1.2.

TRUTH TABLES OF LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

As discussed, compound statements or propositions are made by combining simpler

propositions using logical operators or connectives. This section discusses in detail each logical
operator and the rules that apply to them by means of truth tables.

A. Negation (~𝐩)

The proposition not p represented by ~p is called negation of p. For instance, the negation
of the statement, A vaccine is already available is “It is not true that a vaccine is already
available” or “The vaccine is not yet available”, and in symbol: ~V.

The rule for negation is given by the following truth table (T stands for TRUE and F stands
for FALSE):

p ~𝒑
T F
F T

The table shows that if the proposition P is true then its negation is false and if P is false then
its negation is true.

B. Conjunction (𝐩⋀𝒒)

Proposition p and q denoted by p⋀𝑞 is called conjuction of p and q. The proposition p and
the proposition q are called conjuncts. Other words that can be used in place of “and” are
moreover, although, still, furthermore, also, nevertheless, however, yet, but, etc. A comma or a
semicolon between two statements may also stand for “and”.

The rule for conjunction is given by:

p q 𝒑⋀𝒒

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

It is important to note that the conjunction of p and q is TRUE if both p and q are TRUE,
otherwise it is FALSE.

SEMA 30053 (SET THEORY AND LOGIC) | Prepared by: Prof RJM Atienza & Prof RCT Alignay 1
C. Disjunction (𝐩 ∨ 𝒒)

The proposition p or q denoted by p ∨ 𝑞 is called disjunction of p and q. The proposition p

and the proposition q are called disjuncts. p or q can be replaced by p unless q. The rule for
disjunction is given by:

p q 𝒑⋀𝒒

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

Notice that the proposition p ∨ 𝑞 is TRUE when at least one of the propositions p or q is
TRUE. It is FALSE when both p and q are FALSE.

D. Material Implication (𝐩 → 𝒒)

The proposition p implies q denoted by p → 𝑞 is called an implication or a conditional

statement. p is called the antecedent, premise or hypothesis whereas q is called the
conclusion or consequent. Other ways of expressing “p implies q” are: If p then q, p is a
sufficient condition for q, p only if q, q is a necessary condition for p, q if p, q follows from p, q
provided p, q whenever p, q is a logical consequence of p. The rule for implication is given by:

p q 𝒑→𝒒

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

Observe that 𝒑 → 𝒒 is FALSE only when the consequent is FALSE, and it is TRUE for the
rest. Let us verify this rule by considering the promise “If you graduated with honors, then I will
give you expensive jewelries”, the possible situations out of this promise are:

a. You graduated with honors and then I give you expensive jewelries.
b. You graduated with honors but then I didn’t give you expensive jewelries
c. You didn’t graduate with honors but then I give you expensive jewelries just the same.
d. You didn’t graduate with honors and then I didn’t give you expensive jewelries.

From which of the situation is the promise broken?

SEMA 30053 (SET THEORY AND LOGIC) | Prepared by: Prof RJM Atienza & Prof RCT Alignay 2
 The promise is broken in situation b where the premise is satisfied but the conclusion of the
statement is not fulfilled. Hence, It is a verification of the truth table since only when the
conclusion is false when the premise is true, will the implication become false too.

E. Material Equivalence (𝐩 ↔ 𝐪)

The proposition p if and only if q or sometimes written as “p iff q” denoted by 𝐩 ↔ 𝒒 is called

the material equivalence or biconditional of two propositions p and q. This can also be
expressed as p is equivalent to q, p is necessary and sufficient condition for q. Note that the
biconditional statement puts together the implications 𝐩 → 𝐪 and 𝐪 → 𝐩 in one statement 𝐩 ↔ 𝒒.
Thus the material equivalence can also be written in propositional form (𝐩 → 𝐪)⋀(𝐩 → 𝐪 )

If we restate the example given earlier into: “I give you expensive jewelries if and only if you
graduate with honors”, given again four possible situations a,b,c d, this time under biconditional
statement, when is the promise broken?
Your answer should be consistent with the truth table of material equivalence or biconditional
given:
p q 𝒑↔𝒒

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

The material equivalence or biconditional of two propositions is TRUE when these two
propositions are TRUE or both FALSE.

The truth value of a propositional form can be shown through a truth table. If a propositional
form has n propositional variables as components, then its corresponding truth has 2n number of
rows. This is true since one propositional variable has only two possible truth values. Thus n
propositional variables has 2 (2)(2)(2)… = 2n possible combinations of truth values.

Example 1: Generate the truth table of the proposition: ~(𝐐 ∨ 𝑹)

Since 2 variables are involved we should construct 2n = 22 = 4 rows:

Start with listing the possible combinations of TRUE and FALSE for Q and R then
identify the truth values of the logical operators involved starting with what’s in the
parenthesis.

SEMA 30053 (SET THEORY AND LOGIC) | Prepared by: Prof RJM Atienza & Prof RCT Alignay 3
 Q R 𝐐∨𝑹 ~(𝐐 ∨ 𝑹)

T T T F

T F T F

F T T F

F F F T

Example 2: Generate the truth table of the proposition:~[𝐏 → (𝐐⋀𝑹)]

Since 3 variables are involved we should construct 2n = 23 = 8 rows:

P Q R 𝐐⋀𝑹 𝐏 → (𝐐⋀𝑹) ~[𝐏 → (𝐐⋀𝑹)]

T T T T T F

T T F F F T

T F T F F T

T F F F F T

F T T T T F

F T F F T F

F F T F T F

F F F F T F

Notice that the rules of conjunction, implication and negation are observed here.

Test Your Understanding:

A. Generate the truth table of the following:

1. ~𝐐⋀𝐑
2. (𝐐⋀𝐑) → 𝐏
3. ~[(~𝐏 ∨ 𝐐) ∨ ~(𝐏⋀𝐐)]
4. [(𝐏 ∨ (𝐏⋀𝐐)] ↔ 𝐏
5. (𝐏 → 𝐐) ↔ (~𝐏 ∨ 𝐐)

SEMA 30053 (SET THEORY AND LOGIC) | Prepared by: Prof RJM Atienza & Prof RCT Alignay 4