paniagua, 1994.
3. A quintal (hundredweight) is a typical unit of volume in

rural Mexico, equivalent to a bag or a sack in the rest of
Latin America.

Ingredients to prepare de 34 quintals or sacks of fermented
organic fertiliser (Cerro Punta, Panama, 1995)
• 10 quintals or sacks of poultry manure (laying fowl).
• 10 quintals or sacks of rice or coffee hulls.
• 10 quintals or sacks of well sifted soil.
• 3 quintals or sacks of well broken up charcoal (crushed).
• 1 pound of baker’s yeast, in granules or fresh.
Ingredients to prepare de 14 quintals or sacks of fermented

organic fertiliser (Dolega, Chiriquí, Panama, 1995)
• 5 quintals or sacks of virgin soil.
• 3 quintals or sacks of rice or coffee hulls.
• 15 pounds of phosphate (milled phosphoric rock).
Ingredients to prepare de 30 quintals or sacks of fer-

mented organic fertiliser, substrate type for plugs (Cali,
Colombia, 2009)
• 8 quintals or sacks of virgin soil.
• 5 quintals or sacks of rice or coffee hulls. Comment
• 5 quintals or sacks of pulverised charcoal. Once the fertiliser fer-
• 2 quintals or sacks of milled rice or rice bran. mentation process has
• 2 quintals or sacks of phosphoric stone meal. concluded, 10 kilos of
• 4 gallons of sugarcane molasses. locally reproduced nati-
• 1 kilo of granulated baker’s yeast. ve microorganism seeds
• Water (according to the fist test and only once). may be added per ton of
Source: Jairo Restrepo Rivera, personal work, 2009
bocashi.

Organic fertiliser processing. Quito, Ecuador.
Bocashi organic fertiliser for vegetables and seedbeds

Ingredients Quantities
• Poultry manure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 sacks
• Rice hulls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 sacks
• Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 sacks
• Rice milled or bran. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 sacks
• Matured Bocashi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 sacks
• Charcoal (crushed). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 sacks
• Sugarcane molasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 gallons
• Native microorganism seed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 kilos
• Humidity (fist test). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 to 40%
Source: Juan José Paniagua, Organic vegetable grower, Tapezco, Costa Rica, August 2001. Organic Agriculture Workshop with
emphasis on Vegetables and Organic Coffee. UNED, State Open University, San José de Costa Rica.
Bocashi fertiliser for recently transplanted

vegetables and seedbeds
• Poultry manure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 sacks Comment
• Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 sacks Humidity: In some cases,
• Rice hulls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 sacks depending on the original
• Rice milled or bran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 sacks humidity content of the
• Charcoal (crushed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 sacks ingredients, approximately
• Sugarcane molasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 litres 250 to 300 litres of water
• Native microorganism inoculum . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 kilos may be spent to prepare
• Activated microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 litres each two to three tonnes of
fertiliser.
• Humidity (fist test). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 to 40%

Table 1. Nutrient content in three
most correct thing to do within the approach
types of bocashi
to practicing organic agriculture; these are two
I II III different things, mainly when we consider the
Nitrogen (%) 1,18 0,96 0,93 importance of the organic materials from which
Phosphorus (%) 0,70 0,58 0,44 they are prepared and their beneficial effects to
Potassium (%) 0,50 0,51 0,47 develop the microbiology and recover the soil
Calcium (%) 2,05 2,26 2,58 structure.
Magnesium (%) 0,21 0,20 0,20 Measuring such impact from the merely chemical
Iron (mg/l) 2,304 4,260 2,312 point of view should not even be contemplated.
Manganese (mg/l) 506 495 531 Thus, the conventional analyses to which many
Zinc (mg/l) 61 78 205 successful experiences an organic agriculture
Copper (mg/l) 19 33 28 are submitted by the conventional agronomists
Boron (mg/l) 14 8 d.m. are nothing more than half comparisons and
d.m. = data missing. • mg/l = ppm (parts per million).
Source: Rodríguez y Paniagua, 1994. mediocre comments. Organic fertilisers are
characterised due to their biological value, that
is something chemical fertilisers do not have and
Comment
that fall beyond the mathematical scope of any
Daring to comment on or attempt to obtain
soil laboratory, so all they do is provide very
general conclusions from the chemical analysis
limited figures, broken down or isolated from the
of an organic fertiliser, to compare it with the
whole and without any sign of life.
commercially available formulations is not the
Ways to maximise and replace some

ingredients in preparing the fertiliser
How have farmers found different creative trients, it is recommended to permanently line
ways to maximise and replace some ingredients the floor in the facilities where the animals are
when preparing bocashi type fermented organic confined with stone meal and plant materials,
fertiliser? preferably ones that are completely dry, in or-
der to absorb the maximum amount of humidi-
Poultry manure or dung ty from the urine and actual animal dung. The
This component is of vital importance to pre- most recommended materials to cover stable or
paration of fermented organic fertiliser, mainly sleeping quarter floors are: well chopped up post
due to the input of nitrogen and other nutritive harvest stubble, such as straw, corn stover and
mineral elements for the crops. Farmers have cob, rice hulls, wheat straw, sugarcane bagasse,
frequently replaced these with dung from bovi- coffee hulls and in the last instance sawdust. Over
ne cattle, that they collect directly in the stables some weeks, one may consider the farmers will
where the animals are fattened or semi-confined already have a good mixture of preworked ma-
or, at least, where they gather to spend the night. terials available, due to the plant remains being
To maximise dung collection, try to conserve its trampled with the stone meal, the animal dung
quality and lose the minimum quantity of its nu- and taking up humidity from the urine, which is

How to use a mixture of dung
collected in the stables to prepare
bocashi type fermented organic
fertiliser?
Firstly: One must consider that the material
collected from the stables is a mixture of four
materials (dung + urine + plant material +
stone meal or phosphoric rock), that, in some ca-
ses contains a considerable degree of humidity.
This must be checked when aiming to prepare
bocashi, as on the contrary, if the water is not
controlled, the fertiliser remains very damp, will
tend to rot due to lack of oxygenation and will be
extremely bad quality.
Secondly: The other ingredients of the bocas-
hi must be added to the mixture that leaves the
Organic fertiliser preparation using mineralised poultry manure. stables, when they wish to prepare that kind of
Avícola Santa Rita, Buga, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
fertiliser, which are: soil, yeast, lime, molasses,
carbon when available, milled rice or bran; fina-
ready for use in preparing good quality bocashi
lly; a little bit of water, under great control, if the
type fermented organic fertiliser.
mixture requires it. (The fist test is recommended
Considering an approximate space of ten to
to check humidity status of the final mix). On the
eight square metres (10 to 8 m2) of available
other hand, once the volume we wish to collect
area per bovine animal fattened in a stable, it
or withdraw from the dung in the stable to pre-
is recommended to cover the floor with 8 to 10
pare the fertiliser is specified, three to five days
kilograms of straw per animal, a quantity that
in advance, in that same stable we may begin to
is ideal to maximise collection of the dung and
activate the ingredients with a solution based on
urine. A most healthy practice is that of sprea-
10 litres of water, half a litre of molasses and
ding stone meal when covering the stable floors:
100 grams of yeast. That mix is applied with the
(basalt, granite, serpentinite, schist, carbonatite,
fumigation pump directly to the bedding in the
marble, carbonate, zeolite, silicate or even ash,
stable, in order to inoculate it biologically and
etc.) or phosphoric rock (apatite) at about one
then collect the materials and thus prepare the
to two kilos per square metre of the floor area
bocashi type fertiliser outside the stables.
available per animal.
Farmers have also replaced poultry manure
On the other hand, one must not forget that
with dung from goats, sheep and rabbits, that
a good stable, protected from the rain and sun,
they collect directly from pens, sleeping quar-
and with a good floor coverage with straw and
ters or other places where the animals are kept.
stone meal, must be a comfortable area for the
However, dung collection is maximised when the
animals, which is almost an indispensable requi-
facilities for the animals are built at a distance
site to obtain a good quality fertiliser as a final
that may range from one metre to fifty centime-
result, that will provide excellent short, medium
tres above the ground level.
and long term results through the crops.

inadequate management of slaughter waste,
mainly from bovine cattle, pigs and poultry.
the majority of these establishments, which are
known as slaughterhouses or abattoirs, do not
have sufficient knowledge and technical skill to
transform all the offal or waste produced by these
facilities into good quality biofertilisers. These
include large volumes of rumen content, blood,
feathers, fat, bones, hair, biliary liquid, horns,
hooves and other materials obtained from the
process of animal slaughter. The ideal for such
handling would be to have an area adjoining
that where these premises are located, either
by installing a bio-factory to process fertilisers,
compost and produce mineral enhanced
biofertilisers, or for their direct application on
Preparation of organic fertiliser enhanced with land available for growing. In general, these
stone meal. Producer Juan Manuel Sánchez,
Atotonilco, Jalisco, Mexico. facilities manage and pollute large volumes
of water, which must be brought immediately
In many places, in order to prepare the organic under control to avoid early deterioration of the
fertiliser, it is very common to take advantage of materials and environmental contamination as
the dung obtained from pig breeding, for which much as possible, as well as to take advantage
the ideal, or most appropriate approach, is to thereof in the best way. The major trick for
manage it in the same way as recommended proper management of the high protein content
for bovine cattle, covering or lining the facility of such waste lies in knowing how to mix
floor with dry materials in order to absorb the them very well with other sources of very dry
maximum amount of humidity and maximise materials that have a high carbon content, such
their quality. The ideal approach to handle dung as sawdust, hulls and stubble, among others. On
from many animals on some premises is must the other hand, adequate application of some
be conceived as a whole with preparation of sources of stone meal based on very dry zeolite,
the organic fertiliser for application directly to basalt, bentonite or clay are sometimes an ally
the crops. We believe or are convinced that the to achieve preparation of very high quality
main problem arising for correct management fertilisers with correct humidity.
of the husbandry facilities are the large
amounts of waste when using water in them. Yeast
The ideal approach is to try to work with all the This is one of the ingredients that farmers
facilities dry as far as possible, as along with have replaced in creative, ingenious ways. For
the major waste of water, this is associated with example, an innovative method that farmers
bad quality organic fertiliser, environmental have used in Panama to replace industrial yeast
contamination and constant deterioration of is to place three pounds of maize in a pot to ger-
animal health. minate or sprout for eight days, with a little wa-
Finally, in the majority of the municipalities ter covering all the grain. After that time, the
in Latin America, it is very common to encounter maize is ground and left to ferment again for

two days in the same water where it was, and meals, that are vital for the nutritional balance
one more gallon is added. Once it has fermen- of the crops and resistance against attack from
ted, that mixture is applied to the bocashi. That insects and diseases.
amount may be used to prepare approximately
seventy sacks or quintals of fertiliser. Rice hulls
Another way that farmers have found to Farmers have replaced this ingredient with
substitute the yeast is by using raw sugarcane well dried and shredded post-harvest remains,
juice fermented for two days; two gallons of which facilitate management of the fertiliser
product are used for every ten sacks or quintals and speed their decomposition. The materials
of fertiliser they wish to process. most commonly used are: straw and corn sto-
On the other hand, Mexicans have replaced ver or cob, or well shredded sorghum stubble or
the yeast with the popular fermented bevera- remains from wheat or barley straw, well pul-
ge called pulque or fermented nixtamal water, verised sugarcane bagasse and very dry coffee
which is the by-product of soaking the maize hulls or pulp. In the latter case, they may also
intended to prepare tortillas. Finally, an alter- use matured sawdust, or that which has been
native format, in cases where there is no other outdoors for some time, so it has lost the toxic
option to replace the yeast, is to increase the effect of some allelopathic substances it has,
amount of sugarcane syrup and bran at the mo- such as tannins and some oils.
ment when the bocashi is prepared.
Sugarcane syrup or molasses
Lime and charcoal In spite of it being a very easy ingredient
One way how the farmers have replaced the- to find in the markets, in many cases farmers
se two ingredients in preparing bocashi is to di- replace it with the panela, flakes, top or other
rectly use wood ash from their stoves, taking cane sugar or jaggery products, with a propor-
advantage at the same time of the remains of tion of one kilogram per kilogram or litre of
carbonised wood that remain in the ovens. One cane sugar or molasses to be replaced. Another
must not forget that stone meal or dust from alternative is use of the actual sugarcane juice
crushed rocks, may also replace use of agricul- or guarapo, in a proportion of two litres of juice
tural lime, with the advantage of there being per kilogram of molasses to be replaced.
other trace mineral elements present in such

Machine preparing large scale organic fertiliser. It prepares 800 tonnes per hour. Australia.
Preparation and storage

How should farmers prepare, use and store fer- Mixing the ingredients
mented organic fertiliser? Figures 2, 3 and 4 show three examples. Some
Once the amount of organic fertiliser to be farmers opt to mix all the ingredients by alter-
prepared is planned and determined, all the ne- nate beds until obtaining a homogeneous mix of
cessary ingredients must be obtained and the all the mass of the ingredients, that little by little
most appropriate premises be chosen to prepa- and by layers aggregate the necessary water to
re it. Farmers have developed different ways to obtain the recommended humidity (that is the
make their own fermented organic fertilisers, usual and most adequate way). Others mix all
recovering the art of cultivating the earth with the ingredients dry and, at the end, the last time
their creativity. One must not forget the attempt they turn over the mixed pile, add water until
to take maximum advantage of the materials reaching the appropriate humidity. Finally, other
that are available on site or nearby, as transpor- farmers subdivide all the ingredients in equal
ting large volumes of unprocessed organic mate- proportions and form two or three piles; they
rials from far away is very costly and makes the then mix all the ingredients of each one of the
whole process more expensive. piles independently, which facilitates adequate
distribution of all the ingredients, as the appro-
How are they prepared? priate amount of water to control the humidity is
Both the quantities and proportions of the in- added; and lastly, they put together all the heaps
gredients, as well as the way in which the far- they mixed separately, ending up with a uniform
mers prepare their organic fertilisers, clearly pile that they then spread out on the mixing floor.
show that preparation of these bio-inputs does
not constitute a simple package of recipes for te-
chnological transfer, but rather, on the contrary,
the different ways of preparing them and calcu-
lating the proportion of their ingredients are the
relate of the trial and error of traditional know-
how of farmers’ practice adapted to each reality.

Figure 2. Mixing the ingredients to prepare the fermented organic fertilisers
(First example)
A Mixing three ingredients Application
Water Stone meal or ash

Yeast
Milled rice
Molasses
Charcoal
Manure
Soil
Rice hulls
or stubble
B Homogeneous mix of all the

ingredients ... from one pile
... to another pile
C Finally, after preparation, the fertiliser must be spread

out, protected from the sun and rain
70 to 120 cm

(Second example)
A Dry mixing three

ingredients
Stone meal or ash

Milled rice
Charcoal
Manure
Soil
Rice hulls or
stubble
B
Water, yeast and
Mix with water, yeast
molasses
and molasses
C Finally, after preparation, the fertiliser must be spread

out, protected from the sun and rain.
70 a 120 cm

(Third example)
Water, yeast Water, yeast

and molasses and molasses
70 to 120 cm

Fermentation stage controlled by turning or mixing the whole pile
and temperature control twice a day when necessary (once in the mor-
ning and another in the afternoon), which allows
Once the stage of mixing all the ingredients
greater aeration and cooling of the fertiliser.
of the fertiliser has concluded and uniform hu-
Another good practice to accelerate the final
midity is ensured, the mass is left on the ground
fermentation process is to gradually lower the
so the pile height has a maximum of one metre
pile height as of the third day, until reaching a
twenty in the first three days. The pile gradually
height of more or less 50 to 30 centimetres on
subsides over the remaining days of turning over
the eighth or tenth day. From here on, the fertili-
until it reaches a height that may range between
ser temperature begins to be lower and to stabi-
50 and 30 centimetres. Some farmers usually
lise, it being necessary to turn it over only once a
cover the fertiliser with fibre sacks during the
day. Between 12 and 15 days, the fermented or-
first three days of fermentation, in order to speed
ganic fertiliser has already reached maturity and
it up. The fertiliser temperature must be contro-
its temperature equals the ambient temperature,
lled every day using a thermometer or by putting
its colour is clear grey and it becomes dry, with
your hand into it, as of the second day of prepa-
the appearance of sandy dust and with a loose
ration. It is not recommendable for the tempera-
consistency. Some farmers who are experienced
ture to exceed 65ºC. The best thing is to handle
in preparing their own fertilisers manage to com-
temperatures around the limit of fifty or fifty five
plete all the stages of the fermentation process
degrees (50 to 55ºC), and from that range down-
in more or less 10 days for some very specialised
ward. Do not forget, water is only added to the
fertilisers.
fertiliser at the time of preparation. More humi-
Lastly, the quality of the fertiliser that must
dity must never be added during the other stages
be prepared will depend on the type of crop and
of fermentation.
the frequency with which one wishes to develop
experience by applying bocashi. Its increase will
be according to the results obtained in time and
practice on each different farmland.
Graph 3. Temperature behaviour when
fermenting bocachi
How is it used?
Once the final stage of fermentation is com-
pleted, and if the fertiliser has reached stability,
Temperature oC
it is ready to be used on crops.

The different methods practiced by farmers
when preparing them do not constitute a
In the middle Top package of recipes ready to be recommended and
applied in an arbitrary manner, as performed
by conventional agriculture with its traditional
Days of fermentation
“miraculous” recipe of N-P-K. We now cite
some examples (not recipes) of use that some
During the first days, the temperature of the
farmers have experimented with great success
fertiliser tends to rise to more than seventy de-
in greenhouses, in plug transplanting and with
grees centigrade (70ºC), which is not ideal and
established crops.
must not be permitted. The temperature must be

80% of sifted soil with 20% of mature bocashi
up to 60% of sifted soil with 40% of mature or
old bocashi. In cases where fruit trees are bagged
in greenhouses, it is recommended to mix 60%
of earth with 40% of bocashi fertiliser, or one
part of soil and one part of fertiliser. One may
not forget that other parallel activities may be
performed in greenhouses, both of vegetables as
well as fruit trees: application of biofertilisers,
Plug production with a mix of bocashi phosphites, liquid mineral brews and stone meal.
20% and soil 80%. Costa Rica.
Figure 6. Fruit tree bagging and seedling

In the greenhouses development with 40% fertiliser and 60% earth.
Pre-germination and development of seed-
lings in greenhouses have an approximate dura-
tion of 18 to 24 days and, in the event of some
varieties of tomato and peppers, may range from
30 to 40 days. The farmers performed that task
in three ways:
Figure 5. Seedling development in trays

with organic fertiliser.
Mature bocashi and its use: Mature bocashi is

the same fermented organic fertiliser, but older
or more aged; that is, after processing, it has
been stored for two to three months.
Farmers are using it more frequently, mixing
it with sifted soil and pulverised charcoal to
prepare vegetable seedling plugs in trays. It has
the advantage of not burning the seedlings, which
is the risk run when using fresh bocashi that has
• In trays, in the greenhouse, off the ground. not been mixed with sifted soil and pulverised
• In trays without greenhouse protected from charcoal in greenhouses. Farmers have regularly
the sun and rain. carried out small trials with different proportions
• In wooden boxes on the ground or raised up. of mature bocashi to produce vegetable plugs, in
order to observe and choose the best result that
For seedling germination, they use a sifted suits their crops.
potting mix with mature bocashi and pulverised
charcoal, in proportions that may range from

Table 2. Proportions of mature bocashi and sifted soil that may
be tried in seedling production in greenhouses
Matured Bocashi with
Sifted soil Comment
pulverised charcoal
90% 10%
These mixes are the most common ones to produce
85% 15%
leaf vegetables. E.g.: Lettuce.
80% 20%
These mixes are the most common to produce
70% 30%
fruit trees and head vegetables. E.g.: Cauliflower
60% 40%
and broccoli.
When transplanting the seedlings (tray or plug plants)

Farmers have experimented various ways of fertilising their crops when transplanting
them:
a. Direct fertilising at the base of the hole the seedling is to be placed at the moment of transplanting.
In this case the fertiliser used is pure and must be covered or mixed with a little soil,
so the plant root does not come into direct contact with it, as it may burn it and not
allow it to develop normally.
Figure 7. Direct fertilisation at the base of the hole where the seedling is placed.
SEEDLING
(between
18 and 20
days from
germination)
SOIL
ORGANIC (To avoid direct
FERTILISER contact with the
(Fermented fertiliser)
“Bocashi”)
b. Fertilisation with pure bocashi on the sides of the seedling. This system has been used regu-
larly with established vegetable crops and is used to perform a second, third and
even a fourth nutritional maintenance fertilisation. At the same time, it stimulates
swift growth of the root system toward the sides. The first refertilisation in the field

is recommended between ten and twelve days after transplanting. Finally, a fourth,
fifth and even sixth refertilisation of the crops will depend on monitoring or directly
accompanying the crop in the field by rule of thumb.
Figure 8. Refertilising the plants, 10 to 12 days after transplanting.

SEEDLINGS
(10 to 12 days after
transplanting)
SOIL COVERING
THE FERTILISER
c. Direct fertilisation with pure bocashi in the furrow where the crop to be sown is to be established,
without prior germination and transplanting.. This system may be used, for example, with
carrot, coriander, broad beans, sunflower seeds, kidney beans, maize and other
grain, in some cases on already established crops; the amount of organic fertiliser to
be applied may range from 2.5 to 3 tonnes per hectare.
Figure 9. Direct fertilisation in the crop furrows

(E.g.: Beans and maize)
Direct application of bocashi
fertiliser in the furrows and on
crops

Amount of pure established on different levels, in different spaces
fertiliser that may be and transformation times of the organic matter
applied on vegetable crops in the earth. In cold climate soils, the tendency
in their microbiology is for functional groups
The amount of fertiliser to be applied to the
of bacteria to predominate in the most stable
crops mainly depends on various factors, such as
manner and at greater depth, when we compare
the original fertility of the earth where the crop
them with the soil in hotter climates, where
is to be established, the climate and nutritional
fungal functional groups predominate at a more
needs of the plants to be grown. However,
shallow depth.
some farmers have experimented with doses of
Remember quantity of organic fertiliser you
fertilisers that range from 50 to 80 grams per
decide to apply in the most precise manner to
seedling for leaf vegetables; from 100 to 150
each crop is your choice. In the proposal of
grams for root vegetables or those that form
organic agriculture, as well as there being
a head above the surface, such as cauliflower,
no unchangeable recipe to experiment with
broccoli and cabbage; and up to 200 grams of
a new idea, likewise with application of an
fertiliser for tomato and peppers (sweet chilli);
amendment, there is no pre-set quantity that
there are reports of growing tomato and related
may not be amended. My friend, farmer grower,
plants, such as chilli, where the farmers have
it is necessary to gradually adjust and record
used 350 to 500 grams of fertiliser per plant,
the detail of each result, to thus establish what
both at the moment of transplanting as well as
practices and substances are the most adequate
when refertilising the crop. Regardless of the way
and adapt to each crop or particular situation.
chosen to fertilise the crops, once the organic
fertiliser is applied, it must be covered and mixed
with soil so it is not easily lost and to thus obtain
the best results.
Depending on the nutritional degree and
biological buffer quality of each soil, and
mainly the quantity of the different functional
Table 3. Recommendations to experiment with
microbiological groups that exist there, we may
doses of bocashi in vegetables (San Antonio de
risk experimentation on a part of the ground by
Escazú, Costa Rica).
applying a pre-established quantity of a bocashi
type fermented organic fertiliser in semi- Crops Dosage suggested
processed or “raw” state. In ground that suffers 125 to 250 grams at the
Tomato
from low temperatures during certain seasons, base
that experience is obtaining good results, Onion or chive 25 to 50 grams at the base
as apart from being a good thermal buffer, Beetroot 100 grams on the side
that fertiliser swiftly helps to re-establish or Yellow lettuce 50 a 80 grams at the base
maintain very close hormonal relations, mainly American lettuce 50 a 80 grams at the base
between the roots, the minerals and organic White or green
matter within the soil, having an effect on good 30 a 50 grams at the base
beans
development of the plants. We may say that these Brassicas 50 a 80 grams at the base
fertilisers become bio-domesticated swiftly due
50 a 80 grams under the
to the different biological sequences that are Cucumber
seed

How is it stored?
Farmers normally prepare organic fertilisers according to the immediate needs of
their crops, so it is not a very common practice to store them for a long time. When
a certain amount of fertiliser is stored, they regularly do so in order to mature or age
it for a longer time, to then use it in greenhouses or as seed stock for microbiological
inoculation to prepare new fertiliser. However, during the short period that it may be
stored before being used, it is recommendable to keep it under cover to protect it from
the sun, the wind and rain. Some experiences show one must not wait more than two
months to apply it in the field.
Figure 10. Storage of bocashi fertiliser in

the field under cover.
Microorganisms
in nature are
transformed into
pathogens to the
extent that the
nutritional harmony
between the soil
microbiology and
plant roots gets
out of control
or balance.
Eight factors due to which fermented organic fertilisers halt their biological
activity, which reduces their efficiency for crops
1. Very “old” dung washed out by rain and exposed to sun.
2. Dung with a lot of earth or a lot of rice hulls or sawdust, in cases when poultry
or chick manure is used.
3. Presence of antibiotics and coccidiostats in animal dung treated with such subs-
tances.
4. Presence of herbicide in the dung of herbivorous animals, mainly cows, horses
and goats.
5. Excess humidity when preparing fertiliser heaps (putrefaction).
6. Imbalance between the proportions of the ingredients.
7. Lack of uniformity of the mix, at the moment of preparation.
8. Exposure to wind, sun and rain.
Source: The author’s experience with farmers on training courses taught in Panama and Central America: April 1996.

Plugs in greenhouses or nurseries
Advantages of the tray germination system
using bocashi type fermented organic fertilisers
• Ease to control the germination conditions of
seeds of the species one wishes to grow.
• Greater advantage taken of the number of
seeds per crop.
• Greater economy, as seed expenditure is de-
creased.
Organic potato production. Costa Rica.
• Germination of healthy, nutritionally balan-
ced plants. The nutritional medium of
• Shorter growing cycles, increasing the num-
the soil directly influences
ber of crops per area tended. See Table 4.
plant metabolism and, in
• Better index of relation between number of
turn, the plant metabo‑
seedlings transplanted and the number of
lism originates variety.
plants harvested. See Table 5.
• Ease to transport and handle seedling trays
in the field.
• When loosening and taking the seedlings out
of the flats for transplanting, the organic fer-
tiliser with a good quantity of charcoal parti-
cles or dust, rice hulls or coconut fibre, helps • Finally, the best results achieved with appli-
to protect the integrity of the root system, cation of the organic fertilisers to produce
preventing the roots from breaking. Lastly, in vegetable plugs in greenhouses are those that
order to guarantee that handling, we recom- have a low nitrogen content, as these avoid
mend during the last day in the greenhouse, the phenomenon spindly overdevelopment
to totally suspend “soaking” humidity in the of the above ground part of the seedlings,
trays, so the roots do not get out of place, su- which is not desirable or healthy; on the other
ffer less shock and reach the new destination hand, these allow abundant development of a
in a fairly thirsty condition to begin “perfect” healthy root system, guaranteeing future nu-
healthy development in the new habitat. tritional harmony of the crop to resist insect
• The plug flats system allows one to efficiently attack and diseases.
scale, select and schedule the crops to be har-
vested at a specific time of the year.
• Producing plugs in flats is an affordable op-
tion for farmers with little land available, as
these may be sold to order among farmers in
a certain area or rural region.
• Plugs in trays allow quick trials to be carried
out in the field, in order to test the efficiency The root is the most sensitive
and quality of specialised fermented organic organ of the plant; it tells
fertilisers or substrates prepared on the pro- us exactly who the soil is
perty for each crop or variety. and her state of health.
Table 4. Duration of the growing cycle of eleven vegetables comparing an organic and
a conventional production system in Laguna de Alfaro Ruiz, Alajuela, Costa Rica.
Growing cycle (weeks) in a system

Crop Variety
Organic Conventional
Broccoli Marathon 8 10
Onion Maya 8 12
Cauliflower Montano 7 10
Coriander Grifaton 5 8
Beetroot Early Wonder 6-7 12-14
Yellow lettuce Prima /White Boston 5-6 6-8
American lettuce Cool Breeze 7 10
Mustard Pagoda 4 8
Radish Champion 3 4-6
Cabbage Stone Head 8 10
Carrot Bangor/F1 8 10
Source: Jugar del Valle S.A., 1995. Juan José Paniagua. Personal communication with Jairo Restrepo, monitoring two years of experience in the field.
Note: Although we understand that some strains mentioned here are not presently available on the market, what is important is having recorded
the results that were obtained at that time using those varieties, due to them being grown under organic fertiliser conditions.
Table 5. Comparison of the total losses between organic and conventional

crops of eight strains of vegetables4 per hectare in Laguna de Alfaro Ruiz,
Alajuela, Costa Rica.
Crop Operation Losses Performance
Nursery - plug 2%
Organic 95%
Field transplant 3%
Conventional Direct seeding 30% 70%
Advantages farmers and 1: up to 45 in some cases in which the

experience by preparing farmers have diverse materials on their own
organic fertiliser property; that is, with the cost of a sack of
chemical fertiliser, they are able to prepare
• Cheap materials that are easy to handle and
10 to 45 sacks of organic fertiliser.
obtain locally (independence).
• Its preparation requires little time and may be
• Easy to make and store (technological
scheduled and scaled according to the needs
appropriation by the farmers).
of the crops.
• Low costs, compared with the prices of
chemical fertilisers that depend on the
petroleum economy; for example, in Central 4. Strains of vegetables: Broccoli, cauliflower, beetroot, cabbage (two
America, the ratio is approximately 1:10 strains) and lettuce (three strains).

• Risk factors for the health of agricultural wor- the organic matter due to the soil macro and
kers are eliminated. microbiology.
• Short term results are obtained and their • Greater performance in number of plants per
dynamic allows alternative forms of preparing hectare. (Lower loss index).
them to be created. • They are a constant source of organic matter
• They do not contaminate the environment. to sustain life in the soil.
• They do not harm the fauna and flora. • The soil conserves humidity and better
• The fertilisers are more complete, as they buffers temperature changes, saving on the
include the necessary macro and micronutrients volume of water and irrigation frequency of
in the soil for vigorous growth of the plants. each crop.
• They reduce surface run-off of the water.
Advantages that farmers • They improve the permeability of the soils
experience by use of organic and their bio-structure.
• They favour colonisation of the ground by
fertilisers on their land
macro and microlife.
• Easy to transport, handle and apply to any
• They provide the earth with formation of
crop.
a high rate of long term microbiological
• They eliminate health risk factors for workers,
humus.
consumers and any biological system.
• They contribute to achievement of safer,
• They protect the environment, the fauna,
more efficient and healthy crops.
flora, biodiversity and water quality, due
• Greater economic profitability per area
to absence of highly soluble nitrate based
tended.
poisons and fertiliser waste.
• Allows farmers to have greater economic
• They gradually improve the fertility, nutrition
options and lower production costs.
and vitality of the earth associated with their
• Works as a constant source of slow-release
macro and microbiology.
fertilisation and nutrition, with prolonged
• They stimulate and accelerate the plant
residual action, not only of macronutrients,
growing cycle (shorter vegetable growing
but also of micronutrients and trace minerals.
cycles are noticed and thus more crops per
• They increase the efficiency of nutritional
area tended are obtained).
absorption by plants, as these have greater
• They gradually improve the energy efficiency
development in the volume of the root system.
of all the bio-transformations undergone by
• The plants grown are healthy and vigorous

and do not easily succumb to disease, Table 6. Analysis of Natural Stone Meal
because they are naturally protected by the Mexican Geological Service. December 2008
nutritional harmony inherent to the presence (X-Ray Fluorescence)
of hormones, vitamins, plant catalysers Element Name Concentration (%)
and enzymes, according to their constant Si Silicon 25
physiological activity, which is backed by Ca Calcium 10
the conditions of organic nutrition that the Al Aluminium 10
fermented organic fertiliser provides the Mg Magnesium 10
plants, the soil and life. K Potassium 10
• Organic fertilisers enhanced with stone meal S Sulphur 10
for application to the earth set off a series of Na Sodium 1
biochemical reactions along with the intense Fe Iron 10
root activity of the crops; thus, there becomes Ti Titanium 1
a constant increase in gaseous exchange in Sr Strontium 0.1
the solution in the soil, due to the corrosion Source: Gaia, Asesoría Integral Ambiental, Jesús Ignacio Simón Zamora, Urua-
reactions that are established between pán, Michoacán, Mexico.
the microbiology and minerals inside the

rocks. On the other hand, organic fertiliser
Table 7. Analysis of Phosphated Stone Meal
encourages evolution of geodiversity,
Mexican Geological Service. December 2008
fattens up the broth of biological divinity, to
(X-Ray Fluorescence)
become the best regulator of the greenhouse
effect that has been so manipulated by the Element Name Concentration (%)
bioterrorist commercial marketing that cries Ca Calcium 25
out that the planet is being destroyed by Si Silicon 10
global warming. P Phosphorus 10
• Finally, organic crops, in the nutritional Mg Magnesium 10
aspects, both of quantity as well as quality Al Aluminium 10
(nutraceutical foodstuff), exceed any K Potassium 1
other production system. Analyses of the Cl Chlorine 0.01
trace elements and quantities of vitamins F Fluorine 0.01
are greater in all the organic production Fe Iron 10
systems, when they are compared with other Zn Zinc 1
production systems dependent on poisonous Ti Titanium 0.1
agricultural poisons and chemical fertilisers. Sr Strontium 0.1
Cu Copper 0.01
Source: Gaia, Asesoría Integral Ambiental, Jesús Ignacio Simón Zamora,
Uruapán, Michoacán, Mexico.
Organic agriculture is bad

when it is done badly.

Table 8. Analysis of Natural Stone Meal Table 9. Analysis of Phosphated Stone Meal
Mexican Geological Service. (Plasma Mass) Mexican Geological Service. (Plasma Mass)
Element Name Concentration (Ppm) Element Name Concentration (Ppm)
Ag Silver N.A. Ag Silver 1
Al Aluminium 29665 Al Aluminium 22583
As Arsenic 92 As Arsenic 172
Au Gold N.A. Au Gold N.A.
Ba Barium 142 Ba Barium 124
Be Beryllium 2 Be Beryllium 1
Bi Bismuth N.A. Bi Bismuth N.D.
Ca Calcium 1200 Ca Calcium 1220
Cd Cadmium 3 Cd Cadmium 10
Ce Cerium 24 Ce Cerium 16
Co Cobalt 8 Co Cobalt 6
Cr Chrome 79 Cr Chrome 27
Cu Copper 30 Cu Copper 565
Dy Dysprosium 3 Dy Dysprosium 1
Er Erbium 2 Er Erbium 1
Eu Europium 1 Eu Europium N.A.
Fe Iron 15380 Fe Iron 10161
Gd Gadolinum 4 Gd Gadolinum 1
Ho Holmium 1 Ho Holmium N.A.
K Potassium 5858 K Potassium 2425
La Lanthanum 10 La Lanthanum 7
Lu Lutetium N.A. Lu Lutetium N.A.
Mg Magnesium 32632 Mg Magnesium 5153
Mn Manganese 191 Mn Manganese 370
Mo Molybdenum 2 Mo Molybdenum 4
Na Sodium 375 Na Sodium 1147
Nd Neodymium 14 Nd Neodymium 7
Ni Nickel 33 Ni Nickel 19
P Phosphorus 5914 P Phosphorus 64296
Pb Lead 36 Pb Lead 92
Pr Praseodymium 3 Pr Praseodymium 2
Sb Antymony 4 Sb Antymony 1
Sc Scandium 8 Sc Scandium 7
Se Selenium N.A. Se Selenium 72
Sm Samarium 3 Sm Samarium 1
Sn Tin 2 Sn Tin 1
Sr Strontium 324 Sr Strontium 424
Tb Terbium N.A. Tb Terbium N.A.
Te Tellurium N.A. Te Tellurium N.A.
Th Thorium 1 Th Thorium 2
Ti Titanium 1466 Ti Titanium 767
Tl Thallium N.A. Tl Thallium N.A.
Tm Thulium N.A. Tm Thulium N.A.
U Uranium 1 U Uranium 2
V Vanadium 205 V Vanadium 209
W Wolfram 1 W Wolfram 1
(Tungsten) (Tungsten)
Y Yttrium 13 Y Yttrium 5
Yb Ytterbium 1 Yb Ytterbium N.A.
Zn Zinc 117 Zn Zinc 2945
Source: Gaia, Asesoría Integral Ambiental, Jesús Ignacio Simón Zamora Source: Gaia, Asesoría Integral Ambiental, Jesús Ignacio Simón Zamora
(Nacho), Uruapán, Michoacán, Mexico. (Nacho), Uruapán, Michoacán, Mexico.S

Organic fertiliser preparation. Centro Pachita, Jamundí, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
Results obtained by applying bocashi organic fertiliser

to maize production in Mexico and some other
formulas to prepare it
Table 10. Results maize corn fields with Bocashi organic fertiliser in
Amealco, Querétaro State, Mexico. 1998
Yield ton/ha Yield ton/ha
Community Producer with chemical fertiliser
with Bocashi fertiliser
El Terrero Vicente Aguilar 6.4 6.2
El Lindero Bruno Serrano 3.1 2.9
Los Árboles Rafael Zúñiga 5.1 3.2
Santiago Mexiquititlán.
José Ávila 3.6 3.4
Barrio 1O
Santiago Mexiquititlán. Ernesto Pérez
2.8 2.5
Barrio 5O Triviño
La Manzana Pedro Rodríguez 3.7 3.1
Source: M.C. Valero Garza Jesús. INIFAP. Organic Agriculture Research Programme, Querétaro State, Mexico.
Formula to speed up decomposition of coffee and cacao pulp to

turn it into organic fertiliser to fertilise coffee fields
Ingredientes:
• One tonne or 1000 kilos of cow dung.
• One tonne or 1000 kilos of coffee or cacao pulp.
• 25 bushels or sacks of crushed parchment coffee (approximately 300 kilos).
• 3 pounds of baker’s yeast, in granules or fresh.
Follow the original instructions to prepare bocashi type fermented organic ferti-
liser original. Control the humidity or amount of water one wishes to use very well,
due to the high humidity the coffee pulp or cacao may contain. In many cases, it is
not necessary to use water.

Adaptation of bocashi type organic
fertiliser to the Altiplano plateau of Mexico
Jesús Valero Garza. INIFAP - Fundación Produce,
Querétaro, Querétaro State, Mexico, 1998
Ingredients:
• 300 kilos of cow dung, dry or milled.
• 300 kilos of soil.
• 200 kilos of wheat straw (preferably well
Microorganisms to enhance organic
chopped up). fertiliser. Cooperativa Tosepan, Puebla,
• 50 kilos of well milled corn on the cob. Mexico.
• 50 kilos of charcoal made from corn
cob*. daptation of bocashi type organic
• 10 kilos of wood stove ash. fertiliser to take advantage of
• 8 litres of pulque** or ½ kilograms of maize growing “waste”
yeast. Atlacomulco, Mexico State
• 8 litres of molasses or 5 kilograms of mi- Ingredients:
lled jaggery or unprocessed sugar***. • 20 bushels or sacks of well sifted or sie-
• Water (according to the fist test and only ved earth.
once). • 20 bushels or sacks of well chopped up
corn stover.
• 20 bushels or sacks of poultry manure
* Corn cob charcoal: UA tonne of cobs generally generates
or cow dung.
300 to 350 kg of charcoal for bocashi. • 4 bushels or sacks of corncob charcoal.
** Pulque: A typical alcoholic fermented beverage in Mexico,
made by fermenting sap, called syrup, of the Maguey. • 8 litres of sugarcane molasses or 8 kilos
*** Piloncillo: Block or bar sugar prepared from concentrated of cane sugar or jaggery.
sugarcane juice; also known as panela, tapa dulce or chan‑
caca in Central America. • 3 bushels or sacks of well milled corn-
*** Sugarcane molasses or syrup: By-product of the sugar cob (bran type; by-product from mecha-
stills after crystallisation of the sugar.
nical shucking the corn cobs).
• 1 kilo of granulated baker’s yeast.
• Enough water to dampen the mix (fist
Preparation: test).
Follow the instructions to prepare the
original bocashi type fermented organic
fertiliser. In very cold areas, it is recom- Source: Maize producers of Atlacomulco, Mexico State, Mexico, Oc-
tober 1998.
mended to work with a higher fertiliser
pile (between one metre fifty centimetres Preparation:
to one metre fifty), so the fermentation Follow the instructions to prepare the
process starts up and is not affected by the original bocashi type fermented organic
low temperatures, mainly nocturnal ones fertiliser.
when there is a change of seasons.

Adaptation of bocashi type “Taxcashi”: Adaptation of bocashi
organic fertiliser type organic fertiliser
Querétaro State, Mexico Vicente Guerrero Group in the Municipal District
of Españita Tlaxcala State, Mexico
Ingredients:
• 200 kilograms of dry, well milled cow Ingredients:
dung. • 2 bushels or sacks of well chopped stub-
• 200 kilograms of sifted or sieved soil. ble or straw.
• 4 bales of well shredded wheat straw. • 2 bushels or sacks of soil.
• 50 kilograms of crushed corncob • 2 bushels or sacks of dung (poultry, cow,
charcoal. rabbit).
• 50 kilograms of wheat bran. • 4 kilograms of lime or stove ash.
• 40 kilograms of lime or wood stove ash. • 1 bushel or sack of charcoal.
• 10 litres of pulque or 5 kilograms of • 1 pound of baker’s yeast or 5 litres of
jaggery or cane sugar. pulque.
• Enough water to dampen the mix (fist • 4 litres of molasses or 2 kilograms of
test). jaggery.
• Enough water to dampen the mix (fist
test).
Source: Jesús Valero Garza. INIFAP - Fundación Produce, Querétaro
Source: Manual for peasant growers: Fertility, conservation and soil
State, Mexico, 1998.
management. Memorandum, November 1999. Vicente Guerrero
Group, Municipal District of Españita, Tlaxcala State, Mexico.
Preparation: Preparation:
Follow the instructions to prepare the Follow the instructions to prepare the
original bocashi type fermented organic original bocashi type fermented organic
fertiliser. fertiliser.
Bio-speedy bocashi type seven day organic fertiliser

Ingredients:
• 40 sacks of well sieved or sifted black earth.
• 20 bushels or sacks of rice or coffee hulls or dry pulp.
• 20 bushels or sacks of poultry manure or cow dung.
• 2 bushels or sacks of milled rice or rice bran.
• 4 bushels or sacks of well crushed charcoal.
• 20 kilos of calcinated bone meal.
• 20 kilos of fish meal (in coastal areas).
• 20 litres of sugarcane molasses or syrup.
• 20 kilos of agricultural lime or wood stove ash.
• 25 kilos of stone meal, well milled.
• Enough water to dampen the mix (fist test).
Source: Organic coffee producers from Nicaragua and Costa Rica, in an exchange of peasant experiences in the
Municipal District of Cuá, Nicaragua, 1998.

Preparation:
Follow the instructions to prepare the original bocashi type fermented organic
fertiliser. This version of the fermented fertiliser requires less fermenting time. It
is ready for use in just seven days. That acceleration of the preparation is linked,
in a certain way, to the wide diversity of the ingredients (proteins, carbohydrates,
minerals and vitamins, among others).
Twenty four hours (one day) after having mixed the ingredients, the fermenta-
tion speeds up and the temperature tends to rise to very high figures, which is not
desirable for the quality of the fertiliser. Thus, it is best to turn the mix at least
twice a day (morning and afternoon) to control the temperature during the seven
days the preparation lasts. On the other hand, the height of the pile must also
be regulated in parallel as the temperature is controlled, until finally reaching a
layer of approximately 15 to 20 centimetres high. At the end of the whole pro-
cess, the fertiliser must have a uniform powder colour, be completely dry and at
ambient temperature.
Note Remarks
After this type of bocashi has fermented and is We are aware of the financial limitations that many
completely cold, it may be enhanced by the biological peasant communities suffer, which hinder acquisition
formulation of native microorganisms, in the amount of of some of the materials proposed here in some
5 to 10 kilos per tonne of fertiliser, previously gathered formulas. However, in many places we frequent it
in the woods and reproduced on the property or farm.
is very common to find access to organic waste with
We recommend that preparation mainly be used to
certain ease (hair, leather, blood, bones, horns, hooves,
grow vegetables such as tomato, pepper and potato.
On the other hand, we recommend taking great care rumen and biliary content, etc.) that are generated
when dosing the product, as it may burn the crop and when slaughtering cows and pigs. On the other hand,
ruin it. However, when the soil is rich or has abundant in many regions, mainly coastal ones, it is also very
microbiology, the earth buffer effect against any such common to find large amounts of fishery waste and
impact is notorious. The seed or inoculum of native that from consumption of seafood and fish. When such
microorganisms may be obtained and also reproduced materials are well processed locally to make meal, they
quite simply, through the duff or surface layer of the
lower the costs of some fertilisers proposed here, that
forest; that has been reproduced using molasses and
appear to be very expensive to us because we always
bran or rice semolina. (See the way to prepare this
inoculum or to reproduce the native microorganisms
think of acquiring the ingredients to prepare them as
from the forest on page 72).
industrially processed inputs. Lastly, we recommend
waste from shrimp companies to prepare both
fertilisers as well as bio-fermentations due to the very
good quality and excellent results of producing crops
and protecting the soil against diseases.
If it is very difficult to obtain the different meals (bone
and fish), all the weight of both the meals required
may be replaced by one of them, depending on which

is most common in the region. With regard to use of Greater difficulty to prepare many
fish meal to prepare fertilisers, we recommend reading
types of fertilisers in different
the well grounded criticism of Swedish industry by
regions lies not in how to buy the
Julius Hensel, that are provided in Chapter 5 of this
ingredients, but rather in the lack
Manual.
of knowledge to take the maximum
advantage of the resources that
are available locally.
Some formulations to take advantage of the “waste”

from coffee and banana crops
Colombian coffee axis region
In the Coffee Axis region of Colombia, addition to destroying the biodiversity and soil,
between the departments of Quindío, Risaralda when it took on the dynamics of monoculture
and Caldas, it is quite common to observe and the poison industry.
failure to take advantage and absence of
adequate handling of organic materials such as
pulp, mucilage or syrup water, and the coffee
parchment or grounds left behind after threshing
Formula Nº. 1
or processing the grain; as well as the stalk or
• 20 bushels or sacks of soil.
fibre, the banana tree pseudo-stalk and rhizome.
• 20 bushels or sacks of poultry manure.
In order to maximise use of these materials, we
• 20 bushels or sacks of coffee pulp.
present some ideas to prepare some organic
• 1 kilo of baker’s yeast.
fertiliser enhanced with other materials, that
• 3 bushels or sacks of crushed charcoal.
due to their excellent quality may substitute
• 1 bushel or sack of milled rice or bran
commercial fertilisers, with the possibility to
(50 kilos).
lower production costs, improve the quality of
the crops and recover soils that were exhausted
Humidity: The fist test must be considered
by the policies and technological package
to achieve a maximum between 35% and
imposed by the Coffee Growers’ Federation,
45% humidity. In the case of the materials
that deceitfully bankrupted many farmers, in
being very dry, the ideal thing to achieve
humidity is to take advantage of the coffee
Among others, should any technology mucilage or syrup water from processing
be directly accused of destroying the bean, and the juice from the stalks of
the environment, workers’ health banana plants harvested may also be taken
and of causing global warming, advantage of.
is that of herbicides.

Formula Nº. 2 Formula Nº. 5
• 20 bushels or sacks of soil. • 20 bushels or sacks of soil.
• 20 bushels or sacks of shredded banana • 20 bushels or sacks of coffee parchment
stalk. or hulls (chaff).
• 20 bushels or sacks of poultry manure. • 20 bushels or sacks of coffee pulp.
• 1 kilo de baker’s yeast, in granules or • 20 bushels or sacks of dry poultry manu-
fresh. re or cow dung.
• 50 kilos of milled rice or bran. • 2 kilos of baker’s yeast, in granules or
• 3 bushels or sacks of crushed charcoal. fresh.
• 3 bushels or sacks of crushed charcoal.
Water mixed with the coffee mucilage, un- • 2 bushels or sacks of milled rice or bran
til achieving a humidity between 35% and (100 kilos).
45% (perform the fist test).
Water mixed with the coffee mucilage, un-
til achieving a humidity between 35% and
Formula Nº. 3
• 20 bushels or sacks of well shredded ba-
nana stalk. Formula Nº. 6
• 20 bushels or sacks of poultry manure. • 20 bushels or sacks of coffee pulp.
• 2 kilos of baker’s yeast. • 20 bushels or sacks of coffee parchment
• 1 bushel or sack of milled rice or bran or hulls (chaff).
(50 kilos). • 20 bushels or sacks of pig or cow dung.
• 3 bushels or sacks of crushed charcoal. • 1 kilo de baker’s yeast, in granules or
fresh.
Water mixed with the coffee mucilage, until • 1 bushel or sack of milled rice or bran
achieving a humidity between 35% and (50 kilos).
Formula Nº. 4
• 20 bushels or sacks of coffee pulp.
• 20 bushels or sacks of poultry manure.
• 1 kilo de baker’s yeast, in granules or
fresh.
Water mixed with the coffee mucilage, un- The ideal fertiliser does not exist. The
til achieving a humidity between 35% and best input for the farmer is every–
45% (perform the fist test). thing he has within arm’s length.

Reproduction of
microorganisms to
prepare organic fertiliser.
Cali, Colombia.

• 20 bushels or sacks of soil. • 20 bushels or sacks of poultry manure or
• 20 bushels or sacks of pig dung. cow dung.
• 20 bushels or sacks of coffee parchment or • 20 bushels or sacks of coffee parchment
hulls (chaff). or hulls (chaff).
• 1 kilo de baker’s yeast, in granules or • 1 kilo de baker’s yeast, in granules or fresh.
fresh. • 3 bushels or sacks of well crushed char-
• 1 bushel or sack of milled rice or bran (50 coal.
kilos). • 1 bushel or sack of milled rice or bran
• 3 bushels or sacks of crushed charcoal. (50 kilos).
Water mixed with the coffee mucilage, until Water mixed with the coffee mucilage, un-
achieving a humidity between 35% and 45% til achieving a humidity between 35% and
(perform the fist test). 45% (perform the fist test).

• 20 bushels or sacks of soil. • 20 bushels or sacks of pig or cow dung.
• 20 bushels or sacks of poultry manure. • 10 bushels or sacks of soil.
• 20 bushels or sacks of well shredded ba- • 20 bushels or sacks of coffee parchment
nana stalk. or hulls (chaff).
• 20 bushels or sacks of coffee pulp. • 1 kilo of baker’s yeast, in granules or
• 20 bushels or sacks of coffee parchment or fresh.
hulls (chaff). • 3 bushels or sacks of crushed charcoal
• 1 bushel or sack of milled rice or bran (50 • 2 bushels or sacks of milled rice or bran
kilos). (100 kilos).
• 2 kilos of baker’s yeast, in granules or fresh.
Water mixed with the coffee mucilage, to til achieving a humidity between 35% and
achieve humidity between 35% and 45% 45% (perform the fist test).
(perform the fist test).

• 20 bushels or sacks of coffee pulp. • 5 bushels or sacks of earth (fully dry and
• 20 bushels or sacks of coffee parchment sifted).
or hulls (chaff). • 20 bushels or sacks of poultry manure.
• 20 bushels or sacks of semi-dry poultry • 20 bushels or sacks of coffee parch-
manure or cow dung. ment or hulls (chaff).
• 2 kilos of dry, granule or fresh baker’s • 2 bushels or sacks of milled rice or bran
yeast. (100 kilos).
• 1 gallon of sugarcane molasses or syrup. • 1 kilo of dry baker’s yeast, in granules
or fresh.
• 3 bushels or sacks of Calfos or Fosforita
Huila (phosphoric rock).
• 2 bushels or sacks of bone meal.
• 2 bushels or sacks of milled rice or bran
(100 kilos).

til achieving a humidity between 35% and Note
45% (perform the fist test). Note that some formulas, such as Numbers 11, 12 and
13, are preparations that require a greater economic
investment compared with the other examples.
However, their quality will be greater with regard to
Formula Nº. 12 nutrition and results shall be obtained in a shorter time.
• 20 bushels or sacks of poultry manure On the other hand, one must not forget that decision
or cow dung. making to prepare such fertiliser is your responsibility,
• 20 bushels or sacks of coffee parchment not that of the commercial firms, technicians and
or hulls (chaff). cooperatives that make the producers increasingly
• 2 bushels or sacks of milled rice or bran dependent and poorer. Lastly, we must not forget that
(100 kilos). the way in which this fertiliser is performed follows
• 1 kilo of dry baker’s yeast. the same instructions as for bocashi type fermented
• 1 gallon of molasses or sugarcane purge organic fertiliser, in which, according to the skill with
syrup. which they are prepared and processed, farmers may
• 4 bushels or sacks of well crushed charcoal. take from 8 to 16 days for them to be ready and set
about using them on crops. Formulas 14, 15, 16, 17...,
• 1 bushel or sack of bone meal.
etc., are those you may invent yourself according to
• 1 bushel or sack of Calfos or Fosforita
your financial conditions and the materials you find
Huila (phosphoric rock).
locally to prepare them, and mainly according to your
creativity. Finally, when preparing such fertilisers,
Water mixed cwith the coffee mucilage, un-
humidity control is vital to achieve an excellent quality
end product, in particular when working with highly
water rich materials such as the waste from banana
growing.

Ingredients to prepare one tonne of Bocashi organic fertiliser
(São Paulo, Brazil, 1995)
Ingredients ........................................................ Approximate amounts

• 500 kilograms of milled rice . . . . . . . . . 11 quintals
• 300 kilograms of castor-bean . . . . . . . . 6.6 quintals
• 180 kilograms of bone meal. . . . . . . . . . . 4 quintals
• 20 kilograms of fish meal. . . . . . . . . . ½ quintal
• 5 litres of cane molasses . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ½ gallon
• 4 litres of EM** (microbiological liquid) (forest earth or duff, yeast
or mature bocashi).
• 350 litres of water (according to the fist test and only once).
** The concept of Efficient Microorganisms (EM) was developed in the 1980s by Dr. Teruo Higa, Professor of Horticulture at Ryukyu
University in Okinawa, Japan. An EM is a mixed culture of beneficial microorganisms that are found in nature and may be applied
directly to the soil or plants to increase microbiological diversity, or as an inoculum for bocashi type fermented fertilisers. EM
contain chosen species of microorganisms, among them predominant populations of lactobacillus, actinomyces and other types
of organisms. These are compatible with each other and may coexist in a liquid medium. EM do not contain genetically modified
organisms.
Source: Ryukyu University, Okinawa, Japan. Experiences in Indonesia, Thailand and Bangladesh.
Comment
It is left to ferment for 24 hours, well covered with plant fibre sacks, protected
from the wind, sun and rain. Five tonnes per hectare are applied.
Table 11. EM composition There are now a series of formulations that

Groups of Genres and species are being propagated commercially to speed up
microorganisms organic material decomposition processes. Some
Lactic bacteria or Streptomyces albus albus formulations may even work and others are a pure
lactobacillus Rhodopseuodomonas commercial scam that promises false results, but
Photosynthetic sphaeroides what is most important in the organic agricultu-
bacteria Lactobacillus plantarum re proposal is not to be content with seeing such
Yeast Propionibacterium things work, and to seek substitute inputs; the
Actinomyces freudenreichii most important is to take the step of understan-
Fungi Streptococcus lactis, S. faecalis ding why things work, and it will thus be easier
Aspergillus oryzae to make the decision consciously: whether to pre-
Mucor hiemalies pare my own amendments with the free offer of
Saccharomyces cerivisiae the biological phenomena, or to acquire them on
‘Useful’ Cándida the market.
Source: Higa and Parr, 1994. Directly in the woods or crops, where there is
a good coverage of decomposing materials, we
may naturally find a series of microorganisms
that speed up the return of organic waste in

multiple diverse forms that are nourishing for Both knowledge as well as common
plants. Among the most common decomposers sense are not a business, do not submit
we find in nature, and that we may reproduce to the mercantile purposes of the indus–
directly on plots, we may quote bacteria, fungi, try, nor to the technological imperative.
actinomyces and yeast: i.e. Saccharomyces,
Lactobacillus, Burkholderia cepacia, Tricho‑ Until quite recently, half a dozen companies
derma, Paecelomyces lilacinus. On the other hand, in the agrochemical sector manufactured more
one of the sectors that of greatest concern in than US$ 30,000 million from selling fungicides
the agricultural sector, worldwide, is the race worldwide. In seeking to change their image on
many are undertaking toward patent dominion the market and among consumers, the same firms
on the chemical ecology and molecular biolo– now seek technological domination of the phe-
gy markets. The present trend by large input nomena and symbiotic relations that arise bet-
manufacturers aims to cleanse their soul of all ween the microbiological activity of the soil and
evil and sin with a new offer of biological inputs organic matter. In this case, and among others,
that will have “no effect” on the environment, but we are speaking of domination of rhizobacteria,
that will increase concentration of their wealth. as the promoters of growth and bio-protection of
crops, some products of which have already been
on the market for more than two decades, and
others are undergoing trials.
Table 12. Genera and species of rhizobacteria

promoting plant growth
Genus and species Reference
Actinobacter sp. Tanii et al., 1990
Aeromonas caviae Invar & Chet, 1991
Agrobacterium radiobacter Ryder & Jones, 1990
Alcaligenes sp. Yeun et al., 1985
Bacilus brevis Chen et al, 1993
B. cereus Osburn et al., 1995
B. circulans Berge et al., 1990
B. firmus Chen et al., 1995
B. licheniformis Chen et al.,1995
B. subtilis Luz, 1995b
Corynebacterium sp. Utkhede, 19880
Enterobacter aerogenes Parke et al., 1988
E. agglomerans Tanii et al., 1990
Capturing rhizobacteria to reproduce them
E. cloacac Nelson, 1988
and apply them to crops. Jesús Ignacio Simón Erwinia herbicola Nelson, 1988
Zamora, Perth, Australia.

Microorganism capture for reproduction and Processing organic fertiliser to grow flowers. Florícola
application to crops. Jesús Ignacio Simón Nápoles, Cayambe, Quito, Ecuador.
Zamora (Nacho), Queensland, Australia.
Genera and species Reference

Flavobacterium spp Tanii et al, 1990
Paenibacillus macerans Luz, 1996, needs revising
Phyllobacterium sp. Lambert et al., 1990
Pseudomonas aureofaciens Duffy & Weller, 1995; Mathre et al. 1995
P. cepacia Parke et al., 1991
P. fluorescens Luz, 1996b. Vidhyasekaran & Mythamilan, 1995
P. putida Duffy & Weller, 1995
P. putida Biotype B Luz, 1996
Serratia fonticola Chanway et al., 1991
S. marcescens Ordentlich et al., 1 1991
Streptomyces griseoviridis Tahvonen et al., 1987

Massive reproduction of
native forest
microorganism
When the human being realises how weak and

insignificant he is faced with the gigantic
dimension of what life on earth represents in a
forest, beyond reason, then he will be taking a
qualitative step toward understanding, through
observation, that life is a divinely mystic and
indivisible act, that must be contemplated stripped
of all arrogance, stupidity and academic justification.
I
n order to directly facilitate the work in the field, and to
seek increasingly more independence from purchasing all the
bio-inputs that the eco-biological and eco-ecclesiastical bio-
marketers wish to fob off on country people, here are some ideas on
how to make some bio-prepared products using local resources and
with little financial investment. This concerns local reproduction
of the native microorganisms from the forest that form part of
the skin or live natural mantle of native forest microorganisms
that line the surface follow the woods (“capturing autochthonous
microorganisms”).
Reader, my friend, the description in the following part of this
Manual may seem to break as well as from the logical description of
bocashi type fermented organic fertilisers. However, this apparent
break is quite convenient to consider other practices that are
being carried out most successfully in the field, such as solid and
fermented preparations based on capturing native microorganisms
from the forest and fermented pasture, whether or not these are
enhanced with some minerals, ashes and stone meal. Thus, in

many cases, we recommend reading each recipe organic agriculture. Do not forget, however a
again and again before implementing it, as each recommendation described in Chapter 1 may
element or technical instrument described or differ from one in Chapter 5, they will always
recommended herein must be dealt with and have a practical connection, or at least something
worked in a systemic, dynamic, functional way in common that will identify them: “The struggle
for each space and fraction of time, wherever to defend life independently of the inputs market”.
it is worked and with the proposal provided by
Reproduction of seed from native forest microorganisms

• Virgin forest decomposing topsoil....................... 30 to 40 kilos
• Semolina or milled rice or bran................................... 80 kilos
• Molasses or sugarcane syrup............................ 2 to 4 gallons*
• Stone meal.................................................................... 2 kilos
• Plastic container with 200 litres capacity............................... 1
REMARK: To prepare a lower amount, it is recommended to perform the proportional calculations of the ingredients.
* The amount of molasses that is used to reproduce the seed of microorganisms varies from 2 to 4 gallons, because its quality varies
according to how thick it is offered by the market; when it is very thick, it must be dissolved in a little water, but with care not to
water it down too much. When preparing the mix, the ideal thing is to fist test the humidity, which consists of taking a little of the
preparation in your hand and pressing it; humidity must not seep out between your fingers and when you open your fist, a sticky shaped
lump must lie across your palm.
Source: Juan José Paniagua, Organic Vegetable Producer and Jairo Restrepo Rivera, Tapezco, Costa Rica, August 2001. Organic
Agriculture Workshop with emphasis on vegetables and organic coffee. UNED, State Open University, San José, Costa Rica. Formu-
lation redesigned based on new experiences during the last five years of work with use of stone meal, volcanic ash and ground Tezontle
(oxidised volcanic rock), with successful results in organic food production in Mexico.
What do native forest

microorganisms consist of?
These consist in the understanding of the in its memory, the genetic history of the place
geobiological memory that has evolved jointly and the distance where they were able to es-
in harmony with the natural woods and the tablish their evolution, development, repro-
climate of a certain region. That is, the woods duction, decomposition and death. The top-
in a certain place are in symbiosis with the mi- soil that covers the forest floor (damp forest
croorganisms, as well as the microorganisms topsoil) contains millions of diverse microor-
in a specific region being in symbiosis with ganisms that constantly prepare the waiting
the forests, where the perfect bond is formed room for higher life. There are several dozen
in endosymbiosis for life. Each forest has a functional groups of bacteria, actinomycetes,
biological memory with its own characteris- fungi, algae and protozoa that live there in
tics according to the ecological or bioclimatic perfect harmony, to maintain live the mira-
conditions of the place where these are esta- cle and energy flow of life in each space and
blished. Each microorganism has, recorded fraction of time.
Preparation and use of seed of native microorganisms (SNM)
How is the harvesting of native How is reproduction of native
microorganisms in the forest microorganisms gathered performed?
performed? On a clean floor, or the actual soil where
You visit a natural forest, preferably one that grown, 30 to 40 kilos of the forest topsoil are
has not suffered any human intervention, or least taken and mixed dry with 80 kilos of milled rice,
that is not very near to contaminated areas of bran or semolina and 2 kilos of stone meal, until
poisoned crops. You take part of the topsoil or achieving a homogeneous mix; after which 2 or
damp organic matter (duff) that is deposited un- 4 gallons of dissolved molasses are mixed with
der the bushes and trees in that place. You must a little water and stirred with a spade or mixed
take special care not to scrape up a large amount directly with one’s hands until achieving a uni-
of soil or humus and not to gather green leaves. form mix that is scarcely humid and has a very
You must also avoid collecting very whole mate- pleasant fruity smell. Finally, a plastic barrel
rials such as leaves, branches, and bushes that or drum with a capacity of 100 to 200 litres is
have recently been deposited on the surface of the used to gradually deposit the preparation by la-
forest floor due to little humidity and very scarce yers and press it down with a tamper, in order
microbiological decomposition activity. Preferen- to extract the maximum amount of oxygen from
ce must be given to collecting materials that are the mix. It is recommended not to totally fill the
well inoculated, that have a white, creamy, oran- barrel, leaving more or less 10 to 15 centimetres
ge, brown or coffee colour, and that also give off a free of the volume. Lastly, the barrel is sealed
pleasant smell of damp woodland perfume. hermetically, leaving it in the shade and at abso-
lute rest for 30 days. (Figure 11)
Regarding the nature of life
in the soil, regrettably we
may dare to say that we
have destroyed more than we
have managed to know.
Seed from native

microorganisms from a forest
What are the native allows us to re-establish the
microorganisms we gather life that has been destroyed in
from a forest topsoil useful for? agricultural soil as we feed the
To biologically enhance bocashi fertilizer, to hope to be able to approach
activate and recover life in the soil by means the reconstruction of an
of fermented bio-preparations, to accelerate indivisible biological fabric that is
the decomposition processes of organic matter indispensable for healthy life.
and strengthen plant, animal and human
health.

Figure 11: Preparing reproduction of native microorganisms
gathered in the forest
Molasses
2 to 4
gallons Mix of
microorganisms
Mixed
30 to 40 kilos
microorganisms
materials are ready to be applied to the land one

How is the seed of native
wishes to cultivate.
microorganisms (SNM) On the other hand, the solid bio-preparation
used once ready? with native forest microorganisms that were
Once the term of 30 days rest is over, the pre- multiplied in the barrel are also very successfully
paration of the replica of native microorganisms used in animal food in the pre and probiotic form.
harvested in the forest is ready to be used in the A series of experiences have been conducted, and
following ways: the following quantities have been adjusted di-
rectly per species: Adult bovine cattle, between
Solid applications 200 and 300 grams per animal, adult goats and
Organic fertilisers may be prepared using 8 sheep from 30 to 50 grams per animal; hens and
to 10 kilos for each tonne of bocashi fertiliser turkeys from 10 to 15 grams per animal; rabbits
or compost. Application of the microorganism from 8 to 12 grams per animal; quail 5 grams
preparation must be performed at the end of the per bird. The amount recommended to fatten
bocashi fermentation or composting process; that pigs is 30 to 50 grams per animal and it is very
is, the bocashi fertiliser or compost that is to be common to provide these animals kitchen waste
enhanced with the product must be at ambient (slops), so we recommend mixing the portion of
temperature, so as not to disable the biological activated microorganisms in the waste on a daily
activity of the bio-preparation. However, in order basis, about 3 or 4 hours before feeding. No not
to make the preparation response more effective stick strictly to these recommendations; modify
for organic fertilisers and compost, enriching and experiment with them according to the lo-
them is recommended, preferably when these cal conditions and adjust them according to your

creativity and pocket. (Figure 12) native microorganisms in a liquid medium and
submit them to an anaerobic fermentation
Application and reproduction of native forest process for a 30 day period, simple biofertiliser
microorganisms in liquid form or Super Magro type. (Figure 13)
To perform this application, it is necessary
to reactivate a certain solid portion follow the
Figure 12: Use of Seed of Native Microorganisms in solid form, with 30 days of
fermentation in animal fodder.
Sheep and goats 30 to

50 g per day
Bovine cattle 200 to 250
g per day
Solid fermented
native
microorganisms
Pigs
Poultry 10 to 15 g per
30 to 50 g per day
day

Figure 13: Activation of Seed of Native Microorganisms
in liquid form.
30 days of
fermentation
Native
microorganisms
gathered from the
forest
10 kilos of
solid native forest
microorganisms
Microorganisms
from the forest
Capacity 30 days of
200 litres anaerobic
Ingredients: fermentation
- Whey (2 gallons)
- Molasses (2
gallons)
- Stone meal (2 kilos)
- Water to fill to the
top
Activation of native forest microorganism reproduction in

simple or Super Magro biofertiliser format
Ingredients: Preparation:
• 10 kilos of microorganisms. A cotton cloth bag or a plant fibre bag is used
• 2 gallons of cane molasses. to deposit 10 kilos of native microorganisms for
• 2 gallons of whey. reactivation within a plastic drum or barrel with
• 1 gallon of activated seed of native mi- a capacity of 200 litres, with a cover and metal
croorganisms as explained in page 79. ring clamp that is hermetically, allowing anaero-
• 100 litres of untreated water. bic fermentation for 30 days, to produce simple
Anaerobic fermenting time: 30 days. biofertiliser.

Figure 14: Application of native forest microorganisms in liquid form.
1 to 2 litres of
bioferment
30 days
fermentation 18 litres of
water
Forest microorganisms
activated in liquid form
(Biofermented)
20 litre
20 litres mix
capacity
18 litres of water plus 1 to 2

litres of biofermented liquid

Activation of Seed of Native Microorganisms to produce
native, local or territorial EM
Ingredients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quantity
• Microorganisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 kilos
• Sugarcane molasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 gallon
• Untreated water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 litres
Preparation:
All the ingredients are mixed in a plastic drum with 200 litres capacity in
which the microorganisms are placed in suspension, in a cotton or fibre tea
strainer type basket and left to ferment anaerobically for 5 to 10 days, simple
or Super Magro biofertiliser style. This preparation is a very autochthonous sort
of native forest or territorial EM, that does not depend on being bought from
commercial agents or firms. The most effective microorganisms for the farmer
are those he is able to prepare based on his own local biological resources, and
that may easily be found in a wood near to his crops. This sort of territorial or
native EM may be added directly to the volume of water that shall be used to
prepare the bocashi type fermented organic fertiliser; it is recommendable to use
up obtain 200 litres for each 2 to 3 tonnes of fertiliser to be prepared. On the
other hand, when the crops suffer very drastic attacks from some fungal and
bacterial infections, it is recommendable to apply territorial or native forest EM
in pure form, that is, without mixing them with water. In all the cultures where
foliar fertilisers are applied, without mixing them with water, territorial or nati-
ve forest EM microorganisms may be used up to 2% in the final mix of any foliar
biofermented liquid.
On the other hand, we may also affirm

most optimistically, that there is infinitely
much more that we ignore regarding the
microlife on the earth, compared
with what we know about it.

Another highly practical way to work with solid as well as liquid biofermented
products is to process silo hay.
Silo hay production with native microorganisms

to treat pastures
• Treated hay * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 kilos
• Semolina or milled rice or bran . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 kilos
• Molasses or sugarcane syrup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 a 4 gallons**
• native or territorial EM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 gallon
• Stone meal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 kilos
* Hay to be treated with microorganisms preferably be harvested at the point where it may be used for cattle silo and must be well
chopped up.
** The quantity of the molasses used to reproduce fermentation of the silo hay varies from 2 to 4 gallons, because its quality varies
according to the thickness offered by the market; the most important thing is to perform the fist test to control the final humidity of
the preparation, the appearance of which must be a loose mass with a pleasant smell like fermented fruit bread.
Preparation:
The way production of silo hay is prepared is the identical to the way the na-
tive microorganisms gathered in the forest are prepared.
Recommendations
Application of native forest microorganisms, and to obtain the best response to the product by the
activated by liquid fermentation processes: All the crops. At the moment of mixing the chosen dose of the
bioferments activated by liquid, obtained by gathering product with 100 litres of water, it is recommended
and reproduction of native forest microorganisms, to add 2 litres of molasses, in order to stimulate its
may be applied to any crop or agricultural space, as adherence and strengthen the energetic response to
fermentations activated based on fermented silo hay the bio-preparation by the plants.
are viable and more efficient to treat meadows and The most adequate timetables to apply the product
pastures where dairy and meat cows are grazed. In are in the early hours of the morning, or late after-
many cases, in order to apply activated bioferments, noon, shortly before dusk.
one may experiment with very low or very high doses,
which may range from 2 to 7 litres of fermented Other recommendations to apply activated biofer‑
product, dissolved in every 100 litres of water. The ment: Every day, new ways and places are discovered
preferential application is foliar. In some cases, where the different ferment based preparations
bioprepared liquids may be applied directly to the may be applied. Among these, we emphasise the
earth worked on, but the ideal is for this to be under applications used for treatment in animal facilities, in
some kind of green cover crop, or for it to have a order to collect dung and manure well and maximise
good organic matter percentage or content, in order their quality: stables, pens, hen coops and rabbit
to make its retention more efficient, to avoid leaching hutches, among other constructions, may be treated

simultaneously with a mixture of stone meal and We also recommend application of bioferment in
sprayed with bioferment dissolved in a concentration all the processes where all kinds of organic materials
between 3% and 5%. Applications of stone meal intended to manufacture major volumes of fertiliser
based on phosphorous, potassium, basalt, serpentine, or compost are milled or shredded, as apart from
some volcanic ash, sedimentary clay, zeolite, and maximising and diversifying the biological inoculation
other silicate based materials in proportions of 1 to 2 of the materials, the bioferment accelerates their
kilos per square metre of floor, constitute an excellent decomposition and improves the final quality of the
complementary tool to include and enrich dung with a composting.
series of other elements of nutritional importance for Another ideal recommendation is application of
crops. On the other hand, bad smell from such facilities, bioferment, both in fresh pasture, as well as on dry
due to excess humidity and nitrogen evaporation in forage, at the moment of serving these to animals in
the form of ammonia, are buffered in a way providing feed-troughs. Finally, when the cattle is bred in the
a miraculous health benefit for the animals and open air by rotational grazing through corrals, it is
people who work on such premises. For the specific recommended to use dosages of bioferment between
case of laying and fattening poultries, application of 2% and 4%, applying these directly to the biomass or
stone meal when collecting the manure eliminates a pasture before the cattle is let in to graze, and after
fair part of illness and fatality among the fowl, as the they leave the cell, to allow it to recover, in order to
concentration of ambient ammonia in the breeding regenerate the nutraceutical quality of the forage for
facilities causes damage in the respiratory tract, loss of the animals.
weight and decreased egg production.
Lining the floors of the stable with sawdust and stone meal.

Activation of the native forest microorganisms enhanced with
minerals and anaerobic fermentation, Super Magro type biofertiliser
Ingredients Quantity
• Plastic drum of 200 litres capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
• Seed of Native Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 kilos
• Whey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 gallons
• Sugarcane molasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 gallons
• Activated native or territorial SNM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 gallons
• Zinc sulphate*. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 kilo
• Magnesium sulphate*. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 kilo
• Iron sulphate*. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 grams
• Potassium sulphate*. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 kilos
• Manganese oxide*. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 grams
• Borax* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 kilo
• Sodium molybdate**. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 grams
• Cobalt chloride**. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 grams
• Phosphoric rock or phosphites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 kilos
• Untreated water to fill the rest of the drum up to
175 litres of its total capacity.
Preparation
A cotton cloth bag or basket is used to deposit the 15 kilos of native microor-
ganisms that will be reactivated within the plastic drum or barrel with 200 litres
capacity, that are in liquid form with the rest of the ingredients of the mix. It is
necessary to close the drum very well, hermetically, with the lid and metal ring,
for the anaerobic fermentation process to take place successfully for a term of
30 days, forming Super Magro type biofertiliser.
* All the quantities of the ingredients based on sulphates, manganese oxide
and borax, may be added together at some moments to the fermentation of the
native forest microorganisms that are being activated in the liquid medium in
the plastic drum; taking care to do this on day 4 before the Super Magro type
anaerobic fermentation has begun. That is, once mixing all the basic ingredients
is performed on the first day, such as: the 15 kilos of native microorganisms, the
2 gallons of molasses, the 2 gallons of whey, the 2 gallons of native or territorial
EM and the water, these are left to ferment anaerobically for 4 days and then the
drum is opened to add the minerals to the whole, and before proceeding to cover
the drum up again it is recommended to apply molasses again in a proportion of
one gallon for the whole mix.

