Module in

Discrete Mathematics

SESSION TOPIC 1: PROPOSITION, CONNECTIVES AND LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the session you will:

1. explain the concept of a statement or proposition
2. enumerate and explain the sentential connectives
3. explain the truth table of sentential operators
4. prove the logical equivalence of compound statements

KEY TERMS
proposition statement connective compound
atomic tautology contradiction De Morgan’s law

CORE CONTENT

In order to learn mathematical arguments, it is important to understand logic and the way
facts can be combined to prove new facts.

A. LOGICAL STATEMENTS

The study of logic deals with the truth or falsity of statements.

A statement or a proposition is a sentence which can be classified as true or false without

ambiguity, or it is a sentence that is either true or false, but not both. The truth value
is the truth or falsity of the statement.

“x < 2” is true for some x and false for others. If we have a particular context in mind, then
it is a statement, otherwise it is not.

Examples:
1. Barack Obama was the president of the United States.
2. 2+3=6
 (because each of them is either true or false (but not both))

Which of the following is a statement or proposition?

1. Seven is a prime number.
2. If x is a real number, then x2 > 0
3. This sentence is false.

B. LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

Important: How the truth value of a compound statement is determined from the truth
values of its simpler parts?

Sentential Connective- a logic symbol representing an operator that combines statements

into a new statement.
• Sentential Connectives: And, Or, Not, If,,then, If and only if
• Respective Operators: Conjunction, Disjunction, Negation, Implication,
Equivalence
(And is for Conjunction, Or is for Disjunction, Not if for Negation, and so on.)

Compound statements- statements with connectives

Atomic statements- statements without connectives

1. Negation

Let p -given statement

˜p –(read not p) opposite of p

T-true F-false

Truth Table
p ˜p
T F
F T

2. Conjunction
 If p and q are statements, then the statement pΛq (read p and q) is true only when both
p and q are true.

Truth Table
p q pΛq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Example:
Given: p: 3>0 q: 0>3
The compound statement pΛq is False.

3.(Inclusive)DISJUNCTION

If p and q are statements, then the statement pVq (read p or q) is true when at least one
of the two statements is true.

Truth Table
p q pVq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example:
Given: p: 3>0 q: 0>3
The compound statement pVq is True.

4.IMPLICATION

If p, then q
Is called an implication or conditional statement. The if-statement p is called the
antecedent and the then-statement q is called the consequent. In implication, the truth
value False is called for when the antecedent is true and the consequent is false. To
denote the implication “if p, then q” is p=>q.

Truth Table
p q p=>q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Several ways to express the same mathematical condition p=>q

“If p, then q” “q provided that p”
“p implies q” “q whenever p”
“p only if q” “q is a necessary condition for p”
“q if p” “p is a sufficient condition for q”

Note: The implication p=>q is logically equivalent to [(˜p) V q].

5.EQUIVALENCE

The statement “p if and only if q” is defined as the conjunction of the two

implications p=>q and q=>p . This statement is known as equivalence and is denoted by
p<=>q. The abbreviation “iff” is used instead of “if and only if”. Equivalence’s truth table
can be generated by computing the truth table for the compound statement
(p=>q) Λ (q=>p)

Truth Table
p q p=>q q=>p p<=>q
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
 Based on the truth table, p<=>q is true when p and q have the same truth
values. Because p<=>q is equivalent to (p=>q) Λ (q=>p), we can use the terminology
seen above for the implication connective and say
“q if p” and “q only if p”
“p is a sufficient condition for q” and “p is a necessary condition for q”

Two compound statements p and q are logically equivalent if one is true if and
only if the other is true. This means two compound propositions are logically
equivalent whenever they display the same truth value. In this case, p=q.

EXAMPLES
1. (˜(˜p)) is logically equivalent to p

p ˜p ˜(˜p)
T F T
F T F

2. ˜(pΛq) is logically equivalent to [(˜p) V (˜q)]

p q ˜(p Λ q) ˜p ˜q [(˜p) V (˜q)]

T T F F F F
T F T F T T
F T T T F T
F F T T T T

3. A compound proposition is said to be in Tautology if it is always true regardless of

the truth value of the simple propositions from which it is constructed. It is a
Contradiction if it is always false. Tautology and contradiction are a negation of
each other.

p V (˜p) is a tautology, while p Λ (˜p) is a contradiction

p ˜p p V (˜p) p Λ (˜p)
T F T F
F T T F
 4. [p Λ (p=>q)] =>q is a tautology
p q p=>q p Λ (p=>q) [p Λ (p=>q)] =>q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

The following are useful in studying methods of proof (equivalence of compound

statements):

• Contrapositive : p=>q is logically equivalent to [(˜q) => (˜p)]

p q p=>q ˜p ˜q [(˜q) => (˜p)]

T T T F F T
T F F F T F
F T T T F T
F F T T T T

• De Morgan’s Law: ˜(p V q) is logically equivalent to [(˜p) Λ (˜q)]

p q ˜p ˜q ˜(p V q) [(˜p) Λ (˜q)]

T T F F F F
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T

SESSION SUMMARY

A statement or a proposition is a sentence which can be classified as true or false without

ambiguity. The truth value is the truth or falsity of the statement. The different sentential
connectives are And, Or, Not, If,,then, If and only if. Their corresponding sentential operators
are Conjunction, Disjunction, Negation, Implication and Equivalence. Compound statements
can have logical equivalent and this can be proved using the truth table. Tautology if it is always
true regardless of the truth value of the simple propositions from which it is constructed. It is
a Contradiction if it is always false. Tautology and contradiction are a negation of each other.
Contrapositive and De Morgan’s Law are also used in equivalence of compound statements.
 SELF ASSESSMENT

SEATWORK

Indicate which of the following are propositions (assume that x and y are real numbers).

a. The integer 36 is even.

b. Is the integer 315-8 even?
c. The product of 3 and 4 is 11.
d. The sum of x and y is 12.
e. If x>2, then x2>=3.

Construct a truth table for the statement below:

~(~p v q)=>~q

ASSIGNMENT

Name: _______________________ SCORE: ______________

Course/Section: ________________ Date: ________________

Direction: Construct a truth table for the following statements:

1. [q => ˜p] <=> (p Λ q)
2. (p Λ q) <=> (q Λ p)
3. [p v (q v r)] <=> [ (p v q) v r]

QUIZ

REFERENCES
S. R. Lay. Analysis with an Introduction to Proof, Chapter 1. Third Edition. Prentice Hall
https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Combinatorics_and_Discrete_Mathematics/A_Spira
l_Workbook_for_Discrete_Mathematics_(Kwong)/02%3A_Logic/2.01%3A_Propositions