‫عاليه السويلم‬

‫﴿ ال أبرح حتى أبلغ ﴾‬

‫‪phisyology‬‬
(Boyle’s law): During inspiration increase in the volume of the lungs and a decrease in
interalveolar pressure from 760 to 759mmHg.

active process (inspiration): contraction of diaphragm needs energy

passive process (Expiration) passive recoil of diaphragm not need energy.

MUSCLES OF INSPIRATION:

downward the diaphragm(increase depth) & External intercostal muscles contract(ribcage

elevation) sternum moves forward away from spine.

MUSCLES OF EXPIRATION

passive recoil of diaphragm(decrease depth) & Internal intercostal muscles contract (ribcage
depression) sternum moves towards the spine.

expiration at rest needs only? diaphragm.

In a healthy person: the radius of the conducting system?? is large Therefore the resistance (R)
remains low Thus the pressure gradient is normally the primary factor determining the air flow
rate

Bronchoconstriction:

1- Pathological, allergy due to histamine

2- Physical; edema, mucus &collapse
3- Physiological, ↓CO2 & parasympathetic

Bronchodilation:

1- Pathological, none
2- Physiological: ↑ CO2 &
neural (sympathetic Hormonal), epinephrine Chemical,

COPD characterized by increased airway resistance:

Bronchial asthma (Airway obstruction) due to? 1.Allergic spasm 2.edema of bronchial walls by
histamine and inflammation 3.excess secretion of thick mucus

Chronic bronchitis (Inflammatory condition of? lower airways) triggered(cuz) by?? Frequent
exposure to cigarette smoke, polluted air and allergens

Emphysema (Collapse of? small airways and breakdown of? alveolar walls) Due to release of
enzyme trypsin from alveolar macrophages or  production of 1 – antitrypsin
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): A group of lung diseases characterized by?
increased airway resistance Resulting from the narrowing of the lumen of the lower airways

What happen When airway resistance increases?? a larger pressure gradient must be
established why? to maintain normal airflow rate

RADIUS RESISTANCE
Chronic bronchitis

Asthma allergy

sympathetic stimulation

sympathomimetic drugs

parasympathetic stimulation

exercise

increased CO2 levels

Elastic recoil : rebounding of lungs after having been stretched

Compliance: Refers to how much effort is required to stretch or distend the lungs

Compliance &elastic recoil of lungs depend on 1-Elastic tissue 2-Alveolar surface tension

Elastic tissue: decreased in case of? fibrotic Lung diseases, eg. tuberculosis.

Alveolar surface tension increas in case of? Decreased surfactant production

CO2+Hb = carbamino-hemoglobin

O2+HB= oxyhemoglobin

CO+Hb=carboxyhemoglobin with Hb
 hypoxia
Hypoxic hypoxia  arterial PO2
Causes 1: Exposure to High altitude 2. Respiratory malfunction Malfunctioning
of respiratory center •Problem in respiratory muscles •Problem in lungs or
airways

Anemic hypoxia O2 carrying capacity of the blood But arterial PO2 is normal.
Causes:  Circulating number of red blood cells,  Hb in the red blood cells
Circulatory problem in the circulatory system Due to which little less oxygenated
hypoxia blood reaches the cells. Circulatory hypoxia But arterial PO2 is normal
Examples •Congestive heart failure •Circulatory shock •atherosclerosis
Histotoxic Cells are unable to use O2 But arterial PO2 is normal Examples • Cyanide
hypoxia poisoning

Hyperoxia:  arterial PO2 due to breathing of supplemental O2 The total blood content of O2?
doesn’t change much as Hb is fully saturated with O2

High PO2 may? damage brain and retina‫ شبكيه‬Therefore O2 therapy should be used carefully H

Respiratory Centers have:

• Dorsal Respiratory Group: Inspiratory Neurons

• Ventral Respiratory Group: forceful expiration

-Basic rhythm of breathing is generated by? respiratory center in the medulla.

-(respiratory center) provide output to? the respiratory muscles by phrenic nerve

-the normal resting breathing rate? ( 12-15 breaths per minute ).

-Ventral respiratory group (VRG) neurons: Consists of inspiratory & expiratory neurons Both of
which remain inactive during? normal quiet breathing and active during?demands for
ventilation are increased (over ventilation)

VRG respiratory neurons are stimulated by? DRG respiratory neurons

The signals which  ventilation?  PCO2  H  PO2

These factors operate through? Chemoreceptors

Chemical factors regulate the activity of the respiratory centers and the rhythm of breathing.
PCO2, PO2, H+

Chemoreceptors

Central: Located in the medulla in the vicinity(near) of the respiratory center

Peripheral: Known as carotid bodies and aortic bodies located at the bifurcation of the common
carotid arteries and in the arch of aorta
PO2 mediates its effects on respiration through? peripheral chemoreceptors

peripheral chemoreceptors Respond(are stimulated) only when the arterial PO2 is?  60 mm Hg

 arterial PCO2 what will happen:  ventilation to? eliminate excess CO2

 arterial PCO2 what will happen:  ventilation to? accumulate reduced CO2

H+ produced by? metabolic acids is sensed by? peripheral chemoreceptors It is not sensed by
central chemoreceptors why? because it does not penetrate Brain Barrier

H Blood stimulates breathing by? stimulating the Peripheral chemoreceptors

EFFECTS OF IN MINUTE- TO- MINUTE BREATHING

The dominant factor in minute –to- minute is the? arterial PCO2 .

What is the strongest stimulus for increasing rate and depth of ventilation? increase in PCO2
Whenever there is ‫ كلما كان‬increase in the depth and rate of respiration….it will lead to?
increased PO2 and decreased PCO2.