** On the other hand, some elements may be applied in activation of the native
forest microorganisms, for specific treatment of some crops, in which one wishes
to provide priority to one or some of these; for example, to grow alfalfa and other
legumes, beyond enhancing the biopreparations with the other sulphates, we may
also place emphasis on other elements such as phosphite, boron, molybdenum and
cobalt. In many cases, the best thing is to know the what need each crop has at
each moment of physiological development of the plant, or at least to know which
is the most appropriate moment in development of the plant to perform that appli-
cation or recommendation.
Finally, in order to be more practical with the work directly in the field, we re-
commend, to the extent of the economic possibilities of each producer, to enhance
the biopreparations with each element in separate recipients, and thus have them
available and immediately apply them according to the nearest moment to what
the crop needs. With this method, we would often avoid unnecessary applications
of some elements that the crop would not require during those stages of its deve-
lopment. The concentration of applications for this biopreparation are foliar and
may range between 3% and 10% for all crops; should it be necessary to apply that
biopreparation directly to the cultivated land, it must be rich in organic matter
and the concentrations may be a mix of 10% to 50% of the biopreparation, with
90% to 50% of water.
All the activation mixes and the anaerobic fermentations of the Seed of Nati-
ve Microorganisms may be made without adding sulphates. Both application of
phosphites, as well as that of stone meal and ash, or the proportional mix between
them, are sufficient to achieve satisfactory results within the organic agriculture
practiced by farmers. Finally, due to the availability of large volumes of whey in
some husbandry regions, in some cases we may substitute volumes of water by
volumes of whey in preparing activation of the SNM based bioferment.
Successful fermentations and formulations in Latin America

Having obtained successful results, the native forest microorganisms, enhanced with
farmers of Latin America have carried out stone meal and other affordable ingredients, in
diverse practical experiments for several de- order to overcome the different socio-economic
cades, preparing cow dung fermented biofer- crises that afflict and constantly drive them out
tilisers, that now exceed 400 formulations. of the countryside.
On the basis of Super Magro bioprepara- Among the most successful formulations
tion, that originated in Brazil, the creati- that farmers prepare based on anaerobic
ve spirit of the peasant farmers again gave fermentations by activating Seed of Native
rise to this opportunity, by reproducing Microorganisms, we emphasise the following:

Bio-rock
• Multimix of stone meal and phosphites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 kilos
• Whey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 litres
• Seed of Native Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 kilos
• Sugarcane molasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 gallons
• Native or territorial EM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 gallon
• Water to complete up to a volume of 180 litres
in a drum with 200 litres capacity.
Preparation
It is prepared in a plastic drum or barrel with 200 litres capacity, in which 50
litres of whey are mixed with 10 kilos of activated native microorganisms and 1
gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 50 litres of water. The mix is then covered
anaerobically, Super Magro type and left to rest for 4 days.
After the 4 days of fermentation, the drum is opened, adding 8 kilos of stone
meal multimix, the other gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 20 litres of water
and, finally, the gallon of native or territorial EM. The volume of water in the
drum is made up with water, taking care to leave a 15 centimetre space between
the liquid and lid. The drum is closed anaerobically with the Super Magro type
mix and left to rest definitively for 15 to 30 days, to later commence applica-
tions to the crops.
When is it applied?
Regularly, in the majority of the cases, applications are recommended that
may vary between 2% and 3%; that is, they are mixed with 100 litres of water,
from 2 to 3 litres of the biopreparation. This product is recommended for all
crops. In the case of growing potato, avocado, mango, legumes and vegetables
such as cauliflower and broccoli, greater doses may be experimented with.

Bio-fire (Phosphorus)
• Phosphoric rock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 kilos
• Whey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 litres
• Water until completing a volume of 180 litres
Preparation
It is prepared in a plastic drum or barrel with 200 litres capacity, that is used
to mix the 50 litres of whey with 10 kilos of activated native forest microorga-
nisms and 1 gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 50 litres of water. The mixture
is then sealed anaerobically, Super Magro type, and left to rest for 4 days.
After 4 days of fermentation, the drum is opened to add 12 kilos of phospho-
ric rock, the other gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 20 litres of water and
finally the gallon of native or territorial EM. Finally, the volume in the drum
is made up with water, taking care to leave a space of 15 centimetres between
the lid and the liquid. The drum is sealed anaerobically with the mixture, Super
Magro type, and to rest definitively for 15 to 30 days, to then begin application
to the crops.
When is it applied?
Applications are regularly recommended in most cases that may vary between
2% and 3%; that is, 100 litres of water are mixed with 2 to 3 litres of bioprepa-
ration. This product is recommended for all crops. In the case of crops that have
rich associations with microorganisms and abundant organic matter at ground
level, such as the case of many species of leguminous plants, applications of this
product aimed at the soil surface have excellent results, mainly when crop asso-
ciations or rotations apply.

Bio-filling (Potassium)
• Wood stove ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 kilos
• Whey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 litres
• Native or territorial EM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 galon
• Water to complete up to a volume of 180 litres
Preparation
It is prepared in a plastic drum or barrel with 200 litres capacity, in which 50
litres of whey are mixed with 10 kilos of activated native forest microorganisms
and 1 gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 50 litres of water. The mixture is then
sealed anaerobically, Super Magro type and left to rest for 4 days.
After 4 days of fermentation, the drum is opened to add 8 kilos of wood stove
ash, the other gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 20 litres of water and finally
the gallon of native or territorial EM. Finally, the volume in the drum is made
up with water, taking care to leave a space of 15 centimetres between the lid
and the liquid. The drum is sealed anaerobically with the mixture, Super Magro
type, and left to rest definitively for 15 to 30 days, to then begin application to
the crops.
When is it applied?
Applications are regularly recommended in most cases that may vary
between 2% and 3%; that is, 100 litres of water are mixed with 2 to 3 litres
of biopreparation. This product is recommended for all crops. When growing
potato, banana, plantain and some roots, larger doses may be experimented with
that may vary between 6% and 8%.

Bio-calcium (Calcium)
• Calcium carbonate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 kilos
• Whey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 litres
• Water to make up a volume of 180 litres
Preparation
It is prepared in a plastic drum or barrel with 200 litres capacity, in which
the 50 litres of whey are mixed with the 10 kilos of activated native forest mi-
croorganisms and 1 gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 50 litres of water. The
mixture is then sealed anaerobically, Super Magro type and left to rest for 4
days.
After 4 days of fermentation, the drum is opened to add 6 kilos of calcium
carbonate, the other gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 20 litres of water and
then the gallon of native or territorial EM. Finally, the volume in the drum is
made up with water, taking care to leave a space of 15 centimetres between the
lid and the liquid. The drum is sealed anaerobically with the mixture, Super Ma-
gro type and left to rest definitively for 15 to 30 days, to then begin application
to the crops.
When is it applied?
2% and 3%; that is, 100 litres of water are mixed with 2 to 3 litres of biopre-
paration. This product is recommended for all crops. When required to treat
and prevent the condition known as blossom-end rot, that mainly affects tomato
crops, top dressings are recommended, which may range from 4% to 6%. On
the other hand, the experiences carried out with calcium chloride to replace the
calcium carbonate in the original formulation have provided good results, mainly
when growing tomato, peppers and potato.

Bio-green (Magnesium)
Ingredientes Quantity
• Magnesium sulphate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 kilos
• Whey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 litres
Preparation
the 50 litres of whey are mixed with the 10 kilos of activated native microorga-
nisms and 1 gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 50 litres of water. The mixture
is then sealed anaerobically, Super Magro type, and left to rest for 4 days.
After 4 days of fermentation, the drum is opened to add 4 kilos of magnesium
sulphate, the other gallon of cane molasses is dissolved in 20 litres of water and
finally the gallon of native or territorial EM. Finally, the volume in the drum is
gro type, and left to rest definitively for 15 to 30 days, to then begin application
to the crops.
When is it applied?
2% and 3%; that is, 100 litres of water are mixed with 2 to 3 litres of biopre-
paration. This product is recommended for all crops. In very humid climates
with large amounts of rainfall, just as other elements are easily leached away,
magnesium does not escape that phenomenon; due to which it is very important
to pay attention to covering that need or deficiency in the crops with doses that
may vary between 4% and 6%.

Bio-scrap (Iron)
• Pieces of rusty iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 kilos
• Whey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 litres
• Cane molasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 gallons
• Native or territorial EM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 gallon
• Water to top up to a volume of 180 litres
in a receptacle with 200 litres capacity
Preparation
It is prepared in a plastic drum or receptacle with 200 litre capacity, in which
50 litres of whey are mixed with the 10 kilos of activated native microorganisms
and 1 gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 50 litres of water; the mix is then
covered anaerobically, Super Magro style, and then left to rest for 4 days.
After 4 days of fermentation, the receptacle is opened and 10 kilos of pieces
of rusty iron are added, the other gallon of can molasses dissolved in 20 litres
of water and, finally, the gallon of native or territorial EM. The volume of the
drum is then topped up with water, taking care to leave a space of 15 centime-
tres between the lid and the liquid. The receptacle is closed anaerobically, Super
Magro style, and left to rest definitively for 15 to 30 days, to then begin applying
it to the crops.
How much is applied?

Regularly, in the majority of cases, applications are recommended that may
vary between 2% and 3%; that is, 2 to 3litres of bioprepared product is mixed
into 100 litres of water . This product is recommended for all crops.
Recommendation:
This preparation is recommended for crops mainly established on land with
alkaline pH.

Bio-glass (Silicon))
• Volcanic ash or red tezontle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 kilos
• Whey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 litres
Preparation
It is prepared in a plastic drum or barrel with 200 litres capacity, where the
50 litres of whey are mixed with the 10 kilos of activated native forest microor-
ganisms and 1 gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 50 litres of water. It is cove-
red anaerobically, Super Magro type, and left to rest for 4 days.
After 4 days of fermentation, the drum is opened to add 12 kilos of volcanic
ash, the other gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 20 litres of water, finally, the
gallon of native or territorial EM is added. Finally, the volume in the drum is
gro type, and left to rest definitively for 15 to 30 days, to then begin application
to the crops.
When is it applied?
2 and 3%; that is, 100 litres of water are mixed with 2 to 3 litres of bioprepara-
tion. This product is recommended for all crops.
Recommendation:
This is to strengthen the plant immunological system, while making them
more resistant to drought, increasing photosynthesis efficiency by concentrating
the sun rays as a lens does.

Bio-fossil (Diatoms)
• Diatom dust. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 kilos
• Whey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 litres
Preparation
mixture is then sealed anaerobically, Super Magro type, and left to rest for 4
days.
After 4 days of fermentation, the drum is opened to add 10 kilos of diatom
dust, the other gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 20 litres of water and finally
type and left to rest definitively for 15 to 30 days, to then begin application to
the crops.
When is it applied?
ration. This product is recommended for all crops.

Bio-charcoal (Leonardite)
• Leonardite distillate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 litres
• Whey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 litres
Preparation
mixture is then sealed anaerobically, Super Magro type and left to rest for 4
days.
After 4 days of fermentation, the drum is opened to add 2 kilos of leonardite
dust, the other gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 20 litres of water and finally
type and left to rest definitively for 15 to 30 days, to then begin application to
the crops.
When is it applied?
ration with leonardite distillate. This product is recommended for all crops. It is
very appropriate to mature organic materials intended to feed earthworms and
enhance all those deposited on the ground for its recovery, especially materials
that are left after harvesting in the form of stubble, mulch or ground covering
type.

Geological formations of the volcanic ash deposits. Quito, Ecuador
In some preparations, we may make up a mix crops. On the other hand, when we are sure
of two or more elements in order to supplement which elements are indispensable for the crop,
some multiple needs or deficiencies in some we may then prepare them jointly.
Results of applying stone meal by the magnetic polarity inversion system. Fernando
Arango, Centro Pachita, Jamundí, Valle del Cauca, Colombia.

Bio-stove (Rock and potassium)
Ingredients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quantity
• Multi-mixes of stone meal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 kilos
• Wood stone ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 kilos
• Whey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 litros
Preparation
croorganisms y 1 gallon of cane molasses dissolved in 50 litres of water. The
mixture is then sealed anaerobically, Super Magro type, and left to rest for 4
days.
After 4 days of fermentation, the drum is opened to add 4 kilos of the stone
meal multiple mix, the 8 kilos of wood stove ash and the other gallon of cane mo-
lasses dissolved in 20 litres of water and finally the gallon of native or territorial
EM. Finally, the volume in the drum is made up with water, taking care to leave
a space of 15 centimetres between the lid and the liquid. The drum is sealed
anaerobically with the mixture, Super Magro type and left to rest definitively for
15 to 30 days, to then begin application to the crops.
When is it applied?
2% and 3% with emphasis on filling out coffee crop grains; that is, 100 litres of
water are mixed with 2 to 3 litres of biopreparation. This product is recommen-
ded for all crops. When growing potato, cassava, avocado, mango, legumes and
vegetables such as cauliflower and broccoli, larger doses may be experimented
with, mainly to fill out plantain and banana crops.

Preparation of multiple mixes based on activated minerals
with native forest microorganisms
Peasant farmers, with bio-power in their Recommendations
hands, have been massively spreading nutritional
Recommendations for application of Seed of Native
multiple mixtures for different crops according
Microorganisms, activated by the anaerobic fermenta-
to needs or deficiencies, among which there are
tion process, enhanced with minerals, in Super Magro
mainly vegetable crops. Those multiple mixes are
biofertiliser form:
made once the minerals have individually under-
All bioferment products activated in liquid form,
gone the process of 15 to 30 days of fermenta- originating from capture or reproduction of native
tion with the Seed of Native Microorganisms. forest microorganisms, and enhanced with minerals,
On one hand, it is very easy to understand are fit to be applied to any crop or agricultural
the different difficulties the majority of peasant space. In many cases, very high or low doses may be
farmers are suffering in Latin America, due to experimented with, which may range from 2 to 7 litres
the plunder of their economies and the scarce of the fermented substance, dissolved in each 100
or absolute lack of interest the State has in hel- litres of water. The preferential application is foliar.
ping them to remain on their land or within their In some cases, liquid biofermented products may be
territories without being slaves to a predatory applied directly to the soil cultivated, but it is best
industrial, dehumanised agriculture. In that si- for this to have some plant cover or to have a good
tuation we observe the defencelessness of many percentage or content of organic matter, in order to
rural communities, due to not being able to ob- make retention more efficient, to avoid leaching and
tain access to many of the inputs recommended obtain the best crop response to the product. At the
here, mainly some sulphates. However, constant moment of making the mixture of the chosen dose of
exercise of creativity by the most humble people product with 100 litres of water it is recommendable
in the countryside makes them more autonomous to add 2 litres of molasses in order to stimulate its
to make their own biopreparations using the nea- adherence and strengthen the energy response of
rest resources to their land and within their limi- the biopreparation in the plants. The most adequate
ted economy. To that end, increasingly more, they times to apply the product are early in the morning or
are most successfully using the ash from their in the late afternoon near to sunset.
wood stoves, mixing it with some stone dust or Farmers who are not able to obtain forest duff or
meal from crushing companies that are very near topsoil to prepare and multiply their own native
microorganism seed have the alternative of capturing
to their plots, to replace some sulphates that are
and reproducing the microorganisms from the
not available to them.
ground itself. That capture is performed by burying
on a healthy soil throw-away plastic bottles, which
are cut in half, or similar receptacles may be used,
with a height of approximately 15 centimetres. The
receptacles are partially filled (8 centimetres) with a
mixture of lightly pre-boiled rice covered with a thin
spray of cane molasses, then they are covered with a
piece of fine cloth or mosquito mesh and buried to

a depth that may range from 10 to 20 centimetres, keep your eyes on the crop. Do not let salesmen,
depending on the most active life in the soil. Do not agronomists and certifiers rob your pockets, as many
forget that each experience, on each plot of land is of them wish to discourage you in order to foist
different. It is necessary to identify or mark the place their services, inputs and poisons on you, that ruin
where you have buried the receptacles with stakes, economies and the life of the most humble country
these being recovered or unearthed in 10 or 15 days, people.
depending on temperature.. What you then have in
your hands is the biological identity of your earth.
A large quantity of colonies of microorganisms may
be seen developing in these receptacles and these Note
may be identified and reproduced, to include them Some simple biopreparation and multimix formulas
in preparation of your fertilisers or to decompose described above have been prepared directly by the
organic matter that may be available on your land. author of the book and based on the experience of
Finally, my friend, peasant farmer or producer, do peasant farmers in Latin America, according to the lo-
not trust in these recipes and numbers recommended cal resources available in each country and the nearest
here. Experiment with your own doses, adjust them to adjustment to the nutritional reality of each crop.
your circumstances and the needs of each crop; always
Scientific checks to ascertain the

effects of applying bioferment to the ground
by molecular biology laboratory analysis in Costa Rica
Approximately three years ago, we received auditorium located on the premises of Rita, in
the first preliminary results of the research Guápiles, Costa Rica.
performed in molecular biology in Costa Rica,
based on analysis of bioferment prepared for
organic plantain production in that country. The 5. Work Team: Agricultural Engineer, Olmán Quirós, who performed
task was carried out by a team of scientists who all the analyses at the Molecular Biology laboratory of CORBANA. He
does not use commercial kits in his laboratory methods, as these are
work for the laboratories of the National Banana
very expensive. Due to his understanding of the molecular methods,
Growing Corporation of Costa Rica, CORBANA. he has developed methodologies that are extremely cheap and highly
Subsequently, at a meeting held at the end contamination free.
Agricultural Engineer Juan Samuels, Soil Section at CORBANA,
of March 2011, on one of the properties owned whose interest led him to perform the soil sampling on the different
by the present Chairman of the institution, Mr properties. He identifies with organic agriculture.
Romano Orlich, the Molecular Biology Scientist Agricultural Engineer Romano Orlich, owner of the Pénjamo and
Rebusca banana growing estates, who has been striving for about 4
Eduardo Salas received authorisation to present years to return what the earth has give him, by more environmentally
and publicly disclose the decisive results of the friendly agricultural practices. He has been using his own bioferment
products, mineral mixes and laying down organic matter since 2007.
most recent research carried out by the working
He is the Chairman of CORBANA.
party5 of that organisation. The presentation was Mr Freddy Masis is Romano Orlich’s Estate Manager. Following a
given on 1st April 2011, at 4.30 p.m., in the course he was taught by Juan José Paniagua, he immediately proposed

Research Title
Effect on the biomass and microorganism diversity of applying bioferment to
banana growing soil
Methodology
• Sampling estate soil over 1.5 to 4 years of applying bioferment, and neighbou-
ring properties without application.
• Extraction and quantification of the DNA of the soil microorganisms by PCR6
in real time.
Objective
To evaluate the effect of constant bioferment application on the biomass and
microorganism diversity on banana growing soil.
This Manual provides the transcription of some graphs, with the interpretation and
impact of the results the scientist provided us during the conference presentation.
Fungi The grey bar is for the estates (Pénjamo, Rebusca and
90 San Pablo A) that use bioferment and the white bar is
80 29%
for the estates (San Pablo B, Zurqui and Oropel) that
70
60 never used bioferment. The Zurqui estate adjoins the
Pg DNA/g soil
50
Rebusca estate, the Oropel adjoins the Pénjamo estate,
40
30 the San Pablo estate has an A with biols and another
20
10
part B that does not use biols.
0 On obtaining the average for the properties with biols,
With biols Without biols
a 29% increase in fungi was noted compared with the
average of the 3 properties without biols.
that Mr Orlich implement what he had learned on his properties. with using a Petri dish count is that in the latter case, one may only
Agricultural Engineer Walter Herrera, an independent consultant, detect 1% of what is really in the soil, while with PCR all the microor-
has implemented the concepts of biofertilisers and mineral mixes on a ganism metagenomics are detected. This work did not detect specific
section of the CORBANA estate (San Pablo) at the request of Romano microorganisms, but rather major groups such as fungi, bacteria and
Orlich. The project has been in operation for 1.5 years. actinomycetes. Moreover, groups with specific functions were detec-
Mr Gerardo Mora is the Manager of the San Pablo estate. ted, such as bacteria that oxidise ammonia (AOB) (ammonia-oxidising
Agricultural Engineer Eduardo Salas defined the sampling, summari- bacteria) and those that are autotrophic aerobic that oxidise ammonia
sed and interpreted the data. to nitrite (NH3 to NO2). A conversion factor was used for that group
to convert the pg DNA to cells per gram of soil.
6. PCR in real time is a method that allows DNA to be identified and
quantified. Thus, we quantify the biomass of the microorganisms by
specific markers in units of picograms (Pg). The advantage compared

The grey bar is for the estates (Pénjamo, Rebusca
Bacteria
and San Pablo A) that use bioferment, and the
80
70 71%
white bar is for the estates (San Pablo B, Zurqui
60 and Oropel) that never used bioferment.
Pg DNA/g soil
50
40 Obtaining the average of the properties with
30 biols provides an increase of 71% in bacteria
20
10 biomass, compared with the average of the 3
0
With biols Without biols estates without biols.
The grey bar is for the properties (Pénjamo,

Actinobacteria
35
Rebusca and San Pablo A) that use bioferment
30 108% and the white bar is for the estates (San Pablo B,
Pg DNA/g soil
25
20
Zurqui and Oropel) that never used bioferment.
15 Obtaining the average of the properties with biols
10
5
provides an increase of 108% in actinobacteria
Pg DNA/g soil Without biols
estates without biols.

&-Proteobacteria
30
Pg DNA/g soil
20 Zurqui and Oropel) that never used bioferment.

15
10 Obtaining the average of the properties
5
with biols provides an increase of 87% in
0
Pg DNA/g soil Without biols alphaproteobacteria biomass, compared with
the average of the 3 estates without biols.

ß-Proteobacteria
25
and the white bar is for the estates (San Pablo B,
Pg ADN/g suelo
20 110%
10
0
With bioles Without bioles biols provides an increase of 110% in beta
proteobacteria biomass, compared with the
average of the 3 estates without biols.

Firmicutes
7
Pg DNA/g soil
4
2 biols provides an increase of 21% in firmicute
1

Bacteroides
12
Pg DNA/g soil

4
2
biols provides an increase of 11% in bacteroide

Acidobacteria
80
Pg DNA/g soil
60
40 Obtaining the average of the properties with biols
30
20 provides an increase of 16% in Acidobacteria
10
Bacteria that oxidise ammonia (AOB) (acronym

AOB NH3 NO2 for ammonia-oxidizing bacteria). These are au-
700000
600000 totrophic aerobic bacteria that oxidise ammonia
500000 to nitrite (NH3 to NO2).
Cells /g soil
400000
300000 It is evident that the estates with bioferment
200000
100000 have a larger amount of those bacteria.
0
Pénjamo Rebusca San Pablo San Pablo Zurqui Oropel
(Biol)
AOB NH4 NO3 The importance of these bacteria is that they

make nitrogen available to the organic matter
600000
500000 in forms that may be assimilated by the plants;
Cells /g soil
400000 69% Kg N available to the plant after conversion to nitrite, another group of
300000
200000 bacteria intervene to convert the substances to
100000
0 nitrate.

Soil Pg DNA/g
90 29%
80 With biols Without biols
71%
70 16%
60
50
40
108%
30 87%
110%
20
10 21%
11% Summary of
0 the previous
Fungi Bacteria Actinobacteria &- ß- Fermicutes Bacteroides Acidobacteria
Proteobacteria Proteobacteria graphs.
Fungi ß-Proteobacteria Cells of AOB / g of soil

14 400000
70
12 350000
60
10 141% 300000
50 66%
8 250000
40 200000 200%
6
30 150000
4 100000
20
2 50000
10
0 0
0
30 Bacteria 5.4 Fermicutes Bacteroides

5.2 12
25
5 10 25%
20 29% 115%
4.8 8
15 6
4.6
10 4.4 4
5 4.2 2
0 4 0
Actinobacterias &- Proteobacteria Acidobacterias

30 35 70
25 30 60 27%
20 133% 25 121% 50
20 40
15
15 30
10 10 20
5 5 10
0 0 0
San Pablo (Biol) San Pablo San Pablo (Biol) San Pablo San Pablo (Biol) San Pablo
(without Biol) (without Biol) (without Biol)

Genetic diversity
0,41
Jaccard p-value = 0,0041
(-)
0,38 N=10
Genetic diversity 0,35

0,31
0,28 0,29
0,26
0,24
0,22
0,20
0,15
Rebusca Pénjamo Oropel Zurqui With Biol Without Biol
(+)
Estates
This graph shows the genetic diversity of the native microorganisms in different soil samples
from the estates. The lower the value, the greater the diversity. One observes that the San Pablo
with biol provides a lower figure (0.20), followed by Rebusca and Pénjamo, that are estates
that use biols; the least diversity was on the Oropel estate (0.38) which is operated by a multi-
national corporation, as well as the Zurqui that has conventional management. The San Pablo
estate without biol has a lower diversity than the same estate with biol.
Genetic diversity
0,33
(-)
Genetic diversity
0,29 0,29
0,24
0,20 0,20
0,16
With Biol Without Biol
(+)
Groups
Similar to the previous graph, but in this case it shows the average of the three estates with
biols vs. the average of the three estates without biols. The lower the figure, the greater the
microbiological diversity in the soil.

The scientist Eduardo Zamora receives authorisation from Mr Romano Orlich
(Chairman of Corbana, Costa Rica) to publish the data from the molecular biology
studies of application of biofertilisers carried out on his banana plantations.
Samples were taken of the bioferment produced on the San Pablo estate and these were taken to a laboratory
where analysis was carried out to detect faecal coliforms. The result was that faecal coliforms were not found. Note
that the report only indicates 3 types of microorganisms. The cost of the analysis is much higher than the cost of the
molecular analysis carried out by Olmán Quirós in the Molecular Biology analysis of CORBANA. Also note that the
report for E. coli indicates less than 1 UFC per ml, while the molecular biology analysis may categorically indicate
whether or not these exist.

Molecular pathogen detection, Corbana S.A.
(-) Bacteroides
(-) Bifidobacterium
(-) Lactobacillus
(-) Ruminococcus
(-) Peptostreptococcus
(-) Peptococcus
(-) Clostridium
(-) Campylobacter
(-) E. coli
(-) Staphylococcus aureus
(-) Salmonella sp
(-) Helicobacter pylori
(-) Listeria monocytogenes
(-) Cryptosporidium parvum
For this analysis, the First Specific method was used, which shows us whether there is the pre-
sence or absence of specific DNA of the microorganism concerned. The list is greater than that
of the previous analysis and indicates with great certainty whether the microorganism is present
or absent. The cost of analysis is lower and it provides more information. In both analyses, it
is clear that there is no presence of microorganisms considered damaging to human health.
Likewise, from this analysis, one may determine specific microorganisms considered beneficial,
for example, lacto-bacillus, phototrophic bacteria, nitrogen fixers, etc.

Ward
Distance: Jaccard (Identity)
Without Biol San Pablo
With Biol San Pablo
Oropel
Zurqui
Pénjamo
Rebusca
0,00 0,14 0,29 0,43 0,57
This graph is a dendrogram that represents the genetic distances of the microorganisms
found, the groups represent lower genetic distances and thus means that they are genetically
linked or related. For example, the San Pablo estate without biol and San Pablo with biol
have very similar genetic distances, that is, the microorganisms are very closely related and
very distant from those found on the Rebusca estate. That suggests that the inclusion of biols
at San Pablo does not bring outside microorganisms to the soil, so the greater biomass and
diversity determined in the San Pablo area with biols is due to stimulus by autochthonous
microorganisms from the soil of San Pablo. This also suggests that the bioferment, more than
transporting microorganisms, is a carrier of a mixture enriched with cofactors, minerals and
other substances that the microorganisms require for their development and reproduction. It
also suggests that the soil of San Pablo is very poor in such substances and that, as the years
elapsed, a microbiological erosion took place, for which activation is necessary in order to
increase productivity in the system.
Conclusions forest microorganisms, Super Magro and

Constant application of bioferment: fermented organic fertilisers, among other
• Increased the microbial biomass and that of substances prepared.
specific functional groups that are highly “Wisdom, common sense and practical
important for soil health. implementation by peasant farmers, both men
• It increased microbial diversity. and women, are very far from our academic
• The bioferment analysed did not contain faecal understanding and exceed that of any laboratory,
coliforms. however complex it may be; however many titles
We may say it is more than ironic that the we may hold for our research, we will barely be
corporate laboratory fully confirms how wise able to understand the sigh of a microorganism”.
application of peasant knowledge figured out, Wisdom provides a lesson to the academic
dozens of years ago, that the key lies in use of world that wishes to justify so much and also to
bioferment, cow dung, reproduction of native deny so much else.

Addenda
Addenda 1
Reasons why a high row is less
efficient than an adequately sized row
when preparing fertiliser or compost
heaps
Very high row Adequate size row

(above 2.5 m wide x 1.2 m / high) (maximum 2.5 wide x 1.2 m / wide)
Too much pressure on the materials, from the Acceptable pressure on the materials from the
biological, chemical and physical point of view. biological, chemical and physical point of view.
An internal structure for oxygen flow or proper The pressure of the materials still tolerates an
aeration is not possible, which leads to internal structure, which allows:
Scarce or no oxygen flow, a few minutes Possibility of oxygen flow for various hours after
after turning. turning.
The pressure on the material increases the The pressure on the material is still within the
temperature, which, within a short time after range where the temperature may be kept under
turning, exceeds 65ºC in the centre of the row. 65ºC between turnings.
The high temperatures lead to: While the temperatures are maintained under
65ºC:
Commencing a carbonisation process and The material, undergoes a composting process, is
bad smells. not burned and does not overheat.
Lack of biological stability. Stable, gradual biological process.
Excessive loss of humidity until reaching the The loss of humidity remains within an accepta-
point where the process is no longer feasible. ble range that may be restored in some cases.
Excessive loss of nutrients. The process tends to be conserved in all senses:
that is, loss of nutrients is minimised.
Source: Memorandum, Humus-Management Seminar and composting for agriculture and communes, Valle de Bravo, Mexico. February 2012. Adaptation: Jairo
Restrepo.
Fermented organic fertilisers - Addenda 105

You may suppose that, in the case of a very high, row,
it must be possible to maintain the temperature within the One may say that...
range required by turning more frequently. That is true up to a A soil is not fertile due to
certain point. Due to a greater quantity of material affecting a it containing large amounts
greater number of factors and inhibiting the process in many of humus (humus theory), or
ways, you will find it is difficult to maintain the temperature minerals (mineral theory), or
under 65ºC, even with more frequent turning. nitrogen (nitrogen theory),
but rather due to continuous
growth of numerous, varying
Very high row Adequate size row microorganisms, mainly
(any size over 2.5 m x 1.2 m) (maximum 2.5 m wide and x 1.2
m high) bacteria and fungi, which break
down nutrition based on organic
More frequent turning The need for turning decrea- matter supplied by plants and
throughout the process leads ses during the forming stage, animals, rebuilding them in
to destruction of the recently for which it is necessary to forms that are available to the
formed humus and fully inhi- guarantee humus forms in plant.
bits it being formed. the compost. This special skill of “life in
the soil” consists of making
materials available to plants,
in forming humus and other
Well decomposed compost different substances, mucus and
Microbiological conversion the lumpy structure of the soil.
A soil with the qualities
Toxic range Optimum range mentioned above establishes
(reduced phase) (oxidation phase) an excellent environment for
healthy, vital growth for plant
CH4 Methane CO2 Carbon dioxide
roots.
NH3 Ammonia NO3 – Nitrate Our “life in the soil” takes
PH3 Phosphine charge of proper supply of
Phosphorus trihydride PO4 3 – Phosphate water, nutrients, active agents
Phosphorus hydride (phytohormones, antibiotics,
enzymes and coenzymes, etc.)
SH2 Hydrogen sulphide
SO42 – Sulphate for plants and protects them
Hydrosulphuric acid
from pathogens and insects,
BH3 Borano guaranteeing the best possible
Trihydroboron BO33 – Borate growth in different climates.
Boron hydride
According to the Vitality Theory, soil fertility

increases when the weight and variety of life
that grows and feeds on and inside it, is greater.

Addendum 2
The metamorphosis of
cow dung toward decomposition
1. Once cow dung is excreted by the animals, it Once the decomposed substances seep down
immediately undergoes a process of oxidation, inside the earth, the soil micro-flora begins to
gradually changing its colouring and drying, act.
allowing better circulation of oxygen through There are two main groups of microorganisms
the different particles of organic mineral that in the soil: decomposers, and humifiers or
comprise it. rebuilders of the permanent basis that give rise
2. Cow dung receives sun rays and, through to the miracle of life.
that phenomenon, undergoes a natural In this case, the decomposition has already
microbiological selection process. This is due taken place above ground and the humifiers
to the fact that many types of dung containing are performing their task. The decomposer
microorganisms that have no apparent microorganisms are “resting”. If any piece of root
function in forming a healthy humus, or or crop stubble were to be found, the decomposer
functions that are not yet very well known. microorganisms would begin their task again.
3. Some kinds of insects, both diurnal and In a soil with an adequate population of
nocturnal, visit cow dung, inoculating it with decomposer and humifier microorganisms,
other external microorganisms that help and millions of those microorganisms will work in
complement the whole process of its final shifts to infinitely break down the organic matter.
decomposition Of course, in the absence of the humifiers, the
4. Some birds break or gradually perforate the decomposers will always perform their task, but
dry cow pats, exposing increasingly more of there will be nobody to take charge of putting
that material to the action of sun rays and together the nutrients. This may lead to situations
oxidation. of loss, nutrient leaching and imbalance.
5. Dung beetles visit the cow pat. (They insert Two main types of damage arise from lack
or inoculate the mature with microorganisms of humifier microorganisms (lack of nutrient
that are of great value for the decomposition bonding):
process and for the humus to finally form). • The plants absorb two much highly soluble
6. The rain drags the first decomposed, highly nutrient, which becomes damaging to the
water soluble substances toward the first health of the animals that feed on the pasture,
layers of the soil. or to human who eat the vegetables produced
7. From there on, the microorganisms in the soil in such soil.
continue the process of forming the humus, • The nutrients are leached into the water table,
fully integrating it in the nutritional solution contaminating the water and environment
in the soil. with high concentrations of nitrates.
8. A soil must constantly have humifying
microorganisms to be able to fix the soluble
substances in water and conserve them.
A very important observation, that anybody may

make, is that animals generally do not like to
eat again on the pasture where they have eaten
shortly before. Sometimes, the animals are
forced to do so due to the way they are managed,
but they leave patches in the places where their
cow pats have fallen.
There is a very important reason for this
behaviour arising, mainly among bovine cattle,
which is that where the soil has a poor or no
humifying micro-flora, the pasture will absorb
much more highly soluble nutrients, which are
not healthy for the animals. Instinct protects the
animals from eating forage with high nutrient
content (especially nitrogen in nitrate form).
A experiment any person may perform is to
apply excellent quality compost to a meadow;
you will observe that the next time the animals
Alejandro Chávez, Avocado Producer, gathering
visit the pasture, they will devour it as if they had microorganisms. Uruapan, Michoacán, Mexico.
not been there in a long time.
The explanation for this fact is that the
It is
excellent quality compost applied contains
humifying microorganisms that help to bond
microorganisms that
together the nutrients in the cow dung that
mobilise nutrients for plants.
has been left on the meadow. The pasture that
then shoots up and grows back will be free of
unhealthy elements and the animals will like to Humifier microorganisms are the first to die. If
graze in those places. a soil remains unnourished for a long time, then
It is very important to understand that it loses its humifying capacity forever, as dead
microorganisms will perform their task well and humifier microorganisms simply do not come to
populate a site to the extent that they are kept life again when food or organic material becomes
occupied. When they are not supplied food or available again at that place.
organic matter in the soil, the microorganisms When a soil has remained undernourished
will cease working and begin to die. for a long time, the amount of decomposition
microorganisms decreases, but the humifier
microorganisms decrease even more.
Organic matter decomposition will generally
be taking place even when the number of
decomposer microorganisms is reduced. Once the
nutrients are made water soluble, only a part of
Cattle eat first what they
these is fixed and used; the rest is lost.
like most and not what
The best indicator of this problem are nitrates
we want them to eat most.
in the water table, or in rivers and lakes.

There are basically
three steps that convert
organic matter to humus Our word “human” comes
1. Decomposition of raw organic matter to highly from the proto-Indio-European
water soluble nutrients. root dhghem, meaning
2. A first fixing of soluble nutrients in water, in simply “soil”. The most
“short chain compounds”, called nutrient hu- telling cognate word is
mus. “humus”, the primary
3. Bonding and subsequent fixing of the nutrient product of microbial
humus in longer chain compounds, called per- industry. Also, for what
manent humus. it is worth, from the
same root come “humble”
The better the macro and microbiological and “Humane”.
ecosystem works, the faster it traps the nutrients,
Lewis Thomas (1913-1993)
without any loss.
Usage of humus In composting, our interest is in reaching

This is the process by which the plant sends the state of nutrient humus. Our objective is not
signals to the microorganisms regarding the to produce the permanent humus through the
nutrients it needs; the microorganisms take composting process. All we need to achieve by
those nutrients out of the humus to make them composting is digest and protect the nutrient so
available to the plant. they are not water soluble.
This always happens based on the state of Forming permanent humus may take place in
the nutrient humus, which is reduced to water the soil, as the hazard of loss has been overcome
soluble substances. by forming nutrient humus.
The permanent (long chain) humus is first It is important to bear in mind that compost
reduced to nutrient humus (short chain) and then must be “dug in” only to the “arable layer” of the
to water soluble plant nutrients. soil, where the oxygen flow is guaranteed.

Addendum 3
Analysis of different types of manure

Average richness in N, P2O5 and K2O of different types of manure
N P2O5 K2O
Dung
Kilograms per 1,000 kg of manure
Horse 6.7 2.3 7.2
Cow 3.4 1.3 3.5
Pig 4.5 2.0 6.0
Sheep 8.2 2.1 8.4
Hen 15.0 10.0 4.0
Average content of some nutritional

elements in cow, horse, pig and fowl
dung, in average amounts per tonne
1 Sulphur 0.5 kilograms
2 Magnesium 2.0 kilograms
3 Calcium 5.0 kilograms
4 Manganese 30-50 grams
5 Boron 4 grams
6 Copper 2 grams
Source: Colombian Agricultural and Husbandry Institute. ICA. Fertilisa-
tion of diverse crops. Technical assistance manual # 25.
Research Centre, Tibaitatá. Colombia. Page 12.
Annual amount of manure produced per

annum by various animal species
Annual weight of mature in
Animal
metric tonnes
Horse 10.0
Fattened cows 16.0
Dairy cow in stable 12.0
Dairy cow semi-stabled 6.0
Sheep 0.6
Pig 1.5
Laying hen 0.07
Source: Colombian Agricultural and Husbandry Institute. ICA. Fertilisation of diverse crops. Technical
assistance manual # 25. Research Centre, Tibaitatá. Colombia. Page 12.

A healthy soil is the natural environment
Addendum 4
for antibiotic producing microorganisms

Self-disinfection of a fertiliser is achieved by means of decomposition that
actinomycete bacteria and fungi perform on the organic remains present in the soil. The
products resulting from microbiological activity have an antagonistic effect on diseases
in the human being and animals.
Species and active agent Antagonistic activity

Trichoderma (Mould) Attacks pathogens that cause root diseases.
Trichoderma lignorum Attacks root rot of citric trees or Phytothora root rot.
Attacks the fungus Rhizoctonia solani that causes young
Trichoderma viridis
cabbage to rot.
Attacks the fungus Phymatotrichum omnivorum in water me-
Trichoderma lignorum lon, capturing and killing the hyphae of this filamentous
fungus.
Attack the fungus Fusarium lini that causes the flax plant
Sundry fungi
to wilt.
Attacks Pythium or Baryanum fungi that cause gramineae to
Penicillium expansum
rot.
Antimicin (actinomyces) PCauses more or less strong inhibition of 33 fungi subject
(Streptomyces griseoviridis) to researched due to causing diseases.
Attacks the pathogens responsible for stalk rot in seedling

carrots, coffee and apple black-rot, botrytis, and moni-
Actinomyces 105
linia, fire blight, chestnut blight, Dutch elm disease, late
blight and other diseases.
Produces a high temperature resistant

Short rod Bacilli Antibiotic that inhibits the growth of 40 known species of
fungi and yeasts at a dilution of 1 : 1,000,000
Attacks common scab of the potato and corn smut (Usti‑
Numerous bacteria
lago maydis).
Has an anagonistic effect on Rhizoctonia solani (root-rot).
Simple bacilli Produces an antibiotic that attacks diseases of peas and
cucumbers.
Eliminates the fungi Fusarium and Helminthosporium that
Various bacteria
destroy grain and flax.

Relative number of antibiotics produced
Addendum 5
by different microbial groups
Microbial group Number of antibiotics

FUNGI
Ficomycetes 14
Ascomycetes 299
Penicillium 123
Aspergillus 115
Basidiomycetes 140
Imperfect fungi 315
BACTERIA
Species of Pseudomonas 171
Enterobacteria 36
Micrococci 16
Lactobacilli 28
Bacilli 338
Diverse bacteria 274
ACTINOMYCETES
Species of Mycobacterium 4
Species of Actinoplanes 18
Species of Streptomyces 3,872
Species of Micromonospora 41
Species of Thermoactinomyces 17
Species of Nocardia 48
Other species of Actinomyces 2,078
(Crueger & Crueger, 1982)

Source: Coyne Mark. Soil Microbiology: An Exploratory Approach. Delmar Cengage Learning. 1999

Some physical, chemical and biological inputs
Addendum 6
obtained from organic matter and green manures
Organic matter and green manure are

important for the geological and biological Organic agriculture is not
evolution of the soils cultivated that way, as a synonym of organic matter.
they make the insoluble soluble and facilitate
mastering both their depth (the profile) increasing
On the other hand, what the earth needs is not
the thickness of the growing flesh or layer (the
the fully composted organic matter. When we
horizon), at the same time as they recover and
totally process the organic matter to take it to
protect them against the impact caused by their
the crop where we are going to need it, we are
erosion.
preventing a series of physical and biochemical
Organic matter and cover crops minimises and
processes that must take place at the cultivation
buffers major impact suffered by earth due to the
site, that are highly useful for its health; among
present irrational operation of agricultural and
those processes, we may mainly quote formation
husbandry systems, based on the socioeconomic
of phytamins, vitamins, hormones and the
and environmental pressures imposed by a market
necessary biological successions for permanent
driven agrarian society, that constantly plunders
reconstruction of life on earth.
and degrades it to satisfy imposed, short-term
Finally, in that sense, we now describe
“needs” that get increasingly greater, without
some inputs that are obtained by working with
considering the importance of conservation and
organic matter and green manures on land under
mineral regeneration of the earth, as a social
cultivation in Latin America.
contribution to build fairer and more humane
permanent agrarian populations. On the other
hand, the natural systems differ from productive Some physical contributions
agricultural systems due to their great systemic by organic matter
stability, dynamism and functionality, while • Conserves humidity.
agricultural systems lose these characteristics due • Increases changes in temperature.
to anthropogenic intervention, leading in extreme • Buffers heat capacity.
cases to a situation of pollution, degradation and • Protects from sun and wind, preventing the
irreversible geochemical alteration. soil from drying out.
The first exercise to regenerate a destroyed • Allows elementary particle aggregation.
soil is to recover its digestive system by • Avoids direct impact of drops of water.
temporary input of organic matter. However, • Reduces evaporation.
great care must be taken over the management • Improves the water balance.
and dependence such an input may cause. A • Reduces erosion.
lot of present day “organic agriculture” is not • Reduces surface water run-off.
sustainable due to the total dependence on high • Facilitates drainage when working the soil.
volume organic matter input to the production • Increases structural permeability.
system. The ideal appropriate is to understand • Lightens clayey soils.
that all ecosystems depend on life. • Physically halts development of other plants.
• Maintains a more stable thermal regime.

• Reduces soil particle break-up and surface Some biological inputs
crust formation. of organic matter
• Increases formation of hydro-resistant aggre-
• Favours root respiration.
gates.
• Favours seed germination.
• Favours root health.
Finally, soils are compacted or are less dense
• Regulates soil micro and macrobiological ac-
due to the constant total or gradual loss of orga-
tivity.
nic matter. It is what provides the soil the buffer
• Is transformed into one of the main energy
mechanisms, forming aggradation and structure.
sources for heterotrophic microorganisms.
• The gaseous exchange released by the cons-
tant microbiological activity favours mineral
Some chemical inputs
solubility.
by organic matter • Modifies and increases enzyme activity.
Regulates the pH. • Increases activity in the rhizosphere.
• Increases buffering power. • Improves nutrition and availability of mine-
• Increases cationic exchange capacity. rals for crops.
• Maintains the cations in exchangeable for- • Favours biodegradation of many toxic subs-
mat. tances present in the soil.
• Favours the phosphate fertility of the soil. • Increases biological digestion of the soil.
• Favours formation of biophosphates or phos- • Favours production of phytostimulating
phoric humates (humic acid + phosphate substances such as acetic indole acid (AIA),
anions). tryptophan and diverse organic acids.
• Forms chelates. • Favours an increase in the aerobic microbial
• Maintains the reserves and stable balance of population responsible, among other actions,
the nitrogen in the soil. due to humidification of organic matter, ni-
• Increases the power to retain macro-nutrients trification, atmospheric nitrogen fixing, as
such as: Calcium, magnesium, potassium and well as biological evolution of sulphur and
nitrogen. phosphorus.
• Facilitates compound formation, with a ma- • Favours, among other substances, increase in
jor freedom of movements in the soil. vitamins (B6, B12, pantothenic acid, ribofla-
• In the case of iron, the organic matter acts by vin, biotin, among others) and even many an-
forming complexes with the iron and alumi- tibiotics such as streptomycin, penicillin and
nium ions that exist in acid soils. terramycin.
• Boosts the effects of mineral fertilisation.
• Favours and acts directly on the physiological
and biochemical processes of plants, increa-
Chemical fertiliser sing permeability of cell membranes, raising
is not organic matter activity by synthesising phenomena, as well
and dead soils don’t produce as the chlorophyll content and respiration
without chemical fertilisers. intensity, and in general providing balanced
activation of the plant metabolism and, in pa-
rallel, that of the microorganisms.

Mexican farmer studying organic agriculture Pacho Gangotena, organic agriculture
experiences in Costa Rica. leader in Ecuador.
Understanding the diversity of all the metabo- harmony of nutrition between the roots and the
lic exchange processes that take place between microbiology of the soil. for example, a microor-
the life in the soil and the plant roots is very im- ganism such as Trichoderma easily and most pea-
portant to comprehend the importance of having ceably inhabits plant conductor vessels, increa-
a rich and diverse organic matter permanently sing their resistance to drought, but in nutritio-
managed in covering the soil. nally deficient plants, that same microorganism
Finally, when there is a different input of or- attacks their roots, leading to their death. On the
ganic matter to the soil, we may be sure we are other hand, the fungus Aspergillus niger helps seeds
working to enhance the different biochemical to be formed or to germinate quicker in the earth,
processes for a good healthy state of the crops, as but when the seed is not healthy, then it helps it
the microorganisms in the earth change swiftly to die. Rizotocnia is a fungus that increases plant
and become pathogens when they suffer a nutri- resistance to water deficiency by large amounts,
tional imbalance. but when the plant is weak, then it seizes it as its
prey. The Pseudomonas bacteria fix nitrogen very
Nature says: “Everything ill must disappear. Then close to the roots in tobacco crops, but when there
it reprocesses it to put it back into circulation”. is a potassium deficiency, they attack the plants.
Understanding this principle is basic to un- (Personal discussion with Dr. Ana Primavesi,
derstand the diseases crops suffer. Pathogens ari- Ecuador, September, 2010).
se to the extent that there is an imbalance in the

Addendum 7
Main advantages of green manure and cover crops

• Conserve soil humidity and reduce evapora- • Control plant population development due to
tion. their suppression and/or allelopathic effect.
• Buffer temperature changes. • Improve soil capillarity.
• Avoid direct important of water on the ground. • Act to perforate compacted layers and behave
• Prevent the soil breaking up and avoid imper- like a biological plough, both in the horizontal
meable surface crusts forming. as well as vertical direction.
• Protect the soil from the sun and wind. • Act to extract water and minerals from the
• Are a constant source of organic matter. subsoil, increasing their availability and mine-
• Reduce surface water run-off. ral evolution.
• Contribute to improve the infiltration rate and • Produce phyto-organic growth, allelopathic
soil drainage. and phytoprotective substances.
• Favour the biostruture and stability of the • Aid formation of fundamental organic acids in
ground. the process of mineral solubilisation.
• Increase the effective capacity of the soil ca- • May be used as animal as well as human food.
tionic exchange. • Are a source of alternative energy (firewood,
• Improve soil permeability, its aeration and po- charcoal, forage, others).
rosity. • Favour colonisation of the soil by macro and
• Fix atmospheric nitrogen and promote contri- microlife in the deepest levels.
bution to the soil. • Act as a constant source of biomass and seed
production (perennial and annual).
Mario Pérez, organic coffee producer. Marcala, Honduras.

Mario Pérez, organic coffee producer. Marcala, Honduras.
• Favour biodiversity of the fauna and flora, con-

tributing to environmental stability.
• Are a source of nutritional enrichment of the
Green manure crops
soil and of recycling. are a system that is
• Are used to make nutrients that are not availa- safe, as well as cheap,
ble to crops soluble. effective and simple to
• Their plant synthesis maintains constant activity convert from conventio-
of the nutritional cycles in the relationship bet- nal to organic agriculture.
ween soil/microlife/plant.
• Decrease nutrient leaching toward the deepest
layers of the soil. • Combat desertification when they control all
• Gradually favour the thickness of the useful soil, the factors that cause soil erosion.
due to constant weathering of the bedrock. • Contribute to obtaining more reliable, efficient
• Provide the soil with a high amount of microbio- crops.
logical humus. • Useful to control many species of insects due
• Allows farmers to have greater financial op- to the “trap or cover forming effect”, while at-
tions. tracting other beneficial species.
• Their rotation and associated practice favours
control of insects, nematodes and microorga-
nisms, particularly those that attack roots.

Addendum 8
Mathematical calculation to prepare organic fertilisers

Organic fertiliser preparation requires nitro- Questions
gen rich materials to be mixed with carbon rich How many parts weight must be mixed of each
materials. There is a mathematical formula that carbon rich material to one part weight of nitro-
allows one to calculate how many parts of carbon gen rich poultry manure?
rich mineral (C/N > 30) must be included for
each part of nitrogen rich material (C/N < 30), Reply
for the balanced composition of a good organic We obtain the following information from the
fertilizer. composition table of the different materials:
Considering that the ideal ratio to prepare a Poultry manure: N = 2,76%

good fertiliser is C/N = 30/1, then the formula C = 29,01% C/N = 11/1
would be as follows:
Sugarcane bagasse: N = 1,07% C = 39,59%
C/N = 37/1
(30 times Nn) minus Cn
X=
Cc minus (30 times Nc) Coffee husks: N = 0,62% C = 51,73%
C/N = 83/1
X= Amount of weight in carbon rich material,
for each part of nitrogen. Quantity of sugarcane bagasse
Nn = % of nitrogen, in N rich material. (See
Table). (30 x 2,76) – 29,01
Cn = % of carbon, in N rich material. (See 39,59 - (30 x 1,07)
Table).
53,79 equal to 7.18
Nc = % of nitrogen, in C rich material. (See equal to parts of bagasse
7, 49
Table).
Cc = % of carbon, in C rich material. (See
Table). Quantity of coffee husk
(30 X 2,76) – 29,01

Example of how a fertiliser is calculated 51,73 – (30 x 0,62)
If you want to prepare a fertiliser using:
53,79 equal to 1.62
1) Poultry manure + sugarcane bagasse. equal to
33,1 parts of coffee
2) Poultry manure + coffee husk. hull
3) Poultry manure + sugarcane bagasse +
coffee husk.

Conclusions
1. It is necessary to mix 7.18 parts weight of sugarcane bagasse, or 1.62 parts weight
of coffee husk, for each part of poultry manure.
2. For each case in which they want to use the two types of carbon rich materials, 2
parts weight of poultry manure must be mixed + 7.18 parts weight of sugarcane
bagasse + 1.62 parts weight of coffee husk.
Average composition of nitrogen rich materials

Materials OM % C% N% C/N P2O5 % K2O %
Cotton: seeds 95,62 54,96 4,58 12/1 1,42 2,37
Green sawdust 30,68 16,32 0,96 17/1 0,08 0,19
Mulberry: leaves 86,08 45,24 3,77 12/1 1,07 NF
Plantain leaves 88,89 49,02 2,58 19/1 0,19 NF
Coffee: bran 90,46 50,60 2,30 22/1 0,42 1,26
Cacao: capsule 91,10 51,84 3,24 16/1 1,45 3,74
Coffee: seeds 92,83 52,32 3,27 16/1 0,39 1,69
Quassia: branches 93,61 52,35 3,40 15/1 1,08 2,98
Crotalaria juncea 91,42 50,70 1,95 26/1 0,40 1,81
Barley: bagasse 95,07 51,30 5,13 10/1 1,30 0,15
Leather dust 92,02 43,75 8,74 5/1 0,22 0,44
Pig manure 53,10 29,50 1,86 16/1 1,06 2,23
Poultry manure 52,21 29,01 2,76 11/1 2,07 1,67
Equine manure 96,19 25,50 1,67 18/1 1,00 1,19
Cavavalia bean 88,54 48,45 2,55 19/1 0,50 2,41
Pigeon pea: straw 55,90 52,49 1,81 29/1 0,59 1,14
Pigeon pea: seeds 96,72 54,60 3,64 15/1 0,82 1,89
Ice cream bean: leaves 90,69 50,64 2,11 24/1 0,19 0,33
Lab lab 88,46 50,16 4,56 11/1 2,08 NF
Velvet bean: branches 90,68 49,28 2,24 22/1 0,58 2,79
Orange bagasse 22,58 12,78 0,71 18/1 0,12 0,41
Feathers 88,20 54,20 13,55 4/1 0,50 0,30
Ramie: waste 60,64 35,26 3,20 11/1 3,68 4,02
Brewery waste 95,80 53,04 4,42 12/1 0,57 0,10
Dry blood 84,96 47,20 11,80 4/1 1,20 0,70
Tobacco: waste 70,92 39,06 2,17 18/1 0,51 2,78
Cotton cake 92,40 51,12 5,68 9/1 2,11 1,33
Peanut cake 95,24 53,55 7,65 7/1 1,71 1,21
Flax cake 94,85 50,94 5,66 9/1 1,72 1,38
Castorbean cake 92,20 54,40 5,44 10/1 1,91 1,54
Soy cake 78,40 45,92 6,56 7/1 0,54 1,54
Yucca: branches and leaves 91,64 52,20 4,35 12/1 0,72 NF
Source: Paschoal, A.D. (1994). NF = Not found; OM = Organic matter; C = Carbon; N = Nitrogen;
C/N = Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio; P2 O5 = Phosphorus content; K2O = Potassium content of the material dry mass.

Average composition of carbon rich materials
Materials OM % C% N% C/N P2O5 % K2O %
Blackwood acacia 86,99 53,20 1,40 38/1 0,10 NF
Sawdust 93,45 51,90 0,06 865/1 0,01 0,01
Rice: hulls 54,55 30,42 0,78 39/1 0,58 0,49
Rice: straw 54,34 30,42 0,78 39/1 0,58 0,41
Oats: hulls 85,00 47,25 0,75 63/1 0,15 0,53
Oats: straw 85,00 47,52 0,66 72/1 0,33 0,91
Cotton: hulls 96,14 53,00 1,06 50/1 0,23 0,83
Plantain: stalks 85,28 46,97 0,77 61/1 0,15 7,36
Sugarcane bagasse 96,14 39,59 1,07 37/1 0,25 0,94
Cacao: capsule 85,28 48,64 1,28 38/1 0,41 2,54
Coffee: pulp 71,44 30,04 0,86 53/1 0,17 2,07
Coffee husks 88,68 51,73 0,62 83/1 0,26 1,96
Chestnut: husks 89,48 54,76 0,74 74/1 0,24 0,64
Rye: hulls 96,24 46,92 0,68 69/1 0,66 0,61
Rye: straw 98,04 47,00 0,47 100/1 0,29 1,01
Barley: hulls 85,00 47,60 0,56 85/1 0,28 1,09
Barley: straw 85,00 47,25 0,75 63/1 0,22 1,26
Sheep manure 82,94 46,08 1,44 32/1 0,74 1,65
Cow dung 96,19 53,44 1,67 32/1 0,68 2,11
Beans: straw 94,68 52,16 1,63 32/1 0,29 1,94
Common bracken 95,90 53,41 0,49 109/1 0,04 0,19
Castorbean: capsules 94,60 62,64 1,18 53/1 0,30 1,81
Maize: straw 96,75 53,76 0,48 112/1 0,38 1,64
Maize: cobs 45,20 52,52 0,52 101/1 0,19 0,90
Molasses grass 82,20 51,03 0,63 81/1 0,17 NF
Guinea grass 93,13 49,17 1,49 33/1 0,34 NF
Jaragua grass 92,38 50,56 0,79 64/1 0,27 NF
Lemon grass 88,75 58,84 0,82 62/1 0,27 NF
Millon sorghum 90,51 50,40 1,40 36/1 0,32 NF
Gophertail lovegrass 91,52 52,14 0,66 79/1 0,26 NF
Baihiagrass 91,60 47,97 1,17 41/1 0,51 NF
Pineapple: fibres 71,41 39,60 0,90 44/1 NE 0,46
Wheat: hulls 85,00 47,60 0,85 56/1 0,47 0,99
Wheat: straw 92,40 51,10 0,73 70/1 0,07 1,28
Yucca: roots 58,94 32,64 0,34 96/1 0,30 0,44
Yucca: branches 95,26 52,40 1,31 40/1 0,35 NF
Yucca: hulls 96,07 53,50 0,50 107/1 0,26 1,27
NF = Not found; OM = Organic matter; C = Carbon; N = Nitrogen;
C/N = Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio; P2 O5 = Phosphorus content; K2O = Potassium content of the material dry mass.
Source: Paschoal, A.D. (1994)

Addendum 9
Influence of soil
pH in plant nutrition
pH
Under 4,0 Adequate Higher

(5,0 - 5,5) 6,5
Toxicity
Good nutrition Deficiency of:
Aluminium
Microbiological zinc
Manganese
activity boron
Deficiency in:
Increased availability manganese
calcium
of phosphorus
magnesium
potassium
sulphur
boron

Chapter 2
Biofertilisers
prepared and fermented
using cow dung
Content
Dedicated to the peasant farmers of the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Presentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Inputs and recipes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Some questions and answers regarding
preparation and use of fermented biofertilisers using cow dung. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
1. What are biofertilisers?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2. What are biofertilisers used for?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3. How do biofertilisers work?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4. What materials are permanent and
what ingredients are necessary to prepare biofertilisers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5. What are the basic quantities of each
ingredient to prepare the biofertilisers?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6. What is the most simple biofertiliser and how is it prepared?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7. How long does fermentation long for the biofertiliser to be ready for application?. . . . . . . . . . . 143
8. are the functions of each ingredient when preparing the biofertilisers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9. How are biofertilisers prepared?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
10. When are biofertilisers ready for application to crops and the soil? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
11. How can one check the final quality of the biofertiliser we prepare? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
12. How are biofertilisers applied to crops and the soil?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
13.What quantity of biofertilisers may be applied to the crops? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
14. How frequently are biofertilisers applied? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
15. What are the ideal moments for
the crop and the best times to apply biofertilisers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
16. What are the most visible advantages
and results achieved by application of biofertilisers to the crops?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
17. What effects may be achieved
by application of biofertilisers to the soil?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
18. As a source of nutrients, what do biofertilisers
contain and what other substances are present in them?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

19. Need biofertilisers always be applied to crops and the soil? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
20. When preparing biofertilisers, may the quantities of
the ingredients recommended in some recipes be changed?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
21. During preparation of the biofertilisers,
may some of the ingredients be replaced by others? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
22. How must biofertilisers be packaged
and for how long may be store them?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
23. What crops are biofertilisers being applied to most frequently?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
24. Who prepare and use
biofertilisers most frequently and in what places? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
25. How much does preparation of biofertilisers cost?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
26. May biofertilisers be mixed and applied with other products?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
27. Why must we learn to prepare biofertilisers?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Super Magro Biofertiliser (Full formula). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

• How to prepare it in the first stage? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
• Preparation of the second stage: (Mixture for the application). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Reciprocal relations between the different minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

• Boron (B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
• Copper (Cu). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
• Manganese (Mn). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
• Molybdenum (Mo). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
• Nickel (Ni). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
• Zinc (Zn). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
• Cobalt (Co). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
• Iron (Fe). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
• “Compounds”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Miscellaneous preparations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

• Preparations based on leonardite to regenerate degraded soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Biofertilisers prepared and fermented using cow dung 125

Addenda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
1. List of alternative materials that may be used as adherents
when applying biofertilisers and mineral mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
2. Mineral based biofertiliser to enrich the decomposition of organic waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3. Hydrolysed biofertiliser with humus tea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4. Chemical characterisation of different types of earthworm compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5. Biofertiliser prepared using native grasses and cow dung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6. How to prepare four nutritive biofertilisers to grow coffee
using fermented cow dung, enriched with minerals or stone meal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7. Factors that alter the quality of dung to
prepare and obtain good quality organic fertiliser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
8. The biopower of cow dung and construction of a
democratic world in the hands of men and women peasant farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
9. Some history of the molecular biology of fermented cow dung and its use in health . . . . . . . . . 224
10. After fermenting cow dung, we reach the urine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Dedicated to the
peasant farmers
of the world
T
o the legitimate teachers and wise men of the countryside, those who
teach without titles, desks, nor academic malice.
To the peasant farmers who, without bureaucracy and hypocrisy,
allow learning and reproduction of knowledge without author’s copyright.
To the peasant farmers who make practical tools available without technical
publications, and who know how to pardon the academic deformation, treason
and inexperience of agricultural universities.
To the peasant farmers who, without measuring efforts, show solidarity at
any time when it is needed.
To the peasant farmers who still resist, to avoid being cleared and driven
off their land.
To the peasant farmers who, with courage and dignity still refuse to be
screwed over by the State and the agro bureaucrats.
To them, the peasant farmers, who never known for corruption, who build
their Motherland without being overbearing and political scheming.
To those who silence rewards with consideration and wisdom to produce
the most sacred thing: food.
To those who build the hope of a free, sovereign nation for the generations to
come and without robbing them of anything, in exchange for being forgotten.
To those who still believe, dream and build utopias with their eyes open
from the countryside.
To those who build the song of freedom when they sow and harvest.
To those who compose the stanzas of the hymn of independence with their
own hands, from their crops.
To all of them, peasant farmers of the world, sources of inspiration and
solidarity at the most difficult moments of pilgrimage from village to village.
To them, those chosen to reproduce the miracle and perpetuation of life
with quality, through whose hands and native seeds, that are not yet mutilated,
modified and kidnapped.
To them who, with their silence and art, recreate and care for life, preparing
the earth to return to it.

Presentation
M
y farmer friend, this chapter is irreverent, but do not be
afraid; it is liberating as it restores a power that should
never have left the farmers’ hands.
Those who are educated with our money and sacrifice are
fine, refined and polite, but they do so to master and subjugate.
Those dominated are described as ferocious when they rise up; or
insensitive when calm.
The dominators are above analysis, as they hold the power and
can do anything.
Our goal lies beyond restoring power to the farmer; as far as
possible, we propose turning him into a “wise scientist”, a scholar
of the agriculture he practices.
This happens not only with farmers, but also with agricultural
engineers, such as Nasser Nars, Jairo Restrepo Rivera, Jaime
Carvalho and many others who do not even need to hold a
degree in Agricultural Engineering from the universities of Latin
America, trainers of functional, inconsequential, utilitarian, servile
technicians.
To explain this, we must recur to the Brazilian Dominican
Liberation Theologian Friar Betto. He reminds us that the word
humility has its root in the word humus. Humus was what the
farmers who entered Rome had their feet impregnated with, and
their behaviour gave rise to the term HUMILITY, a noble virtue.
What we wish for are agronomists with humus on their feet ...
Farmers know that the main element that forms humus is cow
dung. Agronomists with cow dung on their feet are a rare sign

in the peripheral areas of the world, where what we have on our skin, in our mouth, stomach, or
is in fashion is consensus with Washington, the that we find in the air and on any agricultural
findings by the IMF and the WTO. land where there is a cow or a mammal.
In the olden days, a farmer measured the The initial work carried out in Brazil was
value of his work by the amount of sweat it performed using small beverage bottles, that
produced, first that on his forehead, then on that were then delivered to a farmer (Delvino Magro).
of his animals, and finally that of himself and When he told a group of agronomists, ones
his machinery. However, increasingly more, he without humus on their feet, about the results he
sees the value of his sweat fade away in favour had obtained, they disparagingly began to call
of artificial values in an economy subjugated by the biofertiliser “Super Magro”.
a far away empire, that uses its technology as an After great success with the biofertiliser,
instrument of domination, to produce servitude which achieved more on one hectare using just
and mainly poverty. two litres of fermented cow dung with a mineral
The pioneers in restoring the value of the addition than everything modern agronomy
farmer as a subject, and of agriculture, praised had done in the last one hundred years of
the use of animal manure in the field, but it was domination, the agronomists then exploited the
strategically detracted from by those interested farmer’s knowledge by charging to give the same
in selling industrial fertilisers and poison with conference he had given to other farmers free of
patented processes and registered brands. When charge. The name Super Magro then became an
I was in “technical exile” in Germany, due to international symbol.
my opposition to the poison mafias, I was able We continued with our work, to undermine
to learn that agricultural poisons were already the chemical web of poisons and prevent the
“something from the past” and that the future biotechnological matrix from becoming a
would lie in microbes to produce biofertilisers. commercial product. We did so joyfully, and in
At that moment, the agrochemical companies the field of biofertilisers produced more than
had teams of up to 600 people studying and 150 types of biofertilisers, with whey, with sisal
patenting all kinds of bacteria and fungus, (Phytophthora inefestans) or henequen (Agave)
to sell these as merchandise to manufacture mixture with coconut water, among others. The
biofertilisers. leap in quality of the biofertilisers prepared was
Our amazement exceeded fascination. achieved by using milled stone meal. We are now
Amazement as they were going to change poisons sad when we find no partners in discussion at the
for use of bacteria. faculties, universities or research centres; such
Now living beings were balance and life, as as is academic mediocrity. However, we recover
stated by the environmentalists, who are horrified our self-esteem when giving highly schematic
by the smell of shit. As the popular saying goes: presentations to farmers to explain energy
they wanted to change six for half a dozen, or as transformations, entropy, free energy, systems
Brazilian farmers say, “they change the flies, but in balanced imbalance, simplexes, chelates,
the shit remains the same”. biocolloids, hormones, biocatalysers, etc.
Our concern was to work with a highly We may say a lot about how little we are
safe bacteria for farmers and their family, as doing, but that is not what is important. For
technology must suit the human being and not the example, everybody knows that organic matter
contrary. Nobody is better than the Bacillus subtilis in the soil is fundamental and that it takes up

to 20 years in balancing out. The professors The rest is academic onanism by servile
previously taught a caricature of the soil, saying agronomists who do not want to submerge their
it was “inert and lifeless”. Now they are forced to head in shit, aiming to exchange six for half a
say that organic matter is vital for sustainability. dozen in the pompous name of sustainability and
Oh Lord Almighty! a doctorate in Agro-ecology.
Finally, what we are interested in cow dung We pray for them: Pachamama, pardon them,
is, more than an economic or political revolution, pardon them ...
being the redemption of a cultural identity that
is still latent within us all; of the individual
man who is the master and commander of his Sebastião Pinheiro
Juquira Candirú, Satyagraha
destiny and steward to nature, seeking peace and Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil
happiness..

Inputs and
recipes
“Organic agriculture cannot be a specified package of techniques or

recipes. It is not an alternative technology of replacing old inputs with
new ones. It is the conjugation of a series of technologies mainly applied
to reality and the social, cultural, economic, environmental and political
dynamics of each peasant community in which one intends to work.
Organic agriculture contains no miraculous recipe or input that everybody

awaits and that will solve everything in a moment; there are just many doubts
and questions we must ask ourselves on the long road of experimentation,
when we rediscover, with peasant wisdom, old but new sustainable criteria
and self-determination for the countryside.
The ‘green revolution’ in agriculture represented mechanisation,

fertilisers and poisons and considered the soil to be yet another input. It
did not involve thinking of the soil as an integral, living organism, at the
crops as food that should be healthy, and the agricultural workers and their
families as builders of a wealth that cannot and should not be paid with
their health.
There is no misfortune or bad times in the countryside in which the direct

hand of the poison industry is not present through the widespread deformation
and servilism of the majority of the professionals in the agricultural and
husbandry sector, among which agronomists play a leading role”.

Some
questions
and answers
regarding preparation
and use of fermented
biofertilisers using cow dung
While biofertilisers in organic agriculture generate

energy based on natural life-driven fermentation,
chemical agriculture demands a high, costly
petroleum energy expenditure to synthesise the
inputs.
1. What are Figure 1. Recently prepared with the ingredients
biofertilisers?
Biofertilisers are liquid super-fer-
tilisers with a lot of balanced energy
in mineral harmony, prepared using
very fresh cow dung, dissolved in wa-
ter and enhanced with whey or milk,
ash or phosphites and molasses, that
has been left to ferment for a seve-
ral days in plastic barrels or drums,
in an anaerobic system (without the
presence of oxygen) and quite often
enhanced with milled stone meal or
some mineral salts or sulphate, such
as magnesium sulphate, zinc, copper,
etc. (Figures 1 and 2).

Figure 2. Ingredients fermenting
2. What are 3. How do

biofertilisers for? biofertilisers work?
They are to nourish, recover and reactivate They mainly work inside plants, activating
life in the soil, to strengthen plant fertility and strengthening of nutritional harmony as a me-
animal health, while acting to stimulate crop chanism to defend them, through organic acids,
protection against insect attack and diseases. On growth hormones, antibiotics, vitamins, mine-
the other hand, they are used to replace or tota- rals, enzymes and co-enzymes, carbohydrates,
lly eliminate use of highly soluble industrial che- aminoacids and sugar, complex and simplex,
mical fertilisers, which are very expensive and among others, present in the complexity of the
make peasant farmers dependent and increasin- biological, chemical, physical and energy reac-
gly poorer. tions and relations that take place between the
plants and soil life.

Biofertilisers enriched with ash, phosphites or
mineral salts or sulphates, or with milled stone
meal, after their fermentation period (30 to 90
days), will be ready and balanced in a buffer
and colloidal solution, where the effects may be
10 to 100,000 times greater than the amounts
of micronutrients technically recommended by
agro-industry for application to the soil and to
crops in foliar spray. (Figures 3 and 4).
Quechua woman on organic agriculture training

course. Preparing biofertilisers. Florícola
Nápoles. Cayambe, Quito, Ecuador.
Figure 3. Drum with the fermented Figure 4. Drum with biopreparation ready for
biopreparation use after 30 to 90 days of fermentation
(note the gas bubbles in the bottle) (note the gas release has stopped)

4. What materials are permanent and what ingredients
are necessary to prepare the biofertilisers?
The permanent materials to prepare biofertili- Remember fermentation of the biofertiliser is
sers are: anaerobic, that is, without oxygen present.
A. Plastic tanks, barrels or drums with 200 litre (Figure 5).
capacity, with metal ring or screw-threaded B. A metal valve or a piece of screw-threaded
lids to be able to seal them hermetically to nipple more or less 7 centimetres long and
ensure proper fermentation of the biofertiliser. 3/8 to ½ inch in diameter, fitted to the lid, to
allow gases to be released (mainly methane
Figure 5. Plastic drum with and hydrogen sulphide gas) when it forms in
metal ring the drum while fermenting the cow dung.
Growers and farmers adapt this valve based on
half inch PVC materials, or using irrigation
system terminal coupling pieces. (Figures 6A
METAL RING and 6B).
200 litre
capacity
PLASTIC DRUM Remark

WITH METAL Should growers or farmers not have plastic tanks
RING or barrels with a capacity of 200 litres to prepare
the biofertilisers, they may perform proportional
calculations to use larger or smaller tanks.
Figure 6A. Metal valve 7 cm long, 3/8 to 1/2 inch in diameter

BRONZE
NIPPLE
BRONZE
NIPPLE
METAL RUBBER
RUBBER METAL WASHERS PACKING
PACKING WASHERS WASHERS
WASHERS NUT
BRONZE
NIPPLE
NUT
BRONZE
NIPPLE
VALVE BREAKDOWN (OPEN) VALVE BREAKDOWN (TIGHTENED)

Figure 6B. Metal valve 7 cm long, 3/8 to 1/2 inch in diameter
BRONZE
NIPPLE
BRONZE JUBILEE CLIP
METAL NIPPLE
RUBBER
PA C K I N G WASHERS METAL RUBBER
WASHERS WASHERS PA C K I N G
WASHERS HOSE
BRONZE
NUT NUT NIPPLE
BRONZE
NIPPLE VALVE
Irrigation coupling pieces that may be used

as valves for cow dung fermentation tanks
Drum cover with valve or nipple
Figure 7. Hose 1 m long and 3/8 to 1/2 inch in C. A piece of hose, preferably transparent, more
diameter, attached to the valve or nipple by a or less one metre long and 3/8 to ½ inch in
jubilee clip diameter, coupled to the nipple by a metal
clamp, that is used to release the gases for-
med during the fermentation process in the
Manguera
Hose
plastic tank or barrel. (Figure 7).
Jubilee clip
Abrazadera
Válvula
Valve D. A disposable plastic bottle of 500 cc or ½
litre capacity, into which one end of the gas
release pipe is inserted. (Figure 8).
Figure 8. Disposable plastic bottle with
1 to 2 litre capacity for water
E. A wood stick to stir the ingredients. (Figure
9).
Wire hook
Figure 9.
Wood Stick
Hose
Wood stick to stir
the ingredients
WATER Bastón de madera
para mezclar
ingredientes.

