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Respiratory Failure
• Primary cause
– Airway obstruction in the unconscious
patient
– Acute severe asthma
– Acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease
– Pneumonia
– Pulmonary embolism
– Cardiogenic pulmonary edema
– Acute respiratory distress syndrome
– Poisoning with psychotropic drugs or alcohol
Common causes ….
• Contributory factors
– Aspiration of secretions or gastric contents
– Respiratory muscle fatigue
– Severe obesity
– Chest wall abnormality, e.g. kyphoscoliosis
– Large pleural effusion
– Pneumothorax
– Sedative drugs: benzodiazepines, opioids
Potential causes of Respiratory Failure
HYPOXEMIC RF (TYPE 1)
• PaO2 <60mmHg with normal or ↓ PaCO2
normal or high pH
(Type
• PaCO2 >50 mmHg II)
• Hypoxemia is common
• Acute
– Arterial pH is low
– Causes
- sedative drug over dose
- acute muscle weakness such as myasthenia gravis
- severe lung disease: alveolar ventilation can not be
maintained (i.e. Asthma or pneumonia)
• Acute on chronic:
– This occurs in patients with chronic CO2 retention who
worsen and have rising CO2 and low pH.
– Mechanism: respiratory muscle fatigue
Causes of Hypercapnic RF
• Respiratory centre (medulla) dysfunction
• Drug over dose, CVA, tumor, hypothyroidism, central
hypoventilation
• Neuromuscular disease: Guillain-Barre, Myasthenia
Gravis, polio, spinal injuries
• Chest wall/Pleural diseases: kyphoscoliosis,
pneumothorax, massive pleural effusion
• Upper airways obstruction: Tumor, FB, laryngeal
edema
• Peripheral airway disorder: Asthma, COPD
Respitory failure
Types
Type 1 Type 2
• Hypoxemic RF • Hypercapnic RF
• PaO2 < 60 mmHg with • PaCO2 > 50 mmHg
normal or ↓ PaCO2. • Hypoxemia is
• Associated with acute common
diseases of the lungs. • Drug overdose,
• Pulmonary edema neuromuscular
(Cardiogenic, disease, chest wall
noncardiogenic (ARDS), deformity, COPD, and
pneumonia, pulmonary Bronchial asthma.
hemorrhage, and • Obesity
collapse.) hypoventilation
syndrome
• Parenchymal disease
• Kyphoscoliosis
• Hypoxic environments
Respiratory failure
Acute RF Chronic RF
• Develops over minutes • Develops over days
to hours • ↑ in HCO3
• ↓ pH quickly to <7.2 • ↓ pH slightly
• Polycythemia,
• Example; Pneumonia Corpulmonale
• Example; COPD
Pathophysiologic causes of Acute
Respiratory Failure
●Hypoventilation
●V/P mismatch
●Shunt
●Diffusion abnormality
Pathophysiologic ….
1 - Hypoventilation
• Less common
• Due to
– abnormality of the alveolar
membrane
– ↓ the number of the alveoli
• Causes
– ARDS
– Fibrotic lung disease
COMMON PRESENTATIONS
Respiratory failure
• Clinical features of acute respiratory failure
– Respiratory distress (dyspnea, tachypnea, ability
to speak only in short sentences or single words,
agitation, sweating)
– Respiratory rate <8 or >30/min
– Accessory muscles of breathing active
– Feeble respiratory efforts, silent chest
– Tremor, asterisk
– Cyanosis
– Agitation, confusion
– Reduced LOC, coma
– Bradycardia or hypotension
Clinical and Laboratory Manifestation
(non-specific and unreliable)
• Cyanosis
- bluish color of mucous membranes/skin
indicate hypoxemia
- unoxygenated hemoglobin 50 mg/L
- not a sensitive indicator
• Dyspnea
– secondary to hypercapnia and hypoxemia
• Paradoxical breathing
• Confusion, somnolence and coma
• Convulsions
Clinical & Laboratory Manifestations
• Circulatory changes
– tachycardia, hypertension, hypotension
• Polycythemia
– Chronic hypoxemia - erythropoietin synthesis
• Pulmonary hypertension
• Ventilation
• Cardiac Output
Ventilation-Perfusion (V/Q)
Mismatch
• Phenomenon where either perfusion or
ventilation to an area of lung decreases;
results in diminished gas exchange,
hypoxemia, and hypercapnia