1.2.

PROPOSITIONS

Logic gives us rules in determining whether an argument is valid or not. The classical
Aristotlean Logic gives these rules by means of principles and methods that are used to
appraise the correctness of reasoning. This was dealt with already by the mentioned
mathematicians expressing verbal arguments or statements in mathematical symbols known as
symbolic logic.

The first thing that we should learn is how to symbolize statements. We should only deal with
statements that are either true or false. These statements should be declarative in form, and not
just expressions of command, inquiry or surprise. These statements are called propositions or
assertions. Thus the statement: “I studied for the test.” is a proposition whereas the command
“Study for the test.” is not. Note that propositions can be verified to be true or false, but the
command does not have any truth value.

Proposition – a statement which is either true or false but not both

Consider the following sentences and tell whether these are propositions or not:

1. Jamie was here.

2. An isosceles triangle is a triangle with at least two equal sides.
3. 4+3=8
4. 2x = 10
5. Happy Birthday!
6. When pandemic is over.

Statements 1, 2 and 3 are all propositions since they express a complete thought and you
can easily tell whether the statement is true or false. Statement 5 is just an expression of
greetings and 6 is incomplete. Both 5 and 6 are not propositions since they are vague, don’t
express a complete thought, and you really cannot tell what they mean and so not sure whether
they are true or false. Statement 4 is likewise not a proposition since you need to specify first
the value of x to tell whether it is true or false. It can only be treated as a proposition whenever
there will be assumed value of x like in the example: If 2x =10, then x = 5, where the assumption
that x is a specific real number is either explicitly or implicitly stated.

Propositional Variable

A propositional variable or a statement variable represented by a lowercase letter in the

English Alphabet denotes an arbitrary proposition with an unspecified truth value. The most
usual statement variables that are used in a particular discussion starts with p, q, r, s, t … An
assertion that contains at least one propositional variable is called a propositional form.
Usually a propositional form appears as a sequence of symbols containing propositional
variables and logical operators. These logical operators are used to combine propositions
constructing new ones.

SEMA 30053 (SET THEORY AND LOGIC) | Prepared by: Prof RJM Atienza & Prof RCT Alignay 1
 A propositional constant or a statement constant, represented by an uppercase letter in
the English Alphabet denotes an actual proposition used in particular. It represents an actual
given statement. Note that the definitions of statement variables and statement constants
follows just the same concept as variables and constants in algebra.

The proposition “If Jena studies well on her exams, then she will have good grades” is
combining the propositions: “Jena studies well on her exams”, and “She have good grades”. It
shows that if-then is a logical operator. In symbols, this maybe written as: “If J then G”, where J
stands for the first proposition and G for the second. J and G here are statement constants,
since they represent actual statements. Note that any letter is applicable; you can have it P and
Q if you choose but usually, they are represented by the first letter of the keyword of the
involved propositions. This new proposition appears to be a more complicated expression than
the simple proposition Jena studies well on her exams or she have good grades, hence it is
called a compound proposition.

By concept, compound propositions may be obtained from simpler propositions with

the use of logical operators most of which are connectives.

The following logical operators can be used to construct compound propositions:

Symbol Logical Operator / Connective Translation

Negation (~) not p, it is not the case that p, it is false
that p, it is not true that p, etc.
Conjunction (  ) p and q, p moreover q, p although q, p still
q, p furthermore q, p nevertheless q, p
however q, p also q, p yet q, p but q, etc.
Disjunction (  ) p or q, p unless q, etc.
Material Implication (  ) p implies q, If p then q, p is a sufficient
condition for q, p only if q, q is a
necessary condition for p, q if p, q follows
from p, q provided p, q whenever p, q is a
logical consequence of p.
Material Equivalence (  ) p if and only if q, p is equivalent to q, p is
necessary and sufficient condition for q.

Propositional statements can be converted to propositional forms using any chosen letter.
Likewise, propositional forms can also be translated using chosen propositional statements.

Illustration: The compound proposition form:

[ ( )]

in terms of statement variables (since the symbols used are small letters) can be translated as:
“It is not true that I only get infected with the virus if only if I have a personal contact with the
infected person and I use his personal belongings”. This is one of the many possible
translations of the given proposition form, since statement variables can represent many
different statements / propositions.

SEMA 30053 (SET THEORY AND LOGIC) | Prepared by: Prof RJM Atienza & Prof RCT Alignay 2
 Using statement constants, we can represent I for the simple statement “I only get infected
with the virus”, P for “I have a personal contact with the infected person”, and U for “I use his
personal belongings”. Translating it in terms of the connectives involved for each keyword, we
have:

[ ( )]

Test Your Understanding:

A. Tell whether each of the following statements is a proposition or not.

1. I love the sunset!

2. Lance is eating ice cream.
3. Live by faith and not by sight.
4. They are doing their best.
5.
6. 3 + 5 = 10
7. Math is fun.
8. Great love and great achievements both include great risks.
9. She doesn’t love you.
10. If you had my love, would you come to me?

B. Convert the following propositional forms into propositional statements by representing

each statement variable by any statement that you wish.

1.
2. ( )
3.
4. [ ( )]
5. ( )

SEMA 30053 (SET THEORY AND LOGIC) | Prepared by: Prof RJM Atienza & Prof RCT Alignay 3