The basic ingredients required to prepare
simple biofertilisers anywhere are:
• Very fresh cow dung. (Figure 10). • Wood ash. (Figure 13).
• Milk or whey. (Figure 11). • Unpolluted untreated water. (Figure
• Molasses or sugarcane juice. (Figure 12) 14).
Figure 10. Cow dung Figure 11. Molasses or sugarcane Figure 12. Milk or whey
juice
Figure 13. Wood ash Figure 14. Untreated water
Remarks
A. These are the basic materials and ingredients required to
prepare the most simple foliar biofertilisers for application to
any crop, tat may be prepared by any peasant anywhere.
B. Addition of some mineral salts or sulphates (zinc, magne-
sium, copper, iron, cobalt, molybdenum, etc.), to enhance the
biofertilisers, is optional and is performed according to the ne-
eds and recommendations for each crop, at each stage of de-
velopment. Remember that mineral salts or sulphates may be
replaced by wood ash or by milled stone meal or phosphites,
with excellent results. (Figure 15). Figure 15.
Optional mineral salts

5. What are the basic quantities
of each ingredient to prepare
biofertilisers?
Basic quantities of each ingredient used to prepare
up to 180 litres of biofertiliser
Water 180 litres
Milk (or whey) 2 (4) litres
Molasses (or cane juice) 2 (4) litres
Very fresh cow dung 50 kilos
Wood ash or phosphite 3 to 5 kilos
Mineral salts (these are According to the requisites and recommendations for each crop,
optional) when we have the information. These may also be replaced by 3 to
4 kilos of milled stone meal. The more diverse and finelly milled
the stones, the better the final result of the biofertiliser will be.
6. What is the most simple

biofertiliser and how is it prepared?
The most simple biofertiliser to prepare is that we describe below:
Simple biofertiliser
Fermentation of cow dung with milk, molasses and ash. Anaerobic fermentation system
Ingredients Quantities Other materials
• 1 plastic drum with 200 litre capacity
Water (untreated) 180 litres
• 1 plastic drum with 100 litre capacity
1ST STAGE
Cow dung 50 kilos

Molasses (or sugarcane juice) 2 (4) litres • 1 plastic bucket with 10 litre capacity
Milk (or whey) 2 (4) litres • 1 piece of hose 1 metre long, 3/8 to ½ inch in
Wood ash 4 kilos diameter
• 1 bronze or copper threaded nipple, 3/8 to ½ inch
MIXTURE in diameter
FOR APPLICATION:
• 1 disposable bottle
2ST STAGE
Biofertiliser 5 a 10 li-
(prepared in the 1st stage) • 1 sieve or cheesecloth to strain the mixture
tres
Water 100 litres • 1 stick to stir the mixture

How to prepare this in the first stage?
Step 1 Figure 16
In the 200 litre capacity plastic drum, dissol-
4 kilos of ash or
ve the 50 kilos of fresh cow dung and 4 kilos of stone meal
ash in 100 litres of uncontaminated water and 100 litres of
uncontaminated
stir them until obtaining a homogeneous mixtu- water 50 kilos of
re. fresh cow
dung
Remark
Where possible, it is better to collect comple-
tely fresh dung in from the stables where the catt-
le are in the early morning, as the less sunlight Plastic drum
that falls on the cow dung, the better results are CAPACITY
obtained from the biofertilisers. (Figure 16). 200 LITRES
Metal ring
Plastic
lid
Step 2
Dissolve the 2 litres of raw milk or 4 litres of
whey with the 2 litres of molasses in 10 litres of
uncontaminated water and add them to the 200
litre capacity plastic drum where the cow dung
dissolved with ash is, stirring constantly. (Figure Stir
17). constantly
Previous mixture
2 litres of
10 litres of molasses
water
CAPACITY 200
2 litres of raw milk LITRES
1 or 4 litres of whey
Cow dung
2
dissolved in ash
PLASTIC
BUCKET
Figure 17

Step 4
Hermetically cover the drum to start anaerobic
fermenting of the biofertiliser and connect the gas re-
lease system with the hose (water seal). (Figures 19
and 20).
Figure 19. Biofermenter with the recently

prepared ingredients
Space
Espacioforpara
gases
la
Válvula
Valve to form de gases
formación
Manguera
Hose
Water level
Nivel del agua
WATER Plastic
Botella bottle
de
MILK plástico
Farmer preparing biofertiliser.
State of México, Mexico. MOLASSES
ASH
Step 3
COW DUNG
Top up the full volume of the plastic drum
containing the ingredients with clean water,
up to 180 litres of its capacity, and stir. (Fi-
gure 18).
Figure 20. with the fermented biopreparation
(note the gas bubbles in the bottle)
Figure 18. Mixed ingredients
Salida de
Gases released
gases
Clean water
Formación
Gases
deforming
gases
CAPACITY Top up to 180
200 LITRES litres with water Gases
WATER Gases
MILK
Ingredients
already MOLASSES
mixed ASH
COW DUNG

Step 5
Leave the drum Figure 21. Ideal temperature 38ºC to 40ºC.
containing the mixture
to rest in the shade at
ambient temperature,
protected from the sun
and rain. The ideal
temperature would be
that of the rumen of
ruminant animals such
as cows, more or less
38ºC to 40ºC. (Figure
21).
Step 6
Wait a minimum time of 20 to 30 days of anaerobic fermentation, to then open it
and check its quality by the smell and colour, before using. (Figure 22).
Figure 22. Minimum time of 20 to 30 days anaerobic fermentation
Capacity
200 litres
20 to 30 days of fermentation
Biofertiliser

Step 7 Remark
There should be no rotten smell, nor should
In very cold places, the fermentation time may
the colour be blue or violet. The characteristic
take 60 to 90 days, so the best indicator to know
smell must be that of fermentation; if not, it whether the biofermented product is ready for
would have to be rejected. (Figures 23). use is to observe when gases are no longer being
released in the bottle with water. (Figure 24).
Figure 23. Checking the quality by smell and Figure 24. Biofermenter with gas
colour, before using biofermentation release stopped
NO: Rotting smell or blue YES: Smell of fermentation, No hay
No gases are
violet colour. amber, translucent colour salida de
being released
gases.
Botella bottle
Plastic de
plástico.
hay are
No gases
salida released
being de
MIXED gases.
INGREDIENTS
NO SI
YES
Preparing the second stage

(Mixture to apply on the crops)
A quite general recommendation for this
biofertiliser is for places where there is difficulty to
obtain the materials to prepare mineral salt enhanced
biofertilisers. Its application is also recommended on
soils an crops where their circumstances do not show
a specific need for a precise kind of nutrition. The
concentration for application in foliar treatments
is 5% to 10%, that is, 5 to 10 litres of bioprepared
product are used for every 100 litres of water poured
on the crops. Do not forget to sieve the biofertiliser
before application. Another measure for application
is to use 1 to 1 ½ litres of biofertiliser for each
application pump with a 20 litre capacity. (Figure
25).
Preparing biofertilisers
using calf dung.

Figure 25. Concentration for foliar treatments
5 to 10 litres
of biopre
Bioprep. + water
Sieve
the bioprep
Bioprep
1 Sieve or 3
cheesecloth 100 litres
of water
2 20 litre
application pump
7. How long does the fermentation take for

the biofertiliser to be ready for application?
The time biofertiliser fermentation takes more to invest and we acquire various plastic
varies and it depends to a certain extent on skill, drums or tanks, we can perform fermentation
how much each producer wishes to invest, on of the mineral salts separately in less time,
the quantity needed and the type of biofertiliser that is, the basic ingredients and a mineral salt
one wishes to prepare for each crop (whether are placed in each individual tank or drum to
enhanced with mineral salts or not). ferment, thus shortening the mineral enhanced
Guideline: The most simple biofertiliser to fermenting period. Afterward, all one has to do
prepare and ferment is that explained in question is calculate the necessary doses of each of the
and answer number 6 and it takes 20 to 30 days of nutrients for the culture and mix them in the
fermentation to be ready. However, preparation pump at the moment when they are to be applied
of mineral salt enhanced biofertilisers may take to the crops.
35 to 45 days. (Figure 25). However, if we have
Figure 26. Fermentation time
Capacity
200 litres
35 to 45 days
Biofertiliser fermentation
Mineral salts
8. What are the functions of each ingredient
when preparing biofertilisers?
The function of each ingredient, when preparing the biofertilisers, is to increa-
se the fermentation synergy and thus obtain good availability of the nutrients for
plant life and the soil.
Milk: It has the main function of reviving the bioprepared

product, the same as molasses does; it provides proteins,
vitamins, fat and aminoacids to form other organic
compounds that are generated during the biofertiliser
fermentation period, while providing the appropriate means
to reproduce the fermentation microbiology. (Figure 27).
Figure 27. Milk or whey
Molasses: The main function is to provide the necessary energy
to activate the microbiological metabolism, so the fermentation
process is boosted, in addition to providing other components
at a lower scale such as some minerals, among them: calcium,
potassium, phosphorus, boron, iron, sulphur, manganese, zinc and
magnesium. (Figure 28).
Figure 28. Molasses or sugarcane
juice Mineral salts: These activate and enhance the fermentation,
with the principal function of nourishing the soil and fertilising
the plants, which come to life on fermentation through digestion
and metabolism of the microorganisms present in the fermenta-
tion tank, that in turn were included through the fresh cow dung
used (when it becomes difficult to find the sulphates or mineral
salts, these may be fully replaced by ash, milled rock meal or
phosphites) (Figure 29).
Figure 29. Mineral salts
Ash or phosphite: Its main function is to provide minerals and

trace elements to the biofertiliser to activate and enrich the fer-
mentation. Depending on its origin and due to the lack of sulpha-
tes or mineral salts, this may even replace them (the best ash to
make bioprepared products are those obtained from graminaceae,
for example: rice hulls, sugarcane, bamboo and maize) (Figure
Figure 30. Wood ash 30).

Cow dung: It mainly has the function of providing live
ingredients (microorganisms) for fermentation of the biofertiliser
to take place. It mainly provides inoculation or yeast seeds,
fungi, protozoa and bacteria, which are directly responsible for
digesting, metabolising and turning all the nutritional elements
available in the live mix fermented in the tank into a format that
is available to the plants and the earth.
On the other hand, cow dung contains a very diverse amount
of microorganisms that are highly important to commence
fermentation of the bioprepared product, among which there is
Bacillus subtilis.
Finally, another major advantage of working with cow dung
Figure 31. Cow dung
biofertilisers is that their microbiology has the facultative
characteristic of being able to develop both anaerobically (without
the presence of oxygen) as well as aerobically (in the presence of
oxygen), which facilitates management of the fermentation by the
farmers. (Figure 31).
Water: This has the function of providing a liquid medium

where all the bioenergetic and chemical reactions of anaerobic
fermentation of the biofertiliser are multiplied. It is highly
important to emphasise that many microorganisms present in the
fermentation, such as yeasts and bacteria, live more uniformly in
the liquid mass, where at the same time synthesised products such
Figure 32. Uncontaminated as enzymes, vitamins, peptides, growth promoters, etc., are more
untreated water easily transferred. (Figure 32).
9. How are biofertilisers

prepared?
The way all the biofertilisers is prepared
is varied and we may return to the questions
and answers in numbers 6 and 7 that describe
how Super Magro is prepared. However, we
remind you to have all the ingredients ready
when preparing them: do not forget, the
fresher the cow dung, the better the quality
of the biofertiliser obtained will be.
Florícola Nápoles, biofertiliser bio-factory.
Cayambe, Quito, Ecuador.

10. When are the biofertilisers ready for
application to crops and the soil?
The biofertilisers will be ready for use when, preparation. However, that period is followed by
after preparing them, the most active anaerobic an aging time, as happens with wine making; so
fermentation period of the cow dung stops we recommend that the longer you can mature
or ends, which may be seen when gas release or age the biofertiliser in the original receptacle,
through the hose connected to the lid on the the better its quality will be. The aging period
biofermenter and the gas trap disposable bottle may last from 2 to 3 months (Figures 33A and
has fully stopped and no more bubbles are being 33B). Experiment according to your conditions
formed and released into the bottle hung on and reach your own conclusions. Do not forget
the side of the 200 litre capacity bottle. From to transmit and share the success of your
experience, the greatest period of fermentation experiences with other farmers.
takes place during the first 15 to 20 days after
Figure 33A. Drum with the fermented bioprep Figure 33B. Drum with the bioprep. ready for use after
(note the gas bubbles in the bottle) 20 to 30 days of fermentation
(note the gas release has stopped)
Gas release
No gas released
Plastic bottle
Plastic bottle
Water
WATER Gases Water
MILK No gas
MOLASSES released
MIXED
ASH
INGREDIENTS
COW DUNG
1 Biofermenter
2 Biofermenter
2 to 3 months
maturing or aging period

11. How may we check the final quality of
the biofertiliser we prepare?
There are various aspects or parameters it is amber colour and translucent, and there must be
worth observing to check the quality of fresh cow some sediment in the bottom. When biofertilisers
dung based fermented biofertilisers: are not properly mature, that is, have not been
• The smell: When the fermentation tank is left to age for a long time, the surface cream
opened, there must be no bad (rotting) smells. is regularly a green coloured foam and the
The tendency is that the longer we leave the liquid is turbid green. That does not mean the
biofertiliser to ferment and age, the better its bioprepared product is not usable, but just that
quality will be, giving off a pleasant smell of when compared with the more aged substance,
alcoholic fermentation and being conserved the latter is better quality, even more stable for
for a longer time. storage.
• The colour: When the fermentation tank Biofertilisers will be bad quality when they
is opened, the biofertiliser may have the have a rotting smell and the foam formed on
following characteristics, or one of them: the surface tends toward a very black colour, in
A white cream formed on the surface, as the which case it is better to dispose of them. (Figure
more aged the biofertiliser is, the whiter the 34).
cream will be; the liquid content will be a bright
Figure 34. Smell and colour
Fermentation Fermentation Fermentation

tank tank tank
Smells of alcoholic Bright amber colour and Bad quality,

fermentation translucent, white cream rotten smell
on the surface

Innovation, adaptation and
validation of the practices
proposed by organic
agriculture among peasant
farmers constitute the pillars
that support success and
freedom, to build a healthy,
fair, human agriculture.
Biofertiliser prepared using whey,
molasses and prawn shells
12. How are biofertilisers applied to

crops and soil?
Biofertiliser application to crops is foliar and way to apply biofertilisers to the soil indirectly is
the best time to perform the task is in the early to apply them to Bocashi type organic fertilisers
hours of the morning, up to more or less 10 a.m., while preparing them. For example, at the mo-
and in the afternoon after 4 p.m., to take advan- ment of preparing 3 tonnes of Bocashi (60 quin-
tage of there being greater assimilation of the tals) we may use up to 100 litres of simple or Su-
biofertilisers at those times because the stoma per Magro biofertiliser, mixing it into the water
are open wider, which is where the plants absorb required to prepare that fertiliser. On the other
through the leaves, equivalent to our mouth. It hand, biofertilisers may also be applied to the or-
preferable to spray upward underneath the lea- ganic materials intended to produce earthworm
ves. Another important recommendation when castings (worm humus), see Addenda 2, 3 and
applying biofertilisers is to be able to add an ad- 4. Finally, biofertilisers may also be applied by
herent to them (see addendum Table No. 1) to ferti-irrigation, directed drip, and sprayed in gre-
maximise their application. The adherents we re- enhouses. Remember, biofertilisers are not just
commend are aloe vera, prickly pear, shellac, or recipes, as their preparation may vary according
carpenter’s fish bone glue, ash, soap and wheat to the purpose of their application on crops or the
flour, molasses, whey, among others. Biofertili- soil. (Figure 35).
ser applications to the soil must be performed
on its green cover, or on the actual soil after ti-
lling or clearing first responder plants (misna-
med weeds), which will stimulate the mineral and
biological eco-revolution to form fertile, nutritio-
nally diverse and deeper soil. Biofertiliser appli-
cation on the soil surface must be performed si-
multaneously, when dealing with crops. Another

Figure 35
YES
Early morning until 10 a.m. and in the
afternoon after 4 p.m.
NO
Soil
Not from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m.
Nurseries Fertiliser
13. What quantity of biofertilisers may

be applied to the crops?
The amounts of biofertilisers that may be etc.). However, due to the experience and evidence
applied to crops are directly related to the from the results the farmers are obtaining,
specific nutritional needs of each crop at each mainly in Central America and Mexico, we
specific moment or stage of its development recommend beginning to prepare and apply
(preflowering, flowering, fruit bearing, after the most simply made biofertiliser explained in
harvest, plant development, nursery and seeds, question and answer No. 6. On the other hand,

preparation and application of the Brazilian Another recommendation is to apply
biofertiliser Super Magro has been performed biofertilisers by ferti-irrigation, drip or spray in
quite regularly for the majority of crops that are greenhouses, in quantities that may vary from 3
of any economic importance to the farmers. Both litres to 5 litres per 100 litres of water that must
the simple biofertiliser, such as Super Magro, be applied. Calculating and recommending the
are being used in concentrations that range from necessary quantities of biofertilisers the crops
3 to 7 litres of concentrated biofertiliser per 100 need is more a day to day task of life in the field
litres of water; that is, from 3% to 7% is used. with the crops than an academic, theoretical
Another approach would be to experiment with task.
applying from ¾ litre or 750 cc up to a litre and “Theory is when you know everything but
a half per backpack or pump with 20 litres of nothing works, which is what the university is
water. capable of. Practice is when everything works
When you have a more detailed knowledge but no one knows why, which is what farmers do
of the crop and the type of nutrients it requires, in the field”.
either because we have soil analysis, leaf analysis, Experiment with new ways of preparing,
or because we have a specific knowledge of each dosing and applying biofertilisers. “Be creative
situation, we may then prepare biofertilisers with and redesign the recipes according to your
different types of mineral salts or sulphates and needs, local resources and the scope of your
recommend the applicable dose according to imagination”.
each crop. Use of mineral salts or sulphates must
not create crop dependence on such inputs; their Recommendations
use must be limited. Do not forget that mineral Do not forget to use a cloth, cheesecloth or a
salts may be totally replaced by ash or milled bride’s veil or sieve to strain the biofertilisers be-
stone meal or phosphite. fore applying them..
14. How frequently are biofertilisers applied?

The frequency of biofertiliser application is On the other hand, one must not forget that
highly varied and some aspects must be conside- plants eat every day, perform photosynthesis,
red, among others: store and expend energy, reproduce, grow, grow
old, die and are recycled. Thus, the ideal thing
• The type of crop. would be to perform the largest number of appli-
• The state of development of the crop. cations, with very short intervals between one
• The history and state of the crop. application and another, in very low concentra-
• The type of soil and its coverage. tions of biofertilisers. However, we understand
• The state of biological and mineral reactiva- that performing or increasing to a larger number
tion of the soil. of operations on a crop is onerous and takes up
• Etc. a lot of the farmer’s time, so we recommend the
following experiments , in order to allow greater

flexibility in the timing between one application D. Fruit trees, coffee or perennial crops: From
and another: 10 to 15 biofertiliser applications per cycle,
in concentrations that may vary from 5% to
A. Vegetables in nurseries or flats: Up to two 10%, that is, 5 to 10 litres of biofertiliser mi-
applications of biofertiliser, in concentra- xed per 100 litres of water to be applied to
tions that may vary from 2% to 3%, that is, the crops, another way to dose the application
mixing 2 to 3 litres of biofertiliser for every is to use 1 litre to 2 litres per pump or bac-
100 litres of water to be applied to the crops; kpack with 20 litre capacity.
another way to dose their application is to use E. Annual crops such as beans and maize: From
from ½ a litre to 750 cc per pump or bac- 6 to 8 applications during the cycle the crop
kpack with 20 litre capacity. lasts. In concentrations that may range from
B. Vegetables transplanted in the field: From 3 3% to 5%, that is, 3 to 5 litres of biofertiliser
to 6 biofertiliser applications, in concentra- are mixed with every 100 litres of water to
tions that may vary from 3% to 7%, that is, 3 be applied to the crops; another way to dose
to 7 litres of biofertiliser mixed per 100 litres application is to use 750 cc to 1 litre per
of water to be applied to the crops; another pump or backpack with 20 litre capacity.
way to dose the application is to use 750 cc to
1 ½ litre per pump or backpack with 20 litre Calculate the frequencies yourself and adapt
capacity. the concentrations of your biofertiliser, accor-
C. Fruit trees in nurseries: From 6 to 8 bioferti- ding to the demands of the crop and your own
liser applications, in concentrations that may experience. Do not forget to share and document
vary from 4% to 6%, that is, 4 to 6 litres of the results.
biofertiliser mixed per 100 litres of water to
be applied to the crops; another way to dose
the application is to use from 1 litre to 1 ½
litre per pump or backpack with 20 litre ca-
pacity.
15. What are the ideal moments for the crop and the
best times to apply biofertilisers?
The ideal moments of the crop (vegetative each crop has at each moment of growth and
development, preflowering, flowering, fruit plant development. This requires support through
bearing, after harvest, stress, etc.) to apply complete soil and leaf analysis, in order to be able
biofertilisers, depends on whether the crops are to recommend the most adequate biofertilisers
perennial (fruit) or annual (maize and beans), with the greatest precision and calculate their
as each crop has its specific demands at each ideal dosage best. However, biofertilisers such
moment or stage of plant development. The ideal as the simple one explained in reply No. 6 and
thing is to know the main nutritional demands Super Magro in reply No. 7 have become the

most common tools to treat crops in all their after 4 p.m., are the freshest moments (lower
stages of development. The best times to apply temperatures) when the plants make better use
biofertilisers are in the early morning, up to more of foliar application of biofertilisers. (Get up
or less 10 a.m., and later during the afternoon, early!) (Figure 36).
after 4 p.m., when the sun is over the horizon.
In our countries, 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. is regularly
the period of most sunlight, when plants have
generally closed the majority of their stoma to
avoid dying of dehydration due to the head, and Organic agriculture is like
when there is automatically less absorption or the architecture of life, it
advantage taken of any foliar treatment we may allows us to modify and
try to carry out. On the other hand, the periods redesign it in a thousand
between the early morning and 10 a.m., and ways to make it infinite.
Figure 36
YES
Early morning until 10 a.m., and in the

afternoon, after 4 p.m.
NO
Not from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m.

16. What are the most visible advantages and
results achieved by applying biofertilisers
to the crops?
Among the most common advantages and • The increase in the quantity, size and
results achieved using biofertilisers on crops nutritional quality, as well as the aroma and
there are: taste of what is harvested.
• Use of local resources that easy to obtain • Economic savings achieved short term due
(cow dung, molasses, milk, whey, etc.). to replacing chemical inputs (highly soluble
• Very low investment (plastic tanks or drums, poisons and fertilisers).
nipples, hoses, disposable bottles, etc.) • Eliminating toxic residue from food.
• Technology easily adopted (and adapted) by • Increasing profitability.
growers: (preparation, application, storage). • Independence from commercial manufacturers
• Short term results are noted. due to adopting the technology.
• Independence from flawed, malicious • Eliminating worker health risk factors by
technical advice. stopping poison use.
• Increased resistance to insect and disease • Treatment and conservation of the
attack. environment, and protection of natural
• Increased precocity in all stages of plant resources, including soil life.
development of the crops. • Improving the quality of life of rural families
• Perennial crops treated with biofertilisers and consumers.
recover more quickly from post-harvest and • An increase in the number of productive cycles
grazing stress. per cultivated area in the case of vegetables
• The longevity of perennial crops is increased. (increased number of crops per year).
• Increased quantity, size and vigour of the • Crops, mainly fruit and vegetables, are
flowering. conserved for a longer period after harvest.
Finally, biofertilisers increase the efficiency

of micronutrients applied to the crops and lower
production costs, while increasing recovery of
degraded soils.
Biofertiliser factory to produce organic roses.

Ecuador.

17. What effects may be achieved by
application of biofertilisers to the ground?
Among the effects that may be achieved by • Precocious simulation of seed germination
biofertilisers application to the soil, there are: and increased root volume of plants.
• Increased content of vitamins, auxins and
• Diversified improvement of nutrition availa- antibiotics in complex and simplex relations
ble in the soil for plants. between root and soil.
• Diversified unblocking of many nutrients that • Stimulation of diversified plant eco-evolu-
are not available to crops. tion, for soil recovery, cover and protection
• Improved biodiversity, activity and quantity by beneficial green mulch.
of microbiology (biological eco-evolution of • Stimulates humic acid formation, that is
the soil). highly useful for soil and crop health.
• Improved structure and depth of the soils. • Increased mineral micro-diversity in the soil
• Increased cationic exchange capacity (CEC). available to the plants.
• Increased diversified nutrient assimilation by • Increased plant resistance to disease attack,
the plants. mainly of the roots.
• Improved plant energy processes through the • Improved biostructuring of the soil and root
roots and their relation with respiration and penetration to the deepest layers.
organic acid synthesis. • Stimulates rhizobacteria as plant growth
promoters and for bioprotection.
• Increase in root size and volume, with an in-
crease in organic matter in the soil (under-
ground organic material fertilizer).
• In many cases, exclusive biofertilisers may be
prepared that help to combat soil salinity.
Finally, due to the highly chelating characte-

ristics biofertilisers have, they facilitate balan-
ced nutrition of the soil and maximise mineral
advantage taken of the crops.
Biofertiliser made from pumpkin (known

as zapallo or ahuyama).
Municipal District of Uruapan, Michoacán, Mexico

18. As a source of nutrients, what do
biofertilisers contain and what other
substances are present in them?
In cow dung based fermented biofertilisers We may find that biofertilisers also contain
enhanced with some mineral salts, sulphates, hormones, bacteria and yeast that are very im-
stone meal, ash and phosphites, we may find the portant to produce a healthy crop production,
following, among others: that are “immune” to insect and disease attack.
ELEMENTS: Nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus,
calcium, magnesium, sodium, sulphur, chlorine,
silica, lithium, vanadium, copper, molybdenum,
silver, chrome, zinc, selenium, strontium, iodine,
cadmium, cobalt, lead, nickel, rubidium, cesium,
barium, tin, beryllium, bromine...
VITAMINS: Thiamin, pyodoxine, nicotinic acid,
pantothenic acid, riboflavin, cobalamin, ascorbic
acid, folic acid, provitamin A, ergosterol, alpha
amylase and aminoacylase.
ORGANIC ACIDS: Among the main ones there
are: Aconitic, carolic, fumaric, glaucic, citric,
byssoclamys, carolinic, gallic, glucuronic, lactic,
carlic, fulvic, gentisic, kojic and puberulic acid Major scale biofertiliser production. Walnut
are among the main ones. and alfalfa crops. Campo Aranueces, State of
Sonora, Mexico.
19. Need biofertilisers always

be applied to crops and the soil?
Biofertiliser application is not a permanent, cases is more related to the skill in handling the
static, non modifiable recommendation. Both crops and soil, than permanent dependence on
the application as well as dosage, the number an input.
of applications to the crop and soil, and their The need for a new application is not
frequency, are determined by the responses we predetermined by a preset calendar, and it is by
have observed directly in the crops during the daily presence and observation of the crops in
course of all the organic practices we introduce, the field. Remember, farmers listen through their
thus a greater or lesser dependence, that it many eyes.

20. When preparing biofertilisers, may the
quantities of ingredients recommended
in some recipes be changed?
It is not recommendable to randomly chan- let us not forget to exhaust all the possibilities
ge the quantities of ingredients with which the we have to perform any soil analysis, and to the
biofertilisers are prepared, mainly in what is re- possible expense, perform leaf analysis, to thus
lated to the amount of mineral salts and sulpha- be able to prepare more specific biofertilisers,
tes, such as: zinc, copper, borax, magnesium, according to the demands of each agricultural
manganese, sodium, iron, etc. The fact is that a activity we want to promote. These analyses will
change that tends to increase the mineral salts be of use for us to establish our own indicators
or sulphates in preparation of a same bioprepa- and future measurements of impacts we will
red product may be fatal to the crop, the soil life achieve by increasing the organic practices in
and chemistry. On the other hand, in many cases, the field. “It is better to nourish the soil than to
an excess of these ingredients may paralyse the fertilise the plants”.
microbiological activity of fermentation in the
barrel or plastic recipient, in which the biopre-
paration is being performed.
The ideal thing is to consult or exchange with
other farmers who have more experience in such
practices. Document each experience performed
and you can thus reach your own conclusions on Creativity is one of the
redesigning new formulations. However, modifi- basic tools to create
cations that tend to decrease the recommended utopias, it allows us to
quantity of mineral salts and sulphates, have a redesign rigidity of thought,
lower one or no risk to crops and soil. Finally, making it flexible and possible.
21. May some ingredients be replaced by

others when preparing biofertilisers?
Many of the ingredients that are part of micaxist, carbonatite, phosphate, etc. Another
biofertiliser preparation may not be replaced by alternative is to use calcined and milled animal
others, however similar they are to each other. bones, dehydrated algae, sea shells, fish heads
However, if any are missing, what we can do is and fins, oysters and the shells of crustaceans
to find approximate elements to replace these and seafood, among others. Finally, in many
with others. For example: should there be a lack, cases, calcined bone meal is used as an
or it be impossible to obtain mineral salts or alternative source of minerals, mixed with ash
sulphates, we may use stone meal obtained from from wood stoves and ovens found at rural sites.
serpentinite, basalt, granite, milled limestone, With regard to use of cow dung, this may

be replaced to a certain extent by manure
from rabbits, hamsters or guinea pigs, sheep
and goats. Remember, the fresher the manure,
the better the quality of fermentation and thus
the better quality of the fertilisers we prepare.
On the other hand, dung from a newborn calf
mixed with a little colostrum constitutes the
most revolutionary inoculants to make the best
bioprepared products.
Milk: From experience, there are very rare
cases or places where we have not been able to
obtain this ingredient. However, in places where
we have been able to find whey available, such as
cheese factories, we may use it to replace milk;
moreover, we can go further, as in the event of
being able to replace a quantity of volume of
water with a volume of whey during preparation
of the biofertiliser, we will obtain one of the
best organic biofertilisers to treat crops as the Preparation of biofertilisers using calf dung
final result and may even say that it is the best and pumpkin. Sonora, Mexico.
of biofertilisers, mainly to treat fruit trees and
vegetables.
Sugarcane molasses: It is an ingredient that quantities as well as the actual ingredients of the
farmers easily replace with sugarcane syrup, biofertilisers, we will be producing a new formu-
juice or cane sugar, also called chancaca, gurh lation for experimental use. (We wish you a lot of
or jaggery. Cane juice turned into jaggery is very creativity and good luck!).
rich in glucose, fructose and saccharose in its However, in Addendum No. 5, we discovered
natural state, in addition to containing vitamin the way to prepare a biofertiliser based on nati-
A, thiamin and riboflavin. ve herbs and cow dung to nourish the crops and
reactivate evolution of soil coverage. This new
preparation clearly shows us how we may pre-
pare biofertilisers with the minimal available re-
sources on the peasant farmers’ land. For exam-
ple, when observing a lack of mineral salts, these
Do not forget that whenever modify both the may be replaced by 10 kilos of native herbs, that
must preferably be harvested on the same land
where the biopreparation is to be made.
By nourishing the soil, we
establish savings for the years
come, and by aerial fertilisation
of the crops, we harvest just one day.

Preparing
biofertilisers. State
of Sonora, Mexico.
Producing pumpkin
based biofertilisers.
Municipality of Armería,
State of Colima, Mexico.
22. How must biofertilisers be

packaged and how long may we store them?
Once the biofertilisers are ready and the
Remark
fermentation system is “mature”, the end
Do not forget that, in order to package the bioprep.
product with the characteristics of amber in hermetic receptacles, one must be absolutely sure
colour and pleasant fermentation smell may be the product is not performing fermenting activity,
packaged in receptacles that should preferably as on the contrary there is the risk of the receptacle
be dark, so the light does not affect them, containing the biofermented product exploding due
either of glass or plastic. Another alternative, to gases forming and accumulating (creating an
the most common one, is to leave the product excrement time bomb). (Figures 37A and 37B). In
in the same barrels or drums in which they general terms, once the biofertilisers are decanted, we
were prepared. The time the biofertilisers may recommend not fully closing the lid on the receptacles
be stored can range from 6 months to a year, for the first days, to aid elimination of new gases that
it being best to prepare them according to the may have formed due to possible reactivation of the
fermentation due to movement during the bottling
needs of the crops and plan the volume needed
process.
for each cycle of applications.
Figure 37A.
Tank where they are prepared Figure 37B. Dark receptacles so the light
does not affect the product
CAPACITY
200 LITRES CAPACITY
200 LITRES

23. What crops are biofertilisers most
frequently applied to?
The crops on which biofertilisers are most
frequently used are coffee, fruit trees and Biofertilisers are the easiest
vegetables, at all stages of development, from way to obtain independence
flats, in nurseries, transplants, even while the from the poison based
plants complete their full production cycle in the agro-industry, while harvesting
field. However, application of such bioprepared success with any crop, on any land.
products is gradually increasing with great success
in production of fodder pasture (gramineae and
leguminous) and in the same way for production same time knowing the quality of our soils, is
of staple grain such as maize and beans. Do not basic knowledge that will help us to diagnose
forget that having a better knowledge of the and prepare the most precise nutritional formula
nutritional demands of each crop, and at the required by each soil and crop.
24. Who prepares and uses biofertilisers

most frequently and in what places?
There are very heterogeneous or diverse
groups of farmers or growers who prepare and
apply organic biofertilisers in their agricultural
and husbandry production. However, we may
say that use of bioprepared products is an
increasingly popular activity, due to the results
provided in the short and long term in the hands
of peasants, not only in economic terms, but
also due to their environmental advantages and
protection of natural resources; moreover, they
also protect the health of workers and consumers,
Biofertiliser
who produce and acquire better quality food. preparation.
On the other hand, the constant crises affecting Municipality
farmers, due to instability and lack of serious, of Atotonilco,
State of Jalisco,
clear agrarian policy to support them, state and Mexico.
guild corruption, have led growers to seek other
fairer, more sustainable alternatives to free Finally, the practice of biofertiliser
themselves of the dependence on the “parastate preparation and application, which is thousands
green revolution” that conventional agriculture of years old, is now performed by 75% of the
has caused them, which is highly dependent on smallholder peasant farmers in Latin America,
fluctuations in petroleum prices. and by thousands all around the world.

25. How much does
biofertiliser preparation cost?
It is very difficult to estimate or formulate a fixed economic cost
of preparing biofertilisers, as the characteristics of each property
and the farming activities mean that everything changes according
- among other aspects - to the economic circumstances of each
grower and whether or not the indispensable material resources
to prepare the biofertilisers are available. From the experience we
have accumulated through years of this work, one thing is true, that
biofertilisers are much cheaper and provide better results than the
highly soluble chemical poisons and fertilisers supplied in conven-
International exchange of tional agriculture.
experience in preparing “He who has no dog hunts with a cat”, is a very common saying
biofertillisers between Mexico, heard among peasant farmers in times of great difficulty, when they
Costa Rica and Colombia.
are giving full rein to creativity.
26. May biofertilisers be mixed

and applied with other products?
The best thing is not to randomly mix Another practice that is providing very
biofertilisers with other products or preparations good results is a mixture of sulpho-calcium
at the moment of applying them to the crops, as brew at 3% with the biofertiliser application,
some mixes may alter the original biofertiliser, that is, adding 3 litres of sulpho-calcium brew
turning it into a real headache that may put the to the 100 litres of water plus biofertiliser
crops treated at risk. (100 litres of water + 5 litres of biofertiliser
However, from to practical experience among + 3 litres of sulpho-calcium brew). Another
peasant farmers in Central America and Mexico, way to calculate this application is that
we have observed that it is possible to mix the of adding ½ litre of sulpho-calcium mix
biofertiliser with some natural adherents at the per pump with 20 litres of water with the
moment of application, as we recommended in biofertiliser to be applied (20 litres of water
Addendum No. 1. On the other hand, it is also + 1 litre of biofertiliser + ½ litre of sulpho-
possible to mix urine from animals (cows, sheep, calcium brew). The latter preparation has
etc.) or whey into the biofertilisers at the moment the main purpose of strengthening plant
of application to the plants; the recommended health no resist insect and disease attack
amount is 5%, that is, 5 litres of urine or whey such as cochineals, American leaf spot on
are added to every 100 litres of the mix (water + coffee crops; also provides very good result
biofertiliser), which is equivalent to say we may to control mites and treat fruit trees during
mix 1 litre of urine or whey to each 20 litre pump plant growth, preflowering, after harvest and
of the final mix we wish to apply. (Figure 38). pruning. (Figure 39).

Figure 38
5 litres of sheep or
5 litres of biofertiliser cow urine or whey
cheesecloth or sieve
BIOFERTILISER
1 litre of urine
or whey aloe vera prickly pear
P
SOA
Adherents
SOAP Carpenter’s glue

20 LITRES Powdered soap
PUMP
We may also mix 1 litre of urine

for each 20 litre pump of final mix
Ash Shellac Cane molasses

Figure 39
5 litres of biofertiliser 3 litres of sulpho-calcium
BIOFERTILISER Cheesecloth
or sieve
2
1
1 litre of
biofertiliser
1/2 litre of
sulpho-calcium
brew
20 litres of water plus 1

litre of biofertiliser plus 1/2
PUMP WITH litre of sulpho-calcium mix
20 LITRES
OF WATER

27. Why must we learn
to prepare biofertilisers?
There are many reasons why peasant farmers as the conventional ones that only work
must learn to prepare biofertilisers, among which under optimal climate conditions and depend
we may emphasise: on inputs.
A. Due to the independence the farmers obtain E. Because it is a technology that constantly
in the short term, due to adopting simple improves the natural resources such as: the
techniques they may perform directly in the flora, fauna, soil, water and environment.
field, using local resources generated by the F. Because it is a healthy technology that
plot itself, such as: dung, stubble, ash, bone strengthens the mineral diversity of food
meal, whey, urine, stone meal, etc. through the basket of products available
B. Due to the independence obtained from the to the peasant farmers for their own
input and foreign technology market that consumption; on the other hand, it improves
causes a dependence cycle, such as buying consumer nutrition and health by being able
hybrid seeds, fertilisers and poisons that to buy food that is richer in minerals, proteins
cause major economic vulnerability as their and vitamins, among others.
prices constantly rise. G. Because it is a technology that is based on
C. Due to the efficiency and effectiveness when rediscovering knowledge and on peasant wis-
we consider or measure the productivity dom, to achieve success through sustainabi-
obtained and the effects achieved in the short lity.
term due to the resources invested. H. Because it is a local technology, in the place
D. Because biofertilisers are easy technologies where the farmers have a detailed knowledge
to adapt under difficult conditions in the of the specific characteristics and conditions
field, which may exceed and be as productive of each area.
Results obtained
from biofertiliser
application to the
organic tomato
crop. Comunidad La
Purísima, Atotonilco,
State of Jalisco,
Mexico.

Super Magro
Biofertiliser
(Full formula)
One of the most important things peasant

farmers achieve when they learn to prepare
fermented biofertilisers is being able to
rediscover knowledge and wisdom, to gain
independence from multinational corporations,
input trafficking salesmen, certifiers, universities
and the State, that have manipulated them for
many years, with colonial smoke and mirrors
and technological coloured beads (poisons and
fertilisers).
T
his is a biofertiliser that has revolutionised agriculture in
Latin America since the 1980s.
The way to prepare this biofertiliser was conceived by the
farmer Delvino Magro with support from Sebastião Pinheiro of
Juquira Candirú Satyagraha, in Río Grande Do Sul - Brazil, with
seats in Colombia and Mexico.
Without a patent or intellectual property claims, it is bio-
revolutionising agriculture in Latin America through cow dung
managed by peasant farmers.

Electoral campaign poster offering free chemical fertilisers.
State of Guerrero, Mexico.
Full formula
Super Magro Biofertiliser
Ingredients and steps to prepare it
(anaerobic fermentation system)
Río Grande Do Sul - Brazil
Water (untreated) 180 litres • 1 plastic drum with 200

Cow dung 50 kilos litre capacity
Molasses (or sugarcane juice) 14 (28) litres • 1 plastic drum with 100
Milk (or whey) 28 (56) litres litre capacity
Phosphate rock 2.6 kilos
• 1 plastic bucket with 10
Ash 1.3 kilos litre capacity
1ST STAGE
Zinc sulphate 2 kilos

• 1 piece of hose 1 metre
Calcium chloride 2 kilos long, 3/8 to ½ inch in
Magnesium sulphate 2 kilos diameter
Manganese sulphate 300 grames • 1 bronze or copper
Cobalt chloride 50 grames threaded nipple, 5
Sodium molybdate 100 gramos centimetres long, 3/8 to ½
Sodium borate (Borax) 1.5 kilos inch in diameter
Iron sulphate 300 grames • 1 disposable bottle
Copper sulphate 300 grames • 1 sieve or cheesecloth to
MIXTURE FOR APPLICATION: strain the mixture
2ST STAGE
Biofertiliser 2 to 10 litres • 1 stick to stir the mixture

(prepared in the 1st stage)
Water 100 litres

How to prepare it in the first stage?
1st day. . Place 50 kilos of fresh cow dung, 70 litres of uncontaminated water, 2
litres of milk or 4 litres of milk and 1 litre of molasses or 2 litres of cane juice in the
plastic drum with 200 litres capacity. Stir well until obtaining a homogeneous mixture,
cover and leave to rest for 3 days, protected from the sun and rain. (Figure 40).
Figure 40
1 litre of molasses or 4
litres of cane juice 2 litres of milk or 4
litres of whey
Stir well
70 litres of
uncontaminated
water
50 litres of fresh
cow dung
CAPACITY
200
LITRES
Cover and leave

to rest for 3 days
protected from the
sun and rain

4th day. Dissolve 1 kilo of ZINC SULPHATE, 200 grams of phosphate rock meal or
phosphite and 100 grams of ash in a small plastic bucket with a little warm water (no
more than 60º C). Add 2 litres of milk or 4 litres of whey and 1 litre of molasses or 2
litres of cane juice. Place them in a large drum with 200 litres capacity. Stir very well,
Figure 41
1 litre of molasses or
2 litres of cane juice Stir well
2 litres of milk 100 gr. of

or 4 of whey ash
1 kilo of zinc
sulphate
200 gr. of
phosphate CAPACITY
stone meal or 200
phosphite
LITRES
Warm water, no more Place in the 200 litre

than 60º C drum and stir
Cover and leave

to rest for 3 days
protected from the
sun and rain

7th day. Dissolve 1 kilo of ZINC SULPHATE, 200 grams of phosphate rock meal or
phosphite and 100 grams of ash in a small plastic bucket with a little warm water. Add
2 litres of milk or 4 litres of whey and 1 litre of molasses or 2 litres of cane juice. Place
them in a large drum with 200 litres capacity. Stir very well, cover and leave to rest for
3 days, protected from the sun and rain. (Figure 42).
Figure 42
1 litre of molasses
or 2 litres of cane Stir well
juice
2 litres of
milk or 100 gr. of
4 of whey ash
1 kilo of zinc
sulphate
200 gr. of CAPACITY

phosphate
stone meal or 200
phosphite LITRES
Warm water, no Place in the 200 litre

more than 60º C drum and stir
Cover and leave

to rest for 3 days
protected from the
sun and rain.

10th day. Dissolve 1 kilo of CALCIUM CHLORIDE, 200 grams of phosphate rock
meal or phosphite and 100 grams of ash in a small plastic bucket with a little warm
water. Add 2 litres of milk or 4 litres of whey and 1 litre of molasses or 2 litres of cane
juice. Place them in a large drum with 200 litres capacity. Stir very well, cover and
leave to rest for 3 days, protected from the sun and rain. (Figure 43).
Figure 43
1 litre of
molasses or 2 Stir well
litres of cane
juice
2 litres of milk 100 gr. of
or 4 of whey ash
1 kilo of
calcium
chloride
CAPACITY
200
LITRES
Warm water, no more

Place in the 200
than 60º C
litre drum and stir
Cover and leave to rest

for 3 days protected
from the sun and rain

13th day. Dissolve 1 kilo of MAGNESIUM SULPHATE, 200 grams of phosphate rock
Figure 44
litres of cane juice Stir well
2 litres of milk
100 gr. of ash
or 4 of whey
1 kilo of
magnesium
sulphate
200 gr. of phosphate CAPACITY

stone meal or 200
phosphite
LITRES

Cover and leave

to rest for 3 days
protected from the
sun and rain.

16th day. Dissolve 1 kilo of MAGNESIUM SULPHATE, 200 grams of phosphate rock
Figure 45
2 litres of milk
100 gr. of ash
or 4 of whey
1 kilo of
magnesium
sulphate

stone meal or 200
phosphite
LITRES

Cover and leave

to rest for 3 days
protected from the
sun and rain.

19th day. Dissolve 1 kilo of CALCIUM CHLORIDE, 200 grams of phosphate rock
Figure 46
2 litres of milk
100 gr. of ash
or 4 of whey
1 kilo of calcium
chloride

stone meal or 200
phosphite
LITRES

Cover and leave

to rest for 3 days
protected from the
sun and rain.

22nd day. . Dissolve 300 grams of SULPHATE OF MANGANESE, 200 grams of
phosphate rock meal or phosphite and 100 grams of ash in a small plastic bucket with
a little warm water. Add 2 litres of milk or 4 litres of whey and 1 litre of molasses or 2
litres of cane juice. Place them in a large drum with 200 litres capacity. Stir very well,
Figure 47
2 litres of milk
100 gr. of ash
or 4 of whey
300 grams of
manganese
sulphate
CAPACITY
200 gr. of phosphate
stone meal or 200
phosphite LITRES

Cover and leave

to rest for 3 days
protected from the
sun and rain.

25th day. Dissolve 50 grams of COBALT CHLORIDE, 200 grams of phosphate rock
Figure 48
2 litres of milk
100 gr. of ash
or 4 of whey
50 grams of
cobalt chloride
200 gr. of
phosphate stone CAPACITY
meal or phosphite 200
LITRES

Cover and leave

to rest for 3 days
protected from the
sun and rain.

28th day. Dissolve 100 grams of SODIUM MOLYBDATE, 200 grams of phosphate
rock meal or phosphite and 100 grams of ash in a small plastic bucket with a little
warm water. Add 2 litres of milk or 4 litres of whey and 1 litre of molasses or 2 litres
of cane juice. Place them in a large drum with 200 litres capacity. Stir very well, cover
and leave to rest for 3 days, protected from the sun and rain. (Figure 49).
Figure 49
2 litres of milk
or 4 of whey 100 gr. of ash
100 grams
of sodium
molybdate

stone meal or 200
phosphite
LITRES

Cover and leave

to rest for 3 days
protected from the
sun and rain.

31st day. Dissolve 750 grams of BORAX, 200 grams of phosphate rock meal or
Figure 50
2 litres of milk
or 4 of whey 100 gr. of ash
750 grams of
borax
200 gr. of
meal or phosphite
200
LITRES
Warm water, no more

than 60º C
Cover and leave

to rest for 3 days
protected from the
sun and rain.

34th day. Dissolve 750 grams of BORAX, 200 grams of phosphate rock meal or
Figure 51
2 litres of milk 100 gr. of ash

or 4 of whey
750 grams
of borax
200 gr. of
meal or phosphite
200
LITRES
Warm water, no more

than 60º C
Cover and leave

to rest for 3 days
protected from the
sun and rain.

37th day. Dissolve 300 grams of IRON SULPHATE, 200 grams of phosphate rock
leave to rest for 3 days, protected from the sun and rain.
Figure 52
2 litres of milk
or 4 of whey
300 grams
of iron
sulphate
200 gr. of
meal or phosphite
200
LITRES
Warm water, no more

than 60º C
Cover and leave

to rest for 3 days
protected from the
sun and rain.

40th day. Dissolve 300 grams of COPPER SULPHATE, 200 grams of phosphate rock
juice. Place them in a large drum with 200 litres capacity. Stir very well. Top up the
total volume of the drum with water up to 180 litres, cover and leave to rest for 10 to
15 days, protected from the sun and rain. (Figures 53 and 54).
Figure 53
litres of cane juice
Stir well
2 litres of milk 100 gr. of ash

or 4 of whey
300 grams
of copper
sulphate
200 gr. of
meal or phosphite 200
LITRES
Warm water, no more

than 60º C
Top up with water to 180 litres Cover and leave to rest for 10 to 15 days
protected from the sun and rain.

Figure 54
Ideal temperature 38º C to 40º C
Preparation of
the second stage:
(Mixing for application)
After the last 10 or 15 days resting, the

biofertiliser is ready to be strained and applied
to the crops in doses ranging from 2% to 10%
according to the examples in the table to be
followed: (Figure 55).
Organic tomato production

with biofertiliser treatment
in greenhouse. Atotonilco,
State of Jalisco, Mexico.

Figure 55. Biofertiliser application
New Moon First quarter Full Moon Last quarter
Extensive downstream Extensive downstream

period Extensive upstream period period
Best period
Mejor momentoto apply
para
foliar de
aplicación biofertilisers
biofertlizantes
foliares
2 to 10 litres of
biofertiliser
Strain the
biofertiliser
Biofertilizante
Biofertiliser
After the last 10 or
15 days at rest, it is
ready for straining Cheesecloth 100 litres
and application or sieve of water
1 2
Biofertiliser
+
water
20 litre pump
3 4
Some crops, doses, number of applications and the most appropriate
moment to apply Super Magro biofertiliser
Number of
Crop Dosage % When to spray
applications
Tomato 2 to 5 6 to 8 During the whole crop cycle.
Apple 2 to 4 10 to 12 According to the strain, cycle and climate.
Pear 2 to 4 10 to 12 According to the strain, cycle and climate.
Grape 2 to 4 5 to 8 According to the strain, cycle and climate.
Beetroot 3 to 5 3 to 5 During the whole crop cycle.
Strawberries 2 to 4 6 to 10 During the whole crop cycle.
Peach 2 to 4 8 to 10 According to the strain, cycle and climate.
Coffee 4 to 6 12 to16 During the whole year.
Banana 4 to 8 8 to12 During the whole crop cycle.
Citric 4 to 6 12 to 15 During the whole year.
Potato 5 to 10 6 to 8 During the whole crop cycle.
Vegetables 3 to 5 Variable Variable.
Avocado 2 to 7 8 to 12 During the whole year.
Maize 3 to 5 4 to 6 During the whole crop cycle.
Beans 3 to 5 4 to 6 During the whole crop cycle.
Flats or nursery 2 to 3 2 to 6 During the whole development.
Fruit trees 5 to 7 10 to 15 During the whole production cycle.
Semi-perennial forage 4 to 5 10 to 12 During the whole cycle (after each mowing/grazing).
(Gramineae and leguminous)
Remark
There are no unique recipes. The Super Magro
concept just shows us the innumerable ways that
exist to prepare a biofertiliser, whether enhanced
or not, with some or many mineral salts. More
than recipes, what is valid here is the farmers’
creativity in the field. (Document your results and
prepare new formulations). Do not forget to trans-
mit and discuss your experience with other people
or neighbours.
Preparing mineral enhanced

cow dung cream. Tosepan
Organic Coffee Cooperative,
Cuetzalan, State of Puebla,
Mexico.

Full formula
Chronological table to prepare mineral enhanced
Super Magro biofertiliser
Minerals
Steps Days Ingredients
added
A 200 litre plastic drum.
50 kilos of fresh cow dung.
70 litres of uncontaminated water. ----------
1 1st day
2 litres of milk or whey.
1 litre of molasses or 2 litres of cane juice.
200 grams of phosphate rock.
1 kilo
100 grams of ash.
2 4th day of Zinc
Sulphate.
1 kilo
100 grams of ash.
3 7th day of Zinc
Sulphate.
1 kilo of
100 grams of ash.
4 10th day Calcium
Chloride.
1 kilo of
100 grams of ash.
5 13th day Magnesium
Sulphate.
1 kilo of
100 grams of ash.
6 16th day Magnesium
Sulphate.
1 kilo de
100 grams of ash.
7 19th day Calcium
Chloride.
200 grams of phosphate rock. 300
100 grams of ash. grams of
8 22nd day
2 litres of milk or whey. Manganese
1 litre of molasses or 2 litres of cane juice. Sulphate

Minerals
Steps Days Ingredients
added
200 grams of phosphate rock. 50 grams
100 grams of ash. of Cobalt
9 25th day
2 litres of milk or whey. Sulphate or
1 litre of molasses or 2 litres of cane juice. Chloride.
100 grams
100 grams of ash.
10 28th day of Sodium
Molybdate.
100 grams of ash. 750 grams
11 31st day
2 litres of milk or whey. of Borax.
100 grams of ash. 750 grams
12 34th day
2 litres of milk or whey. of Borax.
300 grams
100 grams of ash.
13 37th day of Iron
Sulphate
100 grams of ash.
1 litre of molasses or 2 litres of cane juice. 300 grams
14 40th day Top up the total volume in the large plastic of Copper
drum to 180 litres and leave to ferment for Sulphate.
10 to 15 days, to then use it on the crops by
foliar application or on the actual soil with
mulch or ground cover.

Reciprocal
relations between
the different
minerals
No microorganism is a pathogen, it
changes to a pathogen when plants are
nutrient deficient. Dr. Ana Primavesi
T
o conclude this chapter, we return in greater depth to the
discussion provided in the introduction to the Manual, which
considers the criticism and limitations of foliar analyses per-
formed in laboratories on soil and plant tissues. The difficulties to
specify the real needs, or to exactly locate the multiple recipro-
cal relations developed between the different minerals in a crop or
plant, are highly complex to allow a real diagnostic of a nutritional
deficiency or disease through laboratory tests, that might guaran-
tee the nutritional success of a crop and thus how to obtain a good
harvest.
In this mixture of concepts, we now provide –among others– some
examples of such reciprocal biochemical, enzymatic and nutritional
relations between the soil, plants, animals, human health and
minerals. Although they are also followed by a linear approach, we
dare to take a step in that sense to leave an open concern regarding
the complexity the soil and plants have internally and externally.
Boron (B)
The plants that need this element most are the Dicotyledons and
a large amount of it has been found in vegetable flowers, mainly
in the stigma and pistil. Most of that micronutrient is found in the
cell walls, while it is also responsible for intensifying growth of the

pollen tubes, for pollen germination, increased on formation of indoleacetic acid for proper
amount of flowers and fruit in the plants. Without production of biomass intended as cattle fodder.
boron, the physiological seed maturing process in Tryptophan is an essential amino acid that
the plants would be deficient. both animals and human beings must find ready
On the other hand, it reduces the oxidation made in their food, as their cell system is unable
fermentation activity and has a major influence to synthesise it, while plant cells are able to do so.
on synthesis and mobilisation of growth Lack of boron in crops may give rise to certain
stimulants in vegetables. The presence of boron diseases, such as:
is indispensable during the whole period of plant • Dry rot in tubers.
life and it is difficult for these to reuse them, • Yellow neck in leguminous plants (alfalfa).
one of the reasons why that element is most • Brown rot in cauliflower.
commonly lacking; above all in the new organs • Dry spots on tobacco.
and growth tips, affecting them to the point of • Cavities and bacteriosis in turnips, etc.
death in many cases. Correction of acid soil by calcareous applica-
Boron improves carbohydrate metabolism in tions fixes the boron, reduces its access and reta-
plants and, at the same time, also influences the ins its penetration in the plants.
protein and nucleic metabolism. Lack of that In calcareous earth, foliar application of bo-
element hinders synthesis, transformation and ron to tuber crops fully combats root heart rot
transport of carbohydrates, forming reproductive and in potato controls blight or the misnamed
organs, fecundation and fruit bearing. According powdery mildew.
to the Shkolnik conception, cited by Pinheiro
(1996), in Dicotyledons, a lack of boron gives
rise to the following alterations in the biological Copper (Cu)
processes: Nearly two thirds of this micronutrient in
• Accumulation of phenols. plant cells may be found in non soluble and
• Phenol inhibitors of auxin oxidase increase combined state. The seeds and meristems are
auxin accumulators. plant structures that are rich in this element
• The nucleic metabolism and protein and 70% of the copper found in the leaves is
biosynthesis are weakened. concentrated in the chloroplasts. The main
• Finally, the cell wall and cell division process physiological function of copper is mainly
begins to break down, followed by darkening completed by its participation in the composition
of the tissues according to the increased of proteins and enzymes, which catalyse phenol
polyphenol penetration in the cytoplasm oxidation and hydrolyse monophenols such as
influenced by their accumulation ortho-diphenol oxidase, poly-phenol oxidase and
tyrosinase
The main physiological role of boron in plants The most studied enzyme is cytochrome
is its participation in the metabolism of auxins oxidase and it is supposed that the copper and
and phenol compounds, regulation of the amount iron in cytochrome oxidase enter the active centre
of such substances apparently being its main of the enzyme. Plastocyanin (copper-containing
biological function. protein) carries out very important functions in
This element is intimately related to the plants: for example, nearly half of all the copper
tryptophan content as an essential amino acid in found in the leaves of a series of plants is found in
alfalfa crops, and that has a direct repercussion plastocyanin form. Lack of copper in plants has

a negative effect on the activity by the enzymes Lack of copper in crops causes a decrease
that contain that element. in growth, chlorosis, loss of water, plant
Copper fulfils specific nitrogen metabolism dehydration, flowering retention and loss of the
functions, by entering into the composition crop. For example, a major copper deficit in
of nitrite-reductase enzymes, hyponitrite- grain causes the tips and leaves to whiten and
reductase and nitrogen oxide reductase. Due the ears fail to develop properly (white blight). A
to the influence of copper on biosynthesis of lack of copper in apple orchards causes ”canopy
leghemoglobin an on the activity of a series of drought”. Acid soil amendment using calcareous
enzymatic systems, this element reinforces the substances reduces copper penetration to the
process of molecular nitrogen fixing from the plants due to fixing it into the soil, where the
atmosphere and assimilation of nitrogen from calcareous substance acts as a copper absorbent.
the soil and fertilisers.
The literature records an increased
resistance by the chlorophyll-protein complex Manganese (Mn)
in the presence of action by copper, as well as The greatest amount of this micronutrient
recording reduction in destruction of chlorophyll is mainly concentrated or localised in the plant
in the dark, at the same time as it has a general leaves and chloroplasts. Its role is very important
positive action throughout the whole process of in decrease and reduction from nitrates to nitrites
turning green in all plants. and in protein synthesis.
According to the auxin deactivation by the en- Manganese belongs to the metal group with
zyme polyphenol oxidase, that contains copper, it high oxidoreduction potential and that may easily
limits the inhibiting action on increasing the high participate in biological oxidation reactions.
doses of these growth substances in plants. Direct participation by manganese in
Black pigmentation (melanin), is formed photosynthesis is proven and reestablishment of
by oxidation of the amino acid tyrosine, that the speed of the whole photosynthesis process
has copper in its composition. Absence of the has been demonstrated 20 minutes after having
enzyme causes albinism and, on the other hand, added this element to plants lacking in it. On the
blackening of potatoes, apple, etc. If these are other hand, it participates throughout the whole
dented or mishandled, the colour charge is also oxygen segregation system and in photosynthesis
caused by tyrosine. reduction reactions.
As is known, ethylene is responsible for Manganese increases the sugar content,
retaining tissue differentiation, inhibit cell the chlorophyll content and the solidity of the
division, DNA synthesis and plant growth. On the protein bond, improves the sugar flow back and
other hand, in order for ethylene biosynthesis to reinforces plant respiration intensity.
exist, the presence of copper is crucial. To better understand the physiological role
Reducing the content of phenol inhibiting of manganese, it is important to point out that
substances in the plant causes the stalks to this element is a constituent part of the enzyme
become spindly and the crops thus bend over. hydroxylamine-reductase, which generates the
Thanks to the regulating action of copper hydroxylamine reaction to produce ammonia,
on phenol type growth inhibitors, the crops are and the assimilation enzyme that performs
strengthened and resist bending over. On the carbon dioxide reduction during photosynthesis.
other hand, copper increases plant resistance to Manganese plays an important role in acti-
drought, frost and heat. vating many reactions, including transformation

of carbonic diacid and triacid formed during the and in the leaves and mainly accumulates in the
respiration process. Manganese is assumed to chloroplasts, which contain more molybdenum
enter into composition of the enzyme that synthe- than the stalks and roots. The lower limit of
sises ascorbic acid and it is a part that also cons- molybdenum content is considered to be 0.10
titutes the following enzymes: mg/kg in the dry mass, for the majority of plants
malate-dehydrogenase and 0.4 mg for leguminous ones. Under these
isocitrate dehydrogenase limits, lack of the element may possibly become
hydroxylamine-reductase apparent in the crops. For example, on average,
glutamyltransferase and ferrodoxin. a wheat crop may extract up to 6 grams of
At present, there are 23 known complexes of molybdenum per hectare and one of clover may
meta-enzymes that are activated by manganese. extract up to 10 grams.
Manganese plays an essential role in the me- Molybdenum in plants enters the composition
chanism of indoleacetic acid as a cell growth of the nitrate reductase enzyme and is a crucial
activator. Manganese is notably necessary as a component in the chain to reduce nitrates to
factor of the auxin-reductase enzyme to for en- nitrites. Molybdenum may not be called a
zymatic destruction of indoleacetic acid. Along microelement of plant nitrogen metabolism, as it
with calcium, this element contributes to selec- is present in the composition of the nitrogenase,
tive absorption of ions when exposed outdoors. which is the enzyme that performs the process
In the event of manganese being excluded of biological fixing of the atmospheric nitrogen.
from the plant nutritional medium, the concen- This phenomenon explains the most particular
tration of the main elements of general nutrition importance of this for balanced growth and
rises in the plant tissues and the correlation of development, mainly of leguminous plants.
elements in the nutritional balance is weakened. Various research has proven that a lack
There is data on the favourable influence of of molybdenum in the nutritional media of
manganese on phosphorous transport from the plants weakens the process of their nitrogen
adult lower leaves toward the top leaves and metabolism, accumulating a considerable
toward the reproductive organs. This micronu- quantity of nitrites in their tissues. On the other
trient increases the power of the tissues to retain hand, under the influence of this element, the
water, reduces transpiration, accelerates vege- nodules of leguminous crops intensify activity
table development and influences plant fruiting. by the dehydrogenase enzymes, which guarantee
Acute lack of manganese causes cases of total permanent flow of the hydrogen required to fix
lack of fruiting in radish, cabbage, tomato, peas nitrogen from the atmosphere.
and other crops. Molybdenum participates actively in a series
Finally, lack of manganese is apparent in ve- of physiological processes in plants, such as
getables as a feature of chlorosis; in gramina- biosynthesis of nucleic acids and photosynthesis,
ceae there is an ashen stain and in sugar-beet it etc. Molybdenum, beyond conditioning
causes “variegated jaundice”. improvement of nitrogenated nutrition in crops,
raises efficiency of the advantage taken of plant
available phosphorus and potassium based
Molybdenum (Mo) fertilisers, increasing the crop, as well as their
This micronutrient is necessary for plants in protein content. Application of this micronutrient
lower amounts than boron, magnesium, zinc and to non leguminous crops strengthens nitrogen
copper. It accumulates in new growing tissues assimilation of many organic fertilisers and in

the soil. It also drastically reduces nitrogen loss this element are recorded in poisonous fungi. To
due to denitrification and nitrate leaching, which maintain a certain degree of stabilisation of res-
is proven in research with vegetables and cotton. piration in plants, which may be altered by sharp
In acid soil, it is very common to observe changes in temperature, zinc increases their re-
the sensitivity of many crops to the lack of sistance to cold and heat.
molybdenum, among which we may emphasise There is a lot of data that relates the influence
beans, cabbage, lettuce, tubers, turnip, spinach, of zinc to use of phosphorus by plants. For exam-
alfalfa and clover, among others. ple, plants lacking in zinc show high concentra-
The external symptoms leguminous plants tions of inorganic phosphorus and plants do not
have due to the lack of this element are quite manage to use it in a balanced way. However, af-
similar to those that arise when the plants show ter adding minimum doses of nutritional zinc so-
nitrogen deficiency. Plant growth is sharply lution to the plants, in a balanced manner, their
halted and the root nodules do not develop, they use of phosphorus returns to normal. There is also
acquire a yellow colour, the limbs are deformed research that shows the variation in accumulation
and the leaves wither precociously. of phosphorus by the roots and a delay in its trans-
Molybdenum is generally found in oxidised port in the overhead bodies under the influence of
form in the soils, as calcium molybdate, and in the lack of zinc, or due to this being fixed by the
other metals, such as iron and manganese, while phosphorus compounds present in the soils. Lack
in alkaline earth it forms fairly soluble compounds of zinc causes a delay in transformation of inorga-
such as sodium molybdate. The amount of the nic to organic phosphates.
hydrosoluble forms of molybdenum increases as Zinc is of major importance in biosynthesis
the acidity of the solution in the soils is lowered. of chlorophyll precursors and photosynthesis. At
The capacity of the plant to absorb this present, more than 30 enzymes containing zinc
micronutrient increases with lime application are known, it being an integral part of these. For
in the earth, although with a pH of 7.5 to 8.0, example, the enzyme carbohydrase that participa-
it begins to be lowered due to the increase in tes in respiration, contains 0.31 to 0.34% of zinc.
calcium carbonate content. On the other hand, this micronutrient enters the
composition of alkaline phosphatase, malato-de-
Nickel (Ni) hydrogenase, etc. About twenty metallic enzyme
complexes are also activated in plants by zinc.
It is a cofactor of urease, the enzyme that
Vegetables with a lack of zinc accumulate re-
breaks down urea (an animal waste product and
duced sugars and their saccharose and starch con-
biofertiliser source).
tent is decreased. The accumulation of organic
acids is increased and the auxin content reduced;
Zinc (Zn) protein synthesis is altered, also showing an ac-
Necessary in DNA polymerase. It is charac- cumulation of non protein soluble compounds of
terised as an integral part of many enzymes that nitrogen, such as amino acids and amides.
act at metabolic level of auxins and in synthe- Lack of zinc in plants also sharply inhibits
sis of nucleic acids. Adventitious plants are cha- cell division by two to three times, which leads to
racterised by having higher zinc content than morphological changes in the leaves, alters cell
cultivated ones. On the other hand, conifers are dilation and tissue differentiation; the meriste-
characterised by their high content in this ele- mic cells hypertrophy.
ment; likewise, the highest concentrations of In some plants, the longitudinal dilation of the

style cells is oppressed, while the dimensions of the node reproduction.
chloroplasts decrease. There is a proven need of cobalt in luminous
The plants that are most sensitive to a deficit in plants and some grain such as wheat. The positive
this element are mainly fruit trees, above all citric, effect of cobalt is revealed, firstly, in earth well
apple, apricots, peaches, cherries, etc. Other crops supplied with other elements of mineral nutrition,
such as maize and tomato are also sensitive to a that have a reaction near to neutral.
lack of zinc. Delayed growth due to lack of this It is highly important to use cobalt to increase
element is a characteristic of all vegetables. the nutritional value of the production as a
result of increased content in the plants. It is
Cobalt (Co) proven that if the cobalt content in dry fodder
is less than 0.07 mg/kg, the animals suffer from
Essential for nitrogenase, the enzyme acobaltosís , due to which obligatory treatment
complex that prokaryotes use to fix nitrogen. of the meadows with biofertilisers or stone meal
In vegetables, nearly 50% of the cobalt is containing it in regions where that micronutrient
maintained in ionic form and nearly twenty is lacking.
per cent in cobalaminic compounds such as in
composition of vitamin B12, which is synthesised
by microorganisms in the earth and penetrates Iron (Fe)
plants or is formed in the nodes of nitrogen This is an integral part of enzymes and is used
fixing plants. Cobalt is also found located in by the cytochromes to transport electrons. The
the generative organs, is accumulated in pollen presence of this element is basic in photosynthe-
and accelerates their germination. This element sis, respiration and fixing nitrogen. In spite of the
is mainly found in leguminous, cruciferous and presence of this element having been discovered
lilaceous plants. in plants in 1705 by Geoffrey, it was Lemery who
Cobalaminic enzymes participate directly studied absorption of the iron present in the earth
in DNA synthesis and in cell division. Cobalt by plants through their roots. Plants lacking in
participation in the methylation reaction iron are characterised by acute chlorosis among
has a great importance for many processes, the leaf nerves, quite similar to that caused by
especially those that increase plant resistance lack of magnesium. In young plants, this element
against certain diseases. For example, the is scarcely mobile, perhaps because it is precipi-
agent fusariosis (Fusarium sp.) prepares a toxin tated as an insoluble oxide or in the form of orga-
called fusaric acid, although with methylation in nic and inorganic phosphates. Once an iron atom
plants it forms the derivative mythyl amide, that has been included in an organ, its distribution is
prevents the pathogenic agent from progressing. extremely limited in the plant. There is no clear
There are a series of research papers that state knowledge of the reasons why a lack of iron leads
the links between cobalt and auxin metabolism to swift inhibition of chlorophyll formation, in
and, at the same time, point out contribution spite of the issue having been studied with great
by this micronutrient to dilation of the cell attention. Iron is an essential activator for one or
membranes. more enzymes that catalyse the reactions invol-
Cobalt is crucial for leguminous plants; it ved in synthesis of this pigment.
alters the nitrogen fixing structure, making the It is an essential element, both for pho-
bacteroids operate actively for a longer time, tosynthetic cells, as well as for organisms that
achieving a major positive influence of bacteria lack chlorophyll. It forms part of the cytochro-

me molecule, that act as electron transporters in nutritional state, but rather possibly that a part
photosynthesis and respiration. of the iron in the plants is absorbed, inactivated,
It also forms an essential part of another precipitated or confined in compartments where
photosynthetic electron transporter called it cannot fulfil specific, normal functions.
ferrodoxin and perhaps forms part of nitro- The examples considered here show us the
reductase, one of the enzymes involved in need to recover the importance of misnamed
reducing nitrates to ammonium ions. microelements in healthy plant development. It
In cytochomes and ferrodoxin, the iron is is becoming necessary to purge the castrated
reduced and oxidised, from ferrous iron to ferric academic idea the agronomists have, that only
iron and vice-versa, shown in nitroreductase. On emphasise the commercial importance of some
the other hand, iron also acts as an activator of misnamed “highly soluble essential or macro
other enzymes. nutrients” among which nitrogen, phosphorus
In calcareous earth, some plants have iron and potassium occupied the little space available
chlorosis problems. The most simple theory in the technicians’ minds. Many elements are
to explain this phenomenon points out that essential for plant health, not precisely due
calcium carbonate in the earth makes the iron to their quantity and industrial solubility, but
so insoluble that the plants do not manage to rather due to their presence in biochemical
absorb sufficient amounts. However, in plants reactions, which take place inside the plants
that form this type of chlorosis, iron content has as well as in their external world, when their
been found that is the same as or twice as great symbiotic and nutritional relations interact with
as that found in normal plants without chlorosis. the soil microbiology through the rhizosphere.
That shows it is not the quantity of iron present
in the plants that determines the balanced

Each plot is a school, each farmer
is a master of his knowledge and each
tool or technology must only be considered
a versatile instrument to work with, that
shall only be effective by adapting it to each
cultural, social, economic and local condition.
“Compounds”
Finally, in her writings on the reciprocal and disease attack. In turn, copper contributes
relations between minerals in plant nutrition considerably to zinc and manganese availability,
more than fifty years ago, Dr. Ana Primavesi so when it is not present in the plants, the crop
provides us a very good illustration of that shows a deficiency of both minerals. In this case,
complexity through some details: “Compounds”, zinc deficiency is generally predominant; but in
as she calls it, are a set or association of elements fact, what is missing from the crop is potassium.
whose reciprocal relations are responsible for all This description of the chained reactions
the difficulties or problems in plant nutrition. For between the minerals shows us the reason why
example, she mentions that lack of potassium one deficiency may be cured by application of a
in a plant decreases the solubility of boron an highly different element to that believed to be the
phosphorus to a great extent, causing an acute most important. These phenomena are those that
deficiency of those elements, that in turn boron make the case of nutritional deficiencies a great
is an essential element for proper distribution of mystery in the nature of the plant and animal
phosphorus in the plant. On the other hand, lack world.
of potassium causes a false, undesired calcium Now we are only able to understand why
and magnesium excess, causing a very acute examination by chemical and biological
magnesium deficiency, causing signs of cattle laboratories that analyse soil may rarely
tetany. Boron has a very strong bond to copper, provide satisfactory results when managed by
which is a crucial element for plant vigour and agronomists who are never in contact with the
resistance, that gradually loses its turgency, earth to observe and feel the sensation of life
becoming flexible and highly susceptible to insect tingling through their feet.

Figure 56. Manifestation of a deficiency in an element of the crop may often be apparent,
mainly due to the constant reciprocal relations of existing minerals in solution in the
soil or plant plasma.

Sundry
preparations
The worker who no longer weaves

his own clothes, builds his own
house and makes his own tools,
who becomes a buyer of industrial
clothes, cement beams and tractors,
can no longer be satisfied.
Iván Illich
Leonardite based preparations to

regenerate degraded soil
Leonardite is a sort of charcoal transformed into a very old
mineral, that holds or encloses the biological memory of everything
that covered the earth approximately 300 million years ago, so it
has suffered physical, chemical and microbiological transformations
over time, giving rise to a multiple diverse richness in minerals and
humic acid for us in organic production at very low costs.
Preparation of potassium hydroxide

based leonardite *
• Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 litres
• Leonardite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 kilos
• Potassium hydroxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 kilos
• Plastic drum or receptacle with lid and
capacity of 200 litres.
Note: The mathematical calculations may be performed proportionally to prepare a larger or smaller
amount.
* This preparation is also known as hydrolysed leonardite.

