Prepared by:

Ma. Nelia B. Abiera-Soriano, MAEd

The invention of logic is attributed to the ff:

Aristotle (384-322 BC) , a Greek philosopher

George Boole (1815-1864) wrote the Laws of Thought

where logic was developed into an abstract
mathematical system like algebra.

Augustus de Morgan (1806 - 1871), founded symbolic

logic.
Logic and Propositions
Logic
- is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid
inference and correct reasoning.
- is a discipline that deals with the study of reasoning. It
provides rules and techniques for determining whether a
given argument is valid or not.

The rules of logic are used in many areas, particularly in

mathematics. Logical methods are used to prove theorems or
to distinguish between valid and invalid mathematical
arguments. It is also essential in computer science in
verifying the correctness of programs.

A proposition is any declarative sentence that is either true or

false, but not both.
The truth value of a proposition is true, denoted
by T ( or 1), if it is a true proposition and false,
denoted by F (or 0), if it is a false proposition.

Example: Which of the following are

propositions?
a. Today is Monday.
b. Did you buy the textbook?
c. 13 + 17 = 40
d. Take your medicine.
e. There are eight planets in the solar system.
f. 23 – x = 11
Logical Connectives
A proposition is said to be atomic if it cannot be
further subdivided. Atomic propositions may
be combined to form compound propositions.
Atomic propositions are usually denoted by
lowercase letters p, q, r etc.
Compound propositions are formed by
combining one or more atomic propositions
using logical connectives or logical operators
used in logic. These are the negation,
conjunction, disjunction, conditional and
biconditional.
Negation
The negation of a proposition p, denoted by
~p (read as “not p”), is the statement
“It is not the case that p”. The truth value
of ~p is the opposite of the truth value of p.
Conjunction
The conjunction of two propositions p and
q, denoted by p^q, is the proposition
“p and q”. The conjunction p^q is true when
both p and q are true and is false otherwise
Disjunction

The disjunction of two propositions p and q,

denoted by p v q, is the proposition
“p or q”. The disjunction p v q is false when
both p and q are false and is true otherwise.
Exclusive or
The exclusive or of propositions p and q,
denoted by p⊙q, is the proposition that is
true when exactly one of p and q is true and
is false otherwise.
Conditional
The conditional statement (also called
implication) p→q is a proposition
“if p then q”. The conditional statement p→q
is false when p is true and q is false, and true
otherwise. In the statement p→q , p is called
the hypothesis(or antecedent or premise) and
q is called the conclusion (or consequent).
Biconditional
The biconditional statement p↔q is the
proposition “p if and only if q”. The
biconditional statement p↔q is true when p
and q have the same truth values, and is false
otherwise.
Example: Let p: Glenn learns math logic.
q: Glenn will get a good grade.
Write: a. p →q
b. q↔p
c.~p →~q
d. ~q↔~p
Example
Let p: You pass the final examination.
q: You do every exercise in class.
r: You pass this course.

a. You pass the final exam and this course.

b. You pass this course but you do not do every exercise
in class.
c. If you either do every exercise in class or pass the
final examination you will pass this course.
d. You will pass this course if and only you both do
exercise in class and pass the final exam.
e. You wont pass this course if you neither pass the final
exam nor do every exercise in class.
Symbol Operator Words commonly used
Negation not
~
Conjunction and
ˆ
Disjunction or
ˇ
→
Conditional If - then

↔
Biconditional If and only if

Truth Tables for Compound Propositions
Logical Equivalences
Compound propositions that have the same
truth values in all possible cases are called
logically equivalent.

Definition
The propositions p and q are called
logically equivalent if p  q is a tautology.
The notation p  q denotes that p and q
are logically equivalent.
Illustration1
Show that p → q and  p  q are logically
equivalent.
p q p→q p pq (p→q)  (pq)

T T T F T T

T F F F F T

F T T T T T

F F T T T T
Illustration 2
Show that the statements “ If you study hard and attend
every meeting then you get a good grade” and “ If you do
not get a good grade then you either do not study hard or
you do not attend every meeting” are logically equivalent.
Let p : You study hard.
q : You attend every meeting.
r : You get a good grade.
(p  q) → r
If you study hard and attend every
meeting then you get a good grade.
r → ( p   q)
If you do not get a good grade then you
either do not study hard or you do not
attend every meeting.
p q r p q r pq 1→r p r→2
q

1 2

T T T F F F T T F T

T T F F F T T F F F

T F T F T F F T T T

T F F F T T F T T T

F T T T F F F T T T

F T F T F T F T T T

F F T T T F F T T T

F F F T T T F T T T
There are three related conditional statements
that can be derived from a given conditional.
These are the converse, inverse, and
contrapositive.

Given a conditional statement p→q , then the

i. converse is defined as ; q→p
ii. inverse is defined as ; ~p→~q ; and
iii. contrapositive is defined as ~q→~p
The Converse and the Inverse

• The converse of p → q is q → p.
• The inverse of p → q is p → q.

converses
p→q q→p

converses
p → q q → p
The Converse and the Inverse

• The converse of p → q is q → p.
• The inverse of p → q is p → q.
converses
p→q q→p
inverses inverses

converses
p → q q → p
The Converse and the Inverse

• The converse of p → q is q → p.
• The inverse of p → q is p → q.

converses
p→q q→p
inverses contra positives inverses

converses
p → q q → p
“If I get my salary today, then I treat you to dinner”
p:
q:
p→ q
RULES OF REPLACEMENT

The rules of replacement tell us that any

logically equivalent expression can replace
each other wherever they occur.

Let p, q and r represent propositions.

The rules of replacement are as follows.
 Equivalence Name

pTp
pFp Identity Laws
p  p  F
pTT
Domination Laws
pFF
ppp
Idempotent Laws
ppp
 (p)  p Double Negation

pqqp
Commutative Laws
pq qp
(p  q)  r  p  (q  r)
Associative Laws
(p  q)  r  p  (q  r)
p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
Distributive Laws
p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
(p  q)  p  q
De Morgan’s Laws
(p  q)  p  q
(p → q)  p  q Material Implication

(p  q)  (p → q)  (q → p) Material Equivalence

p  (p  q)  p
Absorption
p  (p  q)  p
(pvq)vr pv(qvr)
p q r pvq (p vq)vr  pv (qvr)
Example

1. Show that  [ p  (p  q) ] and  p  q are

logically equivalent.

2. Show that q  [(p  q)  (p  q)]  p  q.

Show that  [ p  (p  q) ] and  p  q are logically
equivalent.

p q p  (p  q) (p  q) (p  q)  p  q
Show that q  [(p  q)  (p  q)]  p  q.
 Show that  [ p  (p  q) ] and  p  q
are logically equivalent.
p q  [ p  (p  q) ] p  (p  q) (p  q) (p  q)  p  q

T T F T F T T F F F

T F F T T F T F F T

F T F T T F T T F F

F F F T T F F T T T
Show that q  [(p  q)  (p  q)]  p  q

p q q  [(p  q)  (p  q)] [(p  q)  (p  q)]  pq

T T T T T T T T

T F T T T F T T

F T T T T F T T

F F F F F F T F