How is it prepared? apron and protecting your eyes with industrial
The first thing to do is to dissolve the 4 kilos safety goggles, and your hands with good rubber
of potassium hydroxide gradually in a part of gloves. As the product is very caustic, careless
the water in the plastic receptacle where the handling may cause skin injuries.
preparation is to remain definitively. Then
gradually add the 25 kilos of leonardite with How is it applied?
the remaining water, until making up the total Due to its original nature, this preparation is
volume recommended for the formulation. Both very versatile, mainly for application to highly
when adding the potassium hydroxide to the degraded land and that which has suffered com-
receptacle, as well as the leonardite with water, the paction by heavy machinery. On the other hand,
preparation must be stirred slowly and constantly when applications of this product are accompa-
with a wood stick, until obtaining a homogeneous nied by taking advantage of stubble from pre-
mix, that shall become viscous and with a very vious crops on the same ground, its regeneration
bright black colour. Finally, the receptacle is potential in the biological, chemical and physi-
covered and left to rest. Approximately every cal aspects may be observed shortly after on the
12 hours, the receptacle where the preparation land. The amounts applied may range from 3%
is kept must be uncovered and lightly stirred to 6%, due to the degraded conditions of the
with the wood stick for about 5 minutes in order ground. No-till, crop guilds, mulching or cover
to achieve a properly homogeneous mix. After crops and intercropping with the main crop are
approximately three days or 72 hours, the full among the practices which are the best allies for
process will be complete. application of leonardite based preparations.
Precautionary measures
During the whole process of handling this
product, we recommend using a full-body plastic
Biofertiliser
application in flower
growing, without any
special protection
because it is not
necessary.

Forest species (cedar) production by applying organic bioprep.
Hacienda Santa Cruz, Espita, Yucatán, México.
Leonardite tea preparation using fresh cow dung

• Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 litres
• Hydrolysed leonardite* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 litres
• Fresh cow dung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 kilos
• Cane molasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 litres
• Plastic receptacle or drum and
*Hydrolysed leonardite refers to the end product obtained from the above formulation.
¿ How is it prepared? parts of the crop; it is a bioprepared product

All the ingredients are mixed in the 200 litre that mainly helps to re-establish the vegetative
plastic receptacle and stirred with a wooden development of perennial fruit trees that have
stick for approximately 5 minutes until obtaining suffered any kind of stress due to sudden climate
a homogeneous mix. changes, after harvest or sanitary pruning. The
efficiency of the formulation may improve when
How is it applied? the mixture is enriched with 10 litres of whey
Straight after the mix is prepared, it is and left to ferment anaerobically for a term
strained and immediately applied to the aerial of 30 days, to then be applied in the dosages
recommended above.

Preparation of volcanic ashes based on potassium hydroxide
• Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 litres
• Volcanic ash*. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 kilos
• Potassium hydroxide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 kilos
Note: The proportional mathematical calculations may be performed to prepare a greater or lesser amount.
*Volcanic ash: Very easy to obtain on the skirts of volcanoes; within the possibilities, one may mix with a part of red tezontle meal.
How is it prepared? How is it applied?

The first thing to do is gradually dissolve the Once the waiting time for the product to be
4 kilos of potassium hydroxide in a very resistant ready has elapsed, it may be applied to the aerial
plastic drum with a part of the formula water. parts of the crops, in a proportion of 2 to 3 litres
Then gradually add in the 25 kilos of volcanic per 100 litres of water; to improve its adherence
ash to the remaining water, until completing the and nutritional response in the crops, a further
total recommended volume. Both when adding 2 litres of molasses may be added to the mix.
potassium hydroxide, as well as the volcanic ash The product must be strained, mainly using a
to the receptacle with water, the preparation plastic material strainer. The remaining part of
must be stirred slowly and constantly with a the product is left in the original receptacle and
wood stick, until obtaining a homogeneous mix, covered. Above all, it must be protected from the
that shall become viscous and with a very bright rain and sun under the shade of some trees. It
black colour. Finally, the receptacle is covered is quite common to recommend this preparation
and left to rest. Approximately every 12 hours for fruit development, once all the trees have
the receptacle where the preparation is kept must completed the process of setting fruit; on the
be uncovered and lightly stirred with the wood other hand, it is also recommended to apply
stick for about 5 minutes, in order to achieve a this mix for vegetative development of fruit
properly homogeneous mix. The whole hydrolysis trees in nurseries, although changing the dosage
process is completed after approximately a week applied to 1%, that is, every 100 litres have 1
or 10 days. litre of bioprep mixed in. In the specific case of
avocado production, it is highly compatible with
Precautionary measures simultaneous application of Bordeaux brew and
During the whole process of handling this Super Magro biofertiliser.
product, we recommend using a full-body plastic
apron and protecting your eyes with industrial
safety goggles, and your hands with good rubber
gloves, as the product is very caustic and careless
handling may cause skin burns.

Hydrolysed humus tea preparation
• Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 litres
• Humus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 kilos
• Potassium hydroxide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 kilos

The first thing to do is to dissolve the 4 kilos Once the waiting time for the product to be
of potassium hydroxide gradually in a part of ready has elapsed, it may be applied to the aerial
the water in the plastic receptacle where the parts of the crops, in a proportion of 2 to 3 litres
preparation is to remain definitively. Then per 100 litres of water; to improve its adherence
gradually add the 50 kilos of humus with the and nutritional response in the crops, a further
remaining water, until making up the total volume 2 litres of cane molasses may be added to the
recommended for the formulation. Both when mix. The product must be strained, mainly using
adding the potassium hydroxide to the receptacle, a plastic material strainer. The remaining part
as well as humus with water, the preparation of the product is left in the original receptacle
must be stirred slowly and constantly with a and covered. Above all, it must be protected
wood stick, until obtaining a homogeneous mix, from the rain and sun under the shade of some
that shall become viscous and with a very bright trees. As with the previous preparation, it is
black colour. Finally, the receptacle is covered quite common to recommend this preparation
and left to rest. Approximately every 12 hours for fruit development, once all the trees have
the receptacle where the preparation is kept must completed the process of setting fruit; on the
be uncovered and lightly stirred with the wood other hand, it is also recommended to apply this
stick for about 5 minutes in order to achieve a mix for vegetative development of fruit trees in
properly homogeneous mix. The whole hydrolysis nurseries, although changing the dosage applied
process is completed after approximately a three to 1%, that is, every 100 litres have 1 litre of
days or 72 hours. bioprep. mixed in.
In the specific case of coffee and citrus tree
Precautionary measures growing, the product is highly compatible with
During the whole process of handling this simultaneous application of sulpho-calcium brew
product, we recommend using a full-body plastic and Super Magro biofertiliser.
apron and protecting your eyes with industrial
safety goggles, and your hands with good rubber
gloves. As the product is very caustic, careless
handling may cause skin burns.

Preparation of fresh cow dung cream with sulphates
• Fresh cow dung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 litres
• Whey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 litres
• Molasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 litres
• Sulphates*
• Straw or stubble, well dried and milled**
*Sulphates: These are the same and in the same quantities recommended with preparation of Super Magro biofertiliser. However,
experiment with new ingredients and measures. Record and share new experiences with other farmers or growers.
**Straw or stubble, well dried and milled: This material is used at the end of the preparation, in order to withdraw excess humidity
from the bioprep for packing or long term storage.

The purpose of this preparation is to reduce Application of this product is highly practical,
the volume of water used in some biomixes and to by mixing 2 to 3 kilos of the prepared product for
maximise the volume of the receptacles; mainly every 100 litres of water and enhancing with 2
when there are financial difficulties to acquire litres of cane molasses. It is most efficient when
them and transport large volumes of liquids in for aerial spraying and this must be performed in
some rural areas. The procedure to make the the early morning hours, or late afternoon when
preparation is very simple; the sulphates are the sun is going down. Another way to prepare
initially mixed with 5 litres of whey and the 3 the mix to be applied is the tea system, that is,
litres of molasses, then poured or stirred with 4 hours prior to application, the product may be
150 kilos of fresh cow dung (that are in the 200 submerged in a cotton bag in the middle of 100
litre capacity receptacle). A homogeneous mix litres of water, into which 2 litres of molasses
of the bioprep is obtained using a wooden stick, have previously been dissolved.
then being ready to cover. It should preferably
be covered with a piece of mosquito netting
or shade net, which is attached with a piece
of rubber or tied down with a piece of string.
The “fermentation” process is aerobic. After 30
days, the cream is ready to be mixed with one
or two bushels of well dried and milled stubble
in order to withdraw the excess humidity from
the bioprepared product. It is left to dry out in
the shade, milled and packed into plastic bags, or
until it can be put back into the receptacle where
it was prepared. The presentation of this product
is semi-dry, with a lot of fibre and a little powder.

Preparation of fresh cow dung cream
with volcanic red tezontle
• Fresh cow dung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 kilos
• Volcanic red tezontle meal*. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 kilos
• Whey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 litres
• Molasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 litres
• Straw or stubble, well dried and milled **
• Plastic drum or receptacle with lid and
capacity of 200 litres
*Tezontle: This is a red extrusive volcanic rock, that has highly porous pumice stone format in most cases; compact versions are
sometimes found, mixed with a large diversity of sand and magma grains. Its chemical composition is quite similar to that of basalt
and ferro-magnesium elements and calcium and zinc elements are outstanding. For use in this formulation, it is recommended to mill
it talcum fine to maximise its composition and effectiveness in the formulation. In that case, use it to replace sulphate use.
**Straw or stubble, well dried and milled: This material is used at the end of the preparation, to withdraw the excess humidity from
the bioprep for packaging or long term storage.
How is it prepared?
is left to dry out in the shade, milled and packed
The purpose of this preparation is to reduce into plastic bags, or until it can be put back into
the volume of water used in some biomixes and to the receptacle where it was prepared. The pre-
maximise the volume of the receptacles, mainly sentation of this product is semi-dry, with a lot
when there are financial difficulties to acquire of fibre and a little powder.
them in some country regions. The preparation
procedure is very simple, as it starts by mixing
10 kilos of tezontle talcum with 5 litres of whey How is it applied?
and 3 litres of molasses; then this is mixed into Application of this product is highly practical,
the 150 kilos of fresh cow dung (that are in the by mixing 2 to 3 kilos of the prepared product for
200 litre receptacle). The bioprep is mixed to every 100 litres of water and enhancing with 2
homogeneous using a wooden stick, then being litres of cane molasses. It is most efficient when
ready to cover. It should preferably be covered for aerial spraying and this must be performed in
with a piece of mosquito netting or shade net, the early morning hours, or late afternoon when
that is attached with a piece follow rubber or tied the sun is going down. Another way to prepare
on with a length of string. The “fermentation” the mix to be applied is the tea system, that is,
process is aerobic. After 30 days, the cream is 4 hours prior to application, the product may be
ready to be mixed with one or two bushels of well submerged in a cotton bag in the middle of 100
dried and milled stubble in order to withdraw the litres of water, into which 2 litres of molasses
excess humidity from the bioprepared product. It have previously been dissolved.

Biofertiliser preparation using fresh newborn
calf dung and pumpkin
• Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 litres
• Whey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 litres
• Cane molasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 litres
• Fresh calf dung* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 kilos
• Pumpkin** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 kilos
• Prawn shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 kilos
• Stone meal (milled tezontle). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 kilos
• Brewer’s yeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 grams
• Cotton bag or sack *** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 piece
• Plastic drum or receptacle, transparent white colour, with lid
and 1000 litres.
*Fresh newborn calf dung: This is the best tool for specific microbiological inoculation of the pumpkin bioprep., to reconstruct
physically deteriorated and biologically exhausted soils.
**Pumpkin: Due to the high content in carotene and other components, it is the best quality raw material, the most common and
cheaply available to farmers.
***A cotton bag or sack: This is used to “teabag” the prawn shells and place them in the bioprep fermenting tank.
How is it prepared? beginning to use it to regenerate the exhausted

First step: Crush or finely mill the 100 kilos of soils.
pumpkin and deposit them in the plastic tank or
container where the bioprepared product is to be How is it applied?
left definitively. Pumpkin biofertiliser is mainly used to
Second step: Mix the whey, molasses, yeast, rebuild soil that is physically deteriorated and
stone meal and calf dung well. biologically exhausted by the impact of industrial
Third step: Immediately place all the mixed agriculture. Application is performed directly
ingredients inside the plastic container and stir to the soil, mixing 5 to 10 litres of bioprepared
them for 5 minutes with a wooden stick. product in 100 or 200 litres of water. The best
Fourth step: Put the blanket or cotton bag with thing to apply the mix is for the soil to have some
the prawn shells inside (optional), which may coverage with organic materials in the process of
be tied and float like a teabag in the container decomposition, or at least to have a mulch type
where the other bioprep ingredients are placed. coverage, in order to maximise retention and
Fifth step: Cover the container opening with a more lasting effects. The number of applications is
piece of mosquito net or very fine mesh, in order varied and is subject to the different observations
for the fermentation to take place aerobically, made while monitoring the work in the field.
while it is protected from insect invasion, dirt
and other undesirable elements.
Sixth step: Wait for the fermentation to take
place for a minimum period of 30 days, then

Preparation of fresh cow dung with boron, molasses
and whey, to grow alfalfa
• Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 litres
• Whey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 litres
• Fresh cow dung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 kilos
• Cane molasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 litros
• Stone meal (tezontle) or ash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 kilos
• Borax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 kilos
• Brewer’s yeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 grams
• Plastic drum or receptacle with lid and capacity
of 1000 litres. Anaerobic, Super Magro style fermentation sys-
tem.
How is it prepared? this preparation for all crops to boost flowering

Preparation of this bioprep is performed fo- and budding. On the other hand, as this bioprep
llowing the same procedure as recommended is enhanced by a molybdenum and cobalt rich
to prepare Super Magro biofertiliser. At least source of minerals, it becomes an excellent ba-
30 days fermentation time is required before lanced source of nutrition, mainly for all crops in
applying the product in the field. the leguminous family.
How is it applied?
After the waiting time for the product to be
ready, it may be applied to the aerial parts of the
crops, in a proportion of 2 to 3 litres per 100 li-
tres of water; to improve its adherence and nutri-
tional response in the crops, 2 litres of cane mo- Note
lasses may be added again. The product must be If you want to apply preparations using leonardite,
strained, mainly using a plastic material sieve. humus, sulphates and volcanic ash, while also thinking
The remaining part of the product is left in the of applying sulpho-calcium brew, up to two ingre-
original receptacle and covered. It must mainly dients may be mixed together, in order to maximise
be protected from the rain and sun in the shade the cost of spraying the products on the crops.
of some trees. It is very common to recommend

Tomato production with organic fertiliser. Atotonilco, State of Jalisco, Mexico.
Humans we still have a long path to learn what is perfect

biogeoevolution, endosymbiosis and mineral restoration
in the context of natural ecosystems; that path would be
shorter if we were to become convinced, for once and for all,
that agriculture is a human invention that disturbs the whole
divine nature of natural laws of life, previously established
before any evolutional signs of the insignificant human species.
Do not forget, the purpose of this publication hand to an agricultural sector that increasingly
is to share and show the possibility of performing concentrates more land and capital. The sole
agriculture from the field using the resources present function of the Government, as regards
farmers and growers have to hand. Here, the agricultural policy, is just to make life impossible
most important thing is to shorten the path to the and suppress any creative initiative among
technological understanding, something lacking the peasant farmers who still survive in the
more due to the absence of some knowledge and countryside, those who design and build their
castration of wisdom, than to lack of money. own tools and technologies of re-existence and
Destruction of knowledge and the tortuous biopower.
approach to the rural environment have mainly “I feel sorry for the professors who wisely
been carried out by Agricultural Engineers and though they were teaching me something when I
universities, which allied themselves with the spent five years at university studying Agronomy,
multinational corporations, totally betraying as the only thing I learned from them was how
the peasant farming sector. In addition to that useless a person may be for humanity when
circumstance, there is the inept, inoperative, the scope of his “universe” is to commute from
corrupt, servile State that has acted as right home to the university to present or parrot the

Organic chilli production using biofertilisers, mineral mixtures and bocashi.
Hacienda Santa Cruz, Espita, Yucatán, Mexico.
agricultural technology theory imposed by the that is supposed to encourage thinking, protect
industry and its henchman the State over and knowledge and respect the sacred, to stimulate
over for more than 20 years. They never had any contemplation and dreams, is now a sort of
practical experience of this, nor relation with cavern where one persecutes, silences and
the existential needs of the most humble peasant kidnaps the voice of beings who wish to found
farmers. The only thing they have done with universal liberty. University imposes, deforms
their academic recommendations is to tighten and lies to itself, kills any creative initiative and
the bonds with a few firms that peddle poison roots out any place where utopian thought and
and other agricultural inputs to destroy life and difference may seek refuge.
nature in the name of technological progress The century of dehumanisation has gained
and easy profit. Along with this reality, there is an advantage, so any garage door, public or
the brutal systematic deceit that students are private school, with official backing and false
subjected to, in order to destroy any utopia or certifications, may become a globalised university
dream they may attempt to create within any lecture hall; any gang of speculators may claim
university compound or space”. to be qualified and in appropriate mental health
University has become a prison, a dying one, to provide educational services, as there is a sole
as the almost lifeless students with no clear slogan and aim: to consolidate construction of
direction wander like sleepwalkers through monolithic thought in the mediocre, obedient
the dark, dank halls reminiscent of jails and minds of conscienceless consumers.
cemeteries. It is indeed strange that a place

Addenda
Addendum 1
List of alternative materials that
may be used as adherents to apply
biofertilisers and mineral brews
Figure 57
Amount used for
Alternative materials every 100 litres of 5 litres of 3 litres of sulpho-
biofertiliser calcium brew
the mix
Prickly pear or Nopal 2 kilos
Aloe vera 2 kilos
Ash 1.5 kilos 1
Biofertiliser Sieve or
Cane molasses 2 litres 100 litres of
cheesecloth water
Powdered soap 100 to 150 grams
Shellac (fish glue) 100 to 150 grams
carpenter's glue
Source: Jairo Restrepo. Organic agriculture workshop /UAM Campachan-
Tejutla-San Marcos, Guatemala, April 2001.
1/2 litre of sulpho- 1 litre of
calcium brew biofertiliser
Remark
One of the alternative materials may be 2
chosen as an adherent. It is mixed directly Pump with 20
with the biofertiliser preparation or mineral litres of water
brew to be applied to the crop. Figure 56.
20 litres of water plus 1 litre

3
of biofertiliser plus 1/2 litre of
sulpho-calcium brew

Addendum 2
Biofertiliser based on minerals to enrich
decomposition of organic waste from plant
Biofertiliser based on minerals to enrich decomposition

of organic waste from plant origin used to feed
earthworms and later produce humus
(Anaerobic fermentation system)

Water (untreated) 180 litros • 1 plastic drum with 200
Fresh cow dung 50 kilos litre capacity
Molasses (or sugarcane juice) 8 (16) litros • 1 plastic drum with 100
Milk (or whey) 16 (32) litros litre capacity
Zinc sulphate 200 gramos • 1 plastic bucket with 10
1ST STAGE
Magnesium sulphate 100 gramos litre capacity

Copper sulphate 60 gramos • 1 piece of hose 1 metre
Iron sulphate 60 gramos long, 3/8 to ½ inch in
Manganese sulphate 20 gramos diameter
Cobalt chloride 20 gramos • 1 bronze or copper
Sodium molybdate 40 gramos threaded nipple, 5
Borax 100 gramos centimetres long, 3/8 to
MIXTURE FOR APPLICATION
½ inch in diameter
(For every tonne of organic
waste to be enhanced) • 1 disposable bottle
2ND STAGE
• 1 sieve or cheesecloth to
Biofertiliser 10 to 20 litres
(prepared in the 1st stage) strain the mixture
• 1 stick to stir the mixture
Water 50 to 100 li-
tres
Preparation of the first stage

Day Procedure
In the plastic drum with 200 litre capacity, dissolve 50 kilos of cow
dung, 1 litre of molasses (or 2 litres of cane juice), 2 litres of milk (or
4 litres of whey) in 130 litres of clean water. Stir until obtaining a
homogeneous mix. In the plastic bucket dissolve 200 grams of ZINC
1
SULPHATE in 5 litres of warm water (no more than 60 degrees centi-
grade), stir very well and add to the mix in the 200 litre receptacle. Co-
ver the receptacle and leave to rest for 3 days, in a place protected from
the sun and rain.

Day Procedure
In the plastic bucket, dissolve 100 grams of MAGNESIUM SULPHA-
TE in 5 litres of warm water (no more than 60 degrees centigrade), add
1 litre of molasses (or 2 litres of cane juice) and 2 litres of milk (or 4
4 litres of whey). Stir very well and add to the mixture in the 200 litre
receptacle. Stir everything until obtaining a homogeneous mix. Cover
the receptacle and leave to rest for 3 days, in a place protected from the
sun and rain.
In the plastic bucket, dissolve the 60 grams of COPPER SULPHATE
in 5 litres of warm water (no more than 60 degrees centigrade), add
1 litre of molasses (or 2 litres of cane juice) and 2 litres of milk (or 4
7 litres of whey). Stir very well and add to the mixture in the 200 litre
receptacle. Stir everything until obtaining a homogeneous mix. Cover
the receptacle and leave to rest for 3 days, in a place protected from the
sun and rain.
In the plastic bucket, dissolve the 60 grams of IRON SULPHATE in 5
litres of warm water (no more than 60 degrees centigrade), add 1 litre
of molasses (or 2 litres of cane juice) and 2 litres of milk (or 4 litres of
10 whey). Stir very well and add to the mixture in the 200 litre receptacle.
Stir everything until obtaining a homogeneous mix. Cover the recepta-
cle and leave to rest for 3 days, in a place protected from the sun and
rain.
In the plastic bucket, dissolve the 20 grams of MANGANESE
SULPHATE in 5 litres of warm water (no more than 60 degrees cen-
tigrade), add 1 litre of molasses (or 2 litres of cane juice) and 2 litres
13 of milk (or 4 litres of whey). Stir very well and add to the mixture in
the 200 litre receptacle. Stir everything until obtaining a homogeneous
mix. Cover the receptacle and leave to rest for 3 days, in a place protec-
ted from the sun and rain.
In the plastic bucket, dissolve the 20 grams of COBALT SULPHATE
OR CHLORIDE in 5 litres of warm water (no more than 60 degrees
centigrade), add 1 litre of molasses (or 2 litres of cane juice) and 2 li-
16 tres of milk (or 4 litres of whey). Stir very well and add to the mixture
in the 200 litre receptacle. Stir everything until obtaining a homoge-
neous mix. Cover the receptacle and leave to rest for 3 days, in a place
protected from the sun and rain.

Hydrolate production with humus and stone meal.
Day Procedure
In the plastic bucket, dissolve 40 grams of SODIUM MOLYBDATE in 5
litres of warm water (no more than 60 degrees centigrade), add 1 litre
of molasses (or 2 litres of cane juice) and 2 litres of milk (or 4 litres of
19
whey). Stir very well and add to the mixture in the 200 litre receptacle.
Stir everything until obtaining a homogeneous mix. Cover the recepta-
cle and leave to rest in a place protected from the sun and rain.
In the plastic bucket, dissolve 100 grams of BÓRAX in 5 litres of warm
water (no more than 60 degrees centigrade), add 1 litre of molasses (or
2 litres of cane juice) and 2 litres of milk (or 4 litres of whey). Stir very
well and add to the mixture in the 200 litre receptacle. Stir everything
22
until obtaining a homogeneous mix; top up the volume to 180 litres by
adding clean water. Cover the receptacle and leave to rest in a place
protected from the sun and rain for a further 10 or 15 days, after which
it will be ready to proceed with the second stage of preparation.
Preparation of the second stage (mix for application)

Dissolve the ingredients from the second stage in 50 or 100 litres of water, using
the plastic receptacle with 100 litre capacity. Stir the mix perfectly. Immediately
apply for every tonne of organic waste to be treated and enhance with minerals
to feed the earthworms and subsequently produce humus.

Addendum 3
Hydrolysed biofertiliser with humus
Hydrolysed biofertiliser with humus tea to stimulate

plant development of crops
(Aerobic fermentation system)

Water 100 litres • 1 plastic drum with 200
1ST STAGE
Humus 50 kilos litre capacity

Sodium hydroxide 300 grams • 1 plastic drum with 100
(caustic soda)
litre capacity
• 1 plastic bucket with 10
2ND STAGE
Humus 7 to 10 litres litre capacity

(hydrolysed in the 1st stage)
Water 100 litres
Preparation of the first stage:

Day Procedure
In the plastic receptacle with 200 litre capacity, dissolve 50 kilos of
humus and the 300 grams of SODIUM HYDROXIDE (caustic soda) in
1 the 100 litres of clean water. Stir until obtaining a homogeneous mix.
Cover the receptacle and leave to rest for 1 day in a place protected
from the sun and rain.
Uncover the receptacle and stir the mix homogeneously for about 5 mi-
2 nutes. Cover it again and leave it to rest for 1 in a place protected from
the sun and rain.
Uncover the receptacle again and stir the mix homogeneously for 5 mi-
3 nutes, cover the receptacle and leave to rest for 1 day in a place protec-
ted from the sun and rain.
Uncover the receptacle again and stir the mix homogeneously for 5
4 minutes. The mix must be ready to be strained and applied to the crops
and the ground.
Preparation of the second step (mix for application)

Dissolve 7 to 10 litres of humus tea prepared during the first stage in 100 litres
of clean water, using the plastic receptacle with 100 litre capacity. Stir the mix
perfectly. Immediately apply it to the crops, green mulch and to the soil itself.

Chemical features of
Addendum 4
different types of worm compounds
From cow From rabbit From sheep

Components
dung manure manure
MS (%) 57,33 55,21 60,03
C (%) 21,41 20,36 22,30
N (%) 1,80 1,76 1,92
P2O5 (%) 2,27 2,95 3,89
K2O (%) 0,95 1,18 0,79
Ca (%) 6,23 7,29 5,98
Mg (%) 0,66 0,97 0,80
Cu (ppm) 50 57 49
Mn (ppm) 89 100 155
Fe (ppm) 750 877 595
C:N ratio 11,89 11,57 11,61
pH 7,7 7,5 7,9
Data stated in dry matter.

Source: Niña Bonita Pasture and Fodder Experimental Station. Bauta, Havana, Cuba (1996).
Adapted by Jairo Restrepo Rivera.
Transformation of organic matter by earthworms, for subsequent

transformation to humus, mainly by the action of fungus.

Biofertiliser prepared
Addendum 5
using native herbs and cow dung

Biofertiliser prepared using native herbs and cow dung to nourish crops
and reactivate the evolution of ground cover
(Anaerobic fermentation system)

Water (untreated) 150 litres • 1 plastic drum with 200
Cow dung 50 kilos litre capacity
1ST STAGE
Molasses (or sugarcane juice) 2 (4) litres • 1 plastic drum with 100
Milk (or whey) 2 (4) litres litre capacity
Wood or brush ash 4 kilos • 1 plastic bucket with 10
Native herbs 10 kilos litre capacity
• 1 piece of hose 1 metre
Biofertiliser 5 to 10 litres long, 3/8 to ½ inch in
(prepared in the 1st stage)
diameter
Water 100 litres • 1 bronze or copper
threaded nipple, 5
2ND STAGE
centimetres long, 3/8 to

½ inch in diameter
• 1 disposable bottle
• 1 sieve or cheesecloth to
strain the mixture
Preparation of the first stage

Step 1
In the plastic receptacle with 200 litre capacity, dissolve the 50 kilos of fresh cow
dung in 100 litres of uncontaminated water with the 4 kilos of ash and stir until
obtaining a homogeneous mix.
Remark: Whenever possible, collect very fresh dung from the stables where the
cattle are in the early morning. The less sunlight on the cow dung, the better the
biofertiliser results.
Step 2
Dissolve 10 litres of uncontaminated water in the plastic bucket, with the 2 litres of
raw milk or 4 litres of whey and 2 litres of molasses and add them into the plastic
receptacle with 200 litre capacity where the cow dung is dissolved with ash and
stir them constantly.

Step 3
Cut up the 10 kilos of NATIVE HERBS well and add them to the plastic receptacle
with 200 litre capacity, where the mix of cow dung, ash, milk and molasses is.
Step 4
Top up the total volume of the plastic receptacle that contains all the ingredients
with clean water up to 150 litres of it capacity and stir.
Step 5
Hermetically cover the receptacle to start the anaerobic fermentation of the bio-
fertiliser and connect the gas extraction system with the hose (water seal).
Step 6
Leave the receptacle containing the mix to rest in the shade at ambient tempera-
ture, protected from the sun and rain. The ideal temperature would be that of the
rumen of polygastric animals such as cows, more or less 38ºC to 40ºC.
Step 7
Wait for a minimum time of 20 to 30 days of anaerobic fermentation, then open it
and check its quality according to the smell and colour, before using it. It should
not smell rotten, nor be blue violet colour. The characteristic smell must be that of
fermentation, otherwise it will have to be rejected. In very cold places, the fermen-
tation time may last up to 90 days.
Preparation of the second step (mix for application)

A very general way to recommend this
biofertiliser is for places where there are
difficulties to prepare the minerals to prepare
the mineral salt enhanced biofertilisers. It is
also recommended for application on soils or
crops where these do not really show a specific
need for a precise nutrition. The concentration
of its application in foliar treatments is 5%
to 10%, that is, 5 to 10 litres of bioprepare
product are used for every 100 litres of water
sprayed on the crops. Do not forget to add
adhesive to the biofertiliser before using it.
Biofactory and biofertiliser storage.
Guayaquil, Ecuador.

How to prepare four nutritional biofertilisers
Addendum 6
to grow coffee using mineral or stone

meal enhanced fermented cow dung?
Critical periods in the coffee plant 1. Plant maintenance and development
growing cycle Ingredients Quantities
The existence of critical periods in the plant A. Water 180 litres
growing cycle constitutes one of the bases of the B. Fresh dung 10 kilos
theory of trophobiosis. For example: if in certain C. Cane molasses 2 kilos
seasons, the leaves, flowers or fruit of a crop are D. Milk or whey 2 litres
more sensitive to attack by mites, greenfly, co-
E. Magnesium sulphate 160 grams
ffee borer beetle, ants or fungi, it is because it
is in a phase in which proteolysis prevails over F. Potassium sulphate 225 grams
proteosynthesis, these periods being the moments G. Iron sulphate 30 grams
when the nutritional needs of the plants become H. Zinc sulphate 315 grams
apparent, mainly in perennial and semi-perennial I. Sodium molybdate 40 grams
crops such as fruit trees and coffee. Sulphocalcium brew 2,25 litres
Vitamin “C” 7 grams
Nutritional imbalance of
How to prepare it? Follow the same methodology
micronutrients, in coffee growing,
used to prepare Super Magro biofertiliser.
causes the following, among others:
1. A drop in crop yields.
2. A change in the quality of the coffee.
3. Uneven, weak flowering.
2. Flower cluster and flowering status
4. A decline in the crop over a few years. Ingredients Quantities
5. Very unevenly sized fruiting. A. Water 180 litres
6. Delay in shoots reappearing after pruning. B. Fresh dung 23 kilos
7. A fall in the resistance of the crop to insect C. Cane molasses 2 kilos
and disease attack.
D. Milk or whey 2 litros
E. Phosphate rock 1.5 Kilos
The four nutritional biofertilisers for
F. Potassium sulphate 675 grams
coffee growing are for:
G. Borax 120 grams
1. Plant maintenance and development.
2. The state of the flower cluster and preflowe- Vitamin “E” 7 grams
ring. How to prepare it? Follow the same methodology
3. Flowering and recently formed fruit. used to prepare Super Magro biofertiliser.
4. Grain filling or swelling.

3. Flowering and recently formed fruit
A. Water 180 litres
B. Fresh dung 20 kilos
C. Cane molasses 2 kilos
D. Milk or whey 2 litros
E. Phosphate rock 900 grams
F. Potassium sulphate 400 grams Professor Raúl Monforte, social leader, grower and
defender of organic agriculture and life.
G. Borax 180 grams Yucatán, México.
Sulphocalcium brew 0.9 litres
Vitamin “E” 7 grams Remarks regarding preparation and
the ingredients of the 4 nutritional
¿How to prepare it? Follow the same methodology mixes for coffee:
used to prepare Super Magro biofertiliser.
If it is not easy to obtain sulphates, these may be
fully substituted by a combination of stone meals and
wood fire ash, in a ratio of 3 kilos of meal to 3 kilos of
4. Grain filling ash. In Latin America, plantain and banana growing is
Ingredients Quantities commonly associated with coffee crops, which turns it
into a great advantage to prepare biofertilisers, as both
A. Water 180 litres
the pseudo stalk of the plant as well as the branch or
B. Fresh dung 10 kilos core that holds the bunches or fruit, when pressed in
C. Cane molasses 2 kilos a shredder or mill produce an excellent quality mix
D. Milk or whey 2 litros to prepare biols, by totally substituting the volume of
E. Manganese sulphate 115 grams water used in the aforementioned recipes. in many
cases, these biofertilisers have been analysed and
F. Potassium sulphate 520 grams
provide results of 15% to 18% concentration, mainly
G. Iron sulphate 25 grams of potassium.
H. Zinc sulphate 225 grams When the biols are prepared using the liquid from
I. Magnesium sulphate 135 grams the stalk alone, to be used in banana growing, the
J. Sodium oxide 45 grams plants are healthy and suffer no attack from sigatoka
(black leaf streak), in spite of the fungus that causes
Sulphocalcium brew 1,35 litres
the disease being present in the environment or in the
Vitamin “C” 7 grams
crop media.
How to prepare it? Follow the same methodology Finally, the sulpho-calcium brew and vitamin C and
used to prepare Super Magro biofertiliser. E recommended are optional and must be placed in
the mix just before spraying the crops. In many places,
the farmers have opted to replace the vitamins with
bovine bile content from the slaughterhouse.

Addendum 7
Factors that alter the quality of dung for preparing
good quality organic fertilisers
1. HANDLING WATER ON THE PREMISES

• Drinking troughs
• Cleaning (using water to clean out stables)
2. HANDLING WHEN GATHERING

• Raw - daily
• Semi-processed - weekly or monthly
3. HANDLING ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

• Sun
• Cold wind
• Rain
• Shade
4. ORIGIN AND TYPE OF FOOD

• Diverse fresh pasture
• Fresh grazing and hay for semi-stabled animals
• Hay and concentrated fodder
• Only concentrated fodder - confined animals
5. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PREMISES

• Types of floor covering
• Trough location
• Dung heap location
6. HEALTHCARE TREATMENTS OF ANIMALS AND

THE FACILITIES
• Parasite removal
• Antibiotics
• Disinfectants using iodine and chlorine
• Insecticides
• Hormones

Addendum 8
The biopower of cow dung and construction of a democratic
world by the men and women of peasant farming
The greatness of a man is defined by his

imagination. Without a first class education,
imagination is poor and unable to provide
man with instruments to transform the world.
Forestan Fernández
“It’s good fishing in troubled waters” population, more than 5,000,000 chronically
might be the best figurative definition for the ill and the death of more than 300,000 people
opportunistic approach we are witnessing in caused by the sequels of agricultural poison,
the last public debates by those who defend the really appears to be the aim of this vile distraction
“green revolution” agriculture, who for decades to justify the new mafia of the transgenic
have sold poisons and justified the interests of the industry that –turned into a soy growing empire
multinational corporations at the cost of workers’ in Argentina– has caused the disappearance of
and consumers’ health. They are now defenders of more than 640,000 small dairy producers in
transgenics and ignorant critics of fermented cow recent years, turning them into a new caste of
dung (a biorevolutionary instrument of organic, rural beggars in the middle of cities. The new
non industrial agriculture, controlled by peasant barbarous venture by the industry, to continue
farmers). Again they align with the interests of its ecocide, is to say they are sorry for all the
the multinational companies, “arguing” without deaths but, as the card-sharps who make a risky
grounds that anaerobic fermentation of cow dung living in the casinos would say: “NEW DECK!”
is hazardous, when in fact, with proper, well (of cards).
controlled anaerobic fermentation, it becomes a (For more information, we recommend you
biofertiliser that may be used on all crops and to read, among others: Silent Spring by Rachel
regenerate soil with excellent results in the short Carson, La historia de los venenos (The History of
and long term. Poisons), by Sebastião Pinheiro, La mafia de los
Lastly, that is the discourse by the bureaucratic venenos en Brasil, Los venenos del invento al uso y de la
representatives of the FAO and technicians muerte a la vida (The Poison Mafia in Brazil, poisons
from the Ministries of Health, Agriculture and from invention to use, and from death to life), SIMAS
the university professors who seek to mask Nicaragua, Our stolen future by Theo Colborn and
their institutional and academic decadence John Petersen, La espiral del veneno (The poison
in many countries. On the other hand, in these spiral) by Fernando Bejarano González, Pesticide
troubled waters of manufacturers and traders conspiracy by Dr. Elena Kahn , El mito del manejo
of agricultural and husbandry inputs, they trawl seguro de los plaguicidas en los países en desarrollo (The
up yet another fishy justification to swell their myth of safe pesticide handling in developing countries)
pockets at any cost. by Jaime García Garza, Agropecuaria sin veneno
To gloss over more than 250,000 peasant (Farming without poisons) by Sebastião Pin-heiro,
farmer deaths caused by poison and the Plaguicidas en México (Pesticides in Mexico) by ITESO,
30,000,000 acute intoxications of the rural Human Rights Centre, A Growing Problem: Pesticides

and the Third World Poor by David Bull, Agrotóxicos, about the microbiological fermentations that
a Praga da dominaçäo (Agricultural poisons, the plague happen when cow dung is used? Only ignorance
of domination) by Antenor Ferrari, O Amor a Arma and fascination for official science and spearhead
e a Química ao Proximo (Love of weapons and chemicals technology that are common in the academic
for others) by Cooperativa Colmeia, Menos veneno world of the limited representatives of the FAO
no Prato (Less poison on your plate) by Gert Roland and the multinational corporations, with their
Fischer, O Agente Laranja Em Uma Republica de former executives holding office in the ministries
Bananas (Agent Orange in a Banana Republic) by of agriculture and health, are able to claim that
Sebastião Pinheiro). cow dung is a hazardous myth, to thus be able
For more information on the subject of to continue to exploit and undermine peasant
deaths, chronic disease, people mutilated and wisdom and economy.
sterilised by use of poison in agriculture, it is One of the most cowardly and unforgivable
recommended to consult the WLO /UNO /COSTA actions in writing the history of humanity is
RICA and banana growing organisations in that of seeking personal satisfaction deceitfully
Central America, where the documents record before a listener who is completely ignorant of
more than 10,000 cases of male sterility caused everything he is being exposed to. That is what
intentionally, mainly by the different commercial the majority of professors are willing to stoop to
brands of nematicide FUMASONE, NEMAGON when they misconstrue and speculate agricultural
or DBPC. techniques at the universities in Latin America,
We should ask ourselves: if the academic without allowing any hypotheses or curiosity to
world, researchers, university professors, arise in the classrooms or lecture halls, nor on
extension agents, representatives of the United peasant farmers’ plots when they visit them.
Nations (UNO), mainly the FAO (United Nations The submissive mentality training or mould
Food and Agriculture Organization) and the may appear to be the objective of the academic
WHO (World Health Organization), and the mediocrity that floods both universities and
usual governments through their ministries of technological institutions, where marketing
agriculture and health, had prior knowledge of studies are now a subject of research and students,
the hazards of using war surpluses in agriculture: consumers and peasants have simultaneously
insecticides, herbicides, nematicides, fungicides, become market commodities and targets .
etc., why did they not prevent the hazards of such Why does the academic world, representatives
inputs leading to thousands of peasant families of the FAO in Colombia, and many technicians
murdered and millions chronically ill, mainly from the ministries of agriculture and health
with cancer and other degenerative diseases? in some developing countries denigrate cow
It appears that the worldwide economic dung and wish to abolish the possibility of the
campaign by the United Nations (UNO) and necessary knowledge to adequately handle its
its circle of academic connivance always blows fermentation remaining under control by peasant
its horn stronger beside the multinational farmers as a way to perpetuate the knowledge
corporations than on the side of protecting the they have transmitted for thousands of years
health of rural workers and consumers. (To read and to recover their liberty? Perhaps they wish
more about the FAO: The Hunger Machine: The to make us believe that biofertilisers are more
Politics of Food). hazardous than poison, when we know all too
Who gains and who loses by spreading well that poisons are killing people on a daily
peasant wisdom, knowledge and information basis and enriching quite a few industries?

If there were to be any hazard associated even understand –which does not mean that we
with fermenting cow dung when preparing a agree–, that within an economy that want to pri-
biofertiliser, it would not necessarily be due to vatise and globalise everything, that when a pea-
use of dung or its fermentation, but rather due sant learns to make yoghurt, cheese, beer, guara‑
to the origin of the dung, to the way in which the po, masato, sauerkraut and chicha, among others,
minerals had been handled, and whether quality and obtains mastery of the practical knowledge
control is carried out, both during the process as of fermentation to process food, the interests of
well as of the end product. certified agroindustrial neofascism are affected.
In that regard, if what they are questioning Let us consider what would happen if, during
is the quality of organisms, in relation to an official wine and cheese festival organised by
preparation of biofertilisers, then they should the United Nations, attended by the President
get to work. It is the remit of the Governments, of the Republic and his wife, ministers and
from the health and agricultural departments, clergy, the wine and cheese they are tasting were
both locally and internationally, to establish the imported from Europe by an embassy and they
common parameters and those of public domain were all to succumb to diarrhoea. The main
in order for peasant farmers worldwide to learn suspicion would be regarding the quality of the
to prepare proper fermentation using cow dung. wine and cheese consumed during the party. After
Then we would have a universal notebook or having confirmed the suspicion that it was the
manual for peasant farmers to undertake cow cheese and wine that caused the diarrhoea, the
dung fermentation in a safe, efficient way, Minister of Health would be shamed for failing
and to gain independence from purchasing the to check the fermentation quality of the imported
fertilisers and poisons that have caused them cheese and wine, they would have resorted to
dependence and economic poverty, associated apology protocol and there would certainly be
with food production. At no time would it be the no Presidential Decree or Ministerial Order
remit of such bodies to repress or deny something enacted to prohibit manufacturing cheese and
that is universally recognised and proven: the wine worldwide. Just imagine the mordacious
importance of fermentation in food production. comments this would attract from the French
Not to amply and correctly divulge such regarding the great ignorance of the local civil
knowledge and to make the quality of bioferti- servants in wanting to prohibit cheese and wine
lisers an excuse to deny the natural existence of production worldwide due to lack of quality
biofermentations as part of the evolution of life, control of the cheeses and wines consumed on
even before and after our existence, is to deny it, that occasion. What would Pasteur have said!.
is to become lost in the temporary whirlwind of Undoubtedly, the due procedures would be
technological imposition and to deny the absolu- followed and measures would be established to
te evolution of geology. This blind and malicious check the quality of imported food and national
attitude, that has become part of the strategies production of such well recognised universal food
to defend the interests of multinational corpora- as cheese and wine, that are also obtained by
tions, is like trying to cover the sun with your proper fermentation.
hand or denying the importance of the wheel in Indeed, while on the subject of high society,
transport, or of milk in cheese making. It is ob- what would H.R.H. Charles, Prince of Wales
vious that when knowledge comes into the public have to say if the WHO/UNO were to prohibit
domain, autonomy is established, that is, a sort horse breading worldwide due to their manure
of local biopower. This is highly logical and we containing clostridium and his stable staff, like

the rest of humanity, suffering the risk of tetanus and milk derivatives such as ghee and whey,
infection due to contact with that biological rennet and amniotic liquid as a health enhancer.
agent? However, Prince Charles has nothing to In India, war poisons such as methyl isocyanate
fear. However, the factory of Aracruz Celulosa, used in agriculture and produced by the Union
that operates with large investment by the English Carbide factory in the Bhopal region, caused the
royalty in the State of Espirito Santo in Brazil, immediate death of more than 30,000 (thirty
has caused one of the largest environmental thousand!) people on 3rd December 1984, and
and cultural disasters in the city of Aracruz, by poisoned a further 500,000 (half a million!).
helping to destroy the indigenous communities of However, to the present day, neither the WHO
the Tupí Guaraní in that part of the country. (World Health Organization) nor the FAO (United
We may remember the famous tale of the Nations Organization for Food and Agriculture)
sofa bed on which the husband of a distinguished have ever declared any epidemic due to use of
society lady was caught in the act with his cow dung over thousands of years. (To examine
trusted bodyguard in the lounge in their house this subjects in greater detail, we recommend
one day. The irate cuckold blamed the sofa and Marvin Harris Cows, pigs, wars and witches by
decided to sell the promiscuous item of furniture. Marvin Harris, and Era media noche en Bophal (It
That is the same situation that now arises when was midnight in Bhopal) by Dominique Lapierre and
questioning and aiming to repress the possibility Javier Moro.
and usefulness of cow dung to produce food; More than three centuries of British rule in
when, in their scarcity of knowledge, academics India, first by the East India Company and then
deny the existence of fermentation as an optimum under the British Raj, brought peasant farmers
alternative in organic agriculture, under control erosion of their age-old rights due to land taxes
by peasant farmers, instead of discussing the levied by the new rulers, leveraged by local
mechanisms to ensure the legitimate quality of usurers who took advantage of catastrophic El
biofertilisers reaches the public domain. One may Niño drought and monsoon cycles to seize land,
conclude, considering the evidence, that it would forcing peasants to drift, landless, to other
be better and more efficient for food production, regions and later into the cities.
although not in the interests of the agroindustrial While the East India Company and later
empire, that is always willing to deny peasants the British Navy and Army struggled to find
the possibility of establishing food sovereignty a solution to keep its troops in good health
and technological freedom based on their needs at sea and to transport beer to the colony,
and among peers. elsewhere in the British Empire, Captain Cook’s
In order to unmask the myth of the hazards exploratory voyages allowed experimental use of
of cow dung, invented and badly justified by fermented products to prevent scurvy and other
those who practice academic corruption and conditions suffered by sailors. That ‘maritime’
repression with the universities as their base, let disease, scurvy, also found a place inland
us consider some relations with fermentations through malnutrition arising from disruption
we are immersed in, mainly when we eat and of agricultural communities and the regular
work in our daily lives. For example: in India, famines that claimed millions of lives, more
calves are part of the age-old culture of that than fifteen times during the British Rule, with
people, not due to the value of a cow for its meat, fatalities from hundreds of thousands to up to the
but rather due to what by-products of the cow nineteen million reported in The Lancet on 16th
represent, arising from managing its dung, urine May 1901.

Mismanagement by the famine agencies and the fermentation that produces its sought after
disastrous government policies led to Bengal wines, cheeses and French bread, carried home
being unable to access the Burmese market rice from the shop under the buyer’s armpit.
due the Japanese invasion in 1942, following a In the Arab, Inca and Mayan world, use of
series of crop failures. The British Government camelid and bovine urine and dung –before and
claimed that there was no real shortage of rice in after antibiotics were discovered– have saved
Bengal and that the famine was due to hoarding, and again continue to save many people from
corruption and inflation, while Winston Churchill gastrointestinal upset in rural communities.
ignored requests for food to be sent to India . However, the food handling and distribution
In the context of malnutrition arising from policy –through agencies from the richest
disruption of traditional community and countries in the world– is responsible for millions
economy due to displacement and famine, we of deaths in the world, mainly of children and the
find studies into fermented rice and aleuronic elderly.
complexes. Scurvy studies, such as that by Traditionally, the Inca used sea fowl guano as
Bhagvat & Rao (1942), include research into an excellent fertiliser for agriculture, mainly due
germination of pulses and cereals in the Indian to its biological biodiversity and French industry,
diet as an inexpensive source of vitamin C . a large worldwide producer of cosmetics, has
On a completely different continent, been recommending and using it with excellent
guarapo, masato and chicha, which are prepared results in anti-aging treatments for the rich
by fermenting sugar cane juice and maize, are society ladies of the bourgeois class in third
ceremonial and nutritional drinks used up to world countries to use as overnight face masks.
the present day in all rural communities, mainly However, such companies have never received any
those with native influence, throughout Latin complaint regarding the quality of their products,
America, that are consumed without there being in spite of their nocturnal fragrance. To examine
any issues with the quality of the masato and the matter in greater depth, we recommend
chicha. However, up to the present day, there is no studying the technical report on island guano
record in the world (including fermentations) that published by the Ministry of Agriculture and
exceeds the figures of genocide the conquistadors Fishery of Peru, which concerns the success
perpetrated on the indigenous communities with obtained by using seabird manure in agriculture
their arrival and plundering spirit. In Colombia, as well as cosmetics manufacturing in Europe.
the latifundium and conservative capital of It is mainly worth studying the sections on the
poison-driven sugarcane plantations are what microbiodiversity present in the guano or duck,
have most destroyed the local peasant economy, gannet, seagull, pelican manure and that of other
than deaths that might have been caused by the birds.
guarapo consumed in the city of Cali. Moreover, what would have happened to
Bread and wine, biblically sacred food and farmers in the municipality of Churcampa, Peru,
beverage since the times of the Sumerians and had they not been able to treat their athlete’s
present in most ecclesiastic ceremonies, are foot (a fungal skin disease) with a handful of
obtained by fermentation, and they have never fresh cow dung? What would have come of
caused the decline of any papal reign at the natural synthesis of ergosterol from the biliary
Vatican, nor any epidemic among the faithful, content of polygastric animals? What of
priests and sacristans. However, the French the Tzeltal culture in southern Mexico, if the
colonisation of Africa caused more deaths than Government were to prohibit them from treating

skin rashes with fresh cow dung? How would it ill in the different intensive care wards at
affect slaughterhouse workers who collect bovine hospitals?
gallstones for their high market value in oriental How sad the culture of the coffee growing
medicine ? regions of Colombia would be without its festive
What fate would await the hundreds of forcha or fermented punch! How would the native
children who are saved and nursed to health communities of the Atlantic zone of Costa Rica
when their mothers wrap them in the paunch fare without being able to ferment their “siempre
of a newly slaughtered cow to save them from viva” to prepare their ceremonial chicha? What
agonising when doctors who practice commercial would happen to the hundreds of stills used to
allopathy have declared there is no financially produce cususa in Nicaragua and cachaza in Brazil?
available cure for them? What would happen Where would the native communities of Panama,
to bioenergetic medicine without being able Colombia and Peru be without their traditional
to prescribe its original homeopathic sarcode: masato mode from fermented maize and sweet
the hydrolysed organ of a newborn calf? What potato? What would happen to the traditional
would happen to the social research carried out Mapuches if there were baker’s yeast for their
at different universities into the use of ruminal bread? What would happen to the natives of
liquids in medicine, especially in homeopathic Chiapas if they could not prepare the traditional
paediatrics? Where would modern medicine pozol in the Lacondon Jungle? What would the
be without use of bovine cartilage to prepare Quechua and Aimara do without pirul pepper to
remedies for human arthrosis? ferment? How healthy would Eastern European
What income would slaughter house workers steel workers be without their traditional
and hospital placenta gatherers be left? What kombucha laced beverage? What if the Guanacos
would happen to the pharmacopoeia if placenta of El Salvador were not allowed to export their
recycling were prohibited ? cheeses to North America? How could the dairy
What would happen to millions of dairy producing companies of Argentina and Uruguay
workers and cowboys the world over, who handle do business without a knowledge of fermentation?
millions of cattle in stables on a daily basis? What would the European heritage communities
Would Mexican bullfighter’s assistants be able of Brazil have done without fermentation skills
to grasp the bull’s tail with gloves on, to avoid to make wine, sausages and liqueurs? How
coming into contact with the dung splattered rear would kefir be produced without the presence
end? What would be left of Martín Fierro and of bacteria or fungi to allow the spectacle of
his gaucho inspiration drawn from slaughtering an organic substance being transformed by the
cattle out on the range, to eat delicious grilled action of enzymes produced by micro-life? What
skirt stake with an enormous pile of half roasted would Chilean oenologists do if their wines were
offal and tripe for starters? What would happen not allowed to age?
to the millions of peasants who distribute and And lastly, what if the kiss were forbidden,
transform milk all over the world ? accused of microbiological contamination by
How would the recyclers of misnamed “waste” universal mouth to mouth exchange of bacillus?
from large cities make a living, and what would On the other hand, for those who are not yet
happen to the municipal grave diggers and those convinced that challenging McDonald’s is a mat-
who work at the public morgues, among them ter of asserting food autonomy and self-determi-
coroners and dieners? What would become of the nation worldwide, Eric Schlosser –in his book
nurses who work with and among the terminally Fast Food Nation– confesses that a McDonald’s kit-

chen contains more pathogenic agents than the after birth and remain with us until death. Dr.
toilets of a public transport terminus. With that Abigail Salyers, Professor of Microbiology at the
in mind, it is not surprising that four outlets of University of Illinois, considers the issue to be
that American firm were shut down some months that many people are infected but few are ill.
ago in the city of Buenos Aires after having in- The task of microbiologists is to discover how
fected their customers with E. coli 0157:h7 virus. the body may tolerate such permanent microbial
Some days ago, thousands of customers of the presence. It is of interest to consider the close
same firm in the United States were infected by similarity numerous microbes, which live in
salmonella bacteria, without public uproar and the body, have with known pathogens in the
without the Health Authorities of that country environment, and to discover that many of them
putting any such branches definitively out of bu- cause immune reaction when they migrate from
siness. Why would that be the case? one part of the body to another.
Whether Helicobacter pylori is good or bad is A large part of these microbes are carriers
a subject for much debate. For many people of lipopolysaccharides, that are among the
suffering from gastritis, the name Helicobacter most powerful immune reaction cell activity
pylori (hereby H. pylori) is fairly familiar because stimulators found to date. Researchers have
researchers have determined that this bacteria discovered that interactions between a host and
causes stomach ulcers. The World Health its symbionts appear to be chemical in nature,
Organization has classified it as a carcinogen and in which each of the partners sends signals
millions of dollars have been invested in financing that activates genes in the other. It is known
its treatment using powerful antibiotics and that people acquire indispensable fatty acids
chemotherapy, aiming to reduce stomach acidity and vitamins through by-products of microbes
levels. The race is on to discover a vaccine and resident in our body. One of those by-products,
researchers hope that H. pylori will contaminate vitamin K, is an essential element in blood
mankind no longer. coagulation. Thus, great care must be taken with
However, there are signs that cause doubt as “miracle” drugs, because many of the antibiotics
to whether that bacteria is indeed responsible for taken to finish off microbes may lead to really
the disease, as H. pylori is found in the stomach severe illnesses. Such medicines may upset
of one out of every two people, a much higher normal levels of lactobacilli and bacteroids,
figure than the ulcer rate, as most of the carries the two most important bacterial groups in the
of the bacteria do not have any symptom of this intestinal apparatus, causing proliferation of
disease. enterococci, usually benign residents, causing
That is to say, antibiotics as a remedy are death in such cases. One must also avoid stress
worse than the disease. Use of anti-inflammatory in the presence of a microbe in our body, because
medicines is now considered responsible for the psychological and emotional stress may influence
appearance of ulcers in the absence of H. pylori the severity of the gastric haemorrhage, cause
infection . In fact, a team of Japanese researchers chronic diarrhoea and other digestive disorders
has just concluded that H. pylori might be a totally related to pathogens within the human being.
innocent bystander in a third of all ulcers in pa- Would the human race have come into
tients not treated with anti-inflammatory drugs. existence had a great leap not have been
Beyond rejecting the link between the microbe performed by the other species, from anaerobic
and the disease, this all leads to reflect on a more to aerobic fermentation, required for evolution
complex link, as the microbes colonise us shortly of life on earth? What would have happened

to chloroplasts and the evolution of lower level them degrees at the university schools of Agri-
plants and, subsequently, the higher orders, cultural Sciences, are part of a homogeneously
without the role of cyanobacteria in fermentation controlled sphere that interlocks with the globa-
that caused the world to evolve? What would lised world, were the students are not intended
have come of the organic matter decomposition to question, to scrutinise or to think. To do so is
phenomena, that would not have evolved without to reverse the order and go against the aim of
anaerobic fermentation? How would the human building the monolithic imperial economy, a sub-
brain evolved had it not been for the hundred ject on which we recommend reading: Michael
trillion (100,000,000,000,000,000) bacterial Hardt and Antonio Negri’s Empire, also Naomi
cells? (We recommend reading about the subject Klein, No Logo). In a world of serfs and the servi-
in Margulis L., Sagan D. Microcosmos and James le, to think is dangerous, because fermented cow
Lovelock, Ages of GAIA). dung in peasant society may cause recovery and
The context of criticising cow dung a return to the path of regeneration and wides-
fermentation especially suits some professors pread rural biopower that questions the plunder
and researchers of agricultural techniques, who and extinction of a peasant class full of liberty
were subtly trained to follow orders given by the and wisdom, one thus highly able to find the most
economic regime that condemns them to being precise, adequate solutions to ensure their own
simple experimenters and servile recommenders food sovereignty.
of residual technologies generated by an empire Finally, perhaps what many national and
that does not allow them to decode or decipher international academics and bureaucrats who
it, either due to the cognitive erosion they deny the major advantages of leaving knowledge
were subjected to, or to failure in the bacterial of fermentation in the hands of civil society is
evolution of their brains. Their mercenary talent to put their head inside a cow’s paunch to see if
leads them to seek the best opportunity to satisfy their retarded brains would thus evolve or recover
their money grasping needs and conceal their from their fascination with the technological
intellectual poverty. revolution imposed on many ministerial civil
Technical homogenisation of humanity and servants and at universities in Latin America.
deformation of improved labourers by granting
A brain is not
required in order to march.
Einstein

A story about the molecular biology of
Addendum 9
fermented cow dung and its use in healthcare
Throughout history, conditions have been The local Arabs admitted to suffering from
diagnosed and remedies discovered. Unfortuna- diarrhoea but said it did not last long. Here the
tely, knowledge now taken for granted has also versions of the story vary; in one the Arabs ex-
suffered cycles of loss and rediscovery. Partial plain their remedy straight away, in another the
breakthroughs have also been marred by attempts German scientists have to follow them around to
to process old remedies into new presentations find out. In both cases, this led to the back of a
that have rendered the microbiological active camel or horse where, to the surprise of the Nazis,
principle ineffective. the locals who had diarrhoea immediately sought
The lore of ancient cures also crosses paths absolutely fresh dung to ingest. The Germans were
with tales of how travellers and explorers brought then told that camel or horse dung cured diarr-
these to the “civilised” world, into western phar- hoea within a day, but only when fresh and warm,
maceutical catalogues through laboratories, pa- as it did not work if taken cold.
tents and later by so-called biopiracy . Thus, the Nazis carefully examined extremely
One such story states that the medical officers fresh, warm camel and horse dung and discovered
of the Nazi army posted in Northern Africa (the large amounts of a powerful bacteria, later named
Afrika Korps) were faced with widespread dysen- Bacillus subtilis, present in the manure. The bacteria
tery among the German soldiers combating the was so strong it devoured practically all other mi-
British General Montgomery in 1941, which left croorganisms in the human body, particularly the
more soldiers out of action than those lost on the pathogenic bacteria, as well as the highly virulent
battle field. The German medical officers were ones that caused diarrhoea among the German
fully aware that the diarrhoea was due to patho- troops.
genic bacteria in the food and water tanks, but Within a short time the Nazis began to produce
no antibiotics were available then and sulphur, hundreds of litres of the active substance of Bacillus
recommended for external use but not ingestion, subtilis for their troops to drink during the war.
was all the market had to offer to deal with the Thus, the German army put an end to its diarrhoea
condition that plagued them. and to military sick-leave for that reason. Shortly
The German High Command immediately sent after, the Germans discovered how to produce a
over droves of scientists, doctors, chemists, bioche- Bacillus subtilis culture they could dry and use to
mists, bacteriologists and other specialists to find manufacture tablets with that active principle.
alternative solutions to cure their sick soldiers. For many years, Bacillus subtilis cultures were wi-
With Germanic method, the specialists considered dely sold in the USA and Mexico under the name
there should be a natural means of combating the of Bactil Subtil, although the arrival of wonderful
bacteria, as millions of Arabs cohabited with it antibiotics caused Bacillus subtilis to be set aside.
and none seemed to be laid low by diarrhoea. In spite of this, Bacillus subtilis is one of the most

Organic biofertiliser factory for walnut growing. Grower: Juan Adolfo Rubio.
Rancho Aranueces. Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico.
widely studied microorganisms in genetic engi- The results of many such studies suffer from
neering and biotechnology. Brazil is one of the biopiracy, being seized by major international
pioneers in the use of this microorganism in agri- centres that serve the multinational corporations,
culture as a biofertiliser and for biofermentation. who have now rebranded as major defenders of
Although very few agronomists who take the trou- organic agriculture, solely in order to sell “new
ble to study it, the International Centre for Bio- safe, certified services”; that is, old strategies are
technology in Guayaquil, Ecuador, performs ad- given new names.
vanced biological and molecular studies into the
effect of biofertilisers on banana growing, mainly Juquira Candiru Satyagraha.
to counter sigatoka attack. Brazil / Colombia / Mexico.

After dung fermentation
Addendum 10
came urine
In order to extend the advantage taken of all the local resources the peasant farmers
have on their plots or in their rural environment, we extend the fermented cow dung
chapter with material written and provided by our colleague Darío Rodríguez Gil.
“The aim of this contribution is to show some elements based on peasant experience,
that act not just as alternatives, but rather as part of solid solutions to agricultural and
production issues, above all stimulating those who study them to carry out their own
experiments, documenting and sharing them with their friends, that is, to be creative and
to rediscover many of the earth based practices that were used by our ancestors”. Darío
Rodríguez Gil, municipal district of El Peñón, 17th January 2012.
Practical applications using cow urine on crops

Use of dairy cow urine, also including How does urine Biofertiliser work?
goat and mare urine, is carried out in The main idea is to increase plant resistance, taking
various countries in the world, especially into account that pests and diseases are not really such,
in India and Brazil, with fairly encoura- but rather indicators of mismanagement of the crop. Thus,
ging results on various crops, due to it urine makes the plant become stronger and acquire a fair
being a resource that is easy to acquire, amount of resistance to pests and diseases, or biological
involving improved production and ob- indicators of mismanagement.
taining more vigorous plants. This do-
cument presents a legacy of experiences
advanced by peasant farmers who have What are the advantages of using urine
discovered that urine is a very useful Biofertiliser?
biofertiliser on their land. • It contains thousands of substances and hormones
that the plant uses to be more resistant.
• It controls development of illnesses and makes the
What does urine contain? plant more resistant to other biological indicators of
Dairy cow urine contains phenols and mismanagement.
more than 2000 substances (only 63 • It improves crop growth and development.
have been identified) that act on plants, That is why the plants like cow urine a lot.
making them considerably increase their “It is also very, very cheap. All you need is a dairy
organic defence system. cow”.

How to obtain Biofertiliser from How to use the urine after
urine? three (3) days?
• At the moment of milking: It is very simple. All you have to do is dilute
Urine is always available when the farmer a part of fermented urine with 99 parts of water,
goes to milk the cows and it is then when the which means 1 litre of urine is to be added to
cow always urinates. It is just collected using 99 litres of water after the three day fermenta-
a bucket, or one is tied to the tail like they do tion. This dilution may change according to the
in India. crops one may wish to fertilise, everything varies
The milkmaid Elda María, from the Mateca- according to the local experience of those who
ña fields, in the municipal district of El Pe- perform those annotations.
ñón, Cundinamarca, says: “The cow only re-
leases milk after letting the urine go”.
Important
Goat urine may also be used. Bear in mind that
the dilution is even less. That is, half a litre of uri-
What to do after collecting cow’s ne per 100 litres of water. According to farmers in
the south of Brazil, goat urine is richer than bovine
urine?
urine. Do not forget to keep the urine for 3 days
It has to be kept for three days in large gallon in a closed gallon jug or bottle so it can turn into
bottles or jugs of glass or plastic, although closed ammonia.
well. This is done so the nitrogen available in the
urine can turn into ammonia. Another way is to
place a channel in the direction of a tank where
the urine may be stored. After collection in the
Where has urine based Biofertiliser
tank, all you have to do is dilute it.
been used and tested?
Farmers in the State of Rio de Janeiro in
Brazil have used it with excellent results on
crops of lettuce, tomato, carrot, chard and okra,
increasing applications on fruit trees, coffee,
Important beans, maize and other crops. In San José de
Zafiro, Minas Gerais, Brazil, Raimundo joyfully
According to experiences of farmers in the
municipal district of Viçosa, in the State of Minas shows off his leafy ahuyama pumpkin crops.
Gerais, in Brazil, cow urine may be stored up to He says “Thanks to the urine, my crop yield is
12 months, as this does not alter its chemical greater than my neighbours’ crop yields and they
composition and hormones. Whoever has a cow are also becoming encouraged to use it”. Some
in a stable has the advantage of being able to farmers in the Brazilian region of Araponga
withdraw the urine as many times as one may
checked the results of the cow urine Biofertiliser
wish during the day.
on coffee crops, obtaining good crops.

On the other hand, various producers in the
north of Minas Gerais, in Brazil, are also working
on cow urine Biofertiliser, mainly at the CAA
(Centre for Alternative Agriculture of Northern
Minas) where various trials are being carried out
with passion fruit, ahuyama and leaf vegetable
crops.
Biofertiliser preparation. Queensland, Australia.
Crops and amounts for application

Note
This practice is highly recommended and
These crops and the quantities of Biofertiliser des- important to reactivate the shoots and to prevent
cribed for application are due to diverse experiences
the leaves from falling.
in the field, that may be modified according to each
To prevent coffee borer and even diseases such
condition. When experimenting with new results, sha-
as the cercospora leaf spot and pink disease, it is
re them with your neighbours.
recommended to use a dilution of 15%, that is 3
litres of urine per pump with 20 litre capacity,
that is 17 litres of water per 3 of urine. If new
Pepper, cucumber infestations appear, apply again with the same
and aubergine dilution. In the case of leaf spot, it is preferable
Dilution of 1 litre of urine in 9 litres of wa- to prune and withdraw the affected parts outside
ter. A farmer who used cow urine, with just two the batch.
applications (the recommended crop spraying The biofertiliser may also be used when
frequency is every 15 days), managed to increase performing renewal pruning on coffee plants,
his pepper production, that went from 90 kilos to fumigating and impregnating the trunk, with
210 kilos per week. a dilution of 3%, that is 3 litres in 97 litres
of water, or 1/2 litre in each pump of 20 litre
capacity.
Coffee
The dilution used for this crop is 5%, that is 5 Lettuce, chard, carrot, cauliflower
litres of Biofertiliser per 95 litres of water or (1) Even weaker dilutions are recommended on
litre in each pump with 20 litre capacity. these crops. Only 1/2 litre of urine per 99 litres
The applications are made after each crop, 2 of water. Farmers in some regions are managing
to 3 times a year. to reduce crop cycles; for example, the lettuce
Another practice is to fumigate the trunk of cycle has been lowered from approximately 45
the coffee plant with 2 litres of the mix diluted to days to 25-30 days. In the case of leaf crops, just
5%, that is, 5 litres per 95 litres of water, which water the soil twice with Biofertiliser. Do your
must be done after harvesting the coffee. own experiments!

Instructing an organic cheese producer how to maximise collection of the dung required to
produce biofertilisers and organic fertiliser. Lecce, Italy.
Tomato fertiliser per 95 litres of water, which should be

Due to it being a plant that is often attac- done after the fruit is harvested.
ked by diverse biological indicators of mismana- This practice is highly important to reactivate
gement, it is recommended to mix 200 ml (one flowering and to prevent leaf fall from the trees.
drinking glass) per 20 litres of water. Fumigate
the plants every 7 days. Pineapple
Cow urine Biofertiliser is been proven to be
Fruit (guava, lemon, orange, coconut, fairly efficient at controlling fungal diseases of
passion fruit, plantain and banana) the pineapple, diseases that cause up to 70% da-
A 5% dilution is used, that is, 5 litres of Bio- mage in the final production.
fertiliser per 95 litres of water or 1 litre for each Applications to control such diseases and in-
fumigation pump with 20 litre capacity. creased productivity must be performed every 30
The fumigation is performed on the trunk and days, with a dilution of half a litre of cow urine
on the soil, 3 to 4 times per year. per 20 litre pump of water.
Another practice is to fumigate the tree trunk
with 2 litres of mix at 5%, that is, 5 litres of Bio-

Epilogue
There may only be a different

strain of a crop if the nutritional
relations inside the earth,
between minerals, microbiology
and the plant roots are different.
A few words
of wisdom in life
LESSON ONE: A little yellow chick was strutting about the field
without a concern when suddenly a sparrowhawk began to fly over-
head in order to eat her. When she saw the predicament she was in,
the little yellow chick hid under a cow and asked for help:
-“Peep peep, Mrs. Cow, Mrs. Cow, please protect me from the
sparrowhawk”.
The cow kindly obliged and pooped on top of the little yellow
chicken, to protect her from the bird of prey. When the little yellow
chick found herself covered in poop , she stuck her head out and
started to complain:
- “Peep peep. Hey, cow, why did you shit on me?”.
But as soon as she stuck her head out, the sparrowhawk saw her
right away, grabbed her by the head, pulled her out of the dung and
ate her.
Moral n0 1: Not everybody who throws shit at you is your enemy.

Moral no 2: Not everybody who gets you out of the shit is your friend.
Moral no 3: If the shit is over your head, don’t open your mouth.

Preparation of bio-preparations using cow dung. Macerata, Italy.
LESSON TWO: When the body was created, all he closed up and refused to work at all. Shortly
the parts and organs wanted to be the boss. A after, the eyes went red, the hands twitched, the
meeting was held and the brain said: “I should feet went lame, the heart felt week, the kidneys
be boss because I control all the responses and collapsed and the brain began to burn with fever.
functions in the body”. Then the feet said: “We Faced with that state of things, an emergency
should be the bosses because we carry the brain meeting was called, at which they all unanimously
around and take him wherever he wants”. After voted that the bottom would be the boss, the
that the hands said: “We should be bosses because strike ended and the incident was over. From that
we do all the work and receive all the money”. moment on, the body parts do all the work while
The meeting continued on the same line, the bottom sits around all day.
without anybody reaching an agreement, when
suddenly the bottom spoke up and said he wanted Moral
to be boss; there was silence and, suddenly, they Brains are not needed to be the boss; any
all broke out laughing at such an idea. The bottom sh*t-head can do it!
was felt extremely offended and went on strike;

“We do not use agro-toxic poisons. Do not insist! Signed: Our
children, our workers and the management.”
Organic Flower Farm. Nápoles. Cayambe, Ecuador.
Jokes aside, it is worth reflecting upon use of the word “shit”, the long history of
which may be traced back through many European languages to possible Indo-Euro-
pean origins.
The same word root, coupled with idea of faeces as something unpleasant or not to be
mentioned in polite company has led to scatology, jokes or strong language to express
all kinds of human emotions from rage or frustration (“Shit!”), bad quality (“This is
shit!), to stoic resignation (“Shit happens!”), or even something positive (“This is the
shit!”). However, the human condition is such that the “shitter” (toilet) is where “High
or low, everybody must go!”.
A related idea is that of slaughterhouse waste known as “offal”, possibly from “off-
fall”, meaning the pieces brushed aside that fall off the end of the butcher’s table into
the disposal area. This Manual explains how to recover such waste and all kinds of
manure and droppings , to return them where the belong, in the fertility cycle, through
human ingenuity.
Human creativity knows no bounds and humour mixed with chemistry may produce
some unexpected results. A wit, probably suffering from brain fever due to constipa-
tion, inspired by the use of horse dung to make gunpowder, came up with a spurious
acronym, S.H.I.T. which, straight faced, he explained was marked on crates of guano.
These had to be Shipped High In Transit, above the sea water level in the hold to avoid
an explosive mixture forming .

Chapter 3
Mineral brews
How to prepare mineral mixtures to
control some nutritional deficiencies
and crop diseases
Index
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Copper based mineral brews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
• Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
• Copper based mineral brews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
• Other Bordeaux mix applications at 1%. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
• Use of Bordeaux mix on coffee crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
• Other ways to prepare mineral brews based on Bordeaux mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242
Sulphur based mineral brews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

• Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
• Sulpho-calcium mix (sulphur + lime) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
• Lime sulphur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
• Uses for liquid lime sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
• Sulpho-calcium mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
• Other brews and recommendations for sulpho-calcium mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
• Other uses for tobacco extract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
• Other recommendations for use of sulpho-calcium mix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Viçosa mineral mix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
• Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
• How to prepare Viçosa mix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Zinc based mineral mix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

• .IIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263
• Zinc sulphate extract or paste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Mineral brews for phytosanitary treatment of grape vines and similar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
• For severe simultaneous mildew and oidium attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
• We recommend the following for phytosanitary mineral treatment of vines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
• Phytosanitary control of grape crops using synergetic mineral compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
• Fungicide use as a gateway for virus-related diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Mineral brews for phytosanitary treatment of avocado crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

• Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
• Mineral brews for avocado crops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
• Hot and cold mix preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
• Mineral pastes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Other brews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

• Preparation of nutritional biofertilisers
with sulphurous or thermal spring water for crops in the Andes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
• General recommendations to apply mineral brews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Addenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
1 Direct relation that exists between nutritional diseases and deficiencies in crops. . . . . . . . . . 284
2. Relation between pests, diseases and deficiencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
3. Diseases due to excess nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
4. “Weeds” as indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5. Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

Acknowledgements
A greater or lesser attack on the plants,

caused by insects and microorganisms,
depends on their state of nutritional harmony.
• To all the women of the countryside and all the smallholders in

the world, responsible for maintaining peoples’ sovereignty by
guaranteeing food self-determination for their communities.
• To all peasant men and women, masters and mistresses of their

fate, who experiment without the desire for academic justifica-
tion.
• To all peasant men and women who perform organic agriculture

and who discover tools for social transformation and agrarian
justice through it.
• To all peasant men and women whose solidarity and wisdom

provide support and run risks to strengthen our hypotheses in
the field.
• To all peasant men and women who aim to master their own
destiny through organic agriculture.
• To all peasant men and women who find that confirmation of

the decision making civil power that lies inside their heart lies
in organic agriculture.
• To all the creativity and resistance of peasant families to avoid

being stripped of their land, a homage.
Mineral brews 235

Copper based
mineral mixes
There is nothing more marvellous than

thinking of a new idea. There is nothing more
magnificent than seeing a new idea working.
There is nothing more useful than a new idea
that serves your purpose.
Edward de Bono
Introduction
More various centuries, many copper salts have been used to
control numerous diseases of crop plants.
A series of easily accessible copper based formulas may now be
obtained from farm supply shops. However, our aim is to provide
or facilitate some tools so peasant farmers may be able to use some
copper based formulas again, which they traditionally prepared and
which were considered to have exceptional or superior properties
by experts worldwide, compared with the industrially prescribed
substances. In particular, we refer in this case to Bordeaux and
some other brews, which consists of a substance prepared using
copper sulphate and calcium oxide or quicklime, or calcium hydro-
xide or slaked lime, also known as builder’s lime.
It is an excellent product that works as a “fungicide, acaricide,
enzyme constituent and activator”, but that may also act to repel
certain potato beetles, tobacco borers and some grasshoppers that
plague various crops.
Bordeaux brew has its first reference to use in 1882 in France,
based on introduction to Europe of the Plasmopara vitícola Berl., and
Toni. The French phytopathologist Alexis Millardet, who resear-
ched the disease, observed that along the path by a vineyard in Me-

doc, in Gironde, the plants nearest to that path
had kept their leaves while the others had been
completely defoliated by the disease.
While investigating the cause of this pheno-
menon, he found that the owner was in the habit
of spraying the vines by the path with verdigrís
(copper acetate), or a copper and lime mix, so
the travellers thought the grapes would be poi-
soned and did not touch them. Millardet realised
the action the brew had on the disease and set to
work following that clue, and in 1885 was able
to announce the success he had obtained using a
copper sulphate and lime brew as a “fungicide”
against the Plasmopara vitícola. Alonso Sánchez, organic rice producer.
Penonomé, Panama.
The value of this “new fungicide”, named
“Bordeaux mix” after the place where it was
invented, spread rapidly, and improvements of happens when the lime used is bad quality, that
the original formula soon followed. Millardet is, when the calcium oxide content is very low;
had proposed a brew of 5.71 parts of copper then the brew remains acid, it being necessary to
sulphate, 10.71 parts of quicklime and 100 parts increase the amount of water with lime, in order
of water, which resulted in a pasty liquid that to correct the acidity. There are now a variety
had to be applied using brushes or brooms that of very easily used resources, such as pH papers
were shaken over the plants. (from commercial firms), that allow direct testing
In 1887, Millardet and Gayon recommended in the field. It is also very common for farmers
a new formula, the proportions of which were as in the field to use an iron machete or other tool
follows: to perform the acidity test. They deposit some
drops of the brew prepared on a well cleaned tool
Copper sulphate 3 parts and then wait for about three minutes to check
Lime (slaked) 1 part whether there are red stains where the drops of
Water 100 parts brew were; if that is the case, then the brew is acid
and it has to be corrected by adding a bit more
This formula was followed by those of 2% and lime until it is neutral or slightly alkaline.
1% and then diverse formulas and brews began For some species of fruit trees, such as apple,
to be applied in different places, according to the pear, peaches, etc., which are more sensitive than
crops and success obtained. other crops, we recommend decreasing the copper
Bordeaux brew must be neutral or slightly sulphate concentration, leaving a somewhat more
alkaline when the amount of lime is insufficient alkaline mix.
to saturate the copper sulphate, which is what
Mineral brews 237

Copper based mineral mixes
How to make copper based mineral mixes to control some nutritional deficiencies
and crop diseases?
Bordeaux mix at 1%
Ingredients to prepare 100 litres of mix
• 1 Kilo of quick or slaked lime (calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide).

• 1 Kilo of copper sulphate.
• 1 Plastic receptacle: Capacity 100 litres.
• 1 Small plastic bucket: Capacity 20 litres.
• 1 Wood stick to stir the mix.
• 1 Machete to test the acidity of the mix.
• 100 Litres of water.
How to prepare it?

Step 1 Step 2
Dissolve the kilo of copper sulphate in 10 Dissolve the kilo of slaked or quick lime an a
litres of water in a small plastic bucket. large plastic receptacle, previously slaked in 90
litres of clean water.
1 Kg. of copper
sulphate
10 litres of 90 litres 1 Kg. of slaked

water of water lime (calcium
hydroxide)
• 1 kg of copper sulphate.
• 10 litres of water.
• 1 kg of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide or
builder’s lime).

Step 3 Step 4
After having dissolved the two ingredients Check whether the acidity of the preparation
separately (the lime and sulphate) are mixed, is optimal for application to crops. It is checked
always taking care to add the copper sulphate by putting a machete into the mix and whether
preparation to the lime. Never do the opposite the metal blade rusts (red stains) because it is
(the lime on the sulphate) and stir constantly. acid and requires more lime to neutralise it; if
This procedure allows the most chemically ho- this does not happen, it is because it is ready for
mogeneous mix to be obtained. use.
• 10 litres of sulphate. Check the acidity by

putting a machete blade
• The 2 preparations are mixed. into the mix.
• 90 litres of lime water.
If the blade rusts,
more lime has
to be added to
neutralise it.
10 litres of
sulphate
90 litres of 100 litres of

The two
preparations lime water Bordeaux
are mixed mix 1%.
How to apply it?

Bordeaux mix may
be applied pure to some
crops; but on others it
is more recommendable
to dissolve it in water,
to avoid “burning” the
most sensitive crops.
Preparation of mineral mixes

to treat fungal diseases in
plantain growing. Guayaquil,
Ecuador.
Mineral brews 239

Recommendations for Bordeaux mix for crops
a. For onion crops, garlic, tomato, beetroot and others: 3 parts of brew (75%) + one
part of water (25%).
Dilution 3:1
1 Part 1 Part 1 Part 1 Part

Bordeaux Mix 75% Water 25%
b. For crops of beans, peas, cabbage, cucumber, pumpkin, cauliflower, others: 1 part of
brew (50%) + 1 part of water (50%).
Dilution 1:1
1 Part 1 Part
Bordeaux Mix 50% Water 50%
c. For crops of tomato and potato, after the plants are 30 centimetres high, it is
recommended to apply it gradually at intervals between 7 and 10 days with the pure
preparation or with a dilution of 2 parts brew + 1 part of water.
Dilution 2:1
1 Part 1 Part Water

Bordeaux Mix
Remark
The brew may be applied pure for crops of
potato, tomato, banana and coffee, in full plant
development.

Other applications for Bordeaux brew 1%
For fruit trees:
• Citrus • Cherry, apple, peach, pear and plum
Controls verrucosis (scab) and greasy spot Controls fungal diseases, mainly entomospo-
or sooty mould fungus. To control these, it must riosis. Spray with Bordeaux brew or sulpho-cal-
be sprayed on the trees after each flowering; in cium mix, mainly after pruning, until they begin
more severe cases, the Bordeaux brew may have to set fruit.
mineral or vegetable oil added, or an ash emul-
sion brew may be prepared to increase its effec- • Fig
tiveness. Moreover, when there is large scale da- Mainly controls scab. Applications are made
mage to the trees, two sprayings may be carried from the bud until the fruit matures. The trees
out, one before flowering and another performed may be treated with sulpho-calcium mix during
when calculating that 2/3 of the flower petals the pruning period.
have fallen.
• Guava
Mainly controls rust and spot, may be alter-
nated with the sulpho-calcium brew. It is applied Recommendations
in high humidity climate conditions with pleasant • Preferably prepare the brew for immediate
temperatures, when development of the disease is use.
favoured.
• Do not stir the brew by hand, use wooden
sticks.
• Mango
• Use the maximum amount of brew during the
It mainly controls anthracnose. It is sprayed three days after preparation.
on the trees prior to flowering, taking great care
to wet all the leaves well (full coverage). A second • Do not use metal receptacles for preparation.
spray must be applied during the flowering. From
• Do not apply the mix to very small shoots, re-
that moment on, spraying may be continued cently germinated plants and during flowering.
every 15 or 20 days, according to the weather
conditions and the spread of the disease. • When preparing this brew, never heat the in-
gredients, mainly copper sulphate.
• Strawberry • Never use crop pesticide or herbicide equip-

It mainly controls anthracnose. The Bordeaux ment when applying Bordeaux mix.
brew is applied until beginning flowering, is • Here is no sole recipe. Be creative and prepare
then replaced or alternated with applications your own alternative control formulas, combi-
of the sulpho-calcium brew. A brews of half a ning many possibilities. When you dare to ex-
litre of Bordeaux mix plus one and a half litres periment, take note of the proportions of ingre-
of sulpho-calcium mix dissolved in 100 litres of dients and adjust your recipe to the results. Do
water may be used. not forget that a crop is never full of identical
plants. Everything is very dynamic in agricultu-
re and things change place constantly.
Mineral brews 241

Using Bordeaux brew to grow coffee
In organic coffee growing, the presence and intensity
Formula to control
of diseases are related to handling environmental and
coffee diseases
nutritional factors. The influence of environmental fac-
tors is associated with cultural practices, mainly hand- Ingredients Quantity
ling shade, distance between plants sown and ground co- Copper sulphate 5 ounces
verage. The influence of nutritional factors and the soil Quick or slaked lime 5 ounces
is also important in organic coffee growing. Nutrition,
Black or potassium 120 grams
organic fertilisation of crops and correction of earth aci-
soap
dity by increasing organic matter content also allow re-
gulation of the effect of some diseases.
Water 4 gallons
Among others, we emphasise control of coffee rust
(Hemileia vastatrix); American leaf spot (Micena citricolor)
(Omphalia flavida); kole-roga or black rot (Pellicularia ko‑
leroga) (Corticium kolerosa); pink fungus (Corticium salmonico‑ Remark
lor); anthracnose (Antracnosis colletotrichum); leaf spot (Cer‑
This formula is the amount required to
cospora coffeicola).
prepare a backpack pump with Bordeaux
brew at 1%. When necessary, monthly
applications are recommended (every 30
Control days). Use of this product, within the pos-
sibilities, must be consulted with a skilled
The Organic Coffee Growing Manual, published in
technician beforehand, for him to be
Guatemala by ANACAFE, the National Coffee Associa- responsible for monitoring the crop and
tion in that country, recommends controlling these disea- according to the conditions of the organic
ses using the following formula: production.
Other ways to prepare mineral

Emulsion formula
based Bordeaux brews
When many plants, in addition to being affected by
Common soap
fungal diseases, are also attacked by insects such as whi-
(preferably 2 Kilos
te fly, cochineal or wax bodied insects, the Bordeaux
potassium)
brew may be added to an emulsion of kerosene or soap
Water 8 litres
and ail, in a proportion of 1 to 2%, that is, adding one
Kerosene or
to two litres of emulsion to every 100 litres of Bordeaux 8 litres
mineral oil
brew.
The emulsion formula is as follows:

How to prepare the emulsion Bordeaux brew blended with sulpho-
Place pieces of soap in eight litres of boiling calcium mix
water and dissolve, then gradually adding the ke- Since 1940, in some regions of Spain, vine
rosene, stirring the mix with a wooden stick un- oidium and mildew control by preparing a blend
til obtaining a creamy emulsion. The emulsion is of 1% Bordeaux brew and 1.5% sulpho-calcium
ready for use in a proportion of 1 to 2 litres per brew is recommended, while in Brazil, the
100 litres of Bordeaux mix to be applied. same brew is recommended for crops of beans,
onion and garlic. Mexican peasant farmers now
Bordeaux paste prepare 100 litres of Bordeaux brew at 1%, up
It is a paste made of copper sulphate and lime. to 4 litres of sulpho-calcium brew, mainly to
It is mainly used to disinfect cuts on trees that control Alternaria and Phytophtora diseases in adult
have been pruned, or that have suffered surgery fruit tree crops.
due to many tissues being rotten or injured, as
happens with gummosis in citrus trees.
On the other hand, this paste may also be used
to brush onto the trunks, the thicker branches Formula to control
and the base of many roots that are exposed on coffee diseases
the ground, in order to avoid future disease. This Ingredients Quantity
paste is excellent to be recommended in coffee
Copper sulphate 1 kilo
growing after pruning, coppicing or cut-backs
Quick or slaked lime 1 kilo
(drastic pruning of coffee bushes to renew them).
Sulpho-calcium mix at
1.5 litres
28º to 30º Baumé
Water 100 litres
Formula to prepare
Bordeaux paste
Ingredients Quantity Bordeaux brew blended with sulpho-
Quick or slaked lime 2 Kilos calcium brew to control the main
Copper sulphate 1 litres diseases of potato and tomato crops
Water 12 litres
The sulphur and copper brew is being used with
great success in Central America and Mexico
to control the main diseases of the solanaceae
family to which the tomato, potato, aubergine,
Preparation of this Bordeaux paste is accor- naranjilla, chilli and pepper plants belong. These
ding to the same procedure used to prepare the diseases are also known by the name of early
original Bordeaux brew at 1%. blight and late blight.
Mineral brews 243

Formula to prepare Bordeaux brew blended with
Bordeaux mix blended with potassium permanganate
sulpho-calcium mix Preparations using Bordeaux brew plus
Ingredients Quantity potassium permanganate are recommended for
cases of strong simultaneous attacks of mildew
Bordeaux mix prepared
100 litres and oidium, as well as for very severe attacks of
at 1%
Sulphocalcium mix 4 litres early blight (Alternaria spp) and late blight or drip
(Phytophtora spp), mainly in the case of tomato,
potato, pepper, aubergine and chilli crops.
Copper dust preparation

Copper dust is widely used to treat seeds, Formula to prepare Bordeaux
mainly of vegetables and grain. In order to treat mix enriched with potassium
small seeds such as clover and vegetables, and permanganate
prevent diseases, 500 grams of copper dust are
recommended per 100 kilos of seed. To treat Ingredients Quantity
wheat, rice and maize seeds, 250 grams of copper Bordeaux mix at 1% 100 litres
dust are recommended for 100 kilos of seeds. Potassium permanganate 125 grams
Preparation
Formula to prepare Dissolve the permanganate separately in one
copper dust part of water where the Bordeaux brew is to
be prepared, to then add it into the final mix.
Ingredients Quantity On the other hand, potassium permanganate is
Talcum or stone meal 930 grams especially used as a substitute for the sulphur
Copper sulphate 70 grams effects in controlling oidium, when the ambient
temperature is lower than 20°C, as under that
temperature sulphur loses a lot of efficiency as a
It is recommended to dampen smooth surfa- “fungicide”.
ced seeds slightly with a little molasses or sugar
water to facilitate copper dust adherence, which
is done using a plain spray bottle, dusting them
Formula for potassium permanganate
and leaving them to dry in the shade for later
as a fungicide
planting.
Potassium permanganate 125 grams
Quick or slaked lime 1 kilo
Water 100 litres

Cow remineralisation using sea salt, ash and calcined bone meal. Rancho
Santa Marta, State of Sonora, Mexico.
Preparation
First the potassium perman-
ganate must be dissolved in a
little water, and then it is added
tot he receptacle where the lime
is previously diluted in water
until making up the 100 litres
to be prepared. It is applied
pure, directly to the crop.
2 litres of water +
125 grams of 98 litres of water
potassium and lime
permanganate
Mineral brews 245

Sulphur based
mineral brews
There is nobody more enthusiastic than a

farmer who has managed to increase his
production using technological innovation.
Nobody is so skilled as him to encourage his
neighbour to follow his example.
Luis Sánchez
Introduction
Sulphur is recognised worldwide as one of the oldest products
used to treat many crops. Its use may be dated back to the year
3000 B.C., and it was widely promoted by Hesiod in Greece.
Nowadays, under industrialised terms and in different presen-
tations, it is highly used, mainly to deal with crop diseases such as
mildew and oidium, more popularly known as “ash rot”.
It also controls various insects, mites, trips, cochineal, borers,
scab, rust, some chewing worms, eggs and some species of aphids.
Sulphur is used in various ways: as dust and in various calcium
based compounds. In spite of not being water soluble, we may pre-
pare sulphur in excellent emulsions that make it feasible to use in
spray. One of the aims of this paper is to present some very simple
formulas to show how we have been working with sulphur directly
on crops, in different concentrations.
On the other hand, sulphur controls, nourishes and increases the
solubility of elements withheld in the soil, to make them available
to the plant.

Sulpho-calcium mix
(sulphur + lime) Lime
This mix consists of sulphur dust (20 kilos) To obtain the best results, it is indispensable
mixed with lime (10 kilos), that is brought to the to use the best quality calcium oxide or quicklime
boil in water for 30 to 45 minutes, thus forming (CaO), with at least 90% of calcium oxide, and
lime sulphur. preferably with no more than 5% magnesium
This is a very practical way to make sulphur content, because it forms insoluble compounds
soluble in water, through lime and the heat that increase the quantity of sediment formed.
pressure it receives during the time it is boiling The quicker the lime is slaked the better, because
in the brew in a metal receptacle. the heat released aids the cooking process.
Lime sulphur was first used to bathe bovine When it is not easy to use quicklime (calcium
animals to protect them from lice, it only being oxide), as is our case, slaked lime may be used,
in 1886, in California, when its feasibility as also known as hydrated lime, calcium hydroxide
a product with insecticide characteristics was or builders’ lime, although it must be the best
proven. In 1902, that mix came into the common quality and one third more by weight must be
domain and, from that time on, it began to be used than stated in the formulas. Old lime, that
made widely known and used, mainly to control has been slaked in the air, must not be used, be-
cochineal, mites, aphids, trips and to control cause absorption of CO2 has turned it into cal-
more than 50 fungal diseases. cium carbonate (CaCO3), and thus the product
obtained will not be good quality.
Calcium polysulphide
This is the product obtained by boiling a mix- Sulphur
ture of lime and sulphur slurry. After the liquid There are various forms of commercial sul-
obtained is decanted, it is a very dark orange phur, such as pure powder or sublimate sulphur,
yellow colour and contains variable amounts of lumps of common sulphur and finely milled sul-
calcium polysulphide. phur. Pure powder sulphur is the best quality to
It is known as a front line fungicide and there prepare polysulphide, but if the milled sulphur is
are numerous formulas to prepare it. In 1852, finely pulverised, it may be used, being conside-
Grison suggested the use of a solution prepared rably cheaper. It must have from 98% to 99% of
by boiling slaked lime and sulphur in water and purity, a degree that is easily found in American
then letting the mix decant. That solution was sulphur and is also made available by the petro-
known as “Grison Water” for a long time and it leum industry in Latin America. Our ones are so-
was the precursor to polysulphide with sulphur mewhat more impure, but they are also useable.
and lime, that become a solution by boiling in The market now offers sulphur concentrations
water. that vary from 80% to 99%. The higher the pu-
rity of the sulphur content, the better the final
preparation of the brew will be.
Mineral brews 247

Formulas
These are very numerous, as is the literature
on the product.7, 8
The majority of researchers say that the best
proportions for lime and sulphur to dissolve in
the appropriate amount of water are those of one
pound of lime per 2 to 2 ¼ of sulphur and in the
majority of the formulas, the products are in that Preparation of sulpho-calcium mix
proportion.
The three most common formulas are the fo- This is the most popular of the formulas. It
llowing: provides a product of 27º Bé to 28º Bé, and the
residue is relatively scarce.
Formula No.1
Formula No.3
Quicklime 80 pounds
Quicklime 50 pounds
Milled commercial sulphur 160 pounds
Water, to obtain a final
50 gallons Water, to obtain a final
amount of 65 gallons
amount of
This formula is used to obtain a concentration

of 32º Bé to 34º Bé. The disadvantage of this is As a larger quantity of water is used here,
that there is relatively little water, minerals are the resulting polysulphide is less concentrated,
lost by formation of insoluble compounds such as reaching 23 Béº to 24 Béº, and there is less
calcium sulphite (CaSO3) or uncombined sulphur residue.
and lime are left. However, it is considered It is difficult to achieve high concentrations
that if the materials are good, the quality and using the commercial products available to us,
concentration of the polysulphide obtained unless the quantity of water used is considerably
compensates the disadvantages noted. This reduced. The polysulphides obtained here range
solution contains between 25% and 26% of total from 16° to 26° Baumé.
dissolved sulphur. Two precautions must be taken when preparing
these: To maintain a constant volume of water
and avoid over-cooking. When this occurs,
Formula No.2 it is common to observe that the liquid slowly
turns a greenish colour, due to precipitation
of the colloidal sulphur, thus decreasing the
Quicklime 50 pounds
effectiveness of the liquid.
Water, to obtain a final
50 gallons
amount of 7. Siegler, E. H. Et al. Lime sulphur concentrate. USDA. Farmer’s
Bul 1258:1-41. 1922.
8. Robinson, R. H. Sprays. Their preparation and use. Oregon Ext Bul
393: 8-16. 1941.

Uses of liquid polysulphide
For many years, calcium polysulphide has being displaced by “elementary sulphur” because
been widely used as a fungicide and insecticide they cause less damage than the former. A well
in fruit orchards, due to its extensive utility. It is prepared polysulphide, with good materials, with
still used in the United States and in Australia it a concentration of 32º Bé to 33º Bé must have
is now revolutionising both agriculture as well as 25% to 26% of dissolved sulphur. However, as
husbandry systems. there is so much variation in the materials used
Higher concentrations are useful to combat for its preparation, the most convenient thing
peach tree leaf roll and San Jose scale or is to always measure its concentration with a
waxy scale. It has largely been replaced by oil Baumé hydrometer (Baumé = Bé).
emulsions for the latter purpose. One of its uses It is convenient to apply Table 1 for its
has also been to control apple rust, but it is dissolution and application.
Table 1. Dissolution of calcium polysulphide (sulpho-calcium mix)

To make 100 litres of diluted polysulphide, use the number of litres of
Strength of the base solution shown in the columns below and add water to make up 100
base solution litres
Type of spraying according to the time of year
Tree with good foliage Tree resting without much foliage
Baumé degrees Density
Litres Litres
36o 1,330 1,50 2,75
35o 1,318 1,62 2,87
34o 1,304 1,75 3,00
33o 1,295 1,87 3,12
32o 1,282 2,00 3,25
31o 1,272 2,12 3,37
30o 1,260 2,25 3,50
29o 1,250 2,37 3,62
28o 1,239 2,50 3,75
27o 1,229 2,62 3,87
26o 1,218 2,75 4,00
25o 1,208 2,87 4,12
24o 1,198 3,00 4,25
23o 1,188 3,12 4,37
22o 1,179 3,25 4,50
21o 1,169 3,37 4,62
20o 1,160 3,50 4,75
19o 1,151 3,62 4,87
18o 1,142 3,75 5,00
17o 1,133 5,12 5,12
16o 1,124 4,00 5,25
15o 1,115 4,12 5,37
Mineral brews 249

Sulpho-calcium brew
Formula to prepare 100 litres Materials
of sulpho-calcium mix • Fireplace and good quality firewood.
(Invented in 1902 and in use till the present day)
• Metal drum or bucket.
Ingredients Quantity • Wooden spatula or stirrer.
Sulphur dust 20 kilos
Quicklime or slaked lime 10 kilos
Water 100 litres
How to prepare it
Step 1
Boiling
Boil the water in a metal drum and make water
sure the volume of water is kept constant.
Step 2
Sulphur
Lim
e After the water is boiling at a good pressure, add
sulphur and then the lime simultaneously with great
care, mainly with the sulphur, as it is flammable in
direct contact with the flames of the fire. Another more
common alternative is to mix both the lime and sulphur
in a receptacle dry, to then slowly add the boiling water
to it.
Step 3
Constantly stir the mix with the wood mixer for
approximately 30 to 45 minutes; the stronger the 100 Litres
pressure of the fire, the better prepared the mix will be. • Water
• Sulphur
• Lime
Remark
To not forget to maintain a constant volume of mix
water during the whole time the brew is boiling. To that
end, use a jug to replace the water that evaporates little
by little.

Step 4
The brew will be ready when, after boiling for approxima-
tely 30 to 45 minutes, it turns a red wine or clay tile colour, or Edible
orange brick colour. Leave it to rest (cool), filter and store in oil
well covered dark receptacles, to which one or two spoonfuls of
(edible) oil must be added to form a protective seal on the mix
Sulpho-
in the receptacle where packaged, thus avoiding it breaking calcium brew
down due to the air (oxygen) inside the receptacles. Store for
three months and up to a year, in places protected from the
sun and light.
Step 5
After withdrawing all the brew from the
metal receptacle where prepared, a sandy
sediment with a yellowish green colour is left
over from the remains of sulphur and lime
that did not brew when preparing the brews.
That by-product must not be disposed of; quite
to the contrary, as it is what we call sulpho-
Brew
calcium paste, that must be mixed smooth and
stored in well sealed receptacles, with a little
oil to protect it from degradation and drying
out that it may suffer.
Finally, this sulphur paste is put to use in treating trunks and branches of trees
that are mainly attacked by cochineal, borers or drilling insects, and trees that have
undergone pruning, or that also have canker, mainly avocado, mango and citrus.
Some ideas about how to apply it

• For diseases of onion, white beans, string beans, dilute ½ litre to one litre of sulpho-
calcium mix in 20 litres of water.
• On fruit trees, to control mites, dilute 2 litres of mix per 20 litres of water. Mainly
for citrus growing.
• For trips on onion, garlic and other crops, dilute ¾ of a litre in 20 litres of water.
• For trips on beans and tomato, dilute one litre of mix in 20 litres of water.
Mineral brews 251

of trees that are or may be affected. To do
Recommendations
so, dilute one kilo of sulpho-calcium paste in
• Do not fumigate or apply this brew to crops of:
three litres of water.
white beans, string beans, kidney beans or other
legumes when they have flowered.
• Research other ways of finding uses for this
• Do not apply the sulpho-calcium brew to plants
by-product.
such as pumpkin, cucumber, melon, water melon • This sulpho-calcium paste is also used to help
(cucurbit family), as it burns them in most cases. swift recovery of fruit trees when their trunks
The best recommendation to control ash rot on and branches are covered by a lot of moss
such crops is to use sulphur dust mixed with lime; and lichen, for which it is recommended to
the other alternative to control ash rot would clean the trees with a wire or steel brush and
be potassium bicarbonate based brew, which is then apply sulpho-calcium paste with a paint
explained later on. brush.
Note How to perfect efficiency

Sulphur is an excellent miticide and, in cases acts
as a control for some insects such as aphids, borers
of use of sulpho-calcium brew?
or drillers, eggs and larvae of many butterflies due Once the sulpho-calcium mix is prepared, it is
to its high degree of causticity. In husbandry, it is left to rest for some hours to cool, then filtered
used as an excellent tick controller. and, before decantation, its concentration may
be measured with a Baumé hydrometer, that is
easily found in the shops at a low price. That
measurement of the mix concentration is to make
Due to its multiple ways of acting (repellent, it more efficient for use on some crops.
nutritional, miticide, fungicide and insecticide), The measurement is performed by inserting
it is fundamental to use sulpho-calcium mix in di- the hydrometer, which is a glass tube with a scale,
fferent concentrations to suit each specific case. into the mix. A good quality mix may range from
It is best to begin to experiment with it and 25º Bé to 33º Baumé, which is called the base
observe the results to then apply more widely. Do preparation and used for the calculations to mix
not forget to create and distribute new formulas it with water for immediate application.
and experiences. In universal terms, the scale of 32° Baumé
is used as the pattern reference for a base brew,
Recommendations and based on which the other dilutions in water are
uses of sulpho-calcium paste performed.
• To help to protect newly pruned trees,
and to stimulate their scar formation, it
is recommended to mix one kilo of sulpho-
calcium paste in two litres of water. It is
applied directly to the affected parts with a
brush or a thick paint brush.
• To control cochineal and to repel many
insects, it is recommended to use a brush or
paint brush to paint the trunks and branches

Other mixes and recommendations for
sulpho-calcium brew
The following are other sulpho-calcium based beans and at the same time to control some fungi
brews, which are recommended for the farmers such as oidium, is as follows:
to be able to choose, according to their particular
possibilities and with the treatment required for Formula to control trips
their crops: on citrus trees
Formula for winter treatment of Sulpho-calcium brew
deciduous fruit trees 4 litres
from 31° to 32° Baumé
Ingredients Quantity Natural wood glue 15 grams
Sulphur dust (pure pow-
Sulpho-calcium brew 1.5 kilos
1 part dered sulphur)
Water 100 litres
Water 4 parts
Preparation
Formula for spring/summer treatment
Dissolve the adhesive or natural wood glue in
of cochineal or scale, mites and trips
5 litres of very hot water and add the powdered
on deciduous or broad-leafed fruit
sulphur to it until forming a paste; then the
trees
remaining 95 litres of water are added to the
Ingredients Quantity mix, plus the 4 litres of sulpho-calcium brew.
Sulpho-calcium brew
1 part
Water 26 parts Additional formula to prepare
the tobacco extract
Formula to control trips Ingredients Quantity
on citrus trees Tobacco 300 grams
Ingredients Quantity Alcohol 1 litre
Sulpho-calcium brew
4 litres
from 31° to 32° Baumé Preparation
Tobacco extract (See
1/2 litre Chop up the tobacco and leave it to soak in
attached formula)
Water 100 litres alcohol for 2 days, in a dark flask shielded from
light; it is then filtered and is ready to be used
mixed with the sulpho-calcium mix to control
A highly efficient formulation as an insec- trips on citrus trees, according to the preceding
ticide, that has an excellent adherence, mainly recommendation.
recommended to control trips on onion, garlic,
Mineral brews 253

Application of mineral brews to produce organic coffee. Vereda
El Guayabo, Montenegro, Quindío, Colombia.
Table 2. Dilution of sulpho-calcium brew

Quantity of litres of concentrated solution added to 100 litres
Degrees Baumé of
of water to obtain a dilution equivalent to that of the
concentrate (base)
base preparation at 32° Baumé
preparation
1 :8 l:20 1:30 1:40 1:50 1:75
20° 25 10 7 5 4 3
22° 22.5 9 6 4.5 3.5 2.5
24° 20 8 5 4 3 2
26° 20 7 5 4 3 2
28° 15 6 4 3 2.5 2
30° 15 5.5 4 3 2 1.5
32° *** 12.5 5 3 2.5 2 1.5
34° 12.5 4.5 3 2.5 2 1
36° 10 4 3 2 2 1
*** Reference value (Base)
Preparation ready for use is obtained from Table 3. Quantity of water litres to be added to
the base by diluting it with water until obtaining one litre of sulpho-calcium brew according to
the required concentration, that is measured with the concentration for deciduous leaves in a
a Baumé hydrometer. cold climate.
Sulpho-calcium use is generally calculated Degrees Baumé on Quantity of water in litres
according to a base preparation at 32° Baumé. the hydrometer in to be added
The mixes range from 2% to 10% for 100 litres one litre of sulpho- Treatment in Treatment in
calcium mix winter spring
of water; all depending on the type of crop and
season when applied. In general terms, the 23° 5 15
24° 5.25 15.75
less diluted the mix is, the more efficient it is.
25° 5.50 16.50
However, it is also more dangerous as it may
26° 6 18
burn new leaves, flowers and tender fruit.
27° 6.25 18.75
28° 6.50 19.50
29° 7 21
Remark
30° 7.25 22.75
Modify and adjust your applications to your 31° 7.50 22.50
needs, invent and share.

Other recommendations
to use sulpho-calcium
brew
Vegetables
a. To control rust and mites on crops of garlic,
Organic banana production. Guayaquíl, Ecuador.
onion, beans, eggplant, paprika, chilli and
roses, use a solution of sulpho-calcium mix
Technical annotation at 26° Baumé in a proportion of 1 litre of
The following formulation is necessary to manage sulpho-calcium brew to 20 litres of water.
to prepare a good sulpho-calcium brew, that is near b. To control trips on garlic, onion, beans, chilli,
to 32º Baumé: peppers and tomato, use a solution of sulpho-
calcium mix at 26 degrees Baumé in the
Formula to prepare sulpho-calcium proportion of 1 litre of sulpho-calcium brew
mix near to 32º Baumé to 25 litres of water.
Water 100 litres
Powdered sulphur 40 kilos
Ornamental plants
Lime (preferably quicklime) 20 kilos To control oidium and rust on ornamental
plants such as chrysanthemums, begonia, roses,
use a mix of:
Prepare according to the above recommenda-
tions, that is, boil the ingredients for about 30 to
45 minutes. Formula to control oidium and
rust on ornamental plants
Other uses of Sulpho-calcium brew 24°
to 25° Baumé
4 litres
tobacco extract Natural wood glue (fish
10 grams
As an insecticide against aphids, larvae and glue)
soft bodied insects, mainly on ornamental plants Pure powdered sulphur 1,5 kilos
and gardens. Water 100 litres
Formula to prepare
How to prepare it
tobacco extract
Dilute the 10 grams of adhesive or natural
Ingredients Quantity wood glue in 3 litres of hot water and add 1.5
Tobacco extract 250 cc kilos of pure powdered sulphur to form a soft
Water 40 litres paste, add 93 litres of water to that glue and
Potassium soap (melted in sulphur paste and the 4 litres of sulpho-calcium
200 grams
lukewarm water) brew of 24° to 25° Baumé.
Mineral brews 255

smallholders in the agricultural sector, who the
Remark
agro-industrial system now oppresses, sickens
This brew must be used on the same day as it and kills through the offer of highly soluble
is prepared.
poisons and fertilisers.
Sulpho-calcium blend with Super

Fruit trees Magro biofertiliser for application on
a. Sulpho-calcium brew is used to prevent rust adult fruit trees
when growing guava, in a concentration of
Blend 3 litres of sulpho-calcium brew with 7
0.3° Baumé.
litres of Super Magro biofertiliser in 100 litres
b. Sulpho-calcium is used for aphid control when
of water.
growing citrus trees, in a proportion of one litre
of brew at 26° Baumé to 30 litres of water.
c. Sulpho-calcium brew is used when growing Sulpho-calcium and Viçosa
deciduous perennial fruit trees, such as apple, brew blended with Super Magro
peach, pear, grape, plum, for winter treatment biofertiliser to grow adult coffee
at 26° Baumé. Cochineal and fungus control bushes
is performed using a proportion of 10 litres Blend 3 litres of sulpho-calcium brew with
of sulpho-calcium brew in 60 litres of water. 25 litres of Viçosa brew and 7 litres of Super
Sulpho-calcium brew is used in spring and Magro biofertiliser in 100 litres of water. Mainly
summer treatments at 26° Baumé to control to control rust on adult coffee bushes and for
mites and trips, in a proportion of 1 litre of nutritional strengthening of the crop.
brew in 33 litres of water.
On the other hand, sulphur based preparations,

Sulpho-calcium brew and Viçosa
like their respective mixes with other minerals brew blended with Super Magro
and the different biofertilisers, now constitute biofertiliser to grow adult avocado
one of the most revolutionary tools of agricultural Blend 2 litres of sulpho-calcium brew with
technology managed by peasant farmers. These 100 litres of Viçosa brew in 200 litres of wa-
are being used both to control different diseases, ter and 10 litres of Super Magro biofertiliser to
as well as to strengthen the nutritional control control verrucosis (fungal disease) and for nutri-
of different diseases, as well as to strengthen tional strengthening of the crop. Avoid applying
the nutritional system of the different crops. For when the crop is flowering.
example, the results of the sulpho-calcium index
blended with the Super Magro biofertilisers, Blend of sulpho-calcium brew with
prepared using fresh cow dung, are providing Bordeaux brew and Super Magro
excellent results in general terms, mainly in all
fruit crops and organic coffee production.
biofertiliser to grow avocado
In order to stimulate creativity, some practical Blend 2 to 4 litres of sulpho-calcium brew
ideas are offered to attempt to increase the with 100 litres of Bordeaux brew and 10 litres
greater availability of some mixes of mineral and of Super Magro biofertiliser.
biofertiliser blends used by peasant farmers and

Blend of sulpho-calcium brew with amount may range from 20 to 40 kilos per
Super Magro biofertiliser to grow hectare of crop.
oranges and lemons All the applications of mineral brews, in
blends that contain sulpho-calcium brew, must be
Sulpho-calcium brew may be considered a top
performed during the freshest hours or moments
friend in orange or citrus tree growing, due to
of the day, or at the end of the afternoon. On the
the major benefits the crop receives when treated
other hand, we recommend avoiding application
with that mineral mix. The treatment that is best
of any product or mix as much as possible, at any
for such crops is that applied when the trees are
moment of reappearance of shoots, budding or
in the pre-flowering stage, where after the phase
initial flowering of the crops. As complementary
of the flower petals fall off, one may complement
information, we recommend applying mineral
it with a second application at a lower dose. One
brews enhanced with molasses as an adherent, in
may experiment with doses of 2 to 4 litres per
a proportion of 1 to 3 litres for every 100 litres
100 litres of water.
of mix to be applied.
Blend of sulpho-calcium brew with

Bordeaux mix, prepared at 1% for Remark
crops of potatoes, peppers, chilli, It is best for all blends to be made between
tomatoes and other solanaceae mineral brews and biofertilisers to be used
immediately as a foliar application on crops and
Peasant farmers throughout Latin America
to make sure to record the results, in order to
have been making blends of 100 litres of early share these.
blight (Alternaria spp) and late blight (Phytophtora)
that are the main diseases of the nightshade
family, that feature crops of potatoes, chilli,
peppers, tomatoes and eggplants, among others.
Blend of sulpho-calcium brew with

Super Magro biofertiliser to grow
maize and other gramineae
Blend 5 to 6 litres of sulpho-calcium brew with
10 to 12 litres of Super Magro biofertiliser in
200 litres of water. In many cases, it is convenient
to perform a complementary application of the
sulphur element on the maize or sugar cane crop.
That application may be performed in powdered
sulphur form, mixing it directly with the organic
fertilisers in the crop furrows or lines, mainly
in sodium and alkaline soils. The recommended
Mineral brews 257

Alternating applications of sulpho-calcium, Bordeaux and
Viçosa brews for simultaneous treatment of fruit and
vegetable crops
Fruit and vegetable growers commonly hear that smallholders and farmers perform constant
the input companies arguing the resistance testing of some fruit trees and some plants in
many diseases develop to a certain poison or the case of vegetables. This is in order to find
commercial product, for which they recommend the best adjustment of the ideal mineral brews
a series of interspersed applications of many for their crops, whether applied alone, mixed,
different commercial inputs. However, the fact strengthened by biofertilisers or applied alone,
lies elsewhere, as many active principles of some alternated with intervals that may range from 8
products, mainly those manufactured using to 15 days between one application and another,
sulphur, copper, zinc or manganese, among while performing adjustments according to the
others, have a reciprocal nutritional action, or needs of the crop and direct observation of the
the crop has a deficiency of one of the elements results in the field. This practice requires monitor,
the input contains (principles of trophobiosis). recording the amounts and results achieved in
In order not to succumb to the spiral of the field. Certainly, the autonomous path to food
consumerism and technological imposition by production is only achieved by people from the
technicians and the industry, we recommend country.
Tepetlixpa training workshop (September 2012).

Captain Arnulfo Nieblas with the growers: “Healthy food binds us”. Tepetlixpa, State of Mexico, Mexico.

Viçosa mineral
brew
One must halt the illusion and tendency to

think that everything may be achieved overnight
with organic agriculture. The matter is gradual
and requires close monitoring, adjustment and
corrections, with direct participation by those
who are committed to being able to achieve
development of such agriculture. Wisdom and
perseverance are the tools that help to configure
achievements and shorten the path to success,
calmly and self-sufficiently.
Introduction
T
his is a mineral brewthat, in spite of it having been trialled
in the field much earlier and with good results by Professor
João da Cruz Filho, incumbent of the Department of Phyto-
pathology of the Federal University of Viçosa, was only officially
published outside the university on 12th May 1982 in Viçosa, in
the 4 page technical report No. 23 by the Extension Council at that
university.
This preparation or mineral mix, with an initial public launch
as a novel fungicide to control coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix), has
been adapted by farmers in many countries for application not only
to coffee bushes, but also to crops such as the grapevine, vegetables
and fruit trees such as avocado, mango, and citrus, among others.
We shall now explain the content of the technical report on that
preparation.
“Viçosa brewis a colloidal suspension comprised of mineral com-
plexes with slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), specifically developed
to control coffee rust. After having carried out thorough studies,
the Federal University of Viçosa proposes this new weapon to co-
Mineral brews 259

ffee growers, the cheapest one because while effi- Very important remarks to take
ciently controlling rust, it complements micronu- into account regarding urea as an
trients required by the coffee, with highly positi- ingredient of Viçosa brew
ve repercussions on the production.” “A team of
Urea is not allowed, or regulated under
professors from the Phytopathology, Phytotech-
any condition for use on properties that work
niques and Soils Departments at the Centre for
definitively under the principles and concepts
Agrarian Sciences tested the beneficial effects of
of organic agriculture; thus, farmers who work
Viçosa brewthat, beyond controlling coffee rust
according to organic agriculture practices have
and leaf spot (Cercospora spp), significantly redu-
adapted preparation of this mineral mix in
ced leaf borer numbers. In addition to these as-
various ways.
pects, mineral deficiencies were corrected, which
delayed leaf fall and kept the plants more vigo-
rous for production in the following year. Finally,
the professors conclude:
Viçosa brew adapted for
“Viçosa brewwas superior to copper oxychloride based organic agriculture
fungicides and Bayleton, in the aspects of efficient fungici‑
de action and in increasing productivity, apart from cons‑ Ingredients Quantity
tituting a cheaper product for the growers to work with”. Copper sulphate 500 grams
Zinc sulphate 600 grams
Magnesium sulphate 400 grams
Borax 400 grams
Slaked lime 500 grams
Water 100 litres
Original composition of the brew

according to the report and the Note
experience of the Professors at Urea replaced by: (read the alternative forms
the Federal University of Viçosa described below).
Copper sulphate 500 grams
Boric acid 400 grams
Urea 400 grams
Slaked lime 500 grams
Water 100 litres

Technical remarks on alternatives to How to prepare
use of urea in Viçosa brew
1. Some farmers replace the 400 grams of urea
Viçosa brew
with 3 to 5 litres of bovine cattle or rabbit Step 1
urine. The copper, zinc, magnesium sulphates and
2. Others replace the 400 grams of urea with 10 borax are dissolved in vat A. The lime is dissol-
litres of whey. ved in 80 litres of water in vat B and stirred with
3. Some replace the 400 grams of urea with 8 a wooden stick.
litres of simple biofertiliser obtained by anae-
robic fermentation of cow dung, that is prepa-
red in plastic drums (the method is described
in Chapter 2 of this Manual).
Copper
Finally, many farmers prepare this mineral Zinc
Magnesium
Bórax
brew using just the 5 minerals (copper, zinc, Borax
magnesium, borax and lime) plus the 100 litres
of water, totally eliminating the urea from the
original recipe, obtaining excellent results in
controlling diseases of coffee, banana, vegeta-
bles, ornamental plants, fruit trees such as man-
go, avocado, citrus and vine, among other crops.
20 litres
of water
Lime
80 Litres
of water
Mineral brews 261

Step 2 How to apply it
Then mix the solution in vat A into vat B (never Viçosa brew is applied to 1500 coffee bushes
the other way round) and stir constantly. or fruit trees according to the height of the crop.
Copper Coffee bush height in Quantity of Viçosa

Zinc metres mix in litres
Magnesium
Borax 0.50 100
1.00 200
1.50 300
2.00 400
Viçosa brew This brew may be applied every 30 days in

Minerals
+ Lime coffee and fruit tree growing. Care must be taken
not to apply it at the most important moment of
flowering.
Other applications
Step 3
Vegetables
It is immediately applied to the relevant crop.
Viçosa mix is excellent to protect coffee from rust, Applications of the brew to tomato crops,
leaf spot and to control verrucosis on avocado pepper or paprika and other leave vegetables,
trees. such as cabbage and Brussels sprouts, are per-
formed at a concentration of 1:1, that is, one
part (50%) of brew blended with one part (50%)
Recommendations of water; because if it is applied pure (100%) it
Do not store it. Apply it to your crop immedia- may burn them. This same recommendation may
tely so it does not lose efficiency. be applied to potato growing. The most impor-
tant thing is to gradually adjust the dilutions by
observing the crops.
Plantain and banana tree

To control the main diseases of musaceae,
such as sigatoka, it is recommended to apply pure
Viçosa brew, enriched with soap or cane molasses
at 2% to facilitate its adherence, mainly in very
rainy places.
When the diseases of these crops are very
drastic, the Viçosa brew may be reinforced by
increasing it 2 to 4 times the proportion of copper
sulphate, that is, the 500 grams of the original
recipe are changed to 1 to 2 kilos.
Bottling mineral brews.

Zinc based
mineral
brew
All anthropocentric act that alters or

attacks any live system is radical. Thus,
any effort, of whatever kind, that is taken
to avoid it is legitimate.
Introduction
Z
inc sulphate is chemically a sulphur mix, that is very useful
to correct nutritional deficiencies in many crops lacking in
that nutrient, especially in perennial fruit growing in which
we may emphasise citrus growing. This is apparent in orange gro-
ves in the form of chlorotic stains, yellowing of the leaves due to
zinc deficiency. However, this sign may also be associated with lack
of calcium in the ground. Proper correction of the soil calcium is
recommended to control this mineral disorder, and spraying the
citrus trees with the following formula:
Zinc based mineral brew

Zinc sulphate 300 to 600 grams
Quicklime or slaked
200 to 300 grams
lime
Water 100 litres
Mineral brews 263

Remark
How to apply it?
Zinc sulphate based mineral brew is applied pure,
In many cases, the most correct thing is
to perform a foliar and chromatographic
directly to the tree bark.
analysis to define the problem the crop has
by a proper diagnosis to recommend an
adequate treatment.
Zinc sulphate glue
or paste
How to prepare it Another alternative that exists to work with zinc
sulphate is to prepare a glue or paste, mixing the
Dissolve the zinc sulphate separately in
sulphate with sulpho-calcium paste or silico-sulpho-
one part of water, preferably lukewarm (2
calcium, that are the residues obtained when prepa-
litres). Dissolve the lime in a larger receptacle,
ring calcium polysulphate (see preparation of sulphur
at least with a 100 litre capacity, and stir
based brews).
constantly until obtaining a homogeneous
mix. Then pour the zinc sulphate into the
lime solution. How to prepare it
The glue or paste is prepared by mixing 1 kilo
of zinc sulphate with 1 kilo of sulpho-calcium or
Step 1 silico-sulpho-calcium paste in 12 litres of water. The
preparation is cold; it must not be put on the fire.
Lime
How to apply it
This glue or paste is applied pure and directly,
Zinc
sulphate mainly by painting the trunks of fruit trees. It is
100 litres
used to treat canker of trunks and shoots, sot it is
of water also very use to heal crops after pruning. In time,
2 litres this paint actually becomes a sort of nutritional
of water warehouse, where the humidity allows the minerals
the paste contains to become nutrition for the plant.
In time, what has been noted directly in the field, is an
increased resistance of fruit trees to fruit fly attack.
Step 2
In the case of fruit growing, it is very common,
Dissolved zinc in some seasons of the year, to perform forestry
sulphate
clearing pruning, sanitary and fruiting maintenance.
Following that activity, we recommend immediate
application of a foliar spray with 500 grams of zinc
sulphate and 1 litre of sulpho-calcium brew in 200
litres of water, with 4 litres of molasses as adherent.
Water +
lime

Mineral brews
for phytosanitary
treatment in grape
growing and similar
Agriculture that puts

country workers’ health and
the farmers’ very life at risk
cannot be considered healthy.
For severe simultaneous attacks of

mildew and oidium
Prepare the Bordeaux mix at 1% plus potassium permanganate
from 100 to 125 grams per 100 litres of Bordeaux mix.
Bordeaux mix at 1% 100 litres
Potassium permanganate 100 to 125 grams
Problems caused by Botrytis attack, both on grape crops as well

as tomato, are aggravated by use of commercial fungicides like
Maneb and Zineb. The aim is to correct this problem with water
and slaked lime.
• Mildew control: Bordeaux mix at 1% applied at least every 12
days.
• Oidium control: sulpho-calcium brew applied more or less every
14 days.
Apply to bunches with visible buds every 5 and 10 cm.

• Beginning of flowering.
• Chickpea sized berries.
Mineral brews 265

We recommend the following as phytosanitary
mineral treatment for vine growing
Bordeaux brew at 1% enriched with zinc sulphate at 0.05 and
magnesium sulphate at 0.05% to stimulate proteo-synthesis and
correct deficiencies in plants.
How to prepare it
Step 1 1) Zinc sulphate Zinc sulphate
2) Magnesium sulphate + Magnesium
sulphate
100
litres of
Bordeaux
brew
2 litres
2 litres
of water
of water
Bordeaux mix at 1% Step 2

The analysis shows that application of these
Ingredients Quantity micronutrients (magnesium and zinc), plus the
Bordeaux mix at 1% 100 litres input of copper and lime from the Bordeaux brew
Zinc sulphate 50 grams cause a drop in the concentration of associated
Magnesium sulphate 50 grams amino acids (proteo-synthesis).
The following phenomena may be associated
with these minerals:
a. Increased productivity.
b. Increased nutritional value of the grapes.
c. Increase in the sugar content of the fruit.

Phytosanitary controls in grape growing with synergy
based mineral compounds
Minerals Note
• Zinc Zinc sulphate
Consult full formula of Super Magro biofertiliser in
• Molybdenum Sodium molybdate
Chapter 2 of this Manual. The program of this treatment
• Manganese Manganese sulphate
ranges from five interventions between regrowth and bunch
• Iron Iron sulphate
forming. These treatments are associated with stimulation
• Boron Borax
of proteosynthesis and correction of deficiencies in plants.
• Cobalt Cobalt chloride
• Calcium Calcium chloride
• Magnesium Magnesium sulphate
Remarks Magnesium (Mg)

These treatments in grape growing, followed by Its use is also associated with control of drying
zinc + manganese applications at the beginning of the bunch peduncle and subsequent drying of the
of the growing period, and boron after flowering, actual bunches, for which 2 to 3 spray applications
improve the quality of the (maturer) wood, increase of MgSO4 (magnesium sulphate) at 5% are recom-
the bunch size and, at the same time, thicken the
mended.
grape skin. Lack of boron in the vine prevents
normal development and pollen germination,
• One application at the beginning of flowering.
which affects the setting. For example: zinc in vine
• The second application from 8 to 10 days after
growing has a direct influence on formation of
nucleoproteins (which are hydrophilous colloids)
the first.
and phospholipids in leaves, which explains the • The third application may be performed between
resistance of the vine to heat, drought and freezing. 8 to 10 days after the second.
Up to ½ Kg/ha. may be applied.
On acid soil, magnesium absorption may be reduced.
Zinc (Zn) An antagonism may also occur in soils that have
been heavily fertilised with potassium.
Causes the following in the vine:
• Increased productivity.
• Improved quality, due to the increase in amino
acid chains. Copper (Cu)
• Quicker fruit maturing. Copper rich products may be used against
• Finally, this mineral has a share in the composi- bacterial infestations. However, copper products,
tion of some enzymes and in indoleacetic acid which are not bactericides, do act against bacteria.
(IAA) synthesis. It is unanimously agreed that the action caused by
copper, in relation to bacterial diseases, is indirect.
Mineral brews 267

Action of copper on plant Mineral elements that are an
metabolism integral part of enzymes and
others that act as enzyme
A regression of nutritional sensitising soluble
activators in plants.
substances is noted by application of Bordeaux
brew. Elements that are Elements that
This appears to explain the non fungicidal an integral part of are enzyme
effect, plus the anticryptogamic and antibacte- enzymes activators
rial ones, of copper products, due to their benefi- Magnesium
cial action on plant metabolisms. Manganese
Iron
Chlorine
Copper
Mineral elements and their relation Boron
Zinc
to plant enzymes Iodine
Molybdenum
Elements Enzymes Sulphur
Boron Invertase – Peroxidase – Catalase Calcium
Zinc Oxidase –Peroxidase – Catalase
Copper Invertase – Catalase
Iodine Invertase – Peroxidase – Catalase
Use of fungicides as a gateway

for viral disease entry
Nitrogenated fertilisers cause sensitivity of
the grape crop to attack by mildew and Botrytis.
The appearance of
Viçosa brew may be applied for very severe
virus diseases in crops is
attacks of mildew and rust.
recorded from the moment
when farmers had fungicides
that were initially considered
effective, that is, able to
Viçosa Brew
eliminate cryptogamic and
Ingredients Quantity bacterial diseases.
Water 100 Litres
Lime 500 Grams
Copper sulphate 500 Grams Remarks
Zinc sulphate 600 Grams Mildew and rust attacks are associated with boron
and copper deficiency.
Magnesium sulphate 400 Grams
Sulpho-calcium mix application is recommended for
Borax 400 Grams mite attacks or problems on vines.

Sulpho-calcium mix preparation. Queensland, Australia.
Vines treated with carbamatate pesticides

Sulpho-calcium brew (dithiocarbamates such as Maneb, Zineb
Ingredients Quantity and Propineb) caused a significantly
high development of oidium. These same
Water 100 Litres
dithiocarbamates would have been linked to
Powdered sulphur 20 kilograms increased attacks on vines by Botrytis (1966).
(Humectant) On the other hand, sulphur use is also
Lime (Slaked or 10 kilograms related to stimulation of proteosynthesis and is
Quicklime) considered to be linked to oidium regression.
Fungicides such as Captan particularly
stimulate disease development, for example of
Note
oidium.
How to prepare it: see the chapter on sulpho-cal- The total nitrogen in the plants increases
cium mix preparation.
after nearly all treatments with synthetic
fungicides.
Remarks “A plant, or precisely an organ of it, will only
When different poisons such as DDT, Carbaryl and be attacked to the extent that its biochemical state,
numerous phosphorates, are applied to vines (foliar determined by the nature and content of soluble nutritional
treatment), they cause proliferation of red and yellow substances, corresponds to the trophic demands of the
mites. Among the phosphorates, there are the actual parasite concerned. We may see this in the ‘witch-broom’,
commercial acaricides and also some fungicides, a very common disease, mainly among cacao and mango
such as Captan, that are apparently not toxic for mite crops”.
parasites or predators.
Mineral brews 269

Mineral brews
for phytosanitary
treatment in avocado
growing
Without the microorganisms in

the soil, it is impossible
to establish a healthy
agriculture.
Introduction
The swift expansion of avocado growing in Mexico at present, driven by the
growing demand for that fruit on foreign markets, along with growth of the
demand among consumers who consciously seek healthy food and production
that does not destroy nature and contaminate the environment, and that
protects the workers’ health, lead growers to seek new alternatives to produce
that crop. On the other hand, the constant pressure on the growers caused by
the crisis of the petroleum dependent agricultural sector makes them aware
to new technical recommendations that propose maximising the available
resources within each property, as well as seeking maximum independence of
external petroleum derived inputs.
In order to contribute to avocado production gradually transcending toward
the principles of organic agriculture, we propose, among other alternatives,
phytosanitary control techniques for the main diseases of that crop, through
application of mineral brews. However, these must be experimented with
according to the times, spaces, real climate and economic conditions of each
place, recognising and respecting the local traditional knowledge that the
peasant farmers and growers have to handle each situation.

Mineral brews for avocado growing
Recommendations
Bordeaux mix prepared at 1% and 2%, as excellent
copper based fungicides, application of which is
recommended for application to control fungal diseases
on foliage, mainly when plant development prevails
and the fruit is still very small. Its application after
harvest and sanitary pruning is also recommended for
cures and preventive measures to avoid new diseases
becoming established. The main characteristic of
Organic avocado production treated with
Viçosa mix is general control of diseases caused by rust
mineral brews. Michoacán, Mexico.
in the majority of fruit trees, notwithstanding which
These consist of preparation of a series of the blend of that mix with potassium permanganate
brews of mineral elements, in which some sulpha- provides excellent results to check scab and spotting
tes and salts mainly prevail, which in turn are when the attacks are very severe on avocado crops.
used to nourish, prevent and stimulate bioprotec- An amount of one litre of potassium permanganate
tion and to control spread of disease in avocado prepared at 16% is sufficient to apply it to a mix
growing; among these we now emphasise produc- of 1000 litres of water with Viçosa mix. On the
tion and use of: other hand, a mix of 10 kilos of micronised calcium
• Bordeaux brew prepared at 1%, cold prepara- hydroxide plus 3 to 5 kilos of copper sulphate and 3
tion. kilos of diatomaceous earth mixed in 1000 litres of
• Bordeaux brew prepared at 2%, cold prepara- water are also an excellent alternative to experiment
tion. with such disease control.
Likewise, to control the majority of fungal diseases
• Viçosa brew, cold preparation.
that develop on foliage, it is recommended to prepare
• Sodium bicarbonate brew, cold preparation.
a cold mix of 15 litres of sulpho-calcium brew, with 3
• Sulpho-calcium brew, normal preparation
to 4 kilos of diatomaceous dust in 1000 litres of water.
with heat.
Another alternative that is very good to control such
• Silico-sulpho-calcium brew enhanced with
diseases is to apply a blend of 20 litres of Super Magro
ash, preparation with heat.
biofertiliser with 20 litres of sulpho-calcium brew
• Silico-sulpho-calcium brew enhanced with
prepared with diatomaceous earth.
ash and soap, preparation with heat.
All sulphur based brews are excellent for regular
• Ash brew prepared with soap and, in some ca- control of more than 50 fungal disease in fruit growing,
ses, enhanced with plant or mineral oil. at the same time as they control severe attacks on crops
• Sulpho-calcium brew enhanced with diatoma- due to trips or spider mites and red spider or mites.
ceous earth, preparation with heat.
• Sulpho-calcium brew enhanced with diatoma-
ceous earth and potassium hydroxide heated.
• Sulpho-calcium brew enhanced with diatoma-
ceous earth, cold preparation at the time of
application.
Mineral brews 271

Hot brews, prepared using ash enhanced with bar
soap are excellent to control insects that have waxy
type coverings on their body. In these cases, the brews
may receive a small amount of vegetable oil during
the preparation, all in order to transform them into a
penetrating emulsion, that helps to control the insects
due to the depth, asphyxia and solubilisation of their
body.
Bottling silico-sulpho-calcium mix. Mareeba, Australia.
Blending hot and cold brews

Some brews that are prepared with heat may
be left to rest and completely cool off, then being
mixed with other cold brews. Among such prepa-
rations we emphasise:
• Bordeaux brew prepared at 1% blended with Recommendations
sulpho-calcium brew. Bordeaux brews prepared at 1% and 2% and blended
• Bordeaux brew prepared at 2% blended with with sulpho-calcium brew are mainly intended to
sulpho-calcium brew. control very severe diseases such as canker, early blight
• Bordeaux brew prepared at 1% blended with (Alternaria) and late blight (Phytophtora); while for scab
potassium permanganate. and spot control we remain a blend of sulpho-calcium
• Viçosa brew blended with sulpho-calcium brew at 1% with Bordeaux mix prepared at 1%.
brew. Sulpho-calcium brew prepared at 2% with a brew
of 0.2% of zinc sulphate is a good recommendation to
• Sulpho-calcium brew enhanced with zinc
ensure swift scarring of newly pruned trees.
sulphate.
• Finally, some brews, due to their compatibi-
lity, may also be mixed with biofertilisers for
adaptation to crops, mainly those prepared
using sulphur.
Mineral pastes
These are mainly obtained from mixing and • Sulpho-calcium paste enhanced with diato-
recycling sulpho-calcium paste, when preparing maceous earth.
mineral brews using sulphur, lime, ash, diato- • Sulpho-calcium paste enhanced with zinc
maceous earth and potassium hydroxide. Among sulphate.
these, we emphasise: • Sulpho-calcium paste enhanced with zinc
• Bordeaux paste. sulphate and phosphites.
• Sulpho-calcium paste. • Recycled sulpho-calcium paste for a new brew.
• Silico-sulpho-calcium paste.

Recommendations
A large number of the pastes mentioned here are
mainly used for scarring and treatment of trees that
have suffered the impact of shaping and sanitary
maintenance pruning, in which case use of Bordeaux
and sulpho-calcium paste is emphasised.
Paste prepared using sulphur with diatomaceous
earth is characterised by a high silica content available
to protect crops, and the silico-sulpho-calcium paste
prepared using sulphur and ash, apart from being
very rich in silica to protect the crops, is also very rich
in potassium, contributing to a large extent with this Preparation of mineral paste. Michoacán, Mexico
element to nourish the crops. It is recommended to
experiment with application of 1 to 2 kilos of one content, we may replace two kilos of the ash with two
of the pastes for every 100 litres of water for the kilos of diatomaceous powder.
respective treatments. Finally, one of the most severe avocado diseases
Both the sulpho-calcium paste enhanced with zinc worldwide, as well as on other fruit trees, is the root
sulphate, as well as that enriched with phosphites, rot attack they suffer, caused by the fungus Phytophtora
are of great use to treat trunk canker and to seal them cinnamomi. Due to the damage caused both to the tap
after the trees are cut, in order to renew and regraft roots as well as the secondary ones, avocado trees wilt
the crop. These pastes are prepared by mixing 5 to and die due to not being able to adequately absorb
10 kilos of sulpho-calcium paste with ½ kilo of zinc nutrients and water. It is not easy to control this
sulphate in 15 to 30 litres of water. If we wish to mix disease, due to the agent causing it, constant humidity
phosphites with this preparation, then we must add 1 in the farm land, where the best recommendation is
to 2 kilos of phosphite. The application is performed prevention. Do not sow in badly drained and heavy soil
using a brush directly on the parts affected, or on the where there is mainly very humid clay and a very high
trunks that have been cut in order to renew the crop. water table. In many cases, wherever crops have been
As time goes by and with constant preparation established, a relative control of the disease has been
of sulpho-calcium mix, it is very common to find a achieved by drainage, increasing the organic matter
large volume of sulpho-calcium paste accumulated content, applying locally produced microbiological
on properties. In order to recycle these volumes of ferments and application of Trichoderma.
residual sulphur and lime in the mixes, we reuse these During 2011, the best avocado growing results were
materials by preparing a new sulpho-calcium brew, in obtained in some municipal districts of the Mexican
the following proportions: 100 litres of water, 20 kilos State of Michoacán due to treatments performed with
of sulpho-calcium paste, 5 kilos of well strained ash Viçosa mix modified by the growers themselves. The
and two kilos of bar soap. The ingredients are mixed modification consisted of increasing the amount of
in a metal can and taken to a fire in the same way copper sulphate in the original recipe by 3 to 5 times
as with the original sulpho-calcium mix. If we wish to the amount.
strengthen recycling of this paste with a good silica
Mineral brews 273

Other brews
It is really marvellous
how easy it is for insects to
distinguish a tree or a plant
that is not in nutritional harmony.
Ash based mineral brew
Ingredients
• 10 kilos of well sifted ash
• 1 kilo of bar soap (not detergent).
• 40 litres of water
• One vat or metal barrel.
Soap
• One wood fire
How to prepare it
Soa Ash
p
Step 1
Mix the ash and soap in water
in a vat or metal barrel, and put
it on the fire for approximately
20 minutes
20 minutes.
Step 2
Take it off the fire and let
it cool. Then it is ready for
application.

How to apply it reinforcing crop bioprotection, mainly throughout
the foliar surface system.
The quantity of 1 litre of brew is dissolved in
• Its main function is to control cochineal, scale,
20 litres of water in the case of backpack pumps,
maize heartworm, white fly and aphid.
and for applications in larger volumes, 5 litres of
• To make application of this brew more efficient
brew are dissolved per 100 litres of water.
to control insects with a waxy body or scales, it is
recommended to prepare it as a mineral emulsion,
adding two litres of petroleum, kerosene or diesel
Recommendations for crops when preparing the original recipe. It is preferable
• This brew may be blended with biofertiliser to add the kerosene or petroleum just after taking
applications and mineral brews (Viçosa and the receptacle off the fire.
Bordeaux), fulfilling the adherent function while
How to prepare it
5 litres
of brew
1 litre of ash
brew For backpack
pumps
100 litres of
20 litres of
water
water For application of larger
volumes
Sodium bicarbonate based brew

Ingredients
• From 1 to 1½ kilo of sodium bicarbonate.
The bicarbonate is mixed directly in the water and stirred

until obtaining a homogeneous, transparent blend.
Mineral brews 275

How to apply it
The brew is applied pure (without dissolving)
on the crops, to control mildew or ash rot and
to control the fungus Botrytis spp., mainly on the
following crops: pumpkin, cucumber, grape,
sponge gourd, melon, beans, strawberry, tomato,
chilli, garlic, onion and green bean, among other
crops attacked by such diseases. Growing organic pawpaw treated with mineral brews.
Armería, State of Colima, Mexico.
Silico-sulpho-calcium mineral brew

Ingredients
• 20 kilos of sulphur.
• 5 kilos of quicklime (calcium oxide) or builder’s lime.
• 5 kilos of plant ash.
water is boiling, the mix of lime, ash and sulphur

Remarks are added, stirring it constantly using a wooden
This brew is prepared in the same way as explained stirrer, for a time of approximately 30 to 45
to prepare the sulpho-calcium brew, the only minutes.
difference consists of changing 50% of the amount The larger the fire, the better the quality of
of lime to 50% of plant ash. The procedure, cooking the brew. Once the cooking time is over, leave to
time, cooling, bottling and recommendations of the rest, cool and store in preferably dark receptacles
application to grow are the same. The difference of protected from the light. This brew may be kept
this brew with sulpho-calcium is its protective action for a period of six months. In some cases it has
and strengthening the full area of the leaf surface in been kept for up to a year without suffering any
crops. As they say, leaves become thick and resistant to alteration. In the same way as sulpho-calcium
disease and some leave scraper insects. However, we brew, a little vegetable oil must be placed on top
now summarise the way in which it is prepared. when bottling to protect it against oxidation.
In the classic preparation of sulpho-calcium
brew, the relation between sulphur and lime is 2:1
(two parts o sulphur to one part of lime). When
How it is prepared preparing this new brew by adding rice hull ash,
The water is placed in a metal receptacle to we may also double the amount of sulphur, thus
boil on a wood fire, maintaining the volume of making 4:1:1 (four parts of sulphur, one part of
water constant. lime and one part of ash).
The following are mixed separately in a dry
receptacle: lime, ash and sulphur. When the

the gel on the leaves is better due to the silica
Preparation of the chain formation. This brew also provides the
concentrated crops resistance against heat and drought, with
sulpho-calcium brew an action on “water stress”, based on the Si-K
Ingredients content, that thickens the walls and epidermis
• 100 litres of water. of the leaves and green parts of the plants.
• 40 kilos of sulphur. This phenomenon, in agricultural terms, has a
• 5 kilos of ash. mechanical effect against many insects, bacteria
• 5 kilos of lime. and fungi. Finally, the presence of the silica in
this brew increases the stability of the mix in the
The Baumé density achieved in this type of receptacle, at the same time the oxidation of the
brew is greater than that of the original sulpho- polysulphides in the field decreases.
calcium brew, but the phytotoxicity is the lesser
advantage due to the buffering of the polysulphate How to apply it
of the brew according to the protective action It may be applied by dissolving up to two li-
of Si- Mn, Si-Al, Si-Cu, and Si-Zn, etc., which tres of the brew in 20 litres of water. On plantain
allows use of a more concentrated application and banana crops, it is proven to boost resistance
of this brew on the different crops for which of these crops to sigatoka, certainly induced by a
it is recommended. The coverage achieved by greater hardness of the leaf surface.
Preparation of the concentrated sulpho-calcium brew

Sulpho-calcium mineral brew enhanced with diatomaceous
earth and potassium
Ingredientes
• 20 kilos of sulphur.
• 5 kilos diatomaceous earth.
• 1 kilo of potassium hydroxide.
Remarks
This brew is prepared in the same way as explained The difference between this brew and the
for preparation of sulpho-calcium brew, the only sulpho-calcium one is its high degree of solubility,
difference consisting of changing 50% of the amount its enrichment with the potassium element and,
of lime to 50% of diatomaceous earth and after moreover, the protective action and strengthening in
cooking, gradually and most carefully add one kilo of the whole area of leaf surface of the crops. As they say,
potassium hydroxide. The procedure, cooking time, leaves become thick and resistant to disease and some
cooling, bottling and recommendations for application leave scraper insects. However, we now summarise the
to the crops are the same. way in which it is prepared.
Mineral brews 277

How it is prepared The stronger the fire is, the better quality of brew
there will be.
Place water in a metal receptacle, preferably
About three minutes before cooking is completed,
iron, on a wood fire to boil, keeping the volume
very carefully, using proper protection with goggles
of water constant.
and lenses, gradually add the potassium hydroxide,
Separately prepare a dry mix of lime, sulphur
taking care to observe the wind direction, to avoid
and diatomaceous earth in a dry receptacle.
coming into contact with the steam released from the
reaction of the brew with the potassium.
After adding the potassium hydroxide in the last
three minutes, and when the total cooking time is
Remarks
completed, leave to rest, cool and store in preferably
Do not mix the potassium hydroxide here; take great dark receptacles, protected from the light. This brew
care when handling this product, as you must protect may be kept for a period of six months. In some cases
your eyes with goggles and your hands with rubber it has been kept for up to a year without suffering any
gloves, as potassium hydroxide is a highly caustic alteration. In the same way as sulpho-calcium brew,
product for handling without that protection, and it a little vegetable oil must be placed on top when
may cause injuries, mainly to those bodies. When bottling to protect it against oxidation. Finally, this
the water is boiling, the mix of lime, sulphur and brew is characterised by efficiency achieved by the
diatomaceous earth is added, stirring it constantly with high solubility of the ingredients that compose it.
a wood stirrer, for an approximate time of 30 to 45
minutes.
Sulpho-calcium mineral brew prepared to

recycle sulpho-calcium paste
Ingredients
• 20 kilos of sulpho-calcium paste.
• 5 kilos of plant ash or diatomaceous earth.
• 1 kilo of potassium hydroxide.
Remark
This brew is prepared with the same care and in to the crops are the same. Invent, reformulate, reject
the same way as we explain to prepare the enhanced and redesign all the formulations. Try to understand all
sulpho-calcium brew with diatomaceous earth and the mixes that are performed is the best path to partially
potassium hydroxide. The procedure, cooking time, achieve economic and technological independence on
cooling, bottling and recommendations for application your ranch, property or land.

After harvest and pruning rehabilitation brew, controlling witch-
broom and canker on the trunks of fruit trees
Ingredients
• 4 to 6 litres of sulpho-calcium brew.
• 500 grams of zinc sulphate.
• 1 kilo of phosphites.
Foliar applications in the early hours of the morning or late afternoon; 2 to

4 kilos of cane molasses may be mixed in as adherent.
Sulpho-calcium mineral brew enhanced with phosphites, to be applied

with biofertilisers prepared using cow dung
Ingredients
• 10 to 20 litres of sulpho-calcium brew.
• 10 to 15 kilos of phosphites.
• 50 to 70 litres of biofertiliser.
• 20 kilos of sugar cane molasses.
This mineral biobrew is basically recommended for fruit growing and may
mainly be applied after the fruit sets and in after harvesting. It is also
recommended for application in fruit tree nurseries, before and during
transplant; in this case, it is recommended to work with the lowest dose of
sulpho-calcium brew proposed in the original recipe.
Mineral brews 279

AAdaptation of Viçosa mineral brew, enhanced
with potassium permanganate to control Botrytis
Ingredients
• 300 grams of micronised lime or builder’s lime.
• 150 grams of copper sulphate.
• 100 grams of zinc sulphate.
• 50 grams of borax.
• 350 grams of sodium bicarbonate.
• 50 grams of potassium permanganate.
For foliar application of this brew, it is recommended to carry out tests

with the dosage of 1 kilo of the mineral brew in every 200 litres of water to
be applied to the crop. Trials have been carried out recently with a mixture
of peroxide and vinegar to control Botrytis on some crops.
Ingredients
• Peroxide at 8% to 12%.
• Vinegar at 5% to 15%.
Preparation of nutritional biofertilisers with sulphurous or

thermal water, for crops in the Andean areas
The constant creativity of some peasants who
inhabit the Andean regions, where a large num- Nutritional biofertilisers with
ber of thermal waters are located, is manifest in sulphurous or thermal water
their use to manufacture cow dung based biofer-
Ingredients
tilisers ; the initiative is based on the successful
• 30 kilos of fresh cow dung or sheep or
results that are obtained by cultivation of potato,
ovine manure.
tomato, beans, sprouts and other vegetables in
• 1 litre of milk or 2 litres of whey.
the area. This practice totally displaces purchase
• 1kilo of molasses or jaggery.
of inputs and does not require use of any kind of
• 130 litres of thermal water at rest,
commercial sulphates. The way this is being done
ambient temperature.
is identical to preparation of simple biofertiliser
• 2 kilos of wood ash.
with fresh cow dung, that is left to ferment for a
• 1 plastic recipient with a capacity of
period of 30 to 60 days, for later foliar applica-
200 litres.
tion to crops in the proportion of 1 to 2 litres to
each 20 litres of water.

Mineral brew to control the main fungal diseases in young crops
of strawberries, roses, blackberries, peaches, pears and apple
trees
Ingredients
• 1 kilo of micronised lime or builder’s lime.
• 500 grams of soap, preferably potassium.
Mineral paste with lard, ash and sulphur

Ingredients
• 10 kilos of cow lard.
• 4 kilos of wood fire ash.
• 1 kilo of sulphur powder.
• 2 litres of alcohol.
• A metal can, a good fire and good firewood.
How it is prepared
Step one:
Make and light the fire. Step four:
Put the fire out very well.
Step two:
The lard is first melted in the metal can, then Step five:
mixing in the ash and gradually, at last, the sul- When the paste begins to solidify, gradually
phur is placed in it; a brew that may be cooked add the two litres of alcohol, blending the mix
from 20 to 30 minutes. The paste is ready when very well and then leave to cool.
the brew takes a greenish colour. The alcohol tries to turn the soap into a liquid,
forming a chelate and facilitating its solubility
Step three: for application to the crops.
Lower the can with the brew onto the fire.
Mineral brews 281

How to apply it
It is ideal for prevention and control of white
fly, cochineal, aphids and to prevent fungal
diseases. It is an excellent solution as an adherent
for crops with very waxy crops, such as xerophytic
plants or tropical crops, in which high solubility
of the biofertiliser does not allow a decrease
in the surface tension of water in agricultural
use. The applications may be commenced with
weekly or fortnightly intervals, or when good
visual criteria in the field shows the crops need
it. The sum that may be used for every 100 litres
of water ranges from ¼ of a litre up to 3 litres.
Everything depends on the actual experience of
each farmer, who knows and masters his crops
better than any engineer or technician.
Sifting ash to prepare mineral brew.
General recommendations to apply

mineral brews
All the brews must be
applied preferably in the
early morning, from 5
a.m. to 10 a.m., or the
late afternoon, after 4
YES
p.m., in the coolest hours
of the day.
Before applying the
brews, it is recommen-
ded to sieve them or pass NO
them through a cloth, in
order to avoid the nozzles
of the fumigation machi-
nes becoming blocked.
Not from 10 am. to 4 p.m.

Recycling sulpho-calcium paste. State of Michoacán, Mexico
Finally, all the mineral brews presented in Manual and, in one way or another, with more
this Manual, shall be prepared hot or cold and positive results that have provided than bad
applied individually or blended, at the same time experiences using these. Performing a detailed
as they revolutionise all phytosanitary treatments review of all the nutritional principles presented
for all crops in Latin America, Australia and in this Manual through application of the organic
Africa, that are breaking away from all the fertilisers, biofertilisers enhanced with mineral
schemes of the old paradigm of dependence on brews, phosphites and remineralisation of the
agrochemicals to treat the diseases suffered by soil, we see that in one or another way, all the
many crops. mineral brews mentioned in this Manual are part
“Thus, as nutrition is fundamental to define of many inputs or formulations provided on the
the variety of a crop, likewise there is no plant or market for control of more than fifty diseases of
animal pathology that is not previously linked to more than 70 major crops in the world economy,
a mineral imbalance”. which shows that we are faced with construction
All the phytosanitary treatments that the of the correct path to biopower under control by
plants have received during the last 30 years peasant farmers.
with application of mineral brews stated in this
Mineral brews 283

Addenda
Addendum 1
Direct relation that exists
between diseases and nutritional
deficiencies in crops
Deficiency Crop Disease
Barley, wheat Rust (Puccinia tritici)
Cauliflower Bottrytis
Sunflower Mildew (Eryssiphe)
BORON Water melon Mildew (Pseudopernospora)
Maize Heart rot
Wheat Rust (Puccinia tritici)
Potato Scab
Rice White leaf (Piricularia)
COPPER Wheat Rust
In sheep Paralysis
MANGANESE Oats Bacteriosis
Alfalfa Susceptible
Broccoli, cauliflower, Remark: : Application
MOLYBDENUM Larvae
cabbage of potassium and
Cotton Pink worm silica increases crop
ZINC Maize, beans Elasmopappus spp. resistance to pest and
Diverse crops Cochineal disease attack.
CALCIUM
Diverse crops Virosis in general
Source: María Primavesi, Sun
CALCIUM + Orange Aphids and Weeds Agriculture course,
POTASSIUM Peach Aphids IICA, 2002, Bogotá, Colombia.
Adaptation: Jairo Restrepo Rivera,
IODINE Chrysanthemum Rust 2003.

Addendum 2
Relation between pests, diseases and deficiencies

Remark: No plant may be attacked by a parasite if it does not provide the substrate
the parasite needs.
Pests and diseases Deficiency in

Highflyer (Onicerdes impluviata) Magnesium
Canker on white and green beans Calcium
Slugs on soy and in market gardens Copper and rotation with oats
White leaf with rice Copper
Elasmopalpus lignosellus on maize and Seeds with zinc deficiency
beans
Leafcutter ants Molybdenum, sulphur or nitric nitrogen
Pink bollworm (Platyedra gossyp) Molybdenum and phosphorus
Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) Boron
Herbivorous beetle Very compacted soils
Pseudomonas- aggressive on tobacco Potassium
Rust on coffee Copper (zinc and manganese)
Rust on wheat Boron and copper
Potato scab (Streptomyces scabis) Boron (inadequate pH)
Source: Ana María Primavesi, Sun and Weeds Agriculture course, IICA, 2002, Bogotá, Colombia. Adaptation: Jairo Restrepo Rivera, 2003.
Addendum 3
Diseases due to excess nitrogen

Diseases Crops
Alternaria Tobacco, tomato
Botrytis Vine, strawberry
Erwinia Potato
Erysiphe Cereals, fruit trees
Pernospora Lettuce, turnip, vine They say transgenic crops
Pseudomonas Tobacco avoid weeds and pests,
Puccinia and Uromyces Green beans, cereals but they do not correct
Septoria Wheat
the problems that cause
them, which are getting
Verticillium Cotton, cloves, tomato
increasingly worse.
Source: Ana María Primavesi, Sun and Weeds
Agriculture course, IICA, 2002, Bogotá, Colombia.
Adaptation: Jairo Restrepo Rivera, 2003.
Mineral brews 285

Addendum 4
“Weeds” as indicators
Weed Cause
Milkweed (Euphorbia heterophylla) Lack of molybdenum
Bristly starbur (Acanthospermum
Lack of calcium
hispium)
Poppy Excess calcium
Excess organic nitrogen from animal origin
Dock (Rumex)
(copper deficiency)
Chenopodium Album Excess organic nitrogen from plant origin
Sida (Sida spp.) Compacted soil
Cenchrus echinatus Very compacted soil
Radish (Raphanus) Deficiency of B and Mn
Bluestem grass (Andropogon) Impermeable layer under 80 cm.
Sedge (Carex) Frequent burning
Alfalfa invaded by fodder grass Deficiency of K
Solidago microgrossa PH 4.5
Satintail (Imperata exaltata) PH 4.0
Artemisia PH 8.0
Source: Ana María Primavesi, Sun and Weeds Agriculture course, IICA, 2002, Bogotá, Colombia.
Addendum 5
Pesticides
Pesticides cause mineral deficiencies, for example:
Basic metal Product Deficiency caused
Cu Bordeaux mix, Nortox, Cupravit Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn.
Fe Fermate, Ferban Mg, Mn, Mo, Zn
Mn Maneb, Manzate, Trimangol Ca, Fe, Mg, Zn
NH Captane, Glyodin, Brasicol B, Ca, Cu, K, Mg, P
Na Naban NH, K, Mo
P Malathion, Parathion, Supracid B, Fe, Mn, S, Zn
Source: Ana María Primavesi, Sun and Weeds Agriculture course, IICA, 2002, Bogotá, Colombia.

Chapter 4
Phosphites
Ash and calcined bone
meal based preparations
for crop bioprotection
Jairo Restrepo R.
Sebastião Pinheiro
Mineral brews 287

Content
“Waterglass”, silica and phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
• Phosphorus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
• Phosphite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
• Phosphite application in agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
To favour or artificially increase the

functions of a plant separately, or
the isolated characteristics of a
specific gene, imposes a fatal cost
on the set of the other genes or
normal functions of the whole plant.

“Waterglass”,
silica and
phosphorus
Development of a part or organ of a living

being lacks autonomy; attempting to favour
the growth or expansion of an isolated part
of a biological whole implies a fatal imbalance
or bias: that is what now happens with
agroindustrial fertilisation of crops.
A
lthough our main objective in this book is not to turn cou-
ntry people into specialists in agricultural chemistry, we
consider it worthwhile discussing a bit of the history of
phosphites and their composition.
Silicon: This is a chemical element that is never found in a free
state in nature. After oxygen, it is the most abundant element on
the earth and it is always found in a bound state: SiO2. Due to
this, it is not strange that approximately 30% of the crust of the
planet is comprised of that element, and at a depth of more or less
16 kilometres, nearly 65% consists of its main combination with
oxygen, which chemists call silica. It is thus not surprising that its
numerous combinations form the basis of inorganic nature and,
along with metals, form the base of the melted magma in the deep
zones of the earth’s crust.
The availability of this element for plants depends almost di-
rectly on the action of acids and enzymes, products mainly genera-
ted by the activity of microorganisms and organic matter on rock
particles and clay present in the earth.
Among the innumerable functions of silica on plants, there are:
• The mechanical resistance capacity that the crops acquire by its
presence.
Ash and calcined bone meal based preparations for crop bioprotection 289
• Its “responsibility” in forming the skeletal which are the phytochemical compounds that
structure and flexibility of plants. act against fungal attack.
• In very acid soils, in combination with organic • In plants, it increases nutrient storage and
matter, it has the capacity to neutralise the distribution capacity.
presence of aluminium in a more efficient way • It promotes transformation of phosphorus
than by applying lime. that is not available for assimilation by plants
• Increased nutritional function of phosphorus and prevents transformation of phosphorus
in plants, making applications of phosphoric rich fertilisers to insoluble compounds.
rock more effective. • In the roots, it promotes colonisation by sym-
• In the leaves, at the same time as it reduces biotic microorganisms.
transpiration, it increases photosynthesis.
• Mechanical resistance to attack by Oidium, Ri- In Japan, Germany, Sweden and other indus-
zotocnia, Helminthosporium, Rhynchosporium, trialised countries, soluble silicates have been
Pythium, mites, trips, aphids and whitefly. commercialised under the name of “waterglass”
• Under adverse climatic and environmental for more than two centuries to treat diseases and
conditions, it provides crops resistance aga- demineralisation in human beings and agricultu-
inst freezing, water stress, drought, salinity re.
and heat. There are a great variety of silica based com-
• Increases the metabolic functions of fruit and pounds in nature, that are known as silicates and
flowers, and increases pollen fertility. some may be prepared artificially. In the salt
• Helps reduction of many elements in the soil form of various silicic acids, there are: metasi-
for plant uptake, and its close bond with cal- cilic acid, orthosilicic acid and polysilicic acid,
cium, magnesium and potassium provide lon- among others.
ger fruit self-life after harvest. In the majority of cases, silicic acid may not
• It makes the plant roots resistant to attack by be isolated in a pure state and may be obtained
pathogens in the soil. from their pure salts. The only soluble silicates
• It activates plant defence mechanisms through are those of alkalis, which are also known as
production of enzymes and polyphenols. “waterglass”, the liquid solutions of which are
• In the soil, it prevents nutrition leaching of extremely alkaline, with a pH exceeding 12.
the elements phosphorus and potassium. Due to its immunological and mechanical
• In nature, in combination with other elements, functions, “glasswater” is an excellent plant pro-
it forms iron silicates, magnesium, calcium, tector, mainly against development of fungal and
potassium and aluminium. bacterial diseases.
• It forms part of the cell wall of leaves, while It may be prepared on any estate, plot, ranch
taking part in formation of their glandular or rural property for use on crops, from the che-
tricomes, which are a sort of “glass hairs” that mical reaction of wood ash in combination with
have the mechanical function of defending potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) and ce-
plants, mainly against insect attack. On the ment dust.
other hand, trichomes also secrete metabolites
such as terpenes, flavonoids and phenols, 2KOH + ASHES + K2CO3 -- K2SiO3

In this case, the best ash is that obtained from titutes the basic substance to develop the ability
totally burning rice hulls, which is able to produ- to think and for life itself. On the other hand,
ce “waterglass” directly without the need to use the phosphorus content of bones determines nor-
caustic potash or cement dust. mal growth and development of the bone marrow
To prepare “waterglass”, when there is no cells and the solidity of living organisms. Fixing
possibility of obtaining rice hulls, we may mix 10 phosphorus in the soil and its deficiency are a
kilos of wood ash, 2 kilos of caustic potash and 2 severe problem for plants, preventing them from
kilos of cement, leaving the mix to burn on a fire growing and normal development of their immu-
or in an oven for 2 to 5 hours. When it is possible nological system.
to obtain fresh bones, we may perform the com- Phosphorite and apatite deposits have always
bustion with these in the mix. When the ash and been the main sources of phosphorus that the
bone combustion process has concluded, we may industry has exploited to provide humanity with
add very hot water to a portion of the ash and phosphorus, in registered mark form.
thus obtain “liquid glass water” for direct foliar In agriculture, the agrochemical industry pa-
application to protect the crops, in proportions tented the “invention” of making that element
of 2 to 4%. soluble and in high concentrations through che-
mical reactions to sell it on the market. Stra-
Phosphorus tegically, the schools in the agricultural sector
were taken over by that industry to offer their
Due to the severe crisis industrial agriculture commercial formulas and the services provided;
is suffering as a result of its total dependence subtly and without bad intentions, the ideology
on petroleum energy, the chemical fertiliser of highly soluble chemical inputs completely took
technological matrix has now rebranded itself over the brain space of institutional soil labora-
as “Biotechnology”. The voice of technical tories. The ideolo-
mediocrity and many politicians announces a gical imposition
new offer of products, services and patents held of chemical solu-
by multinationals. Among the products offered, bility grew with
there are fungi, bacteria and other similar lies and deceit
elements that require the nitrogen element, in and they began to
order to mobilise major amounts of the element teach that use of
phosphorus, already fixed for various decades phosphate stone
in the soil and at the same time to provoke meal was ineffi-
biotechnical reactions to release phosphorus cient. The biolo-
from rocks as the “agro-ecological” future. gist John Burdon
Phosphorus is a strategic element in nutrition Sanderson Hal-
of all living beings, at the same time as it cons-
Bone calcination to prepare

phosphites. Juluchuca, State
of Guerrero, Mexico
Practicing seed coating with phosphites. Tepetlixpa, Estado de México, México.
dane, from England and naturalised in India, in different rocks are able to transform (animate) themsel‑
replied to a question on chemical fertilisers with ves to become the basis for life”.
the opinion that “Why should we worry about Although phosphorus mines have always been
preparing soluble formulas if a little group (mi- spread all over the world, their direct use in sto-
croorganisms) prepares them for us?”. ne meal has never been divulged for mass use,
Industrial society does not consider the times as it does not provide financial dividends for the
of geo-evolution and the phenomena that happen chemical fertiliser industry. Phosphorus rock
within it at all, as what industry wants is things treatments with acid have allowed the agroche-
that are thrown away in the shortest time possi- mical industry to hold the “intellectual property”
ble within its technological logic. to that product as a basic input for agriculture,
“It is very strange to see a technician or an agricultural exclusively and with high added value.
engineer who does not understand how nature is able to During more than one hundred and fifty years,
form a millimetre of fertile soil from a fraction of rock, whe‑ we had an offer of agrochemical fertilisers based
re the insoluble becomes soluble; it is even more strange for on chemical reactions by sulphuric acid on phos-
him not to understand how a series of minerals contained phoric rock:
Ca3(PO4)2 + 2H2SO4 ----- 2Ca(H2PO4)2 + CaSO4 (Disposable gypsum)

By controlling the amount of acid in the reaction, it was possible to economise on
inputs, but the industrial fertiliser was lower quality in order to be more easily fixed
and absorbed by the soil:
Ca3(PO4)2 + H2SO4 ----- Ca(HPO4)2 + CaSO4
The question is very simple: Why is that basic knowledge regarding rock solubility
not taught on the degree courses in Agronomy, Chemistry, Biology, among others? On
the other hand, what is taught is marketing and training to offer and promote consump-
tion of technological products.
The simple super-phosphate was then turned by the agricultural industry into a raw
material using the following equation:
2Ca3(PO4)2 + 6H2SO4 ----- 4H3PO4 + 6CaSO4 (First ecuación)
Ca3(PO4)2 + 4H3PO4 ----- 3Ca(H2PO4)2 (Second ecuación)
This is how to manufacture triple super-phosphate, in which the summation of the

two equations gives us:
3Ca3(PO4)2 + 6H2SO4 ------ 3Ca(H2PO4)2 + 6CaSO4
Our greatest interest, in providing the explanation of the chemical metamorphosis

described above with the chemical element of phosphorus, is to try to master the tech-
nology to be able to contextualise and redesign it according to the realities, moments
and needs of the peasant farmers’ own land, with resources to be found on their own
property.
It is not a novelty that rice hull is abundant in the majority of our countries. The
analysis of rice hull shows a content of approximately 90% silica compounds that may
be transformed into a high percentage of silicon dioxide (SiO2) by heating. Then, when
we mix the silicon dioxide with phosphorus rich stone meal such as apatite or bone
meal, calcinated by pyrolisis, we obtain the raw material to manufacture any kind of
phosphate fertiliser and with which the crops strengthen their nutritional and immuno-
logical state:
Ca3(PO4)2 ----- 3SiO2 ----- 3CaSiO3 – P2O5 (P4O6)
These calcium and potassium silicates, as well as phosphorus pentoxides and trioxi-
des, are strategic for the economy of a peripheral country and may be prepared at home
by any farmer, with no cost and use of external energy.
Phosphite
This is a preparation made from previously
calcined bone meal and mainly mixed with rice
or coffee hulls, under very slow combustion
conditions.
In calcined bone meal, mainly between 24%
and 28% of calcium element, and between 8%
and 14% of the phosphorus element, and the ash
from the rice hulls may contain up to 90% of
silicon.
Calcium and phosphorus are strongly bonded Calcined bone to prepare phosphite.
in the bones, forming calcium phosphate. By Quito, Ecuador
mixing the calcined bone meal with rice hulls and
full health. It is also an excellent product when
by slow, incomplete combustion, it is possible
applied to crops affected by fungal and bacterial
to obtain a product we call phosphite, where
diseases. When phosphite is mixed with a small
the phosphorus is free and highly available for
amount of sulpho-calcium paste, it becomes an
plants and the calcium binds to the silica to also
excellent quality cream, mainly to control fruit
be taken advantage of by the crops.
tree trunk canker.
Phosphite has the major advantage of being
absorbed and displaced in all directions by any
Function of each element green part of the plant and the roots. Due to
The main functions of silicon and calcium that short term systemic action, it allows swift
are to strengthen the structure of the plants, to correction of phosphorus deficiencies in the
provide them flexibility, while granting them crops, that may be applied in different ways:
great immunological resistance to insect and in irrigation systems, foliar spray, painted on
disease attack, thus increasing the photosynthetic trunks or affected parts of trees, and by soaking
efficiency of the plants grown. seedlings for transplant.
The main function of phosphorus is to Once the phosphite is applied to the crops,
constantly provide the necessary energy to the these are absorbed in an approximate time
plants for their healthy development, so all between 3 and 6 hours and care must be taken to
the physiological activities are carried out in a avoid overdose, due to which it is recommended
normal, healthy way. not to apply amounts exceeding 24 kilos per
hectare, as it may cause phytotoxicity. A series
of phosphite products with a potassium, copper,
Uses magnesium, calcium, boron, zinc and manganese
Use of this product is recommended, base are available on the market that, apart from
wherever possible, during all the stages of plant providing the phosphorus element to the crops,
development; that is, it may be applied from also help to correct deficiency of other elements
coating the seeds, during plant growth, flowering that cause physiological problems in the plants:
and fruit bearing. apical blackening in tomato and pepper, pawpaw
It is ideal to strengthen normal plant deve- virus, falling cotton buds and recently formed
lopment and make them grow vigorously, in coffee berries.

On the other hand, phosphite applications are highly Preparing the pipe
recommended at all states of plant growth, so the
phosphorus requisites of plants are very high in the case Weld the three pipes to one end of the
of sprouting, flowering, setting and maturing fruit, and main pipe as the attachment point for the
subsequent post-stress mainly caused by drought, insect removable tripod legs. The distance bet-
attack and change of climate, among other factors. ween the three pipes must be equal on the
circumference of the chimney pipe.
Utensils Preparing the legs: If bending tools are
The main utensil to prepare phosphites is the “iron available, three 45 cm. rods or pipes may
chimney”, that mainly consists of an iron pipe 3 or 4 be prepared by bending as follows:
inches (7.62 - 10.16 cm) in diameter and 5.5 - 6.5 foot - Bend a 10 cm length of the three leg
(1.7 to 2 metres) long. rods or pipes at more or less 90º to the
The chimney is to be raised off the ground 5 to 7 main rod to form the part for insertion into
inches (15-18 cm) on a strong tripod to form a hearth the leg holder.
space for combustion below. - Measure 15 cm along the rod from the
Materials bend and then make another 90º bend on
• 1 iron chimney pipe. the same plane in the opposite direction.
• 3 short lengths of metal pipe to fit the removable There will be 17 cm left on the rest of the
tripod legs (10-15 cm). rod forming the vertical part of the leg.
• 3 rods or pipes to form the tripod legs. The short end of the double “L” slots
into the leg holders on the chimney and the
long end rests on the ground to keep the
Schematic drawing and measurements of the metal chimney pipe upright.
pipe or chimney to prepare phosphite Welding leg holders onto the main pipe
allows the chimney to be taken apart for
transport. Should bending not be an op-
tion, the leg holders, to fit straight legs in-
side or outside, may be welded at a suitable
angle on the chimney pipe, calculating the
angle to ensure proper hearth space below
and stability so the chimney does not fall
over.
Ingredients and materials
• 50 kg of bones, preferably fresh and large; the best bone material is jaw, due to the
presence of teeth and the high phosphorus content the animals deposit in that part of
the body.
• 5 sacks of rice or coffee hulls.
• Dry wood kindling in very small pieces to start the fire.
• Some large dry wood to help burn the bones.
• Metal drum, adapted to burn the bones.
• Sieve or sifter.
• A tamper.
Tools and materials to prepare phosphite
Iron
chimney
Firewood
Fresh bone to calcinate
Metal tamper to crush the

calcined bones
Sieve to sift calcined and crushed bones

Preparing phosphite
Remark
CTotally calcinate the bones in a metal
During the bone calcination pro-
drum prepared as a calcination tool, leaving
cess, it is very common for some
them to burn until the fire goes out on its bones to only be charred and not be
own. The bones are properly burned when properly calcined. These must be sif-
their colour is completely white. Here we may ted out and milled to take advantage
take advantage of the high temperatures to of the next burning to calcinate more
gradually pour in a mix of ½ kilo of cement bones, to thus obtain phosphorus
pentoxide and trioxide.
and 2 kilos of phosphorus rock meal.
Bone calcination to prepare phosphite
1 4
Milling calcined
bones
Detail of the inside of the drum
Bone calcination
2
to calcinate fresh bones
drum
5
3 Calcined bone meal
Calcined bones
Once the bones are well calcined, they are First step to prepare phosphite
then milled or crushed, which may be done
using a mill or a tamper.
Sift and collect the meal to continue with
the process.
Prepare another bound of wood forming
a cone and place the chimney over it. Light
the fire and check that the chimney draws
the heat upward.
Lift up an open sack of hulls and walk
round the chimney pouring it quickly onto
the fire, making sure not to put it out.
Sprinkle between 3 and 5 kg of bone meal
on top of that first layer of hulls and cover
it with another sack of rice or coffee hulls.
First load of rice hull to prepare Reloading the rice hull after
the phosphite adding the bone meal

Other layers of stone meal and rice hull may
be placed on top in follow-up alternating layers.
Continue with the process until the total amount
of ingredients runs out, without letting the pile
extinguish itself.
Once the pile is completely calcined, it will
have a grey/white colour (ash colour), and the
material is gathered up.
The time the whole task lasts depends on the
amount of materials available to manufactu-
re the phosphite preparation. It is important to
know that the slower the combustion process, the
better the quality of the final product will be.
Remark
Both the heat as well as the smoke given off
during the whole phosphite manufacturing
process may be taken advantage of in many cases
to control the impact of freezing in very cold Milling calcined bones to prepare phosphite.
places where work is carried out in greenhouses State of San Luis Potosí, Mexico.
that produce flowers and vegetables.
Preparing phosphite with alternating Final phosphite product to

layers of bone meal be used on crops
From 10 to 12 kilos
of rice hul 3 kilos of calcined
bone meal
Phosphite application in
agriculture
Phosphite or silicate and phosphate in agri-
cultural may mainly be applied to: coating seeds,
special phosphate foliar biofertilisers, organic
fertilisers, dry foliar dust or biocolloids, worm
food, dung and urine collection, multiplication
and activation of native microorganisms from
the woods, etc.
However, the best way to deal with phosphi-
te application is through anaerobic fermentation
processes, among which we emphasise enhancing
Bone collection to prepare
Super Magro biofertiliser when preparing it. the phosphite. Mareeba, Australia.
• Use 3 to 5 kg of phosphite when preparing
200 litres of traditional simple Super Magro response system the plants have, mainly to
biofertiliser. This is to boost the energetic, defend themselves against attack by fungal
hormonal and nutritional effects of the bio- and bacterial diseases.
prepared product. Once the preparation has • The different phosphite application expe-
passed through the fermentation process, it riences we have had throughout Latin Ame-
will be ready for foliar application, in a pro- rica point to the path of anaerobic fer-
portion of 3 to 7 litres in 100 or 200 litres mentation as the shortest, most efficient
of water. That mix is ideal for application in process for peasant farmers to develop.
treatment of plants for transplant, mainly to Among short term anaerobic fermentation
grow plantain and banana. It also provides preparations, there are:
excellent results when treating tree planting - Phosphite fermentation with whey and cane
holes, preparing flats to germinate vegetables molasses.
and in market gardens. Both the dosages as - Phosphite fermentation with brewer’s yeast
well as the intervals of the applications of the and cane molasses.
prepared substance are related to the highly - Phosphite fermentation with cane juice or
personal experience with each crop and situa- guarapo.
tion that may arise; thus, the measures must - Phosphite fermentation with shrimp shell
be adjusted by experimentation directly in the and cane molasses.
field. - Phosphite fermentation with cow urine and
• Dissolve 100 grams of phosphite in 20 litres sugar cane.
of water, mixing it with 1/2 to 1 litre of sul- Both carbonic gas formation as well as high
pho-calcium mix. Application must prefera- solubility of silicate in anaerobic fermentation
bly be performed in the coolest hours of the of phosphites, when applied to plants, reinfor-
morning, or in the late afternoon, and must ce the high mobility of the phosphorus element
be done from bottom up of the plants, so the inside the cells, immediately helping the immu-
impregnated part of the leaves is the undersi- nological system to activate phytoanticipins and
de. These applications stimulate the powerful phytoalexins.

Application of fermented phosphites may lopment.
be performed directly on the crop leaves, or di- The major advantage peasant farmers have
rectly on the soil, in a concentration that may with this practice is that they obtain knowled-
range from 2% to 10%. ge and mastery of very cheap technology near to
When the application is intended for the soil, their land.
the ideal thing is for there to be a maximum
amount of cover crop for inclusion and for it
to have a high organic matter content. Foliar
spraying with phosphite, diatomaceous earth or
silicate rich stone meal increases photosynthe-
sis, rigidity and flexibility of the plants.
Coating or encasing
seeds with phosphite
and stone meal
In order to strengthen seeds for sowing and
protect them from fungus and insect attack on
site, phosphite may be mixed with stone meal to
coat or encase the seeds.
The main scientific argument for the practice
is based on phytoprotection of the seeds during
the multiple biochemical reactions they under-
go during the germination process, as initially
due to the turgence or swelling that damp brings
about, tissues are broken and the cellular me-
tabolism multiplies, making them more vulnera-
ble, mainly due to attack of some fungi that are
prevalent in the soil. By using a multiple mix of
stone meal, along with phosphite, in the practice,
it is very probably that all the elements of phyto-
protective rare earth from the periodic table may
be present, such as: La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu,
Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, among other ele-
ments present in some minerals that accompany
stone meal, such as apatite, bituminous shale,
serpentinite, monazite, turquoise, pyromorphite,
mimetite, lazulite, autunite, etc.
During the whole metamorphosis the seed Coating or encasing seeds with phosphite and
stone meal. Raúl Medina de Wit, Happy Soil
suffers, that mineral diversity shall take charge Training Centre. Community of San Juanico,
not only of phytoprotection, but also guarantees Atotonilco El Alto, Jalisco, Mexico.
a healthy state in the other stages of crop deve-
Pure phosphite in alkaline solution
as foliar fertiliser
One of the best ways to make phosphite solu-
ble for application is to mix in water with a little
potassium hydroxide, and wherever possible to
leave them to rest for a couple of days.
Ingredients:
• Water 150 litres
• Phosphite 3 kilos
Phosphite processing. • Potassium hydroxide 400 grams.
Phosphite and stone meal mixed Preparation

with yucca juice or plant “serum” When preparing the mix inside a plastic
from rubber plantation crops drum, one may initially dissolve the concentrate
It is very common in Latin America to find of 3 kilos of phosphite in just 50 litres of water
peasant companies that work profitably with and then gradually add the 400 grams of
yucca and rubber crops; during the process, it is potassium hydroxide, in order to take advantage
quite common for them to produce large amounts of the heat the chemical reaction gives off during
of surplus liquids that are rich in phytoprotective preparation. Little by little, stir the liquid with a
substances and hormonal stimulants that may be wood stick, taking the greatest care to avoid the
taken advantage of by mixing them with stone vapour released by the reaction. Once that stage
meal and phosphite. To that end, we recommend of the chemical reaction is complete, top up to
making a mix of 25 kilos of stone meal and 20 the total volume with the remaining 100 litres
kilos of phosphite for every 1000 litres of yucca of water and leave the mixture to rest for 1 to
juice left over from the milling processes, or for 2 days. It is then ready for foliar application to
every 1000 litres of “serum” from obtaining rub- crops.
ber. This is left to rest for 4 or 5 days aerobically,
and then applied to crop leaves in proportions of Note
2 to 10 litres per 100 litres of water. In some As a precaution and to avoid any accident due to
cases, that application may be accompanied by the causticity of the mix, we recommend covering
a mix of 2 litres of sugar cane mix. The applica- your face with a mask and goggles when preparing
tions must preferably be performed in the coolest and handling it, as well as using rubber gloves and a
hours of the morning, or at the end of the after- plastic apron.
noon. These substances increase plant active or-
ganic defences (responsive and phytoanticipins)
and passive ones (phytoalexins), fully protecting Phosphite product storage
them from insect attack and from developing di- Phosphite may be stored for many months,
seases. although it is best to use it as soon as possible.

Chapter 5
Stone
Meal
Julius Hensel
Index
Julius Hensel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Reason for reprinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
The cause of the decadence of agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Healthy and unhealthy produce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
What shall we do with stable manure?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Will fertilizing with stone-meal pay? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
A chapter for chemists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Stone-meal as a tobacco fertilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
A contribution to the German newspaper Deutsches Adelsblatt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Stone-meal fertiliser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Contributions from other sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
1. Stone-meal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
2. Fertilizing with stones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
3. Letter to Mr. Schmitt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
4. To the Pomological Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
5. The meal out of stones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
6. About stone-meal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
7. What help can be given to the hard-pressed farmers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
8. Der Rheinischer Courier, June 6, 1893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
9. Der Rheinischer Courier, June 29, 1893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
10. Neues Mannheimer Volksblatt, July 19, 1983. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
11. Iron slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
12. Neues Mannheimer Volksblatt, August 3, 1983. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
13. Wiensbadner General Anzeiger, July 8, 1893. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
14. Moersch, near Frankenthal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
15. The undersigned farmers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Epitaph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Addenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
1. Incomplete list of plant constituting elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
2. Composition of MB-4 stone meal (result of analysis 2256/90) in mg/kg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
3. Analysis by atomic absorption of rock mineral available to producers at low cost,
that may be used to prepare biofertilisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
4. Average chemical composition of basalt and
granite, according to Wedephol (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
5. Results obtained from fertilisers based on rare earth elements (REE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
6. Some benefits obtained from remineralising soil based on use of stone meal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
7. Treating seeds with stone meal based on rare earth elements (REE in English). . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
8. Mineral mixes prepared from stone meal to nourish, prevent and stimulate
bioprotection to control advancing crop disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
9. How to use stone meal based Bioferment on crops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
10. Experiences and some recommendations to work with stone meal application. . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
11. Results of crops treated with stone meal, organic matter and microorganisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
12. What is JUQUIRA CANDIRÚ Satyagraha? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

Julius Hensel
“S
tone-meal to fertilize the fields”, was the title Julius Hensel chose
for his book more than a century ago. But who would understand
him?
Hensel, a compatriot of Martin Luther, is revolutionising agriculture
through soil remineralisation. Hensel’s slogan was: “The still undiscovered
nutritive strength of rocks”.
We do not know the difference that exists between breast milk and powde-
red milk; we do not even realise the difference between human milk and pow-
dered cow’s milk. How then, may one ask people to know that the inventor
and first holder of a powdered milk patent was Justus von Liebig, the father of
chemical agriculture, while Julius Hensel promoted the importance of breast
milk in his most well known work “Das Leben” (“Life”)?
Hensel was persecuted, imprisoned, forgotten and cast out. Graduate doc-
tors on the wards still ignore his writing, as they belong or are subject to idea-
logical and dogmatic deformation, without ethical concern and moral honesty
among those learning.
A group of rebel black farmers who objected to slavery, who maintain their
customs and are known as “quilombolas” in Brazil, began to grow the “oryza
glaberrima” rice originally from Niger, that their ancestors grew in Africa.
The crop was prohibited in Brazil in 1750 and has now been recovered by the
quilombolas of Río Grande do Sul, grown with “stone meal” without fertili-
sers, herbicides or urea. During the first thirty days, the quilombolas wanted
to destroy the crop due to the “weeds” and its low “stand”; sixty days later,
they were becoming used to the strength of the crop, that overcame the weeds
and formed clumps with gigantic vigor.
Stone Meal 305

The crop yielded more than 8,000 kilos of ducks”. The African rice, stone meal and humble
grain per hectare. The performance at the mill sensitivity of the farmer show us something new.
exceeded 72%; when the average production in The “quilombola” Olegario, with his age and
Río Grande do Sul is 5,500 kilos of grain per experience in life, could help many who studied
hectare, with a yield under 60% at the mill. On the “philosophy of life” without understanding
top of that, a part of the crop was used to make the context from the text: those many doctors
more than sixty different types of food and some who mindlessly repeat their university lessons
beverages. and believe that poison, transgenic organisms,
The most impressive part of all this is what eucalyptus and agrofuels are good and
was told by the “quilombola” Olegario, aged 73 indispensable.
years: “At the beginning, I did not like that rice, Julius Hensel’s works on the importance of
not even a little; but when I saw that some ducks biochemistry in plant health and nutrition fell
came to make their nests in the rice paddy, I had into relative obscurity for decades following his
to leave them, as there is no longer any space for death in 1903, before enjoying revived interest
birds there, as everything is full of herbicides and in our times.
insecticides. Then, when I drew near to check the Prior to his death in 1873, the great scientist
water and carry out other tasks in the rice, an Justus von Liebig left a literary “epitaph” in
adult bird very proudly showed me her ten new which he expressed doubts regarding plant
ducklings and then hung around as if she wanted nutrition from a rainwater solution, stating
to show me something. The whole family flew that it “is caused by inner principles, not from
away a few days before the harvest. But next outside”. His self-criticism has also been long
year I will have more rice and probably more ignored by most scientists .
The maguey is the plant that

sucks its juices out of the rocks.
Pablo Neruda

Dedication
Juquira Candirú Satyagraha

dedicates this work to two militant Gaia Scientists.
Lutzenberger y Mazibuko in Witzenhausen, 1984
Stone Meal 307

Introduction
Lügen haben kurze Beine.
“L
ies have short legs”, is a commonly heard expression in
the continents of the Old World, mainly among older
people who live in the countryside.
When a people’s knowledge is eroded, it is stripped of the
ability to remember and to continue to build the social fabric of its
history. These beings cease to be a driving force in transformation
and become subject to manipulation and market forces; social
communication, previously a transcendental source of freedom,
becomes a powerful instrument in the hands of information society
corporations.
More than a hundred years have elapsed since Julius Hensel
wrote Bread from stones, but the reinstated interests of the
chemical industry in Germany hounded him without truce to ensure
his knowledge would not reach the hands of farmers in his country
and the whole world, as such educational information in the public
domain would not provide the economic results considered to ensure
prosperity and development of a booming German industry.
Since then, the academic world in the field of Agrarian Sciences
has developed a blind fascination with industrial synthesis, ignoring
the principles of geological evolution in agriculture, putting it as
something absolute, healthy and natural, to take advantage of the
stupefaction, manipulation and amazement of the technological
revolution, relative and disposable, to suit the laws of the market
careless of the needs of rural societies.

Universities have now become true commer-
cial emporia, many of their agronomists and
professors appear to be more a commercial ad-
vertising catalogue of inputs and formulas than
people able to consider healthy matters to over-
come the multiple crisis afflicting rural societies.
Once more, as they have throughout history,
peasant farmers have always shown their ability
to reach the bottom of matters. Julius Hensel
was backed by them in spite of the prevailing
industrial authoritarianism of that time, as we
may see from some of the innumerable letters
and notes providing backing that he received This is the harsh contrast: while peasant
during those harsh moments in exile. Some of farmers wisely decode solubility and synthesis
them are translated in the Addendum to this to free themselves of the agroindustrial empire,
publication. the academics declare their fealty to industrial
Nowadays, while thousands of peasant farmers solubility services provided by the bushel or bulk,
are beginning to use stone meal directly on the without ever having learned the basic lesson: how
crops and to prepare them in one form or another, to make a mineral soluble.
fermented or non fermented, understanding and We now hand this subject, unpublished in the
applying the basic principles of making the first half of the 19th Century, that had been cen-
insoluble soluble by means of life in the soil, the sored by the industrial fascism of the epoch, over
agronomists blindly parrot the formulas imposed to the public, based on research and translation
by the NPK (nitrogen, phosporus and potassium) of the texts in the German and Portuguese lan-
Empire, to toe the line before a blind professor guages, to be shared and discussed in all fields
whose main field of scarce knowledge is that of related to agriculture.
soil fertility.
January 2004, Cali-Colombia.
Stone Meal 309

Reason for
reprinting
Digging the skeleton out

of the cupboard
The useful innocent do not suspect that the difference between
imperialism and empire lies in that in the former, power is a
military and mercantile violence and in the latter is just a
“soft” political intromission.
Moreover, this step from imperialism to empire is an
evolution based on society becoming gradually accustomed
to cultural changes. Family and individual, lacking the
slightest values of their citizenship, set aside their original
beliefs and identity, replacing these with the values promoted
by the imperialists.
This brings about the excluded, the miserable, the submissive
and those stripped of their rights. In time, these conditions
become their identity: homeless, black, Indian, beggar, indolent,
violent ...
Imperialism maintains itself by force or intervention. The
empire imposes its consensus without any concern for ideology or
peculiarity, as we accept and believe that our condition is that of
our new identity. And this identity stands above the waning civic
values we never had or did not ever know.
The field of technology is where violence acts most swiftly to
apply transformation (information) from the imperialist camp.
This is where its guardians believe that their status as imperialist
gatekeepers grant them an automatic “up-grade” to new status
in the empire. Notwithstanding this, the empire is higher quality,
evolution in the parent society, not on the fringes.

It is this identity crisis that gives rise to The novelty is that most of them, not to
“peripheral caricatures” in such countries as our say all, now howl that the soil is alive and
own. that organic matter is vitally important. Sad
The matter of defending the environment nineteen sixties, seventies and nineties, as it was
acted to affirm condition and identity. There difficult to understand “the inert holder” and
was an apparent victory by the citizens, that the importance of concentrated saline solutions.
then turned to an absolute defeat when a new Where is it written that soil and plant require a
market segment arose to cover nature-related urea/phosphorus ratio of 42%?
matters. This brings us to Liebig’s9 epitaph, in
The same thing is happening with traditional which he seeks forgiveness for having sinned
populations, whose condition will be a new against the work of the Creator. The most
highly selective market niche for the empire to dramatic thing is that all this is being used
exploit. and manipulated as a commercial argument
Faced with such contradictions and aggres- to sell organic sugar of brands X, Y and Z.
sions, about fifteen years ago a book was writ- Liebig, the father of agrochemistry, the great
ten in Brazil called Harinas de Rocas, Trofobiosis y scientist, also became an errand boy for new
Agricultura Ecológica (Stone Meal, Trophobiosis and Eco‑ wave propaganda and the order of sustainable
logical Agriculture), a highly interesting technical agriculture or “agrobusiness” by the organic
document, a pioneering text that has sold out in bio-colonists.
more than ten editions distributed all over Bra- Now here is a very simple question: “What
zil and Latin America. Time after, it became the Doctor in Agronomy, super-specialised or
Cartilla de la Energía Vital (Notebook of Vital Energy), trained in inputs in Latin America, ever heard
translated and extended in Spanish for Colom- references or quotes from Julius Hensel, who
bia, in partnership with the Agricultural Engi- wrote, “Das Leben”,10 “Die Makrobiotika”11 and
neer Jairo Restrepo Rivera. “Brot aus Steinen”?.12
Now “stone meal” has come to agriculture, a Hensel, the great Silesian scientist, personally
fascinating “new” consumer product. Our radical clashed with Liebig’s findings and, for his
approach consists in us not liking fashion, and pains, was persecuted and libelled in 1870 by
much less consumerism. many Professors of Agronomy and Agriculture
Stone meal by Julius Hensel was already sold in Germany, with the complicity of German
in 1870, in Germany, the Austro-Hungarian merchants and the Government. His book was
Empire, Switzerland and Sweden. So, where removed from the bookshops and destroyed to
does the novelty lie? favour the interests of I.G. Farben. His writing
Let us upset the “soil fertility professors” who was hidden away in Germany and the United
are so frequently found in Latin America, errand States for more than 100 years.
boys for the fertiliser and poison companies that In the preface to Bread from Stones, written
do so much harm to farmers, agronomy, agri- on 1st October 1893, at his house in Hermsdorf,
culture and the consumers. It seems aggressive, at the foot of the Kynast, Julius Hensel asks:
but is not. That does not mean we may sit around
to discuss the compatibility of fertiliser concen- 9. Justus von Liebig 1803/1873, German Scientist, father of agroche-
tration and solubility with a tropical or semi-arid mistry. See the last page of the book.
climate, from the north of Mexico to the north 10. Life.
11. Macrobiotics.
east of Brazil. 12. Stone meal.
Stone Meal 311

WHAT WILL FERTILIZING WITH STONE DUST ACCOMPLISH?
IT WILL:
1. Turn stones into bread and make barren regions fruitful.
2. Feed the hungry.
3. Cause healthy cereals and fodder to be harvested and thus prevent epidemics
among men and diseases among animals.
4. Make agriculture again profitable and save great sums of money which are now
expended either for fertilizers that in part are injurious and in part useless.
5. Turn the unemployed to country life by revealing the inexhaustible nutritive
forces which, hitherto unrecognized are stored up in the rocks, the air and the
water.
This it will accomplish.

May this little book be intelligible enough that men, who seem on the point of
becoming beasts of prey, may cease their war of all against all and instead unite
in the common conquest of the stones. May mankind, instead of hunting for gold,
racing for fame, or wasting productive forces in useless labors, choose the better
part: The peaceable emulation in the discovery and direction of the natural forces
for evolving nutritive products and the peaceable enjoyment of the fruits which
the earth is able to produce in abundance for all. May man use his divine heritage
of reason to attain true happiness by discovering the sources whence all earthly
blessings flow and thus put an end to self-seeking and greed, to the increasing
difficulties of making a living, the anxieties for the daily bread, to distress and
crime; such is the aim of this little work, and in this may God aid us!
Prophetic! agriculture, allied with landowners and the

It seems hard to believe, but happened quite clergy.
recently: a married couple of Professors at Here, as it was there, victory was achieved by
the Federal University of Santa Maria, who cloaking science and technology under commer-
declared themselves of Hensel’s school, were cial interest. They hid the truth about soluble
persecuted and forced to retire. This was not chemical fertilisation and formed present day
the work of the military dictatorship, that has agronomists.
little education or intelligence in Brazil, but In spite of this, time and modern technology
rather was caused by connivance between the have brought gems of knowledge previously
prevailing forces of consumerism and national hidden among dusty tomes in university and

national libraries into the public domain where For example, the consequences of the German
they may be consulted by anybody, anywhere, on- unification wars and the beginning of the new
line. century, that brought about major changes in the
Reprints and new articles analysing the subject European map, as the German empire came to
have been published and “stone meal” appears to replace the Austro-Hungarian Empire and this
be back in fashion. It is now time to ask why this unbalanced Europe.
is so and why a work hidden for so long is now It is the epoch when mineral coal was used
being republished. massively and wood burned in domestic fires. The
Let us travel back in time. The premodern raw material was national steel and everything
German industrial matrix was based on coal and was made using it, even houses and railway
the major industrial progress came from steel. stations. It was a world still lit by whale oil
Electricity was something new, we may say that lamps, as there was no electricity. Transport was
petroleum was still an incipient industry, as the by train, as there were no paved roads or cars,
basis for traction and transport was still the which would be invented twenty years later. Nor
railway, with animal traction in agriculture, the were there radio sets or planes, as the Wright
military and civil use. The internal combustion brothers or Santos Dumont were still testing
motor had not yet been invented, nor the motor their prototypes.
car, nor the telephone, and much less television. During that time colourants were natural
Chemistry was that of dyers and most phar- and India had more than 500,000 hectares of
maceutical compounds were natural extracts, land assigned to indigo crops, in the northern
with the first synthesis being that of aspirin, for and eastern territories. That leguminous
example, that has now completed its first cen- plant had a high economic value on the stock
tury. Chemical synthesis implied a fantastic step exchanges of London and Paris, as indigo was
forward, the possibility of an industrial patient, the most important industrial dye for fabric
absolute power over creation. Prior to that, the- and tailoring. Strife between England and
re were only “Registered Trade Marks”, that France led to the death penalty being decreed
provided nothing other than a guarantee and ad- for anybody who dared to smuggle indigo seeds
vertising. That is the context we must consider for the English.
when reading Bread from Stones. Indigo growing generated employment for
However, in order for us to have a full fifty million workers, and that dropped off over
understanding, it is appropriate to consider a short period of time as Hoffmann invented
the events that have taken place since then in synthetic analine in Germany. Famine and misery
depth, so the reader, having obtained an up-to- then spread throughout India, in the cities and in
date understanding, may note the importance the fields, although it was a colony and would
of Bread from Stones and Julius Hensel in our pay the price for the chaos.
present day circumstance of biotechnology It was the time commercial organic chemical
and transgenic crops. Let us place the damage synthesis came into being, when Justus von
caused by industrial society and its hegemonic Liebig carried out his work by analysing ash to
economy on that fringe. Thus, we may note discover plant elements; that of the search for
the caracturesque, peripheral nature of our industrial patents for I. G. Farben, the company
governments, universities, research institutes, that obtained the first patent for “artificial
behaviour and citizens. maternal milk” in 1867.
Stone Meal 313

In development of European agriculture, substitutes. Success came from the Haber-Bosch
there was a boom in chemical reactions from system to capture nitrogen from the air, no longer
concentrations of mineral salts, as these allowed trademarked, but with an industrial patent.
the step forward to trademarking and to industrial Synthesis of military gases, now called
patents that were so useful to the economy. pesticides, with their development, lead to
The new synthetic aniline industry used a new dimension in the world of petroleum
coal and open opened the way to coal based energy through petrochemistry, and would spin
chemistry, although this was later to be off new divisions, such as plastics and synthetic
displaced by petroleum, due to its lower cost and fibres.
the possibility of offering liquid fuel for motor German militarism dating back to the time
vehicle transport. of Hensel gave way to the present military-
Germany had no petroleum and needed it, industrial complex. “Whatsoever a man soweth, that
which led to the World Wars against the English shall he also reap”; thus an event that some people
and Americans. may remember from the international news in
The work by Liebig (1860) on soluble fertili- 1995, when an American soldier, called Timothy
sers transformed agriculture, contributing to a McVeigh, used 600 kilos of nitrogen fertiliser
change in from the biological pattern to the che- to commit the terrorist bombing of the Federal
mical matrix. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms and
During the American Civil War and after Drug Enforcement Administration Building in
the Franco-Prussian War and the Unification Oklahoma.
Wars, agrochemistry was used to enable military These segments of industrial agriculture were
forces to advance without the need for major worth more than one hundred thousand million
investments, as this was the most important dollars per annum, for two dozen gigantic
contribution to industrial agriculture in that time military research companies, and that now, with
(subsidising weaponry). the biotechnology matrix, have now shrunk back
One leap forward in warfare came with the to less than half a dozen, with potential gains of
use of chemical weapons, in the form of synthetic thirty to forty times more, and the main revenue
toxic gases, subject to subsequent high value stream is the food war. Very few people know
industrial patents, that were carried over into that I.G. Farben reunited its demerged divisions
agriculture with the false argument that they as “Bayer Crops and Life Science”.
were invented to combat crop pests and diseases; The peripheral, caracturesque governments of
another sector of the war industry would be Latin America, with their universities, boast that
research and transformation of tractors to tanks one may not miss the train of history, that we
and vice-versa. From then on, agriculture was to must favour transgenic crops, biotechnologies,
have no autonomy whatsoever and would be a etc. They send their “professors” out in the
means to finance warfare. street to hawk their wares, the same as they did
I.G. Farben was split into three companies in Julius Hensel’s time.
(Bayer, Basf and Hoechst) and the prohibition, The tragedy will be repeated as a political
by the Treaty of Versailles, to import nitrogen comedy in the peripheral caricature countries
in saltpeter form from Chile and Bengal, used and will lead to social catastrophe. This is what
by Germany in agriculture and to manufacture is laid out in Bread from Stones, a post-modern work
military explosives, led to the search for published before modernism had begun.

Manual stone mill to prepare meal from stones. Cochabamba, Bolivia
Food is a highly important matter, as it is (Brazilian Agricultural and Husbandry Research

linked to health. Nutritional minerals have Company) in the State of Goiás researches Rare
a similar effect and they were all created Earth type stone meal through foreign contracts,
approximately 15,000 million years ago and are that allow a 20% increase in grain productivity.
encrusted in the rocks. Over the last six years, the companies that
Liebig recognised the limitations of his works commission Embrapa’s services do not wish
in his own epitaph, that was also hidden from that work to be disclosed. That action shows the
the public in the same way as the writings by subtlety of biocolonisation of the public service
Hensel. Agronomists now beat their breast in in Latin America, where the technicians cease
regret and opportunistically take advantage of to be able to generate public knowledge, to lend
Liebig’s epitaph as an argument for transition and raffle out the common good to the private
and to change product. sector.
Now the chemical matrix in agriculture This context may suffice for us to understand
and industry is obsolete, or is on the way to why Bread from Stones was hidden from the common
obsolescence. Now is the time of biotechnology man on the shelves of institutional libraries
and it is now the place for stone meal, rich in for 102 years13, and perhaps attempts to guide
strategic minerals to guarantee the quality public opinion through ancillary papers linked to
of life and longevity for the rich. Reading its release into the public domain.
Hensel is a basic requisite to understand the
transformations the industrial biotechnology of
the major transnational companies, their patents
and strategies are undergoing.
With agrochemistry, we lost our ability to
13. There was a third edition in 1939, related to the war effort. Two co-
think and generate knowledge. For example, pies may be found: Hessisches Landes und Hochschulebibliotek, in Darmstadt
we gain nothing from asking why Embrapa and Bibliotek des Artzliches vereins, in Hamburg.
Stone Meal 315

Surprised? The essential question, however, centres.
lies elsewhere: why has Hensel’s book been A highly interesting experience took place
translated at this point in time? The reply is in Brazil: a very rich Consul from a European
very simple, because the Industry now intends to country offered to set up an orange juice factory
offer and sell stone meal all over the world (or, for a group of farmers from the State of Espírito
in their own words: “they never miss a trick”). Santo. However, what the Consul wanted was
They are already doing this in Mexico, Central for the oranges to be grown by the Agricultural
America and Brazil. Self-satisfied university Engineer Nasser’s method, with the stone meal
professors are now saying that “Wollastonite” or that he used (calcareous algae). The proposal
“Leonardite” are the best silicates in the world, came with people of “doubtful competence”
even though they have no knowledge of even the interested in brokering the deal, as more than
basics of chemistry. fifty thousand hectares of cropland were required
To cast some light on the matter, the for the project. They did not know which quality
first chapter of the book Microcosmos by Lynn oranges should not be made into industrial juice.
Margulis and Dorion Sagan better illustrates the At a good fish lunch with plenty of white wine
importance of minerals in the evolution of life from Julius Hensel’s country, the Consul let the
than any industrial catalogue of silicates in the cat out of the bag and confessed: “We found the
hands of a Professor of Agronomy. Such reading same minerals that were found in the bones of
must also be complemented by the books by the Egyptian pharaohs in your oranges ...”.
James E. Lovelock The Ages of Gaia, backed by At that moment, Juquira Candirú Satyagraha
the Introduction to Physical Geology by Leet Judson, began to research the effects of stone meal. It
and the books by Vasili Vasílievich Dokucháyev, pays tribute to Bread from Stones by Julius Hensel,
Vladimir Vernadsky and Alexander Fersman, between it was able to read a version provided
among others. by African and Cuban students at the University
This is a provocacion for newly recruited of Leipzig, still in the Democratic Republic of
organic agronomists, or for those who are Germany, and to obtain a translated copy. There
howling like wolves to defend “fair” biotrade, are doubts concerning whether the copy was a
mainly in the public share. “Organic agriculture Polish version or directly from German, as at
uses a lot of green mass, compost and dung that time a fair part of Sudetenland was under
that increases carbon dioxide and methane by Polish rule, named Chojnik and Sabieszow, after
fermenting. Would that not be contradictory in a the Treaty of Versailles. The book Agropecuaria
world threatened by the greenhouse gas effect?” sem Venenos (Agriculture without Poison) contains
The reply is that rocks are rich in silicates that, a brief reference to both and also to the book
in spite of being the most abundant element in MB-4: Farinhas de rocha, Trofobiosis e Agricul-tura
the earth after oxygen, are in short supply and Ecológica (Stone Meal, Trophobiosis and Ecological
respond very well where applied. However, Agriculture), but at that time we were not aware
silicates have the capacity, through chemical of its dimension and importance. Perhaps the
corrosion, to prevent greenhouse gases being debate will become fashionable again and we will
released, due to the presence of silicon dioxide. be called on.
Even better, that would be the main argument Last year, in the State of Oaxaca in Mexico,
for the American rocks to be consumed by the we heard of the interest the Japanese had in
fascinated, stupefied agents who deform the importing mezcal and tequila in large amounts,
agronomists at the universities and research but they required the bottles or jars to bottle the

beverage to be made of black clay from the San quite different to the “fashion” that is coming.
Bartolo region. The minerals that exist in the It is a view of integration of the human being in
San Bartolo clay are extremely rare and highly his evolution, as human beings are nothing other
important to the health of the Japanese who want than soluble stones through bread. They say that
to take them home for free. is religious.
The most striking thing is that, in 1973, a When we see a Mexican farmer carry out the
document was produced on the importance of same practices as his ancestors on a chinampa,
mineralisation in food. That document was written we understand that he lets the organic matter
by the United Nations, but it had a restructed precipitate in the salt water so the bacteria
publication until last year when Editorial Roca precipitate all the minerals such as sulphates, at
translated and published its update. Again the the same time as sodium salts remain in solution
questions are raised: why? Was it not to harm without causing any obstacle. With the immediate
sales of chemical fertilisers? Why is it being oxidation of these chinampas, that have been
published now? there for more than three thousand years, we
Nowadays, the greatest problem for Europe, laugh at our mediocrity and scarce scientific
Japan and other countries is nutritional mineral and technological vision. The instantaneous
erosion. This is severely compromising the health Proterozoic is within reach and we do not want
of future generations. For example, European to see it.
children in many places have low academic Tomorrow will be the oportunity for the
performance and the studies of the main causes “neutraceuticals” market, mineral enriched food,
focus on mineral fatigue as a health factor. grown in privileged soils. Watercress grown with
On the other hand, the markets are suffering lithium, in carbonate form, to treat depression,
from liquidation of complex minerals and mainly among civil servants. Zinc rich prickly
new fermented biocompound offers appear, in pears, in pantothenate form, for those suffering
which the minerals are complexed in biocoloid from Alzheimer’s, Krefeldt-Jacob or Manganism
form, without chelation. It the fascinating from dithiocarbamates. Tomatos with a higher
biotechnological offer, that has arrived to selenium content, in niacinate form. Have you
be consumed and to cause another wave of heard how desperate the Europeans are for
stupefaction or amazement. selenium? The fact is that selenium eliminates
Chinese agriculture consumed more than five cadmium, mercury, tin, etc. waste by exchange,
million tonnes of Rare Earth stone meal just to avoiding Kashin-Beck type diseases.
pelletise or line seeds. There is a lot of very good We leave the inorganic chemical or fire
quality rock meal in Minas Gerais, Goiás and the chemistry matrix, to use Jeremy Rifkin’s
North East of Brazil, but academic mediocrity language, and enter the age of biotechnology,
will lead us to consume the stone meal advertised that is, life chemistry, but we must not forget
by Americans, and we will be accused of being that the marketing also changed. It is now post-
nationalists and out of order due to not following modern.
the course of the free market. It is time for “commodities”, satellites
The soil remineralisation14 performed by providing industrial espionage services to
Julius Hensel and Arthur Primavesi were and are determine, with a single scan, the traces of
minerals present in crops and animals brought
14. The correct name, on the contrary to that of the new biotechnology up on a specific type of soil in each region or
matrix, is bioremineralisation. country. Thus, the raw materials with certain
Stone Meal 317

(Left) Vasili Vasílievich
Dokuchayev (1840-1903) Father
of Soil Science in Russia.
(Right) Vladimir Ivanovich
Vernadsky (1863-1945) Physicist
and Mathematician.
Founder of Geochemistry and
Biogeochemistry in Russia.
traces of certain rare minerals will be sold at a in Brazil in 1983 in the book Agropecuaria sem
premium in the supermarkets. Only thus, apart Veneno (Agriculture without Poison). However, there
from the organic certification toll, will we have is an official silence of complicity or sumission
the guarantee of the minerals we wish to consume, to the caricaturistic, peripheral knowledge,
that is if we have the money to buy them. only concerned with the vanity of degrees and
A humble Zapoteca peasant woman reflects certificates.
by saying: “To determine that my son cannot eat the Nobody dares to extrapolate that Professor
best, by means of the price, that is violence against my Doctor Schuphan used the knowledge from Bread
citizenship. How, then, am I supposed to respond to such from Stones, as potatoes and spinach are clones, that
violence?”. behave in such different ways, according to the
She is absolutely right: where the best food ground. Thus, the difference lies not in the genes,
is the most expensive, it is a fascist society. The but rather in the expression of the environment.
papers written by Professor Doctor Schuphan, At present, that is what is determined by Theo
published on 26th April 1974 (101 years after Clark, Professor of Chemistry at Truman State
the death of Liebig), comparing potatoes and University, who found 30% more vitamin C in the
spinach in the same genotype for twelve years same orange clones grown by bioremineralisation,
(1960/1972) in two growing systems: organic which is the same thing that happens when worker
versus industrial, showed surprising results, as bees are fed with royal jelly and, having the same
the same seed (genotype) showed a content of genetype, become fertile and turn into queens.
28% more vitamin C, 77% more iron, 23% more Thus, we must not graft genes, we must
methonine 23% more dry matter, and a major work with the proteome (environment + genes)
nitrate regression by 93%, compared with the for which stone meal is strategic. They are
industrial crop, while grown in the same soil, the the memory that the seeds need to awake, but
only difference between the two crops being the without vile consumism.
technology. Why does nobody know about this? When reading Microcosmos, we see that
These papers were also translated and published bacteria are able to read the memory of the

rocks and at the same time to transfer it to now the turn of Hensel to provide balance through
all the living organisms that comprise the mi- stone meal, a substance not of minerals alone, to
crocosmos, horizontally and vertically without activate and strengthen the microcosmos, free of
problems, and on the contrary to gene transfer vitalisms or emphasis on any exclusive cycle and
by genetic engineering. Hensel’s vision is long atmosphere”.
sighted in his work, when cars, planes or plastics We couldn’t stop registering our amazement
did not yet exist and the only medical knowledge and indignation, as what Hensel experienced in
of transplants were those of Frankenstein’s his time and on his continent we are experiencing
monster in literary fiction. for many years due to the effects of the chemical
Let us not lose our fear, but rather take matrix industrial agriculture. Now biotechnical
the step of respecting their “success”, without agriculture by multinational corporations, with
suspecting the macabre implication. their biological synthesis fertilisers and their
The purpose of writing this preface, in this demateralised seeds as patented services and
irreverent tone, is to avoid fascination or dreamy goods, is being rolled out as its rebranded future.
stupefaction. We suggest you a deep, discerning reading,
Organic agriculture was never, nor shall bearing in mind that it was written in 19th century
ever be, a consumer product. We now have and keeping a close eye on the market and, as the
the satisfaction of being able to restore Cuban student says: “buen provecho” or in the
ethnotechnologies, wisdom, taste, knowledge, language of master Hensel: “Viel Spass!”15
feelings and biopowers to their rightful place
using the discoveries of modern biological field Juquira Candirú Satyagraha
Invierno austral, 2003
science in recent decades. Wider access to more
powerful microscopes, allied with improved
understanding of population ecologies and more
observers in the field has made the fascinating
world of the soil food web, microorganisms and
mycological symbiosis available to the public at
large while spawning a new corpus of scientific
texts.
In a clumsy attempt to misconstrue the
beauty of the original work, first by tarring
the “discredited” vitalists with the brush of
obscurantism, and then by claiming Hensel as
“one of their own”, a mechanist clings to the past
as follows:
“In the beginning, darkness enveloped natural
sciences. For many years, vitalists believed that
humus was the essence of fertility, and that theirs
was the light and the knowledge. Reductionists
opposed them with their mineral salts, so real
light might exist. Some emphasied the importance
of all-encompassing atmosphere, mainly of
nitrogen, the very light of true knowledge. It is 15. Bon appetit!
Stone Meal 319

The cause of the
decadence of
agriculture
No plant may suffer parasites if it

does not provide the parasite
the substrate it needs.
T
he yield of the ground is steadily decreasing. Everywhere is
distress. Our fields do not yield sufficiently abundant crops to
compete with the cheap lands of the far West. To change this
condition is the object of this book.
It is now 400 years since the second half of the world was
‘discovered’, but the whole earth is only now discovered, so far as
the knowledge is concerned, of how the inexhaustible treasures may
be utilized which are at our disposal in the nourishing forces of the
rocks of the mountains. Instead of working this colossal mine men
have bought the material for restoring the fertility of the exhausted
soil in the form of medicine; i.e., chemical fertilizers.
For the last fifty years a dogma has crept into agriculture which
calls itself “The Law of Minimum” namely:
That one of the substances which the plant requires and which is
contained in the minimum quantity in your fields you must, furnish
to it in the form of a fertilizer.”
This false precept owes its reception solely, to the defective
method of chemical investigation which prevailed fifty years ago.
As there was found a considerable quantity of phosphoric acid
and of potash in the ashes of all seeds, and as these do not exist
in the air and must therefore be furnished by the soil, it was very
natural that the inquiry was started, how much of these sub-stances
necessary for the raising of plants is still at hand in the soil?

While the soil was then investigated and To these two substances nitrogen was also added.
was treated with muriatic acid, in order that the Nitrogen in the form of vegetable albumen is on
substances contained might be dissolved, there the average contained in such quantities in plants
were found only inconsiderable quantities of that its weight frequently exceeds that of the
potash and of phosphoric acid in this solution, fixed constituents of the ashes. The following may
because the alkalies in the soil which are serve to explain this: The affinity of the earthy
combined with silicic acid are as little dissolved substances (lime, magnesia and oxide of iron)
by muriatic acid as, e. g., powdered glass. In order and of the fixed alkalies with respect to hydro-
to be able to define the amount of potash, it is carbons is quite limited ; its sphere of operation
necessary first to drive out the silicic acid by the is limited to eighteen molecules of hydro-carbons,
use of fluoric acid after having converted it into as may be seen in the soaps, which consist of
volatile fluoride of silicium; this method was not combinations of potassa or soda with oleic acid
used by the former agricultural chemists. (C18H3402) or with stearic acid (C18H3602). Of like
As in consequence thereof they overlooked the affinity with these earths and the fixed alkalies
presence of potash, so to notice the phosphoric is the volatile alkali Ammonia N.H.H.H. This
acid which is combined with alumina and iron explains why when there are not sufficient earths
in the silicates, because when the iron was carried up in the juice to complete the-upbuilding
precipitated from the solution the whole of the of plants in their stalks and / leaves their place
alumina and ‘ phosphoric acid was precipitated is filled by ammonia, which, as before said, is
with it ; the further examination of the fluid formed from the nitrogen and the watery vapor
solution therefore gave a negative result with of the air.
respect to phosphoric acid, and this is also the The wood in the trunk of trees contains no
case at this day if we work according to the old nitrogen at all, but the leaves of trees contain
method. a quantity of nitrogen; the parenchyma of the
The teachers of agriculture therefore announ‑ leaves condenses it from the air be-cause the
ced: sphere of action of the earths, which extends
“Of potash and of phosphoric acid, these most even unto the veins of the leaves, does not reach
important nutriments of plants, there is only a the parenchyma.
minimum left in the soil; therefore, we must first Now, in view of the great quantity of v
of all supply potash and phosphoric acid to our nitrogen found in the produce of the fields and of
fields.” which agriculturists presuppose that it is derived
through the roots of plants t from the earth,
they came to the same result as with respect
to potash and phosphoric acid; i. e., they found
only a vanishing “minimum” of it in the soil, and
therefore they concluded: “Our crops have already
consumed all the potash, all the phosphoric
acid, and all the nitrogen; these substances are,
therefore, in “minimum” proportions in the soil.
If we are not to miserably starve we must bring
this minimum in abundance into our fields in the
form of manures.”
Stone Meal 321

The result is that the use of Super-Phosphates, stems and leaves contain more than 42 grains
Sulphate of Ammonia, Guano and Chili-nitrate has to the pound, and it is from the plant that the
enormously increased, but agriculture has entered tubers draw their nitrogen and not the reverse;
into the sign of the cancer (retrogression), for it for the potato herb, which in the beginning was
may easily be seen that if the cost of fertilizers so exuberant in juice, about the time the tubers
amounts to more than the harvest the farmers mature becomes thin, hollow and light, because
must emigrate. the juice con-taining the nitrogen descends into
It took a long while before the teachers of the tubers. So also does one pound of the green
agricultural economy, having the fact pointed out plant of the carrot contain about 35 grains of
to them by practical farmers who judged w ith nitrogen, but the carrot-roots contain only about
clear eyes and sound reason that crops of peas 14 grains to the pound.
and beans rich in nitrogen prosper on soil entirely We may also mention that just as the nitrogen
void of nitrogen, at least granted that leguminous descends into tubers it also passes up into the
plants derive their whole supply of nitrogen seeds, so that cereals show as much as 140
exclusively from the air, which as to full four- grains of nitrogen to the pound. The green stalk
fifth consists of nitrogen. It is difficult for them of grains show a similar proportion of nitrogen,
to admit that other plants also do this, because while in a pound of straw there are only found 33
their reputation and their income is mainly to 49 grains of nitrogen.
derived from the theory of potash, nitrogen and That the chemical fertilizers that are still all the
phosphoric acid. They explain this by asserting: fashion are a mere waste may be mathematically
“There are producers of nitrogen as well as there demonstrated by taking any example at random.
are consumers of nitrogen.” I will choose for this the sugar-beet and the carrot.
It is of course true that plants also assimilate The sugar-beet according to Wolff’s tables shows
such nitrogen as their roots find in the soil, but the following ashes per kilogram (2 1-10 lbs.):
that is by no means necessary. The forest trees
furnish us with a most convincing proof of this.
Birches, beeches and oaks grow to gigantic Potash 3.8
size on bare rocks of granite and porphyry. To Soda 0.6
be convinced of this, let anyone ascend the Lime 0.4
Magnesia 0.6
Herd mountains! Now as beech leaves and oak
Phosphoric acid 0.9
leaves contain one full percent, of their weight
Sulphuric acid 0.2
of nitrogen, while beech wood and oak wood are
Silicic acid 0.2
devoid of nitrogen, the nitrogen of the leaves has
Muriatic acid 0.3
evidently been furnished, not by the rock, but by
the air.
It is manifest that if the soil were the proper
source of nitrogen the roots being in immediate
contact with the soil ought to show at least as
much nitrogen as the parts above ground which
are surrounded with air; but, on the contrary,
they contain less.
For example, one pound of potatoes contains
about 25 grains16 of nitrogen, but the green potato 16. Weight unit used for diamons, equivalent to 0.6 grams.

According to atomic equivalents this would with sulphate of potassa, for else it would need
make 142 for phosphoric acid, 80 for sulphuric the presence of 3.25 of 1 sulphuric acid, while
acid, 60 for silicic acid, 73 for muriatic acid, 94 there is only 0.3 present, nor can the 1.9 of
for potash, 62 for soda, 56 for lime and 40 for ammonia be due to the sulphate of ammonia, else
magnesia. they would call for 5.0 of sulphuric acid instead
Now the above: of only 0.3. If, therefore, we manure sugar-
beets with sulphate of potassa and sulphate of
ammonia these substances are to be regarded, as
0.9 of phosphoric acid would saturate 0.6 already stated, as largely wasted. As the source
potash. of the potash and the soda for the sugar-beets
0.3 of sulphuric acid would saturate 0.35 we can only consider the feld-spar, which, thanks
potash to God, is still contained to a certain degree in
0.2 of silicic acid would saturate 0.3 potash the soil, while the nitrogen is furnished by the
0.3 of muriatic acid would saturate 0.4 atmosphere.
potash The feld-spar in the soil will in the end of
Thus all the acids together would saturate 1.65 course become exhausted, and must then be
potash supplied by manuring with the rock fertilizer.
A computation shows that to supply 0.3
sulphuric acid 0.6 gypsum which is combined
with water will suffice; thus if the acre of land is
There remains, therefore, the following excess to furnish two cwt. of-beets it would need among
of bases: other things only 13J lbs. of gypsum. Cwt is short
for hundredweight and there are approximately
twenty hundredweight in a ton.
Potash 2.15 As a parallel we will now consider the ca-
Soda 0.6 rrot. The ashy constituents of one kilogramme
Lime 0.4 (2.206 lbs.) are according to Wolff’s tables as
Magnesia 0.6 follows:
Or if we count the 0.6 of soda, 0.4 of lime and

0.6 of magnesia equivalent with 1.65 of potash, Potash 3.0
then the entire quantity of potassa in the sugar- Soda 1.7
beet, amounting to 3.85, would be at our disposal. Lime 0.9
This potassa we may consider as combined with Magnesio 0.4
carbonic acid in the ashes, while it exists in the Phosphoric acid 1.1
sugar-beet in combination with sugar, cellular Sulphuric acid 0.5
tissue and albumen. Besides these 3.8 potassa, Silicic acid 0.2
1.6 of nitrogen, or, in round numbers, 1.9 of Muriatic acid 0.4
ammonia, is to be taken into account as being
also an unsaturated basic constituent of the beet-
root. From this it proximately follows: That the
3.8 potassa cannot result from the manuring
Stone Meal 323

A comparison with the sugar-beet roots with the exception of silica and alumina enter
shows that the carrot contains somewhat less into the crops that are taken away from field,
potash and magnesia but somewhat more soda it is clear that they must be replaced. If we
and lime; besides this, the carrot contains about desire normal and healthy crops, and that men
one-third more of phosphoric, sulphuric acid and animals living on them should find in them
and muriatic acid. These variations seem to be all that is necessary for their bodily sustenance
caused by manuring with liquid stable manure (phosphate and fluorate of lime and magnesia for
; as to the rest we recognize that for the basic the formation of the bones and teeth, potassa,
constituents of potassa, soda, lime and magnesia iron and manganese for the muscles, chloride of
in the carrots the pulverized primary rocks of the sodium for the serum of n the blood, sulphur for
soil are the natural source. the albumen of the blood, hydro-carbons for the
We find that all plants, as also all animal nerve-fat), it - will not suffice to merely restore
bodies (for these are built up from vegetable the potassa, phosphoric acid and nitrogen. Other
substances), after combustion, leave behind as- things are imperatively demanded.
hes which always consist of the same substances, With regard to this I shall adduce one
although the proportions of admix-ture vary with instructive example: The proprietor of an
the different kinds of plants. We always find in extensive estate wrote to me that he formerly
these ashes potash, soda, lime, magnesia, iron manured with ammonia, super-phosphate and
and manganese combined with carbonic, phos- Chili-nitre, and although there was a steady
phoric, sulphuric, muriatic, fluoric and silicic retrogression in the yields, yet he continued to
acids. These ashy constituents give their form earn something. Of late, however, when < he
and connection to the bodies of plants and ani- had passed over to manuring with iron slag and
mals according to the manner indicated above. Chili-nitre, with a steady retrogression, at last
Now, inasmuch as the plants spring irom the neither rye, nor barley, nor oats would prosper,
soil, it is manifest that the enumerated earthy or only, strange to say, wheat gave a tolerable yield.
ashy constituents must be furnished by the soil. How could I explain this to him? To this question
And, as in the soil these substances are present I gave the desired answer by pointing to the ashy
in combination with silica and alumina, the constituents. The ashes of barley and oats contain
origin of the soil thence becomes manifest. It five times as much sulphuric acid as wheat.
has arisen from the disintegrated primary rocks, The latter could still find its small , requisite of
all of which contain more or less potassa, soda, sulphuric acid in the soil, but for oats, barley and
lime, magnesia, manganese and iron, besides rye these feeble remains did not suffice.
phosphoric, sulphuric, chlorine, fluorine, silica Now as we have seen that the primary rocks
and alumina. From such earthy material from in the mountain ranges, porphyry, granite and
primary rocks, which have been associated with gneiss, through the mellowing and crumbling
sediments of gypsum and lime, in combination influence of thousands of years (for nothing else is
with water and the atmosphere under the meant by “disintegration”), has produced the fertile
influence of the warmth and light of the sun, the soil which furnishes us with healthy nourishing
plants which nourish man and beast originate. plants, it may easily be seen that when such a soil
Now, as all the enumerated earthy materials has been almost exhausted of the elements that

nourish plants through a cultivation of several
hundred of years and a yearly turning over with
the plough or the spade, the original natural
strength cannot be restored to it by means of
medicines and single chemicals, but this can only
be effected by supplying new soil out of which
nothing has grown, and the strength of which is
therefore intact.
To gain such new soil we need not wait a
thousand years till wintry cold, snow and rain
crumble the rocky material and bring it down
into the valleys. We have only to put our hands
to work, and from the proper rocks obtain the
necessary materials to rejuvenate the old and
wornout soil and . restore it again to virgin
fertility.
Craft milling of tezontle (volcanic rock)

for application to coffee crops. Cuetzalan,
Puebla, Mexico.
Stone Meal 325

Healthy and
unhealthy
produce
Life in the soil is

the fundamental
base to nourish the
soil and fertilize plants!
A
ccording to the chemical examination of the ashes which
remain when plants are incinerated the average result
shows about as much potash and soda as lime and magnesia:
silicic acid somewhat more than one-fifth of the sum of these four
bases; chlorine about one-twentieth of the whole ; phosphoric acid
one-sixth of the whole; but sulphuric acid only one-fourth in weight
of the phosphoric acid.
Now, as granite rocks contain on an average six per cent, of
potassium and soda, while their contents of phosphoric acid are
more than one per cent., granite by itself will ready fulfill the
demands for vegetable growth, as may be confirmed by a report in
the papers received while writing this. We read: “In Deutmansdorf,
Kreis Loewenberg, in Silesia, were found on the heap of refuse
from the quarries there stalks of rye with ears containing ninety to
one hundred grains.” (General newspaper of Selesia and Posen,17
October 1, 1893.)
As to chlorine, this mostly reaches our cultivated plants through
manuring with liquid manure containing salt, and has been proved
directly injurious to the growth and quality of many plants; in this
respect it is sufficient to point to the evil effects of manuring tobacco
with liquid manure. Chlorine is not found in wheat, rye, barley and
oats, millet and buckwheat, linseed, apples and pears, plums and
gooseberries, acorns and chestnuts, nor in the wood of any forest 17. General Anzeiger für Schlessffin und
trees. We need, therefore, not consider chlorine in fertilizing our Posen.

fields. eyes of my companions. How this Silesian marble
Now, when I state that the given proportions of is a very white dolomite, consisting, therefore, of
the ashes have yielded this average in comparing carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia;
more than eighty analyses of the ashes of the but it must also surely contain besides this some
various parts of plants, it need not be concluded phosphate and sulphate of lime besides a trace
from this that any particular plant, or the of carbonate of protoxide of iron the presence
particular part of a plant, needs a quite definite of which is demonstrated in the moist clefts of
proportion of ashy constituents; but it is found on the marble by a brown oxidation. These plants,
the contrary that the earthy constituents of the therefore, grew on a sub-stratum of almost
same kind of plants differ in various ways. This pure lime and magnesia. This extreme example
explains why we find the same species of plants convinces us that the alkaline earths (lime
to flourish now on calcareous soil, now on soil and magnesia) may really replace the alkalies
formed from granite, gneiss or porphyry, as an (potassium and soda) in the building up of plants,
exam-ple of which I shall only mention sheep’s- and this also furnishes us with the explanation,
yarrow (achillea millefolium). This is effected in why the iron- slag, as a pre-eminently calcareous
great part by the fact that potassium and soda are fertilizer, unmistakably caused an increase of
interchangeable, but these two alkalies may also crops on fields which were deficient in lime. The
be replaced in most plants to a considerable part same result might, indeed, have been reached
by the alkaline earths, lime and magnesia; but, more cheaply by directly spreading the lime on
of course, the nutritive value of the plants and them. But there is another “But” in this matter,
the other qualities cannot then remain the same. for in harvests it is not merely the quantity but
Potassium and soda may even be wholly lacking in much more the quality which has to be considered.
a plant and they may be entirely replaced by lime Even if the striking example cited makes it
and magnesia. As this fact is not as yet found in manifest that lime may in great part replace
any book, I cannot refuse a challenge as to proof. the alkalies in building up plants, giving to
I name as my witnesses the royal mason, Wimmel, them the same form., and, indeed, making them
of Berlin, and engineer King, of Landshut. of imposing size, nevertheless the quality and
In company with these gentlemen I visited, the internal worth, of the products of the soil is
on June 25th, of this year (1893), the loftily considerably influenced by the difference in its
situated marble quarry near Bothenzechau. basic constituents.
In the neighborhood of this marble quarry I, therefore, mentioned, not unintentionally,
the vegetation is always somewhat behind, in that the flower stalks of the dandelion grown on
time to that of the valley, and so we found the marble could be broken like glass into separate
dandelions still wearing their downy crown, while pieces, while on the contrary dandelion stalks
in the valley, by the end of May, they have passed growing on soil containing potassium may be
away. We found such dandelions there growing bent into rings and formed into chains, as is
immediately on the marble rock, where this frequently done by children. Potassium makes
had water flowing over it, and the flower stalks pliable and soft, lime makes hard and brittle.
reached the height of about a foot and a half. Flax is a very good example of this.
There was not, indeed, any great wealth Silesian linen made of the flax growing on our
of leaves, and the thick and high flower stalks granite soil rich in potassium is celebrated for
themselves could be broken like glass into pieces, its suppleness, softness and durability, while the
which I did not weary in repeating before the Spanish and French linen produced on calcareous
Stone Meal 327

Swiss could win the victory over 6000 Austrians
who were fed on meat, wine and flour, and this
despite of their 4000 horsemen in armor.
How much influence nutrition exercises
on temperament and breed may be seen from
the breeders of fine horses. As Prof. Marossy
communicated to me, Englishmen import the
oats for their race horses from Hungary. Why?
Because the granite of the Carpathian mountains
is rich in potassium, but contains but little lime.
Potassium makes supple, but lime makes tough
and awkward. The counterpart of the world-
renowned Hungarian saddle horses and carriage
horses is found in the strong-boned Norman
breed horse which derives its peculiarities from
the French chalky soil, and could not be easily
replaced as draught animals before the heavy
stone wagons, the baggage wagons and the
brewers’ wagons with their heavy loads of beer
barrels.
And is it possible that the human race should
soils is hard, of little strength of fibre and of be uninfluenced by its nutrition?
small value. What avails it then that the Spanish Let us make some comparisons: Wine contains
flax exceeds the Silesian by twice its length? almost only phosphate of potassium, for the
As with textile plants so with plants serving calcareous ingredients are precipitated during
for nourishment and for fodder. It is manifest the fermentation as tartar. Hence the French
that where calcareous plants have not the same esprit, the Austrian good nature, the artistic
nutritive value as those in which alkalies and inspiration of the wine-drinking Italians. But like
earth are harmoniously associated that the a stone wall in the battle stand the Pomeranian
former are not as healthy as the latter. With potato-eating grenadiers. In the ashes remaining
reference to this, Dr. Stamm, who practiced in from potatoes we find the following proportions:
Zurich, (where in 1884 I saw a whole mountain 44 potassium, 4 soda, 64 lime, 33 magnesia, 16
of lime dug away), states that he nowhere saw phosphoric acid and 13 sulphuric acid. Sulphur
so many examples of ossification of the arteries is indispensable in the formation of normal bile
as on the Swiss soil so rich in lime; the fact that and of tendons. Also hair and wool require much
the drinking water is correspondingly rich in lime sulphur, about 5 per cent, of their weight.
may contribute to it. After some such hints as to nutrition it cannot
The strong, bony frame of the Swiss strikes be indifferent what kind of crops we raise for our
every one, even those travelers who visit nourishment and with what .
Switzerland only for a short trip. This was an substances our fields are fertilized. It cannot be
essential reason why Winkelried in 1386 at all sufficient that great quantities are harvested,
Sempach could with his strong-boned arms hold but the great quantity must also be of good quality.
a whole dozen of lances of the knights, and 1400 It is indisputable that by merely fertilizing with

marl; i. e., with carbonate of lime, such a large In an analogous manner the muriate of am-
yield may be gained as to make a man inclined to monia has quite a similar taste to the muriate of
always content himself with marl, but with such soda, and the sulphate of ammo-nia almost the
a one-sided fertilization slowly but surely evil same bitter taste as sulphate of soda (Glauber’s
effects of various kinds will develop; these have salt) and sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts),
given rise to the axiom of experience: “Manuring but the effects of these salts vary considerably.
with lime makes rich fathers but poor sons.” A particularly interesting example of the
Despite such experience, however, after a fact that the appearance of plants in which
certain time, when those who experienced the ammonia has largely taken the place of the fixed
damage have passed away, manuring with lime alkalies and earths is found in tobacco leaves. Only
always again becomes a fashon. So even now. specialists can al, once recognize their quality
The harvests after manuring with lime are so at a glance; the great majority only perceive the
favorable that there are those who expect their difference when the leaves, made into cigars,
salvation from fertilizing with lime. Not long are lighted.
ago the German Agricultural Society18 granted Then the one kind, grown on the Virginia soil,
a prize to a paper on “Fertilizing with Lime.” rich in magnesia and lime, gives us light, loose
But such prizes do not prove anything. Also a ashes and a fine aroma, while the product of
paper ’ on Chili-nitrate as a fertilizer received a Vierraden (Prussia), manured with stable dung
prize. But how has this substance, so poisonous and liquid manure, in which ammonia takes
for plants and animals, fallen into disgrace! the place of lime and magnesia, “ coals,” and
Lime, indeed, is not directly injurious to diffuses an unpleasant odor. It is quite similar
plant growth, on the contrary it is useful and with plants raised for nourishment or for fodder.
necessary, but everything has its measure and its The inability of offering resistance, as seen in
limits. Lime can only produce wholesome cereals, the “lodging’ of grain after manuring with
vegetables and forage when there is at the same dung and liquid manure, after a long rain, and,
time a sufficiency of potassium and soda. in accordance with this, the grain also which
“Too much of a thing is good for nothing!” In is harvested from such a field has no firmness;
this connection I have to add a few things more. it becomes soft in grinding, smearing the mill-
In the same way as lime and mag-nesia can stones, so that no grain raised with stable
replace potassium and soda in the structure of manure can be ground without mixing it with
plants so all these four constituents can in great Western or California grain, and it has always
part be replaced by basic Ammonia, without any a lesser value. So the barley raised with stable
resultant appreciable change in thQ form of manure produces a malt which the brewer
the plants’, except that this appears strikingly refuses to buy, as it would spoil his beer.
luxuriant and rich in leaves, as the milfoil on and Now, as these ammonical plants lack the
near the mounds of cemeteries. internal firmness and the ability of offering
Such a substitution of ammonia for the resistance, so also they cannot be healthy for
alkalies and the alkaline earths corresponds in animals when used as fodder, for the animal
some degree to the relation between potassium- bodies have no consistence without earths. But
alum and ammonia-alum, which are so similar these earths are subject to elimination owing
in form that they cannot be distinguished to respiration. The ashy constituents of the
without a chemical examination. blood-disks, which are oxidized by respiration;
18. Deustsche Landwirtschaft Gessellschaft.
i.e. sulphate and phosphate of lime, magnesia
Stone Meal 329

and iron, are eliminated from the organism salt and nitrate of potash insure the keeping of
with the secretion of the kidneys, as also the pickled meat, the meat of certain hogs when
bases present in the flesh of the muscles; i. e., lying in brine very soon passes into putrefaction,
potassium and soda; for the muscular sub- • but into a decomposition different from the
stance also is oxidized through the oxygen of usual kind. The process that takes place is
the arterial blood. like what is called the “cheesy degeneration/’
Now, as the earthy or ashy constituents, which which chemically means that the connective
are specifically necessary for the albumen of the and muscular tissues decompose into peptones
blood, as well as for the flesh of the muscles and (Leucin and Tyrosin) as during digestion.
for the renewal of the bones (for all parts of the To explain this phenomenon we must
body are subject to this mutation of substance), consider the cheesy degeneration of the lung-
are not replaced by the substances in the fodder, tissue in consumptives. In their blood there is
it is an unavoidable sequence that a relaxation also always a deficit in lime and sulphur, which
and loosening of the tissues, brittleness of the are absolutely necessary in the formation of red
bones and every kind of disturbance of health blood-disks.
should take place with our cattle. I shall only Now, on inquiring why this pork when pickled
adduce one single very instructive example in underwent such a peculiar change, it was found
proof of this out of my neighborhood. that the animals had been fattened with Fray
The hotel keeper in Carlsthal, near Sclirei- Bentos Meat Powder. But the lean meat contains
berliau, in the Riesengebirge, kept twelve bee- as its chief ashy constituent only phosphate of
ves. The manure from the cattle lie conveyed to potassium with almost imperceptible traces of
a swampy meadow, which up to that time had lime and sulphur. Lime, indeed, is not found in
only produced sour grasses; but after the sta- the meat but in the bones, which are devoured by
ble manure was applied it yielded so luxurious the tiger and the dog, but not by man. Therefore
a growth of grass that he used the abundance to we have to gain the calcareous supply for our
feed his twelve oxen and cows. It was not long, blood, our bones and our teeth from calcareous
however, before the cattle became decrepit and corn and from vegetables rich in lime. As our
ten of them died. present fine flour, freed from bran, is furnished
The cause of this was the fodder grown from us almost entirely devoid of sulphur and lime we
stable manure, in which ammonia supplied the need not wonder at the great number of modern
place of the fixed alkalies, potassium, soda, maladies.
lime and magnesia. The other two beeves were Now when hogs are fed with Fray Bentos
quickly sold, for they suffered from lickerishness; Meat Powder, devoid of lime in place of
i.e., they refused their food and gnawed instead vegetable food, rich in lime, they cannot acquire
the cribs and other wood in the stable. For all a strong bony frame, and in consequence we need
wood contains about three per cent, of earthy not wonder at the flaccidity, sponginess and easy
substance, and the cattle craved these earthy putrefaction of the meat of such animals. If they
substances in order to gain firm flesh and bones. had not been slaughtered in good time these
The two oxen recovered when their new owner helpless animals likely would have succumbed
gave them a different fodder. to some hog disease.
This same reason serves to explain other From this we may draw our conclusions with
cases lately observed. It has been found that respect to human health. Many a one considers
some kinds of pork do not bear pickling. While a meat diet to be a godsend, but is plagued on

that account with rheumatism, asthma and example from my own observation. Here (on the
corpulence, to cure which he is ordered to Kynast) I kept two sheep. I once
drink some mineral waters which contain lime, saw them eating lime from the wall of the
magnesia and sulphate of soda. stable, as chickens do when they need lime for
To return to agriculture and the feeding of their egg-shells. From this I concluded that the
cattle. Nitrogenous foods are supposed to be grasses growing on my soil, in which there is
strength-givers; this is a theoretic error full of little lime, did not supply them with sufficient
fatal consequences for agricult-ure. We never sustenance for their bones. I, therefore, mixed
have had as many cattle plagues as we have had some whiting with their cooked roots and this
since artificial fertilizers and “strong” foods craving for lime ceased. When I at last sold the
have been in vogue. animals to the butcher he was so much pleased
The theorists in nutrition who demand that at their solid meat that he desired to bespeak
man should have so much of hydrocarbon, so immediately some sheep for the next year.
much fat and so much albumen have evidently I would here mention that the sheep- raiser,
little conception of the close relationship in Mr. von Wiedebach, in Guben, inquired of me
which these substances stand to one another, by whether the principles of my “ Makrobiotik”
which the one may pass over into the other; e. g., were not applicable to cattle raising, especially
the hydro-carbon sugar through the adjunction so as to put an end to the mortality among
of earths and ammonia becomes albumen. But sheep and to the mouth- disease and the foot-
albumen easily undergoes a change into fat, rot; I ad vised him to give in certain proportion
as may be seen in cheese, and also from the precipitated chalk or whiting, flowers of sulphur
manner in which the meat of the ham passes and copperas, as a periodical addition to their
into fat. The same transformation takes place in food; and he has repeatedly assured me that by
nutriments containing hydro-carbons; e. g., the these means he has in very many places, whither
malt sugar of beer drinkers and the starch of he has been called as a specialist, put an end
grasses. Many an ox accumulates a few hundred to the mortality of the cattle, and has brought
points of tallow and yet is j not fed with fat or them in other places to a normal state of health.
butter, but with grass, hay and grain. Chemistry teaches us that the characteristic
The so-called “strong” food of cattle, there- nature of the albumen rich in ammonia consists
fore, amounts to nothing and ought rather to in the easy interchangeableness of their atomic
be called poison-food. The truly strong food for groups; but just on this account muscular fibre
cattle consists of mountain herbs, rich in earth, and connective tissue can be built up from the
when these besides alkalies also contain lime albumen of the blood, but every case has two
and magnesia. Just think of the dairy cows of sides. The ease with which the constituents
the Swiss Alps and of the cattle in Holstein that of albumen can be shifted also favors their
derive their strength from the grass of the mars- chemical de-composition. Need I mention here
hes which are not fertilized with stable manure, the savory taste of fresh-laid eggs and the smell
but which are preserved in their lasting fertility of rotten ones? Intelligent people have long
by the neighboring rocky highlands, which con- since perceived that feeding with albu-men does
tinually enables the rain to wash down the solu- not do all that the theorists claim. It does no
ble rocky material which enriches the meadows. pay for its expenses.
As a counterpart to the pork raised from The chemical “strong” food for the soil
Fray Bentos Meat Flour I will mention here an in shape of the Chili-nitrate, which contains
Stone Meal 331

nitrogen, and has been awarded the premium above. From these nutriments poor in earths
over all its competitors, has proved a miserable again follows a host of ills—nervous debility,
failure; but the theorists are indefatigable. They nervous sufferings, decomposition of lymph and
now advocate chemical “ strong” food for cattle, serum, which are continually becoming more
and there are many people who put these latest prevalent. Among these diseases are anemia,
theory into disastrous practice. chlorosis, scrofula, swelling of the lymphatic
All of us have to bear the evil consequences glands, cutaneous diseases, asthma, catarrhal
of this. Does not stable-feeding cohere with this states, nervousness, epilepsy, gout, rheumatism,
“strong” feeding and this forced fattening? And corpulency, dropsy, consumption, diabetes,
does not the stable air so poor in oxygen cause etc., as I have demonstrated anatomically and
the murrain of cattle? And does not the mortality physiologically in a manner easily comprehended
of our children spring from the cow-milk poor in in the book “ Makrobiotik” or “Our Diseases and
earths? That in consequence of fertilizing with Our Remedies.” Fertilizing with stone- meal will
stable manure crops poor in earths are produced in future give us normal and healthy crops and
is indubitable after what has been stated fodder.

What shall we
do with stable
manure?
The different nutritional relationships
established by microbiology and plant
roots with the different minerals inside the
soil, are the phenomena that make it possible
for a new variety of a certain crop to ecoevolve
and arise within a specific space and time.
S
o long as attention was not called to the fact that new earth
from pulverized primitive rock, together with the carbonate
and the sulphate of lime, forms the best and most natural
fertilizer for an exhausted soil, men directed their attention to that
part of the food which cattle do not assimilate, but excrete, for
manure. So men came pretty generally to the position that we must
bring dung to an exhausted field, else nothing can grow. Now in
order to get manure we must raise cattle; for these stables and
at-tendants are necessary, and a considerable area of land must
be devoted to provide the necessary fodder. Now since it is said
that without manure nothing can grow, manure must be used
to make fodder grow on which cattle feed in order to produce
manure for more fodder. In such a circle of life where does the
advantage of keeping cattle come in? The raising of cattle only
pays in mountainous regions, where the fructifying dew transforms
the stones into herbs, or in the marshes irrigated by canals, for
here the subsoil is naturally moist, and without water nothing can
grow. In marshy regions the raiser of cattle can put his hands in
his pockets and look on while the ox “eats money into his pocket;”
but elsewhere the ox rather eats money out of the owner’s pockets
than into them.
But anyways the production of milk, butter, cheese and wool, as
well as the necessity of having horses for driving, makes the raising
of cattle and horses a factor that must be taken into consideration.
Stone Meal 333

Now as all cattle produce manure, solid and
liquid, the question arises: u What shall we do
with it?”
The fact that stable manure undoubtedly
promotes the growth of plants gives to it a certain
value. This value does not depend upon the nitrogen
but on the earthy or ashy constituents which it
contains, and on the combinations of hydro-
carbons; i. e., these carbonate carbohydrates do
not need to be first produced by the sun, but may
be utilized by a simple change of grouping and
may be compared to ready-made building stone
that may at once be built into the plants with only an equal weight of crops can be procured
this result that their growth ’ may take place in therefrom. Still even this is sufficient to keep
the cool springtime more quickly than where the us from rejecting it. Only it should be deprived
warm sun must do the whole work of drawing the of the injurious qualities clinging to it owing to
carbon out of the carbonate rocks in conjunction its excessive quantity of nitrogen. As far as the
with water. Still this advantage will no more be liquid manure is concerned, indeed, little damage
considered so decisive because the same result, is done, for despite those erudite in manures the
yea, a result almost four times as great according simple farmer spreads the liquid manure, the
to my experience, may be attained by a judicious dung, but the carbonate of ammonia, which is formed
mixture of rocks in a finely powdered state. This from the urea of the liquid manure. Free ammonia
stone-meal is dry while manure is moist, and is a poison to plants.
for that reason the former is worth at least four Ammonia is not only poisonous for plant-
times as much because more condensed, while in roots, but is also poisonous for animals, producing
addition thereto the earthy constituents have / paralysis, even when diluted in the blood to a
mostly been eliminated out of the latter by passing mere trace. In this respect I shall report a case
through the animal or human body, and the stone- from actual life respect over the fields, where the
meal mixture contains these in abundance. But of ammonia N2H6 is oxidized into nitrogen K2 and
course not all earthy constituents have been taken water H603. Before this process is completed, or
out of the dung, for of some a superabundance at least before the ammonia has been very much
may have been provided, part of which is still diluted, as on the irrigated fields, nothing will
contained therein. grow from it. The most important point lies in
Such manure, therefore, is by no means without this, that it is not the nitrogen which is combined
value; as animal bodies contain about 4/5ths organically with hydrocarbons as in leucin,
of water same as there are also considerable tyrosin and hippurate of lime which is the most
quantities of water contained in crops. injurious factor of using stable manure; wherever
Dry hay, e. g., will in the kiln still lose 15 per a similar state prevails a lesson may be drawn
cent, of water; and green fodder and vegetables from what I report.
contain a full 3/4ths or 4/5ths of water; in some In certain cavalry barracks there was a rule
root crops the water amounts even to 9/10ths. that in summer the bedding from the horse stables
Considering its properties of water, stable should be spread in the morning on the open place
manure is not to be valued so highly, because before the stables to dry, and then be used again

in the evening. In the stables of these barracks a brilliant scientific victory, for after throwing -
a remarkable mortality of horses developed, and out and burning the bedding and whitewashing
what was the cause ? The liquid manure in the the walls the mortality ceased for the time being.
straw became more and more concentrated, and In my book, “Das Leben,19” I have recommen-
carbonate of ammonia in excessive quantity was ded the transformation of the carbonate of am-
thence generated, because urea in a moist state monia which comes from the liquid manure into
is transformed into this substance. odorless sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of
lime by strewing the stables with gypsum. There-
by the solid and the liquid manure are freed from
their injurious qualities, which are manifested
wherever the manure is heaped up a foot deep be-
fore it is removed and fresh bedding substituted
for it. Those who have hitherto given no heed to
the warning fumes of car-bonate of ammonia and
its evil consequences may continue to consult the
veterinarians how to put a stop to the prevelance
of cattle diseases.
We have already shown how the carbonate of
ammonia may be rendered harmless. Now, in or-
der to largely increase the value of the manure,
the primitive rocks containing potassa and soda,
reduced to powder, should be scattered over the
fields before the manure is spread. Thereby the
Such ammonia vapors are indeed perceptible nitrogenous hydro-carbons of the solid and liquid
in every horse stable, but in those military stables stable manure are prevented from entering into
this evil was extreme. In stepping near the cribs, a decomposing fermentation, which give rise to
the rising ammonia vapors irritating the mouth unwholesome ammoniacal products of decom-
and nostrils caused catarrh, and the eyes would position, which in part through capillarity rise
gather tears. Now the heads of the horses were into the plants with-out being transformed into
bent down over the cribs, they continually inha- vegetable substance; such plants when cooked
led concentrated fumes of ammonia. This acted manifest an ill odor, as may be seen in vegeta-
in a paralyzing manner on the nervus vagus and bles raised on fields irrigated with sewerage. Of
its branches in the respiratory organs and in the late even roses are said to be cultivated on such
abdominal system. The horses were seized with irrigated fields near Berlin, but the home of the
fever, stopped eating and died. The veterinary Bulgarian rose, that yields the attar of roses, lies
physician did not recognize the carbonate of am- at the foot of the Balkan mountains, which con-
monia as the real cause of the appalling numbers sist of granite, gneiss and porphyry; i. e., the rose
of cases of disease and death, but according to demands a soil of disintegrated primitive rocks,
his dictum the stables were infected with Bacilli. or with us it demands as a fertilizer pulverized
A thorough disinfection with carbolic acid was rocks. All roses fertilized with sewerage are in-
therefore ordered. For this purpose, of course, fested with leaf-lice. Whoever undertakes rose
the bedding also with all its “bacilli” was ordered
out and the learned veterinary physician gained 19. Life.
Stone Meal 335

culture on such fields need not expect success. afforded by the fruitful calcareous soil of the
In order to lay down once more the value Jura, which is not manured with nitrogen,
of stable manure, and of excrementious matter so also the illimitable pasture grounds in
in general, it is demonstrable that nitrogenous America as also the vegetation of our German
ammonia is injurious. What is effective consists mountains. If plants find at their disposal for
of the combustible hydrocarbons, which are ready their growth a sufficiency of fixed bases they
building material, and further of the earthy or ashy receive an ample supply of the complementary
constituents to which the hydro-carbons cling; for the nitrogen from the air. four-fifths of which
hydro-carbons by themselves are rather injurious consists of nitrogen.
than useful to the growth of plants. This may be 3. The nitrogen of the solid and the liquid manure
seen when we pour petroleum on the soil of potted may be used in the construction of plants, but
plants, but hydro-carbons combined with bases and in order to produce crops useful to health it is
soluble in water advance the formation of leaves. I necessary to add to it a sufficient quantity of
summarize then as follows: alkalies and of alkaline earths in the form of
1. Nitrogen in the’ form of carbonate of ammonia stone-meal as a counterpoise. By so doing we
is directly injurious to the growth of plants. not only preserve, but especially amend, the
2. Nitrogen is unnecessary as a fertilizer for nature of stable manure.
the growth of plants if the soil contains a
sufficiency of fixed basic substances (alkalies
and alkaline earths). The proof of this is

Will fertilizing
with stone-meal
pay?
He who fights for truth and right,
even alone, has strength and might.
“Der einsame Mensch hat Kraft und Macht,

wenn er für Wahrheit und Gerechtigkeit Kämpft”.
S
ome people say: “With such nonsense as Hensel’s ‘stone-
meal’ I shall never have anything to do; nothing can grow
from it”. “Useless dirt”. This is the cry of men who have
no chemical knowledge, yet two hundred farmers in the German
Palatinate testified before court that fertilizing with stone-meal
showed far better effects than those from the artificial manures
used hitherto.
“What do you say to this?” asked the judge of the young man
who had declared the stone-meal a swindle (being himself a dealer
in artificial manures). “I don’t say anything to it; the people
deceive themselves,” replied the young man, who was fined for a
too libelous tongue.
Since then persons who traffic in artificial manures are good
enough to allow: “We will not deny that Hensel’s stone-meal may
have a certain effect, but this is far too slow and too small; for
the silicate bases are almost quite insoluble and it will have to
disintegrate for many years”. These people also are deficient in
chemical knowledge.
The silicates have indeed little solubility in water and hydrochlo-
ric acid, but they do not resist the forces of water and of the sun.
Of course, in speaking of the solubility of silicic acid we must
not compare this with the solubility of common salt or sugar. Lime
would sooner do for comparison, for of this one part dissolves in
Stone Meal 337

800 parts of water. Silicic acid is somewhat less
soluble, for little more than one-half of a grain
is dissolved in 1.000 grains of water. All hot
springs contain silicic acid in solution together
with other substances from the primitive rocks.
Men who say that silicates of bases are
insoluble are contradicted by the trees of the
forest as well as by every single straw. Oak
leaves, on combustion, leave 4 per cent, of ashes,
and of these fully one-third consists of silicic
acid. How can this come into the leaves unless
the ascending sap conveyed it in solution?
The accumulation of the silicic acid in the
leaves is the result of the evaporation of the
water which conveyed it.
From the forest tree let’s go to the straw! In

the ashes of the straw of winter wheat, two-thirds
consist of silicic acid. In the beard of the barley
the proportion is still greater.
This yields nearly 12 per cent, of ashes, and of
this consists of silicic acid.
Still more striking is the solubility of silicic
acid in the stems and leaves of plants I which Chicken manure collection with stone meal
grow in water or in wet soil. Reeds, e.g., on
combustion, leave 3 per cent, of ashes, more than is silicic acid. The remainder mainly consists of
two-thirds of which is silicic acid. sulphate and muriate of potassium, soda, lime
Sedge or reed-grass yields 6 per cent, of and magnesia; these the seaweed concentrates
ashes, of which one-third is silicic acid. That and combines with its cellular tissue, for sea
the sedge is, at the same time, rich in potassium water has not 14 per cent, but only about 4 per
proves in the most striking manner that it needs cent, of saline constituents.
only irrigation to make silicate of potassium This is sufficient to prove that with respect
available for plant growth. Shave-grass (Horse- to vegetation silicic acid and silicates are not
tail) leaves 20 per cent, of ashes, half of which insoluble; on the contrary, they enter, like all
consist of silicic acid. From this it may be seen other saline combinations, into the most intimate
that only in those parts of plants which rise above combination with glycolic acid, CH2 OH - COOH,
the water, so that evaporation can take place, which is intramolecularly present in the cellulose
silicic acid is accumulated. But in the water itself of plants, so also with the ammonia of the
this very solubility of silicic acid stands in the chlorophyl so that the silicates cohere with the
way of its accumulation. The best proof of this we plants growing from them as an organic whole.
find in seaweed. This leaves ‘behind it a greater We may easily convince ourselves of this on
proportion of ashes than most plants, namely, tearing a weed out by its roots. Then it is seen
up to 14 per cent., but only one-fiftieth of this that the root-fibres of most of the plants are

everywhere entwined around little stones which, The practical point to settle is how far
dangling, still cleave to them and can only be fertilizing with stone meal pays, what yield it
torn away from them by violence and by tearing will afford?, thus whether it will be profitable for
of some of the fibres. the farmer to use it. I shall therefore treat this
So the objection as to the insolubility of silicic subject as exhaustively as possible and give an
acid is invalid both theoretically and practically. exact account of the results obtained.
In reality we cannot find a root, a stem, a leaf It must here be premised that the fineness of the
or a fruit which does not contain silicic acid. This stamping or grinding and the most complete intermix‑
fact must be known to every teacher of agricultu- ture of the constituent parts are of the greatest
re. How then can these teachers deny the solubi- importance for securing the greatest benefit of
lity of salicic acid in vegetation, as many of them stone-meal fertilizing. A manufactured article
who advocate artificial fertilizers do? of this kind has recently been submitted to me
The men interested in artificial manures who which showed in a sieve of moderate fineness
thought that they had attended the funeral of 3/4ths of the weight in coarse residuum. But as
stone-meal as a fertilizer have learned nothing the solubility of the stone-meal; and thus its effi-
from history, or have at least forgotten that every ciency, increases in proportion with its fineness,
new truth has first to be killed and buried before the greatest possible circumspection is required
it can celebrate its resurrection. Besides I do not in grinding it. The finer the stone dust the more
stand as isolated as these people suppose, for I energetically can the dissolving moisture of the
have the light of truth and of knowledge on my soil and the oxygen and nitrogen of the air act
side. upon it. A grain of stone dust of moderate fine-
I can also call to my aid a whole army of men ness may be reduced in a mortar of agate per-
who understand something of chemistry and of haps into twenty little particles, and then every
scientific farming, and their number, at this day little particle may be rendered accessible to the
where science is making such giant strides and water and the air, and can, therefore, be used as
hundreds of well edited agricultural papers are plant food. Thence it follows that one single load
ready to support the interests of the farmer, is of the very , finest stone-meal will do as much
daily on the increase. as twenty , loads of a coarser product, so that
What is lacking at present is that the by reducing to the finest dust the cost for freight
manufacture of stone-meal should be undertaken and carriage and the use of horse and cart would
by men of scientific attainments who at the amount to only one-twentieth. Therefore we can
same time have sterling honesty, so as to make afford to pay unhesitatingly a higher price for the
it certain that farmers will actually receive finest stone-meal that has been passed through a
what is promised and what has proved itself so sieve than for an article that may be not so much
useful hitherto. I have received innumerable a fine powder but rather a kind of coarse sand.
requests from farmers who asked for this mineral The average contents of ash in cereals - is
manure, but I had to answer them that with mv about three per cent. Thence, from three pounds
advanced years I could not actively engage in of pure vegetable ashes we could raise a hundred
this manufacture. The whole subject is of such pounds of crops. Now, as stone-meal properly
immense importance for the common welfare made contains an abundance of plant food in
that it is my wish to see this work placed into assimilable form, it may be calculated to produce
hands that are thoroughly reliable. I but point the four cwt. of cereals, or that an annual use of six
way for the benefit of the human race. cwt. to the acre will produce twenty-four cwt. of
Stone Meal 339

grain. On this basis every farmer can calculate have become famous with our neighbors
whether it will pay. But in reality the harvest will and our guests, so that they ask: “How do
be far greater, because even without the stone- you manage that?”). Meadows furnish grass
meal most fields still possess some supply of and hay of more nutritive value. Vines form
mineral nutriment for plants which will become stronger shoots, give sweeter grapes and are
effective in addition thereto. Such being the case not touched by insects and fungous diseases.
we need not consider the fact that not all the 2. The soil is steadily built up and improved
stone-meal is used up completely in the first year, by this natural fertilizer, as it is progressively
hut yields nourishment to plants even in the fifth ‘normalized’, i.e., shows gathered together
year, as has been shown by experiments. That potassium, soda, lime, magnesia, fluorine,
no mistake would be made by using double the and phosphoric and sulphuric acid, etc., in the
quantity on an acre, or twelve cwt. instead of six, most favorable combination. There is hardly
is manifest, for the prospects of a still greater one cultivated field which by nature is normal
yield would thereby be improved, but in applying at the present time. Either lime prevails or we
twelve cwt. an abundance would be supplied ; have a clayey soil, which through its excess
even five or six times that quantity would be far of clay refuses to let the rain water pass, and
from causing an injury to the soil, but we cannot by its toughness obstructs the access of the
force by excessive quantities of stone-meal a atmospheric nitrogen and of the carbonic
correspondingly higher yield of crops for the acid; or we have a mere sandy soil (quartz),
reason that within a definite area only a definite or again the soil has humus in excess, like the
quantity of sunlight can display its activity, and moor-land soil. This latter is characterized
on this factor the growth of the crop mainly by a predominance of lime and magnesia on
depends. There is, therefore, no use in passing the one side, while sulphuric bases are two or
beyond a certain quantity of mineral manure; three times in excess of phosphatic bases, as
it could only come into use in subsequent years, is shown by the analysis of the ashes of peat.
and it appears to be more practical to supply the 3. The value of the new fertilizer with
amount needed each year. respect to the wholesomeness of nutritive
I will now present in summary form the plants and fodder depends in great part on
quintessence of the significance of this natural the careful and intimate comixture of its
fertilizer: several constituents, so that with every little
1. The point to be gained is not only a (greater dust of potassium and soda the other nutritive
quantity of produce, but also a better quality. elements required to co-operate in the
Sugar-beets gain thereby more sugar, this, harmonic construction of plants are at their
according to experiments made, may amount disposal in proximate vicinity. As a contrast
to 75 per cent, more than hitherto. Potatoes to this, in a one-sided fertilizing with lime
and cereals show a greater proportion of starch. it may happen that the plant contents itself
Oil crops (as poppies, rape, etc.) show more with the lime so that the other constituents of
seed- vessels and a corresponding increase in the soil are not drawn into co-operation for
oil. Pulse, such as beans, peas, etc., yields more the growth of the produce, because they are
lecithin (oil containing phosphate of ammonia not within the nearest proximity of the root-
as the chemical basis of nerve- substance). fibres. This is, of course, of great importance
Fruits and all vegetables receive a more to the quality and the nutritive value of the
delicate flavor. (The vegetables in my garden plants.

4. For raising nutritive plants and fodder which is effected thereby. From this point of view
may afford wholesome nourishment I deem it of I would also deprecate the use of so-called
the greatest importance that no substances fish guano. Everyone knows how quickly fish
should be used which lead to ammoniacal pass over into putrefaction; there is formed
decomposition. By such additions we may indeed at the same time a considerable quantity of
produce a luxuriant, excessive growth that propylamin (C3H6, NH3) which is an ammoniacal
blinds the eyes, and in which the abundant base. The manure manufactured in Sweden
formation of leaves by means of nitrogen from fish-guano and powdered feldspar does
forms the chief part; but no healthy growth not, therefore, merit the esteem that it claims.
Stone Meal 341

A chapter
for
chemists
The Chemical Process in the Growth of
Plants Which are the Basis of our Nutrition.
Every leaf in the hedge sings to the wise
An excerpt from the wondrous lay of
Creation!
T
he sum and substance of the growth of plants consists in crea-
ting out of burnt substances through the electrically decom-
posing forces of the sun material which may again be burned.
To take an example: A stearine candle, consisting of hydro-car-
bons (C H H), in a twenty-four fold aggregation, is consumed by
means of the oxygen of the air into carbonic acid or carbon dioxide
(C O O) and water (H H O) and these same products of combustion
may through the vegetative pro- / cesses in plants be again wholly
or partially changed back into hydro-carbons. This is effected by
separating from the carbonic acid dissolved in rain water or com-
bined with the moisture in the soil, water and together with this
oxidized water (peroxide of hydrogen). In this way there arise from
two molecules of carbonic acid and two of water, first of all oxalic
acid (C2H2O4) and peroxide of hydrogen (O H H O).
The peroxide of hydrogen passes into the atmosphere decompo-

sed into watery vapor and oxygen, while oxalic acid arising as the
first product of the reduction of carbonic acid caused by the action
of the sun is found combined with lime in all vegetable cells. For-

merly this first process of growth (for oxalic acid The simplest kind of vegetable albumen is
arises from the accretion of two atoms of hydrogen found in asparagus, in the juice of asparagus.
to two molecules of car-bonic acid) was not at
all understood. It is hardly four years ago that I
25
heard a teacher of agricultural economy say:
“Lime has no value in the growth of plants,
it is rather injurious than beneficial. The plant
knows not at all what to do with the lime; in or- a combination of ammonia with malic acid,
der to rid itself more easily of it it takes it up as which is a step towards the formation of sugar or
oxalate of lime in the cells.” rather a product of splitting off from sugar.
Oxalic acid derives its name from the fact that This asparagin is found not only in aspara-
chemists first discovered it in wood- sorrel (Oxa- gus, but to select an example which may easily be
lis) in the form of a combination of oxalic acid demonstrated also in the young roots of thistles
with lime. From the oxalic acid there proceeds in (which are weeded out from asparagus beds) and
a continuous reduction sugar, the material of plant- which taste very much like raw asparagus, and
cells and starch. it is also found in the sprouts of very many other
The sugar that has been produced from a plants.
symmetrical grouping of two molecules of hydro- As the simplest of all kinds of vegetable albu-
carbons, two of carbonic acid and two of water. men asparagus is the best exemplification of tlie
fact that in albumen intramolecular gelatine sugar
is contained:
17
and which, therefore, is not yet a complete Of the latter, however, it is ascertained that
product of reduction, produces with the sepa- on account of its contents of carbonic acid it can
ration of carbonic acid and of water through a condense into an organic whole with itself ba-
heaped up grouping together of hydro-carbons, sic substances (potassium, soda, magnesia, oxide
which remain yet combined ‘ with a molecule of of iron and oxide of manganese), and owing to
formic acid, C 0 O H (this second product of pro- its basic ammonical substratum it also conden-
duction or rather product of addition to Carbonic ses acids, and accordingly also at the same time
acid) then the vegetable oils (olive oil, almond both bases and acids (c. y., sulphate of magnesia,
oil, P°PPJ °il> rapeseed oil, linseed oil, etc.) phos-phate of lime, the silicates of potassium and
Furthermore from sugar, which is exhibited in of soda, fluorate of lime), besides manganese and
all young plants during their sprouting after re- oxide of iron, and there arise indeed on accou-
ceiving watery vapor and nitrogen from the air, nt of the contents of the hydro-carbon (H C H)
and, indeed, after again separating peroxide of in the gelatine sugar from insoluble substances
hydrogen, while ammonia arises, there are for- soluble combinations after the analogy of the in-
med H2 H]2 06 N H6 H6 06 the numerous kinds of soluble sulphate of baryta and the ethyl sulphate
vegetable albumen. of baryta which is soluble in water.
Stone Meal 343

And so we may comprehend how from earthy
elements in combination with sugar and nitrogen
there can arise in endless modifications the most
numerous varieties of vegetable albumen, accor-
ding as the soil furnishes various substances.
In this the electrolytic force of the sun plays
the part of the architect. Like as in the galvanic
bath the atoms of the reduced metals apply them-
selves into a connected covering without a gap,
so the solar forces cement together the reduced
elements of the hydro-carbons with phosphates,
sulphates, muriates, fluorates, silicates and car- Every disturbance in the regular supply of food
bonates of lime, of potassium, soda, magnesia, has the most manifest effects on the state of the
and of the oxides of mangenese and iron together soul. The inexorable demand for new material in
into the edifices which, as grasses, herbs, bushes place of the bodily substance which is breathed
and trees, refresh our eyes with their leaves and away makes even men, who by nature are kindly,
flowers, while their fruits serve to nourish man angry and re-gardless of others when their food
as well as the animal world. is kept back. And so cause and effect join them-
But it is to be noticed that the above- mentio- selves into a mischievous chain.
ned processes only take place under the supposi- As the means for procuring food consists in by
tion that the carbonic acid, which lays the foun- far the greater number of callings in coined mo-
dation out of which the hydrocarbons arise, find ney, and this is only given as a reward for work
basic substances (potassium, soda, lime, magne- done, the question arises : What can the man do
sia, etc,) with which they can condense themsel- who has no opportunity and chance to find pa-
ves into firm combinations. Therefore the firm ying work? He will and must eat. If we can assist
earth is the absolute condition for all vegetable everyone in getting a supply of food the mains-
growth, there is no vegetation in the air alone; pring for lying, deceit, stealing and numerous
nor must water be lacking (H H 0), for its hydro- crimes vanishes.
gen (H H) being combustible in itself renders the Food is supplied to us in the first place by the
groups of hydro-carbons combustible. immediate produce of the ground, and only in the
Now, as the process of our life represents second place by the fat, flesh and blood of do-
nothing else than a continual combustion of our mestic animals produced from grasses and herbs.
bodily substance by means of the oxygen respired, Now, as it is a primary chemical condition
with the condition that to replace the substance that earthy material, air, water and solar forces
consumed during the day by oxidation, during the must be present in order that plants may grow,
night new combustible material must be supplied: it is the all-mother Earth which, surrounded by
by the contents rich in soil of the lymphatic ves- water and earth and fructified by sunshine, nou-
sels to the numerous nervous sheaths as the oil rishes men and animals through the crops produ-
of life, and to the renewing blood new albumi- ced; and at the same time it clothes animals, as
nous substance. Our life could not continue if we their skin causes the hair to sprout forth, which
should not renew so much of the bodily material contains sulphur and silica, and the hair by iso-
as is chemically con-sumed by the oxidizing res- lating keeps together the bodily warmth and the
piration by means of the periodic supply of food. bodily electricity.

Man, whose producing spirit desires occupa- calls for mutual regard, charity, kindliness, mu-
tion and to whom is granted the wonderful me- tual assistance. How different with the man who
chanism of the fingers, has the advantage that he is not working. His thoughts turn to laying nets
can weave his garments according to the season, and setting traps in which to catch his unsuspec-
either of flax and cotton or of the wool of sheep ting fellow men.
and the hair of goats, and can protect himself Further, when the knowledge will have spread
from the wind, the weather and the cold by using more and more that the essential work of man
the wood from the forest to build his house and consists in allowing the sun to work for Him, in
to warm it. order that food, raiment and wood may grow up
Food, clothing and shelter are the fundamen- from earth, water and air, then many foolish out-
tal requirements to which everyone born has a births of idle brains will lose their soil and foun-
claim, and these can also be acquired by every dation.
one who has sound limbs. There are, indeed, in these times some bad
In the muscles of our arms we possess the calculators who say:
fairy charm which can say: “Table be set!” for We will work less and get more money.
labor always finds its reward. Of course if people These do not consider that the more money is
are foolish enough to leave the places where the in circulation, so much more money must be
muscles of their arms are in demand and paid paid for the materials of food, if these remain
for, if they leave the source of all earthly riches, the same in quantity, and this change will be of
agriculture and go where their arms have no va- indefinite limits. The real remedy can only consist
lue, because many others that are unemployed in producing more food. The more grain is raised,?
are waiting for employment, then distress, lack the less money will be required to buy it. Here we
of food, of clothing and shelter must give him the must apply our lever. What infatuation, when men
occasion to consider and turn back, returning to attack one another in order to compel the supply
a life in the country, which is continually beco- of sufficient food. That can only be furnished by
ming more deprived of its inhabitants. the earth. “Does a cornfield grow in my palm?”
Every work brings its reward. Work is neces- God has created us rich enough in supplying us
sary for our bodily and mental wellbeing. By co- with an understanding. If we use this, brother
operation it confirms us in the consciousness of need not overreach brother, but we can in serene
a common humanity, for in social life we see in tranquility of soul recieve the little that we need
every fellow man an image of ourselves and this day by day from our all generous Mother Earth.
Stone Meal 345

Stone-meal as a
tobacco fertilizer
When we consider the microbiological

activity present in the soil, then the
accounts are different when considering
the nutritional balance of a crop.
O
f late years the general attention of tobacco growers centered
in the query “What is the best manure for obtaining a good
tobacco?” For it stands to reason that, if for a number of
years tobacco is grown on the same fields, in the course of time
the soil must be rendered bare of the constituents entering into the
remarkable quantity of ash which tobacco contains. There is no
other product of the soil which gives as much ashes as does tobacco,
for the best dried leaves will yield from 14 to 27 per cent, while,
for example, dried ash or beech leaves only yield 4,75 per cent, and
most other plants contain still less, dried pine needles only 4 per
cent. In the ash of most plants, yielding 2 per cent or more, silica
predominates, ash and beech ashes containing over one-third, while
the ash of barley and oat straw consists one-half of silex. It is,
however, quite different with tobacco ash, which contains only one-
twentieth part of silex, the rest being lime, magnesia, potassium,
soda, phosphoric and sulphuric acid. There is no fixed rule in the
proportion of these substances, but lime and potassium always
predominate in about the proportion of five to four parts.
German tobacco yields less ash than Virginia leaf, only about 14
per cent., and consists of about five parts of lime, four of potassium,
one of magnesia, one-half of soda, two-thirds of phosphoric acid,
four-fifths of sulphuric acid, four-fifths of silex and one part of
muriatic acid.

The less of sulphuric and muriatic acid a
tobacco contains the freer will it burn and the
whiter its ash will be. The best tobacco is raised
with nothing but wood ashes for manure, and be
it noted that the ashes of oak, beech, birch, pine
and fir contain not a trace of muriatic acid and
but one-fiftieth per cent, of sulphuric acid. We
are forced, therefore, to the inevitable conclusion
that the comparatively high percentage of
sulphuric and muriatic acid which the ash of
German tobacco yields and which makes its
present quality so poor is owing to the per-sistent appreciated in good tobacco. But it is a great
use of stable manure, and it is plainly of the utmost mistake to lay undue stress on an overabundance
importance to do without that altogether. of potassium. Neither the Strassfurt potash salts
The question now arises what shall be used in nor powdered iron slag will produce good tobacco.
its stead? Our answer, is that inasmuch as forest For the potassium contained in tobacco is not
trees are grown on rocky soil which contains combined therein with sulphuric and muriatic
potassium, soda, lime and magnesia in combination acid, but enters into direct combination with
with silica alumina and phosphoric acid we must, cell material, and it is eliminated out of silicated
instead of burning the expensive trees for the potassium and soda by the action of the carbonic
purpose of obtaining their ashes for tobacco acid of the air or of the soil. A healthy and fine
manure, go back to the original substances out quality of tobacco can therefore only be grown by
of which the trees were created, and these are the use of a liberal supply of a mineral mixture
suitable minerals found in the rocks. This is as which yields in appropriate proportions silicate
plain a proposition as the egg of Columbus. of potassium and soda together with carbonate
With regard to Virginia tobacco a study of the of lime and magnesia and a small proportion of
topographical features of the tobacco lands will phosphoric acid, such as was present originally
be in order. The best soil for the purpose is found in the virgin soil of the tobacco lands of Virginia.
where the debris of the Alleghenies and their In accordance with these principles suitable
foot hills the blue mountains has been washed mixtures of the several kinds of rocks have been
down into the plain. These mountains contain prepared in the form of very fine powder for the
gneis, granite, syenite, serpentin and hornblend production of fine tobacco, and it is at present
slate. Hornblend is silica combined with lime, being used with great success in the Palatinate
magnesia and iron. In syenite lime and magnesia in Germany.
predominate over potassium and soda; Virginia
gneis abounds in lime, magnesia and potassium
; serpentin is a silicate of magnesia and iron.
These lime and magnesia silicates are of far more
importance for the production of a fine tobacco
which will burn freely making a white and firm
ash than the potassium which is found in all
primitive rocks, although potassium is necessary
for the production of elastic leaf cells so much
Stone Meal 347

A contribution to
the newspaper
Deutsches
Adelsblatt
January 31st, 1892
I
n cereals, in the seeds of the leguminous plants, and of the oil-
bearing plants, the mineral substances with which the cellular
tissue and the vegetable albumen are com-bined constitute
from 17 to 50 thousand. After the combustion of plant tissue these
mineral constituents remain behind as ashes, and the greater part
of the ashes in the seeds consist of phosphoric acid and potassium,
while soda, lime, magnesia, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric and silicic
acid with manganese; iron and fluorine are comparative^ less
in quantity. Only in the oil-producing seeds (mustard, rapeseed,
linseed, hempseed and poppyseed) lime and magnesia make a
considerable part of the ashes. The following numerical proportion
will give a general view:
Winter wheat has on the average 16 (8-10) thousandths of
ashes, of which phosphoric acid forms 7 (9-10) thousandths and
5 (2-10) of potassium.
Field beans yield 31 thousandths of ashes, of which phosphoric
acid forms 16 (2-10), potassium 7, lime 18 and magnesia 5
thousandths.
Poppyseed gives 51 (5-10) thousandths of ashes, of which 16
(2-10) are phosphoric acid, potassium 7, lime 18 and magnesia
5.
From the fact that phosphoric acid and potassium have
such a prominence in nutritive crops, it was easy to draw this
conclusion: “That potassium and phosphoric acid are the most necessary

fertilizers, and the more phosphoric acid the better.” But consists of 18.4 potassa, 0.6 soda, 14.7 lime,
this conclusion is erroneous and has caused us 3.1 magnesia, 2.5 sulphuric acid, 1.3 hydro-
much injury since Liebig made this statement. chloric acid and 5.5 silicic acid.
Liebig and his successors have overlooked The examples adduced are to a certain
the fact, that in the time of vegetation degree typical of cereals, leguminous plants
phosphoric acid is so uniformly distributed and oil-yielding plants and they explain why
that it does not amount in the average to more leguminous and oily plants need more lime
than one-tenth of the mineral constituents. in the soil than cereals. On the whole, when
If during the process of ripening phosphoric we take the average of 70 or 80 analyses of
acid strongly accumulates in the seeds, that it field-crops, which also include the roots, stems
constitutes not merely 10, but 30 to 50 per and leaves, we come to the conclusion that
cent, of the ashes, this is explained by the fact phosphoric acid constitutes about one- tenth of
that the acid passes from the stems, stalks and the mineral constituents, while potassa, soda,
leaves into the seeds, leaving the straw very lime, magnesia, silica, sulphuric acid, chlorine
poor in phosphoric acid, as may appear from and fluorine contribute the remaining nine-
these proportions: tenths. Furthermore, potassa and soda are
(a.) The straw of winter wheat has in the average 46 present on the average in the same amount of
thousandths of ashes, of which only 2 (2-10), weight as lime and magnesia. These four bases
thus about 1-20 or 5 per cent consist of phos- amount to about eight-tenths of the whole
phoric acid. The rest con-sists of 6 potassium, quantity of the ashes, and it is found in practice
0.6 soda, 2.7 lime, 1.1 magnesia, 1.1 sulphu- that these bases may to a considerable degree
ric acid, 0.8 hydrochloric acid and 81 thou- act as substitutes for one another, without
sandths of silicic acid. The latter (silica) only perceptibly varying the form and the organic
amounts to 0.3 of one thousandth in the wheat constituents of these plants.
grain thus in comparison with the straw only According to these facts a fertilizer which
one thousandth. would satisfy the natural demand of supplying
(b.) The straw of field bean furnishes 45 thousandths the minerals necessary for the construction of
of ashes, of which only 2.9 are phosphoric acid, plants should contain to one part of phosphoric
thus 1-15 or per cent., while in the ashes of acid eight parts of potassium, soda, lime and
the seeds it constitutes 36 per cent. The other magnesia, if we are willing to leave out of our
substances contained in bean straw are 19.4 count phosphoric, hydrochloric and silicic acid.
thousandths potassium, 0.8 soda, 12 lime, 2.6 Such a fertilizer, however, is found in every
magnesia, 1.8 sulphuric acid, 2.0 hydrochlo- primitive rock. Primitive rocks do not, indeed,
ric acid and 3.2 silicic acid. On account of contain more than one per cent, of phosphoric
this small quantity of silica bean straw is soft, acid, but that is quite sufficient; it is, indeed,
while wheat straw, rich in silica, is hard. the measure wisely appointed by the Creator of
(c.) The straw of poppy gives about 481- thou- all things, for the other constituents of granite,
sandths of ashes, of which there are only 1.6 porphyry, etc., which serve for the nourishment
of phosphoric acid; i.e., in poppy straw phos- of plants, consist of about six per cent of
phoric acid constitutes only 1-30 of the ashes, potassium and soda, and two per cent of lime
while in the seeds it amounts to So considera- and magnesia. The residue of the rock serves
ble, amounting to the tenfold, is the differen- as a substance dispersed between the basic
ce. The rest of the ashes of the straw of poppy substances to keep them apart, and they are
Stone Meal 349

dissolved out of their combination with silicic the fertility of the primary rocks which the
acid only as they are applied to use. Thence mountains of the Hundsruecken supplies in
we receive such wholesome cereals from the form of argillaceous slate. It is a little
mountainous countries ; e. (/., from Hungary, Argentina. The trade in cattle plays an
encircled by the Carpathian Mountains, in important part in Birkenfeld. Besides this
contrast with the prevalence of diseases due oil factories, linen factories and beer brew-
to the decom-position of the blood of men and eries prove that cereals and oil plants, rich
of animals in the exhausted plains which are in phosphorus, and among them flax, rich in
supplied with stable manure. potassium, find there good nutritive supplies.
If we wish to grasp quickly and completely The forests consist mainly of deciduous trees
the correctness and importance of mineral and harbour much game. Trees need phosphoric
manure, we need only to consider the cases acid for their roots, trunks and bark, and the
of Uruguay and Argentinia or of Egypt; or, game needs phosphate of lime for the bones.
to mention an example from our proxima‑ The ashes of oak wood and beech wood contain
te vicinity, that of the principality of Bir‑ 6 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and that of
kenfeld. the horse-chestnut contains 7 per cent. So
In Uruguay and Argentina the live stock is richly does the argillaceous slate furnish the
estimated at about thirty-two millions (cattle, nutritious ele-ments for the growth of plants
sheep and horses). Of these there are now killed and especially the right quantity of phosphoric
for export every year about one and a quarter acid.
millions and the bones of these animals are In contrast with these natural fertilizers
carried by the shiploads to Hamburg, in order what has our prudent and learned fertilizing
to be worked up into bone-black to be used in with phosphoric acid effected? It has brought
the sugar refineries. it about that we don’t know how to save
It is self-evident that the animals take ourselves from the phylloxera, the nematodes,
the phosphate of lime for their bones and the hay-worm, spring-worm and sour- worm nor
nitrogen for their flesh and for the glue in their from the fungi causing rust and blight. The
bones from the grass they eat. But the grass more phosphoric acid the more parasites,
draws the necessary nitrogen from the air, for for fungi and parasites need the phosphatic
they use no fertilizers, and the phosphate of protoplasm which accumulates in seeds
lime, which continually passes from the country and fruits as an essential condition of their
in the form of bones is received by the grass existence. If we wish to limit these plagues to
from the inexhaustible calcareous porphyritic a sufferable degree we must supply our fields
mud which is carried down through millions of that have been deluged with . phosphoric acid
gorges j from the Cordilleras by the mountain with natural plant-food, with pulverized rocks,
streams and which flows as a primitive manure with lime and gypsum.
into the eastern plains. In Egypt this is effected Of many communications received which
by the Nile mud, which the mountain streams confirm the above, we would like to cite a few
bring down and which is conveyed by the Nile which are especially instructive, as it shows
in fructifying abundance to the Delta, which that these evils have become so great as to
thereby becomes the granaiy of Egypt. urgently demand relief. The representative of
But we need not go so far even. The little a great vineyard estate on the upper Rhine
principality of Birkenfeld demonstrates writes as follows:

the vineyards here looks sickly and poor. I
should, therefore, be very glad and grateful
to you if you would give us your views about
this. It would be a great benefit, not only to
our-selves, but to the whole of the Rheingau,
and wherever grape-vines are cultivated, to be
delivered from the miseries of the spring- worm,
hay-worm and sour-worm, the phylloxera and
the Peronoxpora viticola, and if this can be done by
your method all cultivators of the grape-vine
will exclaim: God be praised! ”
I answered that the usual manure does
not lack any necessary ingredient, but there
is in it too much of some things, i. e., of nitrogen
and phosphoric acid. Men must return to the
original material, restore to the soil its natural
original qualities by bringing to the fields soil
that has not been exhausted, which may be
done in the form of powdered primitive rocks
mingled with sulphates and carbonate of lime
and magnesia. The correctness of such belief is
attested by the following correspondence with
a landscape gardener and nursery man from
the Rheinprovinz:
“We would like to ask you for some
“For years I have seen clearly that we make information as to what we had best use for
a great mistake in our cultivation of fields, manuring our nurseries. We have clayey, deep,
gardens and vineyards, but only on reading light soil, formerly a forest. We cultivate roses,
your books have I seen that all our methods fruit trees and forest trees, also evergreen
of fertilizing hitherto have been one-sided, and plants, firs and various kinds of cypresses. It
that, therefore, they are ineffectual. Stable is quite peculiar that quinces and other fruits
manure on some soils and for some crops may in the second year after grafting absolutely
be sufficient, but it is not a universal fertilizer. refuse to grow any more, despite of the use of
We see this plainly here in the Rheingau, in the stable manure, iron slag or of Chili nitrate.”
young vines, .which are manured every two or I answered that deep, clayey forest soil
three years with cow dung, and, indeed, great while retaining its clay and silica has been
quantities of it. A gladsome, luxuriant growth deprived of its basic constituents (potassium,
and a rich yield of grapes are not produced, soda, lime and magnesia) which in the process
though we furnish the grapevines with the of time have passed over into the wood of the
potassium, phosphoric acid and nitrogen in roots and of the trunks, and that the only thing
so great quantities that the shoots, the grapes promising relief is fresh rock meal. For are not
and the leaves ought to display the utmost the Balkan countries the home of the roses,
luxuriance; but instead of this everything in and do not the Haemus Mountains consist of
Stone Meal 351

porphyry, granite and gneiss, but not of stable was introduced, as it was cheap, I used at once
manure and clay? 2,000 cwt. With 7 cwt. per acre an effect was
Do not cypresses grow in the regions of the indeed seen, but what was it that acted? surely
Appennines, which furnish the nourishing ma- only the lime. What you have affirmed I have
terial from their granite and gneiss. And do long felt. That many of us agriculturists are
not firs grow on mountains of granite and por- faring so badly is for the most part owing to
phyry? Finally fruit? The Bohemian Mountains this nuisance of our artificial, expensive and
furnish it in abundance, and indeed free from useless fertilizers.”
worms. This latter fact, that the use of stone- A fourth letter with an excerpt, of which I
meal causes worms to cease, was lately confir- will conclude, contains the following:
med by Mr. Fischer, M. D., of Westend, near “Twenty years ago, while in office in Alsatia,
Charlottenburg, who introduced stone-meal I endeavoured to make myself acquainted
manure two years ago in his garden, situated and familiar with all manner of subjects. I
on a sandy soil. He reported about it in the was lead to the idea of mineral fertilizers or
January number of the Deutsche Pomologen-Verein. manures, when I heard and saw that in the
From a third letter I quote as follows: intersecting valleys of the Vosges Mountains
“Manor L.—I am glad to see a chemist who the winter torrents covered the lowlands with
has the courage to openly oppose the swindle granitic debris, which after a few years became
of the artificial manures. Within a series of very fruitful soil; but I had no opportunity or
ten years I bought at least $17,000 worth of occasion to follow out this idea any further,
artificial fertilizers, of which sum over $6,000 which is now, however, the case.” (G. L., Privy
were paid for Chili nitrate. I harvested more Councillor of war a D.)
every year; but what? Nothing but straw, Every such letter contains new confirmatory
lodged grain and cereals of low grade. For facts; I have quite a collection of such
the last two years I have bought, in addition, correspondence, but will not weary you by
animal manure and lime, and I find that at a quoting more.
slight expense everything is being changed and
that the field will again bring in what I lost Julius Hensel
Hermsdorf unterm Kynast
in former years. When the Thomas phosphate

Stone Meal
fertiliser
(Pioneer, July 22, 1892)
Bread from stones: and thus forsooth The

Bible words maintain their truth.
“Brot aus Steinen: Sicherlich haben die

Bibelwörter ihre Wahrheit beibehalten”.
I
have before this taken occasion, in the “Deutsche Adelsblatt” to
show that calling the stone dust “fertiliser’’ is really not correct,
as it is superior to the so-called fertilisers in this that it restores
the natural conditions for the growth of crops, while fertilizers only present
an artificial help and thus a makeshift. The whole state of the case
is as follows:
In the beginning plants grew without artificial addition from
the soil formed of disintegrated material from the mountains.
The carbonic acid of the air combined with the basic constituents,
potassium, soda, lime, magnesia, iron and manganese, which were
combined in the disintegrated rock-material with silicic acid,
alumina, sulphur, phosphorous, chlorine and fluorine, and with the
co-operation of moisture by the operation of the heat and light of
the sun it produced vegetable cell-tissue. The gaseous substances,
carbonic acid (carbon dioxide), watery vapor and the nitrogen of the air
acquire the firm forms of vegetable cellular tissue and vegetable
albumen solely through the basic foundation of potassium, soda,
lime and magnesia, without which no root, stalk, leaf or fruit is
found; for whether we burn the leaves of maples or of beech trees,
the roots of burdocks or of willows, grains of rye or wood, straw or
linen, pears, cherries or rape seed, there always remains a residuum
of ashes which, in various proportions, consists of potassium, soda,
lime, magnesia, iron, manganese, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid,
fluorine and silica. With respect to nitrogen this with watery
Stone Meal 353

vapor forms in the presence of iron,-which is animals need for their sustenance ; but as had
present in all soils, becomes ammonia according been perceived that the nourishment which has
to the formula N2,H603,Fe2==N2H6,Fe203 (all been consumed, in so far as it has not been used in
iron- rust that is formed in the nightly dew out the new formation of lymphatic fluid and blood,
of metallic iron Fe203, contains ammonia, as being therefore superfluous, leaves the body
Eilard Mitscherlich has proved). The solidification through the digestive canal although chemically
of the cellular tissue arising from carbonic acid disintegrated and putrefied, nevertheless
and water will be best understood by comparing produces new vegetation when this material is
it with the process of the formation of hard soap brought on the fields and is mixed with earth;
by the combination of oil with soda, potassium, in China they col-lect with great care not only
lime or any other basic substance, as, e. g., oxide whatever has passed through the intestinal canal,
of lead, quicksilver or iron. Ammonia also forms but also the product of the bodily substance which
soap with oxidized oil, oleic acid. We can hardly is consumed by respiration, which is eliminated
find any better comparison by which to explain as the secretion of the kidneys and which also
the solidification of the atmospheric vapors gives an impulse to new growth.
(carbonic acid, water, nitrogen and oxygen) One or the other must take place. Either
in combination with earthy substances or in unexhausted new soil or the restoration of the
substitution for the latter with ammonia into nutrition consumed to the soil of the fields.
vegetable substance than on the one side this Where the latter has not been done, as by the
process of saponi-fication and ou the other hand first European settlers in America, the crops
the oil- substance which is the basis of soap. decreased and the settlers moved from the east
The production of oil substance consists in this further to the west, in order to gain enough
that combustible substances-(hydro-carbons) are cereals from the as yet unexhausted soil for
generated from burned-up substances (carbonic export to Europe. Now they have also come to
acid and water) and this charac-terizes in the see in America that they cannot continue thus, as
main the nature of the universal vegetation of there are no more domains without owners into
plants. A burning stearine candle is transformed which they can emigrate without let or hindrance.
into carbonic acid gas and watery vapor, but But how is it with us in Germany in this
these aeriform products, in combination with respect? After the soil would not yield any more,
earths, are again transmuted into combustible despite of deep plowing, the circle in-stituted
wood, sugar, starch and oil by the operation of in China was also put into practice. They had
the sun. Wherever new earth comes into activity, to see that the solid and liquid manure of the
as at the foot of mountains, there is found a domestic animals brought on the fields produced
vigorous growth of plants, especially when a a new growth, and the dung heaps began to be
sufficiency of carbonic acid clings to the rock as valued. By the aid of this dung the fields were
in the Jura regions. The road from Basel to Bie is kept fertile, al-though this was a mere makeshift.
very instructive in this respect. On the contrary, This makeshift has become a familiar one for
it is seen that in densely populated regions, e, g., several centuries, so that even in the times of
in China and Japan, after a cultivation of many our great-grandfathers the saying was in vogue:
thousands of years, the earth, exhausted of the u
Where there is no manure nothing will grow.”
material that forms cells, is of itself unwilling So eventually what was a mere makeshift has
to produce as many nutritive plants as men and become the regular rule. As a consequence of

on the natural order, but was only a makeshift.
When once the rule was established that the
artificial was normal we need not be surprised
that when the stable manure would no more
suffice some people recommended artificial manure.
As these people gave themselves great airs of
learning the well- educated, large land-owners
fell into their net, even more than the simple
peasants, and therewith the general retrocession
of agricultural produce in the level regions ‘was
for some time at least fixed and sealed.
It may easily be seen that oxen and cows,
no matter how high their cost, charged no
salary for producing their manure. It was
otherwise with the chemists and the dealers in
artificial manure. These not only demanded to
be nourished themselves, but also desired from
the gain produced by their business to educate
their children, to build their magazines, to pay
their traveling agents and to increase their-
capital. This business like all those which supply
necessaries proved so remunerative that one of
the greatest houses dealing in artificial manures
this traditional view the conclusion followed: In in a short time had made millions, which were
order to get a large quantity of manure we must paid them by the farmers without re-ceiving an
keep as many cattle as practicable. In this it was equivalent; for in spite of the most energetic
overlooked that the cattle would require again application of artificial manures the crops
as much acreage for their nutrition, and the steadily decreased. How could it be otherwise?
ground thus used could not be used to raise grain, Plants need potassium, soda, lime, magnesia,
so that in such an economy it was necessary to iron, manganese, sulphur, phosphorus and
work the fields for the sake of the cattle not for fluorine, and in the new artificial fertilizers they
the sake of the men. But finally the thoughtful only received expensive potassium, phosphoric
and book-keeping farmers had to come to the acid and nitrogen for their nourishment.
conclusion that the raising of cattle only pays The consequence of this showed itself first of
in mountainous districts, or in districts like the all in frequent bankruptcies of agriculturists. But
marshes of Holstein, which are kept fruitful by besides this, nitrogenous fertilizers in the form
the continual washing down of Geest-rocks. of Chili nitre have caused a predominance of
I can only summarize here. As above said, the cattle diseases. That hares and deer have been
dung heap had been recognized as the augmenter found dead in numbers in places which had been
of fertility, and dung heaps were, considered as fertilized with Chili nitre I have read in at least
the natural- condition, sine qua non, for the growth twenty newspapers, and it has also been reported
of crops, although this was by no means founded to me by eye-witnesses. As in the open air so
Stone Meal 355

also in the stables. No normal animal bodily and has never been contained in any artificial
substance can be formed from fodder fed with manure. But as we know from later investigations
nitrogen, especially no wholesome milk equal to that fluorine is regular^ found even in the white
that from cows feeding on mountain herbs. and yellow of bird’s eggs, we must acknowledge it
It is not to be computed how great an injury to is something essential to the organism. Chickens
health with men and animals has been caused by get this fluorine and the other earthy constituents
stable manure. Milk pro-duced from ammoniacal when they have a chance to pick up little slivers
plants paved the way by which the destructive of granite. Where this is denied them, as in a
spirit diphtheria has swooped down after measles, wooden hen house, they succumb to chicken
scarlatina, scrofula, pneumonia had become the cholera and chicken diphtheria.
familiar companions of the Germans, who betore We men are not as well off as the birds of
were strong as bears. Artificial manure at last the heavens. We must eat the soup prepared for
put the crown on this work of destruction. us by the dealers in artificial manures. Since
How could this happen? Very simply. Liebig these sell no fluorine our cereals suffer a lack in
was the first agricultural chemist. He found that fluorine, and as no normal bony substance can
the ashes which remained from grain mainly be formed without fluorine in the same degree as
consisted of phosphate of potassium. From this the number of dealers in fertilizers increased the
he concluded that phosphate of potassium must army of dentists and the erection of orthopedic
be restored to the soil, and that was very one- institutes increased ; but the latter were unable
sided. Liebig had forgotten to take the straw to re-move the curvature of the spine in our
into account, in which only small quantities of children. The enamel of the teeth needs fluorine,
phosphoric acid are found, because this substance the albumen and the yolk of the eggs require
during the process of maturing passes from the fluorine, the bones of the spine require fluorine,
stalk into the grain. If lie had not only calculated the pupil of the eye also needs fluorine. It is not
the seed hut also the roots and the stalks, he would by accident that Homoeopathy cures numerous
have found what we know at this day, that in the affections of the eye with fluoride of calcium.
whole plants there is as much lime and magnesia How rich, how strong and how healthy will
as potassium and soda, and that phosphoric acid we Germans be when we make our mountains
forms only the tenth part of the sum of these basic tributary to yield new soil from which new
constituents.- Unfortunately Liebig also was of wholesome cereals may be formed. We need then
the opinion that potassium and phosphoric acid no more send our savings to Russia, to Hungary,
has to be restored to the soil as such, while any to America, but will make our way through life
one might have^ concluded that instead of the by our strong elbows and with German courage,
exhausted soil we must supply earthy material and shall keep off our adversaries.
from which nothing has been .grown. Such The goal aimed at, of satisfying the hungry,
untouched earthy material of primitive strength and of preventing numerous maladies by
we get by pulverizing rocks in which potassium, restoring the natural condition for wholesome
soda, lime, magnesia, mauganese, and iron are plant growth, seems to me one of the highest
combined with silica, alumina, phosphoric acid, and the most noble. Even six cwt. of prepared
fluorine and sulphur. Among these substances stone-dust for the Prussian morgen (about 1/4
fluorine, which is found in all mica-minerals, has of hectare), or about 10 cwt. to the acre, will
been neglected by Liebig and by all his followers, give sufficient nourishment for a satisfactory

crop, if this amount is supplied every year. If been introduced there, and which, like the motto,
more is used, the yield may be so much the more has a conscientious adherent of mineral manure
increased. for its author.
I conclude these remarks, which were
introduced with a motto that adorned the exhibit Julius Hansel
Hermsdorf unterm Kynast
in Leipzig of the produce yielded by stone-dust,
by reproducing also the second rhyme which had
Art we love, but never can endure to

accept the artificial in manure.
“Wir lieben die Kunst, sollten jedoch niemals

den kunstlichen Dünger akzeptieren”.
Stone Meal 357

Contributions
from other
Sources
Farmers who practice organic agriculture notice

that, in order to know whether a process is
true, it is not necessary to know each one of
its steps. The validity of the general success
of organic agriculture is guaranteed by the
evidence the results provide, although
each one of the details is not known.
1. Stone-meal
By Herm. Fischer, M. D., Westend, Charlottenburg
From No. 1 of Pomologische Monatshefte, 1892, Edited by Friedrich Lucas,
Director of Pomological Institute in Reutlingen..
Not only those who like to eat fruit and vegetables, but much
more those who raise fruits and vegetables rejoice in the abundant
and savory produce of our gardens. To maintain this produce and, if
possible, to increase it is the endeavor of rational horticulture. This
end is striven for through careful cultivation, and more especially
by abundant manuring, especially with nitrogenous compounds. I
say this end is striven for, but it is not always reached. The long
continued labors of a well-known investigator, Julius Hensel, have
opened new prospects for agriculture, fruit raising and horticulture;
they show, in fact, how we can “turn stones into bread.” Hensel’s
book,“ Das Leben,” has lately appeared in a second edition. Every
thinking reader will find a high enjoyment in the study of this book.
For our present consideration I recommend especially Chapter
XXX., p. 476, “Agriculture and Forestry”. Lately a little work, by
the same author, has appeared on “Mineral Manure the Natural
Way for Solving the Social Question” published by the author at
Hermsdorf unterm Kynast, Silesia. The first part of the pamphlet is
devoted to the defensive, for like all pioneers our author meets with

violent opposition from the orthodox teachers of thick as a finger, some as thick as a thumb,
agriculture, whose cues and periwigs have come and up to eight feet high. The young fruit trees
into a great state of agitation. planted about three years ago are bearing very
After his defense the author passes to his the- well, and what is well to notice they are set,
me proper. Earth, air, water and sunlight must abundantly with buds for blossoming next year.
cooperate to produce a fruitful growth. We en- What is especially surprising is that I have found
trust our seeds to the earth. What is the “ear- no worms at all neither in ray raspberries nor
th?” The earth or soil is disintegrated primitive my early pears and apples; the winter apples
rock (gneiss, granite, porphyry). The soil of our also have so far not shown a single worm-
fields is continually being increased by the disin- eaten fruit. My vegetables I sowed in furrows,
tegration of primitive rocks, and from this there covering first with mineral manure and leveling
grow up grasses, herbs, shrubs and trees; without the furrow with earth. The plants I took out to
mineral constituents no plant can grow. Now, transplant have a mass of roots such as I have
when in level plains the upper layer of the soil never seen even in a manure bed. They, therefore,
through long cultivation has become exhausted were easily transplanted; none withered. I will
of certain necessary . mineral constituents new not mention my asparagus because the variety
rocky material ; must be provided, from which used (Horburger Riesenspargel) of itself brings
nothing has as yet been grown, which, therefore, great shoots. I have cut asparagus weighing six
still 1 contains all its strength ; this is not only to nine ounces; they were a foot long and their
the ; most natural, but also the simplest and at circumference at the middle of their length
the same time the cheapest way to increase and was four and one half inches; the taste of this
maintain the yield of our fields. This is not mere asparagus is excellent. I would especialty point
theory, thought out in the study; but experience to the quality, the most delicious savor of fruits,
and success have demonstrated it. etc., grown with this manure in contradistinction
With Hensel there is no more need for experi- to those grown with stable manure; this is also
ments, but merely of demonstration. shown in the pamphlet mentioned above. With
A firm in the Rheinish Palatinate has all these advantages mineral manure is even
produced a variety of fertilizers, according to his cheaper than all other artificial manures. “We
directions, out of pulverized rocks, such as are need no artificial manure if we supply that which
most suitable for the various plants. I will here we annually draw from the soil in form of fruits,
only mention fertilizers for vineyards, meadows etc., by means of fresh, unexhausted pulverized
and potato fields. Hundreds advocates affirm the granite, gneiss or porphyry as the genuine
favorable results of these_fertilizers. The rest strengthening and primitive fertilizer, mixed
should be read in the pamphlet itself. with gypsum and lime.”
Since the spring of 1890 I have used stone- How the fungus of the grape-vine, the Odium
meal manure in my garden, situated on our well- Tuckeri, is to be removed and how even the
known sandy soil, and am extraordinarily well phylloxera can be extirpated and, according to
pleased with the result. For example, I have Hensel’s statements, has been extirpated, may be
picked from a row of raspberry bushes about seen in “Das Leben p. 478.
twenty-three yards long, fifty quarts of the most The fallacy of the supposition hitherto held
delicious fruit, some of over one inch in length that all cultivated plants must have especially
and 3/4ths of an inch in diameter. The shoots nitrogenous food in order that they may prosper
of this year, which will bear next year, are as becomes more and more apparent.
Stone Meal 359

By experiments it has been indubitably proved, suffering and also the milk is not satisfactory for
and Hensel always asserted, that plants, and sucklings. In a still higher degree these injurious
especially the leafy, leguminous fodder plants forcing substances are found in artificial manures
(clover, vetches, etc.), can take up and elaborate and especially in Chili nitre, causing a rapid,
nitrogen through their leaves out of the air just as surprisingly luxurious growth; but when the fruit
the carbonic acid taken up from the air is worked or the seeds develop there is a manifest falling
up into hydrocarbons under the operation of light. off. Now, since every year millions of dollars are
All we need, therefore, is to furnish the soil with transferred from the pockets of the farmers into
‘the necessary mineral constituents. Mineral those of manufacturers of artificial manures, and
manure is the most profitable, most lasting and, of speculators and stock holders, this amounts to
what is not to be overlooked, an entirely odorless an impoverishment of the soil by parasites.
fertilizer. The true cure of an exhausted soil consists,
If I shall have succeeded in calling the according to Hensel, in supplying it with
attention of the reader to the glorious effects of comminuted rocks, especially granite, gneiss,
this manure the object of these lines is attained. porphyry and lime. Thereby the plants receive
When the use of this manure is then followed by again what they naturally demand. The Wegweiser
surprising results the beautiful fruits will, in the would here remark that the best proof of these
most literal sense, be my reward. views given on a great scale is thousands of years
old; i. e., the fertility of Egypt. The mud of the Nile
consists almost exclusively of finely comminuted
2. Fertilizing with stones rocks, with very, very few organic nitrogenous
constituents. But the flooded districts owe their
By Dr. Emil Schlegel, unexampled fertility to just this precipitated
Pract. Physician in Tübingen stone dust. Hensel writes at the end of his book:
From the Wegweiser zur Gesundheit, Sept.15, 1891 “Almost every field contains stones which have
This is a subject that does not immediately only been acted upon in part by the dissolving
concern the Wegweiser zur Gesundheit, but which moisture of the soil, and which therefore shows a
nevertheless on account of its far extended more or less rounded form. These stones, as they
importance may have the greatest effect on injure the spade or plow, are usually removed
the well-being and wealth of our people. The to the sides of the fields and there heaped up,
chemist, Julius Hensel, of whom we have several and are then sold at a cheap rate for use on the
times before this spoken in earlier numbers of highways. The farmer who acts thus sells his
the Wegweiser, and who is known to its readers birth-right, so to say, for less than a pottage of
by his genial book Das Leben, has lately published lentils, for he removes the source of fertility from
another work which deserves particular mention. his fields. If such stones are heated in the stove
He therein sets forth that the loss of soil in or on the hearth for half an hour and then thrown
mineral substances (lime, magnesia, etc.) is not into water they become so friable that they may
supplied entirely by animal manure, though this be broken into small pieces by the hands and may
produces a strong forcing of the plants, which easily be pulverized with a hammer.” It is to be
makes the leaves and the products weakly and wished that these developments of Hensel should
injurious, as this is said to have developed in the find a wide diffusion.
irrigated fields at Berlin, where the bones and
muscles of the animals fed on their produce are

The cultivation of sugar beets can be doubled
by stone-meal. This accomplishment would surely
be a great result from stone-meal. Also in West
Preussen I have established an experimental
station for the proper use of stone-meal on a
large estate near Braunsberg, belonging to a
Herr von Bestroff. This gentleman called on me
for this purpose also before this in Oranienburg.
I hope that this, my first tour in behalf of
stone-meal, has not been in vain, and I intend,
3. Letter to mr. schmitt God willing, to repeat these tours annually, so as
Oranienburg, Aug. 17, 1893. to benefit our great and important cause with all
Highly honored Sir: my strength. I am quite confident that stone-dust
I have just safely returned from my long tour combined in the proper way with lime will by its
for the stone-dust, having been away five weeks, practical success carry off the victory.
and I herewith give you a brief report, so that I shall do my best to carry out the stone-meal
you may also enjoy the victory which stone-dust experiments on the estates of Count Chamare in
has gained wherever it has been really put to a the most conscientious manner, and hope that
practical test. God’s blessing may rest on this my labor, which I
I have already written to you of the eminent, perform gladly for my country.
happy effects of stone-dust on the estates of Count
Chamare. I have been able to see its good effects Otto Schöenfeld
also in Upper Silesia, and have established there Director of the Agricultural and Forestry School
two more stations for the future, where normal
trials will be made. I saw exceedingly significant
results from stone-dust on the field of Chief
Bailiff Donner at Culmsee, in West Preussen; i. e.,
4. To the pomological
excellent wheat, sowed after barley and oats, society “heimgarten in
with only five cwt. of stone-dust to the acre; also btjelach.”
splendid rye in fourth succession on five cwt. of
stone-dust, and sugar beets following sugar beets “Heimgarten in Buelach.”- Switzerland
on merely six and a half cwt. to the acre, which Letter by Mr. K. Utermohlen, Teacher in Leinde
promise a very good yield. Here it was found that By means of the stone-meal manure of Hensel
the fields we shall soon surpass all similar undertakings
needed above all a good supply of lime, and (cooperative Pomological Association). If the
this lime was the best support to the happy tree has a sufficiency of this primitive substance
effects of the stone-dust. On this account the under its roots it is not only fruitful, but no more
cultivation of the field with stone meal demanded sensitive as to frost and diseases. Nor will it be
a simultaneous application of lime of sixteen to infested as much by insects, as it will be healthy,
thirty cwt. per acre. having a pure sap. With the usual treatment with
So great a quantity will not be used in one manure rich in nitrogen the trees are satiated to
year. For the stone-meal made according to repletion, and then it is with them as with men.
Hensel’s directions contains as much lime and Their fibres are relaxed, their sap is checked,
magnesia as the average crops call for.
Stone Meal 361
diseases developed, lice and other vermin infest as they are in error with respect to the nutrition
them, and then we have to sprinkle them with of plants, I refer especially to their silly theories
mixtures, cut out wounds, put on wax and pitch, about nitrogen. Who brings to the strong oaks of
etc. By well preparing the soil with this mineral- one hundred years growing on rocky soil, or to
manure we prevent all these troubles from the the other lovely children of mother earth out in
start, the trees become strong and hardened. It free nature, liquid or solid manure or sewerage?
is just as when parents bring up healthy children They grow and flourish and revel in their healthy
with solid food. They then have none of these growth just because they are spared all these.
troubles and cares encountered by parents who So it will be with our fruit trees when we shall
treat their children perversely. nourish them in natural manner. It is not a mere
For the last two years I have been making secondary question but a most fundamental one
various experiments with stone-meal manure, which is here involved. The question is whether we
and indeed with the different kinds. From shall in the treatment of our little trees follow the
my experience with it I have come to the firm perverted and worn out routine of the knowledge
conviction that we need no other manure at all but of the professors of our state with their theories
this. I wish I could speak ‘ with angels’ tongues of albumen or whether we will follow the wisdom
to make clear to you the great importance of our of nature. We have chosen for ourselves and
cause. It would carry me too far to speak of all our mode of living the latter course ; it is then
the various experiments. A radical reform in this surely proper to do the same with respect to our
direction will have to be made. If we give the trees plantations.
when they are first planted some of this manure If I only had a photographic apparatus I
between their roots, with good irrigation, they should like to send you a picture of some of our
will be twice as strong and vigorous as without it. standard trees and some of our half standards, so
We do not need any stable manure to loosen the that you could convince yourself with your own
ground, that is best effected by diligent hoeing eyes of the excellent effects of this wonderful
and digging. Where this should prove insufficient fertilizer. This is especially the case with a four
we call in peat moss to our aid, and this can be year old half standard to which I have specially
gotten cheap here. That is what I did here with applied this ‘manure’. Such a multitude of
my heavy garden soil, and then with the help of the finest russets! It would hardly be thought
stone-meal I have raised the finest vegetables, possible in a little tree of four years. And then
though the garden has seen no stable manure for you should see how this little fellow has increased
eight years. And then how pleasant and cleanly in thickness! His coat has almost become too
is this mineral manure when compared with the narrow for him. The apples ’ hang twice as thick
smell of solid and liquid stable manure. Then as in other years, and their flavor can hardly be
we should consider its great cheapness. Much recognized ; their aroma is really refreshing. The
can be done with 1 cwt. If we had always to use same I have perceived this year in our cherries
stable manure we would have to give out great and raspberries. When I come to see you I shall ‘
sums every year, and even then we could not get bring a whole selection of apples for trial. I well
a sufficient quantity. But there must be manure, manured a bed of several square yards of ground
for “ From nothing nothing comes,” as the saying and planted it with cucumbers.
is. In this trouble the mineral manure is our After gathering this summer a whole basket
best help. We cannot in this matter give any full I thought I had a remarkably good crop;
consideration to the authorities in horticulture, but now the bed is just as full again, although I

have picked some from time to time. The same is to “ unfair competition? ” The manufacturer
the case with the beans and onions which I have will be apt to consider every one as an “unfair
noticed particularly, as we can only plant flat- competitor” who threatens to diminish his
rooted vegetables between the trees. profits, and he will therefore insist, and a certain
We cannot sufficiently express our satisfaction plausibility cannot be denied to their demands,
that we have in this manner not only found a that the agricultural stations according to their
substitute for, but something far better than contract should in every case work for them.
stable manure. This enables us to explain the silence or the open
hostility of the agricultural trial stations as to
stone-meal manure. No intelligent man will on
5. The stone-meal this account consider this hostility of importance
or take too serious view of it.
of Dr. Hensel before the committee This opposition should even be of use to the
on fertilizers of the german cause, since no truth valuable in itself can be
agricultural society injured by the exercise of a criticism ever so
(From Dr. F. Schaper, in Nauen, taken from sharp, if this is done in a scientific manner. But
Osthavellaendisches Kreisblatt.:’) such an objective criticism has not been exercised
“Most of the members evidently knew on Hensel’s theory, but certain directors of trial
nothing about the mineral manure save through stations, instead of combating it in a scientific
the abuse of the well-known Professor Wagner, manner, have descended to gross abuse and have,
in Darmstadt. It is a sad state of affairs, but it therefore, been judicially punished.
is true, that these institutions, founded for the Mr. Sfiulz-Lupitz, the chairman of the
use of agriculture, cannot act freely, but have Committee on Fertilizers, objects to Mr. Hensel,
to .regard quite’ different groups of interest; in the session of 14 February of this year
i.e., those of the manufacturers of manure. (1893), that he is conducting his cause against
That their interests and those of the farmers acknowledged men of science in a rough manner,
are directly opposed to each other is manifest and that this could not be rebuked sufficiently—a
from this that farmers desire cheap fertilizers peculiar objection as coming from a man who, so
but the manufacturers of manure desire to keep far as the direction of the proceedings and the
them as high as possible in order that they may form of the resolution offered by him and finally
make the more money. Now the agricultural trial accepted go to show, has only a slight regard, for
stations receive part of their support from the the whitewashed politeness of Europe. He has, we
manufacturers of manures, as they are paid for are sorry to see, forgotten that Mr. Hensel was
their control analyses, experiments, etc. In order not the attacking party, but quite a different set
that they may not lose these contributions these of people, the close friends of Mr. Shulz-Lupitz,
institutions must avoid whatever runs counter and the aim of the proceedings was evidently to
to the interests of their employers. It is often get them out of the scrape into which their own
even stipulated in the contracts between the precipitation had brought them. The well known
manufacturers of fertilizers and the agricultural professor, Dr. Wagner’, in Darmstadt, director
trial stations that they should obligate themselves of the agricultural trial station there, in his edict
to protect these factories of artificial manures in the year 1889 had called the mineral manure
from unfair competition. a gross swindle and denied to it any value. This
But who is to decide who and what belongs edict had been published by Zimmer’s factory
Stone Meal 363

in Mannheim in innumerable pamphlets and in Wagner has escaped a probable judicial
journals as a supplement. Thus it came that in condemnation only by the fact that the complaint
far extended agricultural circles which only heard owing to an oversight fell under the statute of
of mineral manure through journals of Wagnerian limitation.
tendency, Mr. Hensel was accounted a charletan. We who are convinced of the value of Hensel’s
When a man like Mr. Hensel who thinks he has method of improving the soil look trustingly into
discovered something useful for agriculture is the future, with the conviction that ‘truth has
thus shamefully reviled, and in the end deals with always made its way if it only found courageous
his assailants in a somewhat doughty fashion, and intelligent champions.
who will account him reprehensible? Now Mr. I would, therefore, request all who have had
Sellulz-Lupitz in the proceedings con-tinues this any practical experience with the stone-meal
kind of polemics against Mr. Hensel. to publish their experiences for the good of the
The resolution passed declares in its first part: cause and of their fellowmen, and not to leave
“ Hensel’s stone-meal is from the standpoint the field to the sole occupancy of the opponents.
of practical and scientific knowledge to be The word of the single man easily dies away, the
designated a worthless fertilizing agent.” Just multitude only makes the full chorus, especially
the contrary is the truth. From the standpoint in our democratic times, and this chorus alone
of practical experience the stone-meal has shown can hush the short-sighted insolence and the self-
itself a valuable fertilizer; surely enough, the men interests which oppose the new discovery.
who had some practical experience in the manure
were not acknowledged by these gentlemen of the
manure division but they were presented by some
learned men of this assembly conscious of their
6. About stone-meal
infallible book learning, as men who could easily manure
be cheated, and who now also cheat others, thus (Land und Hauswirthschaftliche-Rundschau)
as cheating and cheated. No. II, 1893
“ These learned gentlemen seem to forget A short time ago we published an article ‘
that in practical life a grain of common sense on the experiments with the new stone-meal
outweighs a hundred weight of book learning, as fertilizer; we also gave space to an objective
the shepherd of the Abbot of St. Gall said long presentation as to the causes which make stone-
ago. meal suitable for a manure. The new fertilizer and
In the second part of its resolution the manure its discoverer have suffered severe infestations.
division rebukes the “impertinent bearing” of It may, therefore, interest our readers to see a
the “so-called chemist” Hensel with indignation report from our neighborhood as to some trials
and “expresses to Mr. Professor Wagner, made of it. We have received the following:
in Darmstadt, the thanks of the practical Sometime ago a burgomaster called our
agriculturists for his appropriate designation of attention to the splendid stand of grain manured
the stone-meal of Hensel. This latter gentleman with stone-meal on the “Stenheimer Hof,” on
had called it as above mentioned, a gross swindle. the estates of the Grand Duke of Luxemburg.
The manure division has cautiously avoided using A company of gentlemen who take an earnest
this expression. For this expression has caused interest in this matter (chemist, Dr. Ebel, teacher
the punishment of two editors who had copied the Eeisenkopf, and the landed proprietor, Loeil- lot
Wagnerian production and its author. Professor de Mars, from Wiesbaden; Director Spiet- hoff,

editor of the Pionier, from Berlin; Mr. Forke, of possesses the quality of vigorously nourishing the
Eltville, and Dr. Dietrich and Dr. Brockhnes, from plants and making them strong to resist frosts and drouth.
Oberwallauf) in a Whitsuntide excursion verified The above mentioned gentlemen will bear record
these statements beyond all expectations. In as to whether Hensel is really the “false prophet”
spite of the great drouth the rye on 18 acres of that he has been represented to be.
ground had stout stalks and long thick ears, and To Director Spiethoff this investigating
the tenant, Mr. Heil, told us that little more than committee’, in which he took part, was the more
5 cwt. to the acre, altogether 100 cwt., had been wished for, as the Pionier had first called attention
used. Just as luxuriant with dark green stalks to the scientist Hensel, and had also been the first
and leaves stood the oats, 5 acres, right by the to communicate last year the astonishing results
highway. This piece of ground had not had any in the Agricultural School of Oranienburg.
stable manure for many years, and had only
received 20 cwt. of stone-meal with an addition
of 6 cwt. of iron slag. The comparison with
neighboring fields which had been well cultivated
7. what help can be given
but differently manured, was very much in favor to the hard- pressed
of the manuring with stone-meal. Just as striking
as was the success of Mr. Forke on his rye, oats
farmers?
and clover, it was on his fruit trees and grape (Badischer Volksbote, July 1, 1893)
vines. We would only mention that a clover This question is the most important in our
field of which one half had been manured with national affliction of drought, and the lack of
stable manure and the other half with stone-meal pasturage connected therewith, that can occupy
showed a dense growth of clover on the latter any true friend of his country. And this question
half, while the former half showed many weeds is not answered by old party catchwords of
but hardly any clover. A cherry tree and a tree protective tariff and free trade and monopoly;
with Gravenstine apples, which for many years it will neither be solved in the Reichstag nor in
had yielded no fruit worth speaking of, this year, the local legislature, though legislation is also
after having been well supplied with stone-meal, in this matter an important factor. The farmer
are covered over and over with fruit. alone can decide here; in his hand lies the future
A neighboring farmer told him, on seeing his of our people. The matter at stake is the most
fine oats, “ Here we can see clearly how your valuable possession a people can have, their
manure acts ; it could not stand better if you had native land and soil. These are faring ill. Our
put on 60 cartloads of stable manure per acre, land is not only being more heavily encumbered
which would have cost $125.00 to $150.00 per with mortgages every , year, but is also losing
acre. some of its good qualities and fertility, and as
The condition of the grape-vines after repeated the debt in-creases the value decreases. This is
manuring with stone-meal was on comparison the most threatening complication we have to
with other grape-vines found to be excellent, meet. But there is no use in merely lamenting
but we shall return to particulars, as with the ijb, it must be improved and amended. And it
rye and oats, at the time of harvest. We invite can be improved if we will only open our eyes
the farmers of the neighborhood to make their and see and learn and act in accordance with
comparisons and to convince themselves of the that which we learn.
solid results of manuring with stone-meal. This We can improve the soil and make it fertile
Stone Meal 365

by using stone-meal as a fertilizer, as is shown We have received the following communication:
by the experience of many practi-cal farmers. “In No. 152 of your valued journal, among the
In the “Neues Mannheimer Volksblatt,” M. A. Heilig ‘Agricultural Communications,’’ is a short, but
publishes the following declaration : favorable notice, from the Manure-Division of
“The Landwirthschaftliche Blaetter,” by i the ‘German Agricultural Society,’ concerning
Mr. Councillor Nessler, in Karlsruhe, rejected stone-meal. With respect to this, permit me to
a few months ago Hensel’s method of mineral invite you and every one interested to examine
manuring. Whoever wants to convince himself the fields and vineyards of my friend Franz
how Hensel’s method acts in practice is invited Brodt- mann here, as also the rye fields of Mr.
to inspect my two and one-half acres of barley Heil, the tenant farmer at Hof-Steinheim, on the
near the Isolating Hospital. Despite of the estates of the Grand Duke of Luxemburg, which
unusual drought the barley has attained an had been manured with this material according
unusual height, and stands much fresher than to my directions, and they will be convinced that
the barley in other fields. After the harvest I contrary to these views stone-meal is a most
shall have the yield determined before witnesses important fertilizer of the very best quality,
to see the difference also in this respect. which when rightly used yields the best results.
When practical experiments show such Respectfully,
‘ results the farmer ought to give up his old
prejudices and try himself whether the new L. Forke
Eleville, June 4, 1893
method of manuring is not better than the old.
That the scientists and professors ignore the
new source of fertilizing need not astonish us,
on the contrary: “The professors are opposed 9. From the reinischer
to it, therefore it is good”, it may soon become
a proverb, for hitherto the professors have courier
always opposed everything good at its first June 29, 1893
appearance. We think Hensel’s method of Communication No. 175 of your morning edition
manuring will likely make agriculture again of June 26 contains an attack on stone-meal
profitable, and we shall recommend it even as a manure, and an exaltation of the present
if all shoud oppose us on this account. When method of manuring with potassa, nitrogen
at some future date, not too far removed, and phosphoric acid. I was for many years an
the German farmer and through him all the adherent of this latter method, but I have become
German people shall enjoy the blessings of convinced by experience and practical trials that
this improvement of the soil we shall yet these artificial manures serve indeed to force the
receive thanks that we helped to prepare the growth and may be used with effect for > several
path for this new good during its hard times. years, but that they do not restore to the soil what
we withdraw from it in cul-tivation. Therefore
the state of our soil unavoidably deteriorates
from year to year, and at last refuses its service.
8. From the “rheinischer Nobody can stand partridges every day, but lie
courier” can his daily bread, and so it is with all plants,
which not only need potassa, nitrogen and
Wiesbaden, june 6, 1893
phosphoric acid for their nourishment, but in

addition soda, lime, magnesia, sulphuric acid, fields manured with this material barley and
silicic acid, chlorine, iron, fluorine, carbonic acid, wheat, which must absolutely convince even the
etc. All these elements are found in many rocks in most skeptical of the usefulness of this manure.
greater or smaller quantities, and Hensel cannot First, not only are the stalks considerably higher
be sufficiently thanked that he has pointed out and stronger than those from fields manured with
to us farmers these inexhaustible supplies. When other material, but the ears are on the average
we return stone-meal to the soil we restore to it one-third longer and the grains considerably
all that was in the soil from the beginning, and more perfect.
that our early ancestors did well with the original Mr. Kircher has left in the editorial room of
material is manifest as stable manure has only the “N. M. V. ” several wheat ears and barley
been used for about two hundred years, and so ears from his fields to show the difference, also
called artificial manure only about fifty years. some from neighboring fields which have not
Of course we cannot force matters with stone- been manured with Hensel’s fertilizer. Whoever
meal; but if it is brought on the fields in autumn is interested in this matter, and every farmer
and plowed under we may count on success as should be so, may inspect the ears in our office.
may clearly be seen here and as I have already
stated in No. 155 of your much valued paper.
With all esteem for science, we farmers cannot
be contented with simply finding out how much
11. Iron slag
potash, nitrogen and phosphoric acid the artificial Koelnische Volfcszeitung, April, 1893,
fertilizers contain and how much every per cent, No. 234, First Sheet
thereof costs, we must rather strive to raise good The supplement of the Thueringer Landboten
crops on our fields with slight expense, without brings a noteworthy article by the practical
at the same time causing our soil to deteriorate farmer, A. Armstadt, under the heading: “The
by a one sided system of fertilizing, and this Future of the Iron Slag”. The author first
is certainly done when we only apply potassa, notes that iron slag has risen to be the most
nitrogen and phosphoric acid. generally used fertilizer containing phosphoric
acid only in consequence of an immense amount
L. Forke, Eleville of advertising, but now it seems to be about to
June 27, 1893. lose much of its reputation. Even the German
Agricultural Society will earnestly declare
against it in its next publication. “ I myself,”
says A. Armstadt, “have never been enabled to
feel any enthusiasm for iron slag in consequence
of my experiments with it, and I have frequently
on various occasions declared this, and it is a
10. From the “neues satisfaction to me that numerous reports are
mannheimer volksblatt” now appearing which confirm my observations.
First of all, the fact that people come to doubt
july 19, 1893 the theory of a gradual enrichment of the soil
That the much-abused stone-meal cannot be thereby will cause it to lose credit. Men of
without its excellent points the results in the fields science, as is well known, gave out the notion
best show. Mr. Kircher here has raised on various that the soil must gradually be enriched with
Stone Meal 367

phosphoric acid in order that rich crops may be ca into the leaves and stalks. ‘When agriculture
raised. Iron slag was said to be the most suitable hitherto built its theory of manuring on the ashy
for this purpose, not only because the phosphoric constituents of the seeds with their high contents
acid in it is cheapest, but also because phosphoric of phosphorus it did not consider that the whole
acid in this form would in time become more growing plant before the separating process y du-
soluble. But most farmers have waited probably ring ripening requires quite different proportions
in vain for the after effects. I myself have never of admixture than what may be derived from the
found any after effects. According to the latest seeds alone. A comparison of Hensel’s views on
experiments, it is not only probable but pretty this domain with the- question of human nutrition
well established that every enrichment of the soil rises very naturally. Exhausted men also are favo-
with phosphoric acid in mineral form is a waste, red with allowing them to eat heartily of the con-
for it passes into a form difficult of solution, so venient meat, with eggs and milk, all nutriments
that it cannot any longer be taken up by plants. fully prepared for assimilation. The consequence
Prof. Dr. Liebsclier (Goettingen) even found is an excitation and irritation of the whole or-
that with a manuring of 100 cwt. of iron slag to ganism, bad digestion, increased watery contents
three-fifths of an acre no after effects developed, of the body, perspiration, thirst, exhaustion from
though he waited for it for seven years. But the slight exertions, debility. A strong manuring with
copious applications of iron slag are founded on predominantly animal offal is for plants planted
this theory of enrichment only. in a soil deficient in certain minerals what a pre-
dominantly animal diet is for men. If we look at
men who live in the country almost altogether on
12. Newspaper Neues food difficult of assimilation, of bread, vegetables
and fruit, we observe a far more quiet bodily ac-
Mannheimer Volksblatt tivity, little perspiration, little thirst, great and
August 3, 1893 continuous muscular power. It is • similar with
plants when we offer them again their original
With a few potted plants or a small piece of
nutriments, direct them to the appropriation of
garden any one can make a trial of the value or
mineral constituents and give them organic ma-
worthlessness of Hensel’s teachings, and no more
nures or nitrogen only in small quantities and as
paper need be wasted in their justification. An
a secondary matter. In both cases the constitu-
increasing number of farmers are experimenting
tion will be more normal, freer from parasites
successfully with the new fertilizer and it will
(diseases). If we notice in agricultural journals
gradually but surely supersede the old. The old
the enormous expenditures for advertising arti-
manures supplied plants with too much forcing ma-
ficial manures it may be known what a gain the-
terial and too much phosphoric acid, a substance
se factories yield, and the mind grows sad at the
which surely causes plant-lice, caterpillars, snails
wealth withdrawn from German farmers, who
and the like. The stone- meal improves the nutri-
even without this are so hard pressed.
tion of the plants without forcing them, so that
while their growth is slower their leaves have a
Dr. E. Schelegel
lesser amount of water, the fruits and stalks a
Pract. Physician, Tuebingen
greater amount of lime and are more wholesome
and nourishing. As the fruits mature the phos-
phorus passes mostly into the seeds and the sili-

13. Newspaper field is the potato patch and it shows a most
luxurious growth ‘despite of the abnormal drought.
Wiensbadner General The above experience has brought me to the firm
Anzeiger, July 8, 1893 conviction that this fertilizer not only improves
For diminishing the distress as to fodder, we and augments the cultivated soil, but also keeps
do not need as the troubled farmer is advised it moist and therefore prevents the rapid drying
in another journal, to use artificial manure: up of plants enduring a drought.
superphosphate and Chili-nitre or superphosphate
of nitrate of potassium for the meadows; Bernth Wettengel
Horticultor
superphosphate of nitre with acid phosphate or Frankenthal, 1 July, 1893
with phosphate of lime for the cloverfields; fresh
stable manure and liquid manure, Chili-nitre,
superphosphate of potassium or superphosphate
of nitre for Indian corn for the horses, etc.
14. Moersch, near
The pen and compositors object to the twenty- frankenthal
fold repetition of the wonderful compounded Frankenthal, July 1, 1893
fertilizers. We recommend for the meadows, ashes
For two years I have used stone-meal manure
of every kind, and for the root fields, street dust,
with the greatest success, and especially this year,
and in general for the future, mineral manure,
despite the extraordinary drouth. The result has been
which is at the same time the best protection
magnificient; the barley showed a much larger
against drought and all the diseases of plants,
yield of grain than ever before; the potatoes
as it gives to plants the power of resistance and
were very fine and to our astonishment remained
which in turn is transferred to men and animals
untouched by the heavy frosts, though others that had
through their food. That the diminution of the
received stable manure suffered very severely. I
present and also of any future distress as to
was very much pleased with the effects on oats
fodder may be effected by mineral manure is
and clover. Quite astonishing also is the dark green, full
demonstrated by the following experience : For
leaved appearance of the sugar beets, notwithstanding the
five years I have been using stone- meal manure
great continuous drought. With the fruit trees where
in my garden and fields. The results always have
I especially applied the new fertilizer, I have
been satisfactory in every respect, for the soil
fully learned how extraordinarily it acts. I would
becomes better every year by using this manure.
therefore urgently recommend every farmer
Especially this year during the extraordinary
to adopt the new method. With the greatest
drought, the excellent effects of stone-meal fully
satisfaction I sign myself
manifested themselves. The flower as well as the
different vegetables developed so magnificently
Peter Heilmann
that every one who passed my garden stopped Agriculturist
and admired the great growth, especially of the
Kohlrabi. In the cabbage which I planted at the 15. The undersigned
beginning of April in my cow pasture, the rich farmers
crop is the more astonishing as it was not watered In order to determine the results of the new
during the whole of its growth, this field has method of fertilizing, the undersigned farmers
received for five years only stone-meal manure (no solid and friends of agriculture assembled on June 25,
or liquid stable manure); alongside of the cabbage
Stone Meal 369

1893, early in the morning at 7 o’clock sharp, surprising as it has not been watered during the
for a common inspection of the fields, and at this whole period of its growth.
occasion we inspected the following fields within The undersigned have taken part in this
the domain of Frankenthal : general inspection with the more interest, as they
Nearly all taking part in the inspection were are convinced that the violent dispute concerning
practical farmers, who are entirely familiar the new method of manuring can only be decided
with the local relations and quality of the fields, by practical success. This was the reason why
The result of the inspection may well be called they desired to determine the numerous results
astonishing. obtained b}7, a general local survey made in the
Though the summer has been abnormally dry, above mentioned way in a conscientous manner,
all the barley inspected was distinguished by its and they believe that they have thus ministered to
dark green appearance when compared with the common good.
other fields not fertilized with stone-meal. The
ears compared with the others contained more Biendersheim:
rows. In a number of them we counted forty grains P. Diehl; Edigheim: H. Jaeger, Jean Loosmann;
extraordinarily fine and well developed. The same Flowersheim: C. Garst, Ph. Schreiber; Frankenthal:
conditions existed with the rye. The potato fields J. Armbrust, Fr. Bendel; J. Fries, J. Fueschsle, K.
showed a surprising luxuriant stand. We must Gaschott, G. Kirchner ; C. Luehel, H. Mayel; J.
especially mention the full leaved dark green Mees, C. Moeller, C. Rupp, Ph. Senatz, D. Scherr,
appearance of the sugar-beets, which encourages Fr. Scheuermann, G. Wettengel, Jos Zimmermann;
us to look forward to a full development of the Friesenheim: Chr. Moersch, P. Heilmann; Oppau:
roots. With the cabbage the rich crop is the more W. Claus.

Names of fields Planted with Farmer
Mulilgewann Potato Carl Heilman, L.
New Gardens Barley Conrad Bender
Grosse Garkueche Barley Peter Huber
Grosse Garkueche Rye Adam Mack, L.
Rolirlache Barley Daniel Scherr
Kleiner Wald Barley Valt. Zimmeman
Kuliweide Potato and Kale Bernhard Wettengel
Schiesshaus Barley Schiesshaus
Aktiengesellschaft
Actien-Eiskeller Potato
Gartengewann auf der rechte
Clem. Wurmser
Hand der Wonnserstr Barley
Wilh. Schwarz
Hand der Wonnserstr Rye
Hand der Wonnserstr Barley Jah, Mees
Hen. Grueming
Erbbestand Barley
Gartengewann auf der linke
Hand der Wonnserstr Barley Phil. Schatz
Mittelgewann Barley Joh. Bender
Spiegelgewann Barley Valt.Zimmemann
Wingertsgewann Potato A. Gensheimer
Wingertsgewann Potato Jac. Armbrust
Neuweide Sugar Beetroot Pet. Diehl, Beindersheim
Neuweide Sugar Beetroot Conr. Peters
Pfaffengewann Barley J. L. Braunsberg, II
Pfaffengewann Potato Phil. Schatz
Stone Meal 371

Epitaph
“I had sinned against the wisdom of the Creator, and received my

righteous punishment.
I wished to improve His work, and in my blindness believed that,
in the marvellous chain of laws binding life on the earth’s surface and
keeping it always new, a link had been forgotten which I, weak powerless
worm, must supply.”
“The law, to which my research on the topsoil led me, states:
‘On the outer crust of the earth, under the influence of the sun,
organic life shall develop’.
And so, the great Master and Builder gave the fragments of the
earth the ability to attract and hold all these elements necessary to feed
plants and further serve animals, like a magnet attracts and holds iron
particles, so as no piece be lost.
Our Master enclosed a second law unto this one, through which the
plant bearing earth becomes an enormous cleansing apparatus for the
water.
Through this particular ability, the earth removes from the water all
substances harmful to humans and animals (all products of decay and
putrefaction, of perished plant and animal generations).”
Justus von Liebig

(1803/1873)
Remembering his life and work

Epilogue
By: Sebastião Pinheiro
The greatest sacrifice of whoever
stands up to power and the powerful is
undoubtedly having to remain lucid.
I
t was nearly 20 years ago when I participated in the 5th IFOAM
Congress in Witzenhausen, East Germany, as a guest at the
event. The coordinator himself, Professor Doctor Vogtman, as-
ked me to aid the great Zulu scientist, Mazibuko, who was elderly
and spoke no German. We stayed in adjoining rooms at the same
hotel where Lutzenberger, who was curious about my work, lodged.
The three of us thus teamed up. I was 30 years younger than the
other two, just a lad.
That gave me the privilege of attending and participating at
meals every morning and in private conversations with the two
great masters in the evenings. During the event, one spoke for Afri-
ca and the other for Latin America, and my task was to deliver
a paper on poison abuse by multinational corporations in Latin
America.
One evening there was a long conversation about the difficulties
the Zulus were having to get trees to grow well due to the demine-
ralisation of the soil in the apartheid-era South Africa. We reached
this book you have just read. We discussed the need to shine light
on the vision and use of stone meal (Stenmehl) described by Hensel,
that Mazibuko had not heard of.
Late that night, Professor Lutz told the tale of the meeting of
two planets that, due to their orbits, only saw each other every 26
million years. One asked the other, “So, how are things going my
friend?”. The reply came in a whining voice, “Not too well. I am
having a little problem. Man appeared ...”. “Not to worry!”, the
former reassured him, “It is an extremely fleeting phenomenon”.
Mazibuko laughed so hard he ended by saying, “Man, this is
wonderful!”
Stone Meal 373

We went beyond soil remineralisation, that we also emphasised in the book Agricultura ecológica e
had studied on visits to Austria and Switzerland, a mafia dos agrotóxicos no Brasil (Ecological agriculture
and that the Zulus also needed. We advanced in and the pesticide mafia in Brazil) (1993).
soil rejuvenation, considering trace elements and Later on, I increased my use of parts of
their repercussion on plant, animal and human the material provided by the students in East
health. Germany, and that is how the first versions
I decided to write a book on the subject and were recorded on cassettes and then on
that pleased them. diskettes and stencil duplicated, up to MB-4:
I was working with material I had brought Farinhas de Rocha, Trofobiose e Agricultura Ecológica
from East Germany, provided by African, Cuban (Stone Meal, Trophobiosis and Ecological Agriculture).
and Nicaraguan students. Among the material The name came about because the one of the
received, in that divided Germany, split by high authors produced a rock mixture that he sold as
walls, bars and electric fences, with a wide range “stone meal”, also having the resources for its
of weaponry, there lay a typewritten translation publication and free distribution.
in Spanish of Bread from Stones, prepared by Our present naturalists are convinced that
Cubans from the University of Leipzig, or in the relations between the animal, vegetable and
Poland I believe, that appeared while we were mineral kingdoms cannot be isolated in two or
participating in a seminar on the environment at three parts of a phenomenon. Life on the surface
Humboldt University, East Berlin. of the earth is linked together so no phenomenon
That night Lutzenberger was prophetic, “Most is specifically free-standing; it is always linked
probably, I shall not see the end of this wall, but to many others, and then even more are linked
the Germans are getting ready for it. Germany in, from beginning to end, in a succession of
is the country that churned up its guts most in phenomena, from the start, like a systemic wave
history. However, it needs a stomach-wash, as movement. We need to observe nature as a total,
Julius Hensel’s book is Liebig’s redemption”. dependent phenomenon, like the links in a chain,
I, who believed that the opposite was true, that forms part of a complex network.
was astonished and asked why.
He answered: “Liebig later publicly recognised
the errors of his reductionist approach, but
militarism did not allow the German governments Lutz and Mazibuko are no longer among us. They
to correct the course. For example: the lived to see the wall fall and, if we were to have
biodynamic practitioners were persecuted and greater identity, respect and pay attention to the
exiled and even their temple was burned down. works of Liebig and Julius Hensel, the second
What is happening in the world is that we are in part of that dream could already have happened
the dogmatic hands of military economists ...” from that time onward, for the common good of
When I returned to Brazil, I wrote Agropecuaria mankind.
sem veneno (Agriculture without Poison) (1985), in
which I mentioned the importance of stone meal,

Addenda
Addendum 1
Incomplete list of the
constituent elements of plants
Element Average amount in mg Element Average amount in mg

Oxygen - O 70.000 Copper - Cu 0,2
Carbon - C 18.000 Titanium - Ti 0,1
Hydrogen - H 10.000 Vanadium - V 0,1
Calcium - Ca 300 Boron- B 0,1
Potassium - K 300 Barium - Ba <0,1
Nitrogen - N 300 Strontium - Sr <0,1
Silicon - Si 150 Zirconium - Zr <0,1
Magnesium - Mg 70 Nickel - Ni 0,05
Phosphorous - P 70 Arsenic - As 0,03
Sulphur - S 50 Cobalt - Co 0,02
Aluminium - Al 20 Fluorine - F 0,01
Sodium - Na 20 Lithium - Li 0,01
Iron - Fe 20 Iodine - I 0,01
Chlorine - Cl 10 Lead - Pb <0,01
Manganese - Mn 1 Cadmium - Cd 0,001
Chromium - Cr 0,5 Cesium - Cs <0,001
Rubidium - Rb 0,5 Selenium - Se <0,0001
Zinc- Zn 0,3 Mercury - Hg <0,0001
Molybdenum - Mo 0,3 Radium - Ra <0,000.000.000.001
Source: A.P. Vinagradov, Russia. Taken from unpublished document.. “Food remineralisation notebook”, Pinheiro Sebastião.
Juquira Candiru Foundation. Porto Alegre. Rs. Brazil. 2002.
Stone Meal 375

Addendum 2
MB-4 stone meal composition

(result of analysis 2256/90) in mg/kg
Lithium Sodium Potassium

50 122.000 13.600
Li Na K
Aluminium Cesium Magnesium
96.000 <50 77.000
Al Cs Mg
Calcium Strontium Barium
39.000 200 420
Ca Sr Ba
Titanium Zirconium Chromium
3.900 800 1.100
Ti Zr Cr
Manganese Iron Cobalt
780 60.000 78
Mn Fe Co
Nickel Silver Copper
78 5 30
Ni Ag Cu
Rhenium Palladium Tin
5 30 5
Re Pd Sn
Lead Mercury Zinc
200 <0,001 120
Pb Hg Zn
Bismuth Selenium Phosphorus
5 <0,001 5000
Sb Se P
Arsenic Telurium Lanthanum
<1 Mg/Kg <1 220 mg/Kg
As Te La
Cerium Praseodymium Niobium
270 9 11
Ce Pr Nb
Samarium Europium Gadolinium
4 0,5 0,5
Sm Eu Gd
Terbium Yttrium Dysprosium
0,5 3 0,5
Tb Y Dy
Holmium Erbium Tantalum
0,5 0,5 12
Ho Er Ta
Ytterbium Lutetium Scandium
0,5 0,5 7
Yb Lu Sc
Platinum Indium Boron
<1 <1 1900
Pt In Br
Gallium Thulium
150 0,5 --------
Ga Tm
Source: Juquira Candiru Foundation. Sebastião Pinheiro. RS. Brazil

Addendum 3
Atomic absorption analysis of rock mineral available

to producers at low cost, that may be used to prepare
biofertilisers
Silicon (si) 59% Neodymium (Nd) 21 ppm

Iron (Fe) 6% Praseodymium (Pr) 20 ppm
Magnesium (Mg) 2.5% Gallium (Ga) 17 ppm
Sulphur (S) 2% Cadmium (Cd) 17 ppm
Potassium (K) 1.3% Scandium (Sc) 10 ppm
Sodium (Na) 1.2% Lead (Pb) 10 ppm
Phosphorus (P) 0.1% Molybdenum (Mo) 13 ppm
Calcium (Ca) 2.2% Arsenic (As) 6 ppm
Titanium (Ti) 0.5% Chromium (Cr) 8.6 ppm
Strontium (Sr) 0.16% Lithium (Li) 6.3 ppm
Barium (Ba) 0.1% Hafnium (Hf) 3.7 ppm
Copper (Cu) 327 ppm Cesium (Cs) 2.1 ppm
Vanadium (V) 156 ppm Gadolinium (Gd) 2.0 ppm
Zirconium (Zr) 144 ppm Holmium (Ho) 2.0 ppm
Manganese (Mn) 9 ppm Dysprosium (Dy) 1.9 ppm
Zinc 78 ppm Uranium (U) 1.8 ppm
Fluorine (F) 500 ppm Iodine (I) 1.7 ppm
Cerium (Ce) 68 ppm Selenium (Se) 1.6 ppm
Rubidium (Rb) 42 ppm Bromine (Br) 1.4 ppm
Chlorine (Cl) 40 ppm Europium (Eu) 1.1 ppm
Lanthanum (La) 33 ppm Tin (Sn) 0.1 ppm
Nickel (Ni) 30 ppm Boron (B) 10 ppm
Source: Xavier Lazo. AMBIO Foundation/ San José. Costa Rica. April 2002
Adapted by: Jairo Restrepo Rivera.
Stone Meal 377

Addendum 4
Average chemical composition of basalt and
granite, according to Wedephol (1967)
Elements Basalt Granite Elements Basalt Granite
SiO2 49,50% 72,97% Mn 1500 ppm 390 ppm
TiO2 2,10% 0,29% Cu 87 ppm 8 ppm
Al2O3 14,95% 13,80% Zn 105 ppm 39 ppm
Fe2O3 3,70% 0,82% B 5 ppm 10 ppm
FeO 8,70% 1,40% Mo 1,5 ppm 1,3 ppm
MnO 0,19% 0,06% Cr 220 ppm 4 ppm
MgO 6,80% 0,39% Co 48 ppm 1 ppm
CaO 9,60% 1,03% Ni 200 ppm 4,5 ppm
Na2O 2,85% 3,22% Sr 465 ppm 100 ppm
K2O 1,15% 5,30% Ba 330 ppm 840 ppm
P2O5 0,38% 0,16% Source: Wedepohl, K.H., 1967: Geochemie. In: BRINKMANN,
R (Hrsg.): Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Geologie, Bd. 3,548-606.
Verlag Ferdinand Enke, Stuttgart.
Addendum 5
Results obtained with rare earth element (REE)
based fertilisers
When REE fertilisers are used in agricultural • In soy, there is increased protein and oil
production: quantity.
• There is an increase of 6% to 15% in gra- • In cotton, resistance, quantity and fibre
in production, including rice, wheat, peanuts length is increased.
and soy. • Finally, plants are more resistant to high
• Fruit and vegetable crop increase ranges temperatures and drought.
from 5% to 26%. • In animals, the index of young that survive in-
• Crops of fruit, beetroot and sugarcane show a creases, weight increases, greater advantage
1% to 5% increase in sugar quantity. is taken of concentrates and, in sheep, wool
• Increased vitamin C quantity is noted in fruit. production is more abundant.

Some benefits obtained from soil remineralisation
Addendum 6
with stone meal

1. Gradual input of important crop mineral 7. Soil erosion control based on the best
nutrients (macro and micronutrients) development the plants grown and increased
2. Increased availability of those nutrients in the organic matter in the soil
cultivated soil 8. Increased nutritional reserve in the soil
3. Increased production 9. Increased plant resistance to insect action,
4. Rebalancing soil pH disease, drought and freezing, due to
5. Increased microorganism and earthworm stimulation of their nutritional state
activity 10. Elimination of dependence on fertilisers and
6. Increased quantity and quality of humus poisons, production of which requires high
energy consumption
Addendum 7
Seed treatment with rare earth element (REE)
based stone meal
Element Symbol
Lanthanum La
Cerium Ce
Praseoymium Pr Application of fertilisers with rare earth
Neodymium Nd elements in agriculture was developed in
Promethium Pm China. In 1997 alone, 5 million tonnes of
Samarium Sm fertilisers with REE were consumed. That
Europium Eu amount was used to treat 6.68 hectares of
Gadolinium Gd cropland.
Terbium Tb
Dysprosium Dy
Holmium Ho
Erbium Er
Thulium Tm
Ytterbium Yb
Lutetium Lu
Stone Meal 379

Addendum 8
Mineral mixes prepared from stone meal, to nourish,
prevent and stimulate bioprotection to control advancing
crop disease
Comprehensive meal from milled rocks prepa- peculiarities and the result of photosynthesis, but
red using saltpetre, guano, oysters, phosphorite, also the intensity of growth of their root system,
apatite, granite, basalt, micaxist, serpentinite, structure, aeration, humidity and soil reactions,
zeolite, carbonatite, etc., were the basis of the first content in nutritional substances, shapes and
fertilisers used in agriculture and represent the correlations between the mineral elements in the
essential mineral elements for plant nutritional earth itself, the activity of the edaphic microflora
balance through the soil. Serpentinite, micaxist and root segregations or exudates.
and basalt, for example, are high quality rocks Likewise, use of biological or biotechnological
to prepare stone meal, rich in more than 70 ele- fermentation techniques allows us to easily
ments required for food and to maintain a healthy prepare and carry out foliar application of
nutritional balance for plants, poultry and other mineral stone meal to correct nutritional
animals, among which we emphasise the following imbalances that cause insect attacks and crop
elements: silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, mag- diseases, a practice that thus eliminates use of
nesium, sodium, potassium, manganese, copper, highly soluble fertilisers and pesticides that
cobalt, zinc, phosphorus and sulphur. poison and kill farmers
On the other hand, balanced root plant
nutrition not only depends on their biological
Stone meal coated seeds.

Formula to prepare stone meal based bioferment to nourish,
prevent and stimulate bioprotection to control advancing crop
disease
Fresh cow dung 50 kilos
Cane molasses or sugar 8 kilos
Milk or whey 16 litres
Water 150 litres
Ground serpentinite rock 3 kilos
Ground micaxist rock 3 kilos
Bone meal 3 kilos
Preparation:
The fermentation system is aerobic and it is prepared as follows:
Day Procedure
Dissolve 50 kilos of fresh dung, 2 kilos of molasses, 2 litres of milk (or

1 4 litres of whey) and 60 litres of water in a 200 litre plastic drum. Stir
until obtaining a homogeneous mix, leave to rest and wait for 3 days.
Add 2 kilos of molasses to the plastic drum, 2 litres of milk (or

4 litres of whey), 1 kilo of ground serpentinite rock, 1 kilo of ground
4 micaxist rock, 1 kilo of bone meal, add 30 litres of water to the drum.
Stir till obtaining a homogeneous mix, leave to rest and wait 3 days.
Add 2 kilos of molasses to the plastic drum, 2 litres of milk (or

4 litres of whey) 1 kilo of ground serpentinite rock, 1 kilo of ground mi-
7 caxist rock, 1 kilo of bone meal and add 30 litres of water to the drum;
stir until obtaining a homogeneous mix, leave to rest and wait 3 days.
Add the last two kilos of molasses to the plastic drum, the last two litres
of milk (or 4 litres of whey), the last kilo of ground serpentinite rock,
1 kilo of ground micaxist rock, 1 kilo of bone meal, and add the last
30 litres of water to the drum. Stir till obtaining a homogeneous mix.
10 In hot climates, leave to rest for 10 to 15 days; in cooler climates, the
preparation takes 20 to 25 days to become ready. During the days the
mix is fermenting, it should be stirred at least once a day. Remember
the plastic drum does not need to be fully sealed, as the fermentation is
aerobic.
Stone Meal 381

Hammer mecanical mill. Zacatecas, México
Addendum 9
How should stone meal bioferment be

used on crops?
Its use is recommended for all crops in a proportion that varies between 1% and 2%,
that is, 1 to 2 litres of the preparation per 100 litres of water. It is easy for farmers
who have a 20 litre backpack sprayer or pump. The recommendation is from ¼ litre to
½ litre per pumping.
Technical observation
In the event of not obtaining 6 kilos of ground rocks (3 kilos of serpentinite + 3 kilos of
micaxist or other stone meal) to prepare the bioferment, these may be replaced by 6 kilos of
the following mineral salts.
Minerals Quantity
Borax 1710 grams
Copper sulphate 342 grams
Iron sulphate 120 grams
Manganese sulphate 198 grams
Sodium molybdate 120 grams
Cobalt chloride 90 grams
Total 6000 grams
These six kilos (6000 grams) substitute the stone meal and must be placed in the
plastic drum in partial amounts of two kilos every 3 days, according to the procedure
stated above.

1st step (first day)
1) Dung . . . . 50 kilos
Water. . . . . . . 60 litres
2) Milk. . . . . . . 2 litres
3) Molasses. . . . . . 2 kilos
4) Mix homogeneously and
leave to rest for 3 days
2nd step (fourth day)

1) Bone meal. . . . 1 kilo
2) Milk. . . . . . . . . . . . 2 litres
3) Water. . . . . . . . . . . . 30 litres
4) Molasses. . . . . . . . . . . 2 kilos
5) Ground rock. . . . . . . 2 kilos
(1 kg serpentinite + 1 kg of micaxist)
6) Mix homogeneously and leave to rest
for 3 days
3rd step (seventh day)

Repeat the procedure in the second step.
4th step (tenth day)

Repeat the procedure in the second step.
Finally, leave the mix to ferment for 10 to 15 days, to then

use it according to the recommendations.
Stone Meal 383

Biofertiliser made from granite powder for coffee bushes and fruit trees
(Aerobic or anaerobic fermentation system)
Water (untreated) 140 litres • 1 plastic 200 litre drum
Fresh cow dung 50 kilos
FIRST STAGE
Molasses (or sugarcane juice) 4 (8) litres

• 1 plastic 100 litre drum
Milk (or whey) 8 (16) litres
Granite powder 6 kilos
• 1 plastic 10 litre bucket
MIX FOR APPLICATION:
SECOND STAGE
Biofertiliser prepared in 5 litres

the 1st stage • 1 stick to stir the mixture
Water 100 litres
How to prepare the first stage:

Day Procedure
Dissolve the 50 kilos of fresh cow dung, 1 litre of molasses (or 2 litres of
sugarcane juice) and 2 litres of milk (or 4 litres of whey) in 35 litres of
1 clean water in a 200 litre plastic drum; stir until obtaining a homogeneous
mix. Cover the drum and leave to rest in a place protected from the sun
and rain.
Mix 2 kilos of GRANITE DUST in a bucket with 10 litres of water, add
1 litre of molasses (or 2 litres of sugarcane juice) and 2 litres of milk
4 (or 4 litres of whey). Stir very well and add to the 200 litre drum. Stir
everything until obtaining a homogeneous mix. Cover the drum and leave
to rest in a place protected from the sun and rain.
Mix 2 kilos of GRANITE DUST in a bucket with 10 litres of water, add
1 litre of molasses (or 2 litres of sugarcane juice) and 2 litres of milk
7 (or 4 litres of whey). Stir very well and add to the 200 litre drum. Stir
everything until obtaining a homogeneous mix. Cover the drum and leave
to rest in a place protected from the sun and rain.
Mix 2 kilos of GRANITE DUST in a bucket with 10 litres of water, add 1
litre of molasses (or 2 litres of sugarcane juice) and 2 litres of milk (or 4
litres of whey). Stir very well and add to the 200 litre drum. Stir everything
10
until obtaining a homogeneous mix. Top up the volume with water up to
140 litres. Cover the drum and leave to rest in a place protected from the
sun and rain for another 21 days, after which it will be ready to apply.
How to prepare the second stage (mixture for application):

Dissolve 5 litres of strained biofertiliser in 100 litres of water, using the plastic
100 litre drum. Stir the mixture properly. Immediately apply to the coffee bushes
and fruit trees.

Addendum 10
Experiences and some recommendations to work
with stone meal application
The present success of stone meal application Thus, just as any industry designs planned
in agriculture mainly ranges from mineral obsolescence into the objects it advertises
regeneration of the soil to preparing organic and sells, as is the case with home appliances,
fertilisers and foliar biofertilisers for crops. That fashion garments, toys, electronic gadgets,
is what has led us to record the results that have among others, the same is true in the agriculture
been obtained from application to minerally and pharmaceutical sectors, where food is
degraded earth, undernourished plants and manipulated in order to cause some disease
diseased human populations. (human or animal failure). The appalling quality
The constant increase in chronic and of agro-food lies in the food not containing,
degenerative diseases, both in human beings or having lost the natural biological energy or
as well as in animals, is directly related to the value during the industrial process, or they are
type of processed, demineralised food placed on systematically demineralised intentionally; in
the market for consumption. The present day order to cause weak development of a healthy,
food offer by the agro-food and pharmaceutical strong and mentally healthy body.
industries is perversely programmed to cause
disease and to dominate large populations through The most recent study carried
their stomach. Industrially manipulated food of out by the European College of
the worst quality is offered, from production to Neuropsychopharmacology affirms that 38%
transformation for consumption. of the population of Europe - 164 million
people - suffers from some kind of mental
health disorder. It is the greatest research
Some populations, in spite of
into mental health carried out on that
feeling their stomach full for an
continent, with data from thirty countries
instant, are totally undernourished in the European Union. The study involved
and mentally weak, due to the 514 million people of all age groups and
dreadful quality of the bulk analysed issues such as depression,
they use to fill their stomach, anxiety, insomnia, dementia and substance
to stave off the mental hunger abuse. One of the outstanding findings
they suffer. is that women have double the risk of
suffering depression, while men are much
more likely to develop alcoholism. Scientists
The food the market offers, both for human
affirm that many of these disorders are
beings as well as for animals, creates a never-
not being treated, concluding that early
ending cycle of dependency that is extremely
diagnosis and treatment of mental illnesses
profitable for the mega-corporations of the
are decisive to improve patient health, as
agro-food and pharmaceutical sector. These are
this is becoming a much greater burden for
the perfect combination for mental domination
society than any other disease group.
of populations and to produce generations of
mortally stricken sleepwalkers.
Stone Meal 385

The most sensible thing would not be to Stone meal may be applied directly to the
treat the symptoms based on early diagnosis, earth, as well as be used to prepare different
but again, the research described above leads types of organic fertilisers that are required
to increased capital expenditure on the allo- for mineral regeneration of soil exhausted by
pathic pharmaceutical sector, that makes its industrial agriculture. However, the practice of
profits from its investment in scheduled disea- adding stone meal to flats in vegetable and fruit
se of the population at large. tree greenhouses is becoming increasingly more
Our streets have now become a sort of mas- widespread.
sive hospitals where the patients rush about The quantities or volumes of stone meal most
at high speed, as there are no inhabitants are frequently used by peasant farmers and rural
disease free, or not at risk of acquiring one. growers in Latin America are:
There is a sole diagnosis: the quality of the For mineral regeneration of earth brutally
food ingested does not satisfy the true needs exhausted by the industrial agriculture model.
of the stomach, in order for the brain to work To commence their rejuvenation, it is being
in a healthy manner, in a body strengthened applied directly to the ground at a rate of 4 to
with a great amount of energy and vigour. 6 tonnes per hectare, repeating the application
after two or three years; but with a dosage that
may be reduced to half the initial dose, or up
to a third, that is, 2 to 3 tonnes per hectare
may be applied. Any other decision regarding
the volumes one wishes to handle per area used
Mineral imbalance is for crops or under regeneration will depend on
a basic requisite for disease proper monitoring and detailed follow-up of the
to take hold and progress results directly in the field.
pathologically in a live being. Amounts between 10% and up to 20%
of stone meal are being used to prepare the
mixtures of bocashi type fermented organic
fertilisers; however, when there is the possibility
of using multiple mixtures of stone meal, then
the amount to be used may be lower.
From 15% to 25% of stone meal may be used
The ideal or most adequate recommendation to prepare substrate type fermented organic
for use of stone meal or rock dust on crops does fertiliser; which shall be used for seed beds or
not exist. There are a series of experiences that germination in vegetable flats in greenhouses,
are taking place with great success in different in proportion to the quantity of organic fertiliser
countries in Latin America where that work one wishes to prepare.
advances with priority. When preparing substrate type fermented
The following account is that of a series of organic fertiliser for use in greenhouses, for
experiences that are being achieved by applying final fruit and forestry tree conditioning in
mineral dust to some crops and in fertilisers. On burlap, 20% stone meal may be used; the calibre
the other hand, some ideas are provided in most or mesh may be larger to facilitate drainage of
ample terms, as a reference to use of such stone the excess humidity that sometimes arises in
meal on farming estates. greenhouses where this activity is carried out.

In intensive fattening husbandry systems needs a predetermined nutrition; for exam-
with cattle, laying hen and chicken fattening ple, dung enhanced with phosphate or po-
coops, rabbit and quail pens and equine stables, tassium based rocks may be collected, or in
among other animal breeding systems, it is also some highly punctual cases, the dung collec-
necessary and recommendable to treat the floor ted may also be treated with some sulphate
of the premises with a stone meal application, meal, among other characteristics.
in order to maximise advantage taken of the • Stone meal helps to conserve the good quality
quality dung deposited on the facility floor, of the dung collected, in some cases where
for subsequent collection to use in preparing this must be stored for some time, while some
fermented organic fertilisers. application is found for it.
On the other hand, stone meal treatment of all • The end quality of the fertilisers manufactu-
husbandry facilities is performed were intensive red with dung previously treated and collected
animal breeding or fattening takes place, with by stone meal application is unsurpassable by
the following advantages, among others: any kind of fertiliser from the agrochemical
• It eliminates sources of disease due to good industry of highly soluble monofertilisers. On
humidity control, mainly that the dung conta- the other hand, when remineralised organic
ins. fertilisers are applied to land to produce or-
• Lowers the stress the animals suffer, mainly ganic food, abundant excellent quality crops
due to the ambient ammonia gas concentra- may be considered within a short time.
tion on the premises. • Finally, stone meal applications may also
• Maximises dung collection with a good qua- be used in the different facilities (abattoirs,
lity of humidity, that is later mainly assigned refrigeration chambers, slaughter or pro-
to prepare fermented organic fertilisers. cessing yards) where different types of ani-
• Eliminates sources of reproduction of many mals are slaughtered, such as cows, hens and
pathogenic insects, mainly flies, that are the pigs, among others. In Latin America, the
main vectors in disease transmission between majority of such companies feature a lack of
animals. knowledge of how to adequately handle the
• Decreases waste of the large volumes of wa- waste generated there. For example, such fa-
ter used mainly for hygiene or washing out cilities may be prepared well to prepare both
the premises; in some cases, it is possible to solid fertilisers as well as biofertilisers using
totally eliminate water in cleaning them. the waste from the rumial content, blood, hair
• The dung collection system becomes more and feathers, among other materials that are
aerobic, facilitating more appropriate collec- cast off and become an environmental pollu-
tion of the materials to manufacture organic tant, mainly of the water supply, that is nor-
fertiliser. mally very close to such facilities.
• Dung collection with stone meal treatment
may be specialised to for a specific crop that
Stone Meal 387

Stone meal application On hay crops or grazing pasture: After each
There are various ways to apply stone meal to cut or grazing rotation, ranchers may apply sto-
earth or crops, experience with which leads us to ne meal alternately and gradually, with dosages
make the following recommendations: that may range from half to one tonne per hecta-
re each year or two. The intensity will depend on
observing how the crops react and on other or-
On the soil: It may be applied before sowing, ganic agriculture practices that we will systema-
which is ideal as the stone meal enters the ear- tically begin to include in the growing systems,
th gradually as it is being prepared. No ideal or such as applying biofertiliser, organic fertiliser,
most recommended volume for application to the mineral mixtures, phosphites, etc.
ground exists as there are several factors that
may influence that decision; among which we
point out access, both physical as well as finan- On cover crops or green manure: In the case
cial, to the material, the composition or mine- of green manure, where working by cutting the
ralogical richness of the meal, the possibility to biomass to spread it directly on top, or turned
manage to acquire a mix follow different rocks slightly into the ground; before cutting it, stone
and check the granulometric quality. However, meal may be applied in order to make the advan-
good results are being obtained from applica- tage taken more efficient by integration with the
tions that may vary from 2 to 4 tonnes per hec- green manure.
tare, with intervals that may vary from two to
three years after the first application.
When the land is sown with permanent crops, Coating seeds: cAny seed one wishes to store,
temporary ones, or has cover crop treatment, as well as to plant immediately, may be coated
there are diverse options for stone meal applica- with a film of stone meal. On the other hand, in
tion. For example: order to reinforce their protection and strengthen
the mineral availability of some specific mineral
elements for future crops, tone meal may be mi-
On permanent or perennial crops: Stone meal xed with some sulphates and phosphites. The do-
application may be carried out when the crops ses may range from 250 grams to one kilo of tho-
or orchards of avocados, man-gos, citrus trees, se elements per 100 kilos of seeds for treatment.
etc., are machine mown to cut the cover crop on Once the seeds are treated with some sulphates,
the ground, in order to prepare them for crops or they may not be reused or taken advantage of for
perform clearing maintenance and phytosanitary animal or human food.
pruning of the crops. On the other hand, many Stone meal calibre of different grades and mi-
farmers take advantage of the pruned tree cut- xes is ideal, that being a practice that abides by
tings, shredding them to till into the soil with a the principle of geoevolution of the minerals in
stone meal mixture. forming soils, as the foundation of life on earth

Tomato growing with remineralised compost. Production of 85 tonnes/hectare.
Consultant: Jesús Ignacio Simón Zamora. Mexico.
did not begin with a homogeneous system in re- Note

lation to the size of the mineral particles at the Do not forget: stone meal application is not an
different depths of the earth’s crust, as the sum isolated practice within the principles of organic
of all the horizons that formed resulted in a pro- agriculture, as the combination of many tools such as
file that is more than 6,000 kilometres thick, to handling organic, matter, multiple cover crops on the
“turn it into fertile soil”. earth, crop combination and rotation, application of
biofertilisers and mineral mixes, among many other
instruments, must be considered in order to commence
the path toward a more integral, systematic, human
organic agriculture; which is learned from observation
and harmony with the miraculous phenomena in
nature, and not from the whims ad arrogance of
agronomists and academics.
Stone Meal 389

Addendum 11
Results of crops treated with stone meal, organic matter

and microorganisms*
Rancho Promesa. Tamaulipas, ticide applications every three or four days.

México (2008-2009) Aggravated by use of methyl bromide every
year.
Crop: Jalapeño pepper, 70 hectares.
- Results: Stone meal use allowed them to cea-
- Fertilisation: Stone meal, phosphate rock, hu-
se pesticide use and strengthened the plants.
mus and cane juice. Microorganisms were
Control was only carried out with organic and
applied to the earth. Humus and cane juice
biological preparations.
was applied in all cases, also adding one ton-
- Production: 72 tonnes per hectare from fifth
ne of stone meal and phosphate rock per hec-
crop harvested.
tare.
- Costs: 32% reduction in fertiliser and foliar
- Background: Crops treated with chemical fer-
application expenses compared with the costs
tilisers and poisons . Highly degraded and
of the previous crop.
contaminated soil. Persistence of insects and
diseases, with pesticide applications every
Crop: Ground tomato (saladet), 60 hectares.
three or four days.
- Fertilisation: Stone meal (2 tonnes) and com-
post (6 tonnes) per hectare. Microorganisms
were also used in fermentation.
- Background: Highly deteriorated ground con-
ditions, highly contaminated with poisons and
- Production: 80 tonnes of pepper per hectare
with an organic matter content under 1%.
from sixth harvest.
- Costs: 30% reduction in total fertilisation
expenses compared with expenses of the pre-
vious crop.
- Production: 4,500 boxes (90 tonnes) of toma-
Crop: Serrano pepper, 70 hectares.
to.
- Fertilisation: High phosphate content stone
- Costs: Production expense reduction of 29%
meal, cane juice and microorganisms (Tri-
compared with the previous year 2007-2008.
choderma, Azospirillum, Bacillus subtilis and
ción del 29% respecto al año anterior 2007-
Megaterium).
2008.
- Background: Crops treated with chemical
fertilisers and pesticides. Highly degraded
and contaminated soil. Persistence of insects *Source: Gaia, Asesoría Integral Ambiental, Jesús Ignacio Simón Za-
(high nematode count) and diseases, with pes- mora, Uruapan, Michoacán, Mexico

Piedras Negras. Coahuila,
México (2008-009)
Crop: Onion, 120 hectares.
- Fertilisation: Stone meal, one tonne per hectare
and strip compost on the furrow, three tonnes
per hectare.
- Background: Semi-desert soil, low in organic
matter (0.2%) and poison use.
- Production: 65 tonnes per hectare.
- Costs: 25% lower than conventional.
Rancho Zaragoza. Tamaulipas,

Jiménez. Chihuahua,
México (2008-2009)
México (2008-2009)
Crop: Jalapeño pepper, 75 hectares.
Crop: Pecan hickory, 20 hectare trial.
- Fertilisation: Stone meal, 2 tonnes per hec- - Fertilisation: A trial was set up on a 20 hecta-
tare; compost, 4 tonnes per hectare. Mi- re plot on a ranch consisting of 1,200 hecta-
croorganisms were also used in fermenta- res of walnut trees. 100 kilos of compost plus
tion. 20 kilos of stone meal were applied per 20
- Background: Very degraded soil conditions year old tree.
and high nematode and scarab grub count, - Results: The trial conclusion obtained in Ja-
with an organic matter content under 1%. nuary 2009, during the harvest, provided the
- Results: Stone meal use allowed them to following data:
cease pesticide use and strengthened the • greater bearing branch growth
plants. Control was only carried out with • greater quantity of walnuts per branch
organic and biological preparations. • larger nut size
- Production: 72 tonnes per hectare • better nut development
- Costs: Reduction of 35% in total costs com-
pared with the previous year.
Coahuila, Mexico. Melon
region of Paila (semi-desert)
Remark
Crop: Cantaloupe melon, 40 hectares.
Water melon was sown on this soil on - Background: Poor, deteriorated soil.
the residual organic fertilisation of the chile
- Fertilisation: 4 tonnes of compost and 2 tonnes
peppers and 80 tonnes of water melon per
hectare were obtained, with a 40% cost
of stone meal per hectare.
reduction in the overall crop production. - Production: 35 tonnes of melon per hectare
(compared with 25 tonnes of conventional
crop).
- Results: Insect and disease reduction.
Stone Meal 391

Coahuila and Durango, Mexico,
Lagoon Region: Ejido, 6th January:
2009
Crop: Forage alfalfa: New crop (first year,
harvested every 28 days).
- Conventional crop: First harvest, 65 bales of
alfalfa (28 kilos each bale).
- Crop with organic management: First harvest,
75 bales of alfalfa (28 kilos each bale).
- Conventional crop: Second harvest, 75 bales
of alfalfa (28 kilos each bale).
- Crop with organic management: Second
harvest, 96 bales of alfalfa (28 kilos each
bale).
Michoacán, Mexico, fruit growing

region
Crop: Hass avocado, 200 hectares.
Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico. Potato - Fertilisation: Compost, dung and biofertilisers.
growing region. - Fertilisation: The following is recommended
for each avocado tree:
Crop: Potato, 25 hectares (under evaluation: with
• 100 kilos of compost
central pivot irrigation over 100 hectares,
• 15 to 20 kilos of stone meal
with 25 hectares for the trial).
• An average of 5 litres of biofertiliser
- Fertilisation: 6 tonnes of compost and 2 tonnes • 50 to 70 litres of fermented product
of stone meal. - Results: The average avocado yield without any
- Remarks in August 2009: Average conventional alternative management was 5 tonnes per
potato size from medium to small. The hectare, compared with 12 to 15 tonnes in
organic potato had better vigour and filled conventional crops.
better, with average sizes from large to When stone meal was applied to the unma-
medium. naged crops, the yield increased from 9 to 14
- Results: The average conventional potato crop tonnes per hectare and plant vigour recovered,
production in the area with input package is reducing pest pressure.
25 tonnes per hectare.
With the organic system management (com-
post and stone meal), the production was 29
tonnes per hectare. In some cultivated areas, the
input savings were 10% to 25%.

Durango, Gómez Palacio: Xicotencatl, Tamaulipas, Mexico
Cotton crop, 2009 Owner: Gregorio Osuna
- Conventional crop: 4.2 tonnes of cotton per Rancho La Unión
hectare. Crop: Sugarcane. Total area: 33 ha.
- Crop with organic treatment and stone meal Area treated: 22 ha.
application: 4.7 tonnes per hectare. With - Production: Production doubled.
25% input savings.
Stone Meal 393

Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
Owner: Rancho Santa Marta,
2011-2012
Crop: Pennisetum, 20 hectares.
- Production: 400 tonnes per hectare per an-
num.
- Treatment: Cow dung based biofertilisers.
- Climate: Dry steppe.
San Luis Potosí, Mexico

Owner: Arnulfo Arechiga
Villafaña
Crop: Organic saladet tomato. Climbing and
ground. 25 hectares.
- Owner: Rancho El Huizache, Municipality of
Matehuala, San Luis Potosi.
- Treatment: remineralised compost, biofertili-
sers, mineral mixes and biological control.
- Yield: 85 ton/ha. Cost 40% less than conven-
tional, July 2011.
- Consultant: Jesús Ignacio Simón Zamora
Juan Adolfo Rubio, organic walnut producer.
(Nacho).
Rancho Aranueces, Sonora, Mexico.
Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico

González, Tamaulipas, Mexico
Owner: Campo Aranueces Costa de
Owner: Joaquín Boldrige Hermosillo, 2011-2012
Rancho Peñitas Crop: Walnut, 80 hectares.
Crop: Serrano pepper. Area treated: 7 ha. - Fertilisation: Biofertilisers, stone meal, com-
- Production: 70 tonnes per hectare. post and leonardite.
- Management: double row drip irrigation on - Results: Conventional crop: 2000 kg/ha, or-
beds. ganic crop: 3100 kg/ha.
- Treatment: Four tonnes of biomineralised - Production costs: 40% lower with organic
compost were applied to each hectare. management.
- Nut strain: Wichita and Wester.

In Brazil, organic agriculture and stone meal results are not taking long when growing
rice from African origins. This year (2009), there ware at least twenty 10 hectare
plots experiencing the highest yields in the southern area of the country. A granite and
basalt stone meal mix is used with a quantity of three tonnes per hectare per annum,
complemented by application of biofertiliser and African doll type mycorrhizae. The
productivity exceeds 8,000 kilos per hectare. An ironic fact: United Nations, through the
FAO, publishes and supports and international programme in which they misname this
rice “weedy rice”.
To defend life and protect the environment are two

basic conditions closely linked to survival of any
species in nature. When those two conditions cease
to interact peacefully and harmoniously, pathology,
decadence immediately set in, ending in death. That
is the insanity through which the human species
blindly stumbles.
Stone Meal 395

Addendum 12
What is JUQUIRA CANDIRÚ Satyagraha?
JUQUIRA CANDIRÚ Satyagraha is virtual;

it has no statutes, rules or hierarchies.
Everyone who wishes may participate in it,
regardless of their religious creed, race, ideology
or knowledge.
One of its insignias is the cane toad of many
eyes, or “muiraquitá”, on “fields sown with mai-
ze”, surrounded by the “Jabotí turtle leg”.
The history of the Kayabi tells that an Indian
woman sent her son to till the earth for planting.
To help him and so the crop would germinate bet-
ter, she disguised herself as an agouti and hid
in a cave. While preparing the plot, the son set
fire to the forest and the agouti, his mother, was
burned to death.
A plant sprouted in the place where she died,
that produced a large amount of grain, all very
close together: maize. To remember its origin, The cane toad represents the announcement
when maize is heated up, it turns into a beautiful of good tidings and luck; that many eyed toad
white flower. is the call to be alert to the risks and dangers of
We consider the field sown with maize to be simplistic innovations, and the Jabotí turtle leg
the strength of change. reminds us walk safely.

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PRACTICAL MANUAL

Jairo Restrepo Rivera

Coordinator: Carlos Pons

6 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

10 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

GRAPH I. Curve of growth, life and death

EARTH ORGANIC WORLD

12 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

Minerals, organic matter and

The micro-organisms are who bring

14 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

Approximate Individuals per

Micro-organisms in the soil

Plant roots 20.000 a 90.000

Little does it know about amoeba as regulators in the microbial world. It

Fertilisation by the living

16 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

TABLE 3. Distribution of the mass of micro-organisms in the soil

Grupos Tipos Biomasa

Earth microbiology may be defined as the study of the natural organisms

18 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

Bocashi type fermented organic fertiliser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Mass reproduction of native forest micro-organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

22 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

Doing things is undoubtedly very good, but

For example, the good final quality of an organic fertiliser or

It is also very important for the animals used as a source of dung to

Fermented organic fertilisers 23

24 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

Only he who dares to experiment achieves

Fermented organic fertilisers 25

Process to prepare the fermented organic fertiliser

26 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

tage of increasing the area for microbiolo-

to compact which favours development of an

Fermented organic fertilisers 27

no sole recipe or formula to prepare the fer-

28 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

Ingredients and their main functions

Fermented organic fertilisers 29

30 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

Fermented organic fertilisers 31

32 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

Fermented organic fertilisers 33

Plain soil Calcium carbonate

acid, along with organic matter. On some occasions,

34 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

Recommendations Premises or site

Fermented organic fertilisers 35

as possible, or bogging down the premises where Tools

36 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

Basic ingredients to prepare bocashi2 type

2. The term bocashi, from the Japanese language, means fermenting

Fermented organic fertilisers 37

Ingredients to prepare a sample of basic

Ingredients to prepare fermented fertiliser

38 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal

Ingredients to prepare de 68 quintals3 or sacks of bocashi

3. A quintal (hundredweight) is a typical unit of volume in

Fermented organic fertilisers 39

Ingredients to prepare de 14 quintals or sacks of fermented

Ingredients to prepare de 30 quintals or sacks of fer-

40 The ABC of organic agriculture, phosphites and stone meal