Cramer's Rule

Section 3.
3 Cramer’s Rule, Volume, and Linear

Transformations
Gexin Yu
gyu@wm.edu
College of William and Mary
Gexin Yu gyu@wm.edu Section 3.3 Cramer’s Rule, Volume, and Linear Transformations
Cramer’s Rule
Determinants can be used to find the solution of matrix equation

Ax = b if A is invertible.
Cramer’s Rule


Suppose that A = a1 a2 . . . an is an n × n matrix. For any
b ∈ Rn , we define

Ai (b) = a1 . . . ai−1 b ai+1 . . . an
Cramer’s Rule


Suppose that A = a1 a2 . . . an is an n × n matrix. For any
b ∈ Rn , we define

Ai (b) = a1 . . . ai−1 b ai+1 . . . an
Theorem (Cramer’s Rule) Suppose that A is an n × n invertible

matrix. For any b ∈ Rn , the unique solution to Ax = b has entries
given by
det(Ai (b))
xi =
det(A)
Examples

2 −1
Ex: Use Cramer’s rule to solve Ax = b where A = and
3 4

3
b= .
43
Examples

2 −1
3 4

3
b= .
43

3 −1 2 3
Soln: A1 (b) = and A2 (b) = .
43 4 3 43
Examples

2 −1
3 4

3
b= .
43

3 −1 2 3
Soln: A1 (b) = and A2 (b) = .
43 4 3 43
So det(A) = 11, det(A1 (b)) = 55, det(A2 (b)) = 77.
Examples

2 −1
3 4

3
b= .
43

3 −1 2 3
Soln: A1 (b) = and A2 (b) = .
43 4 3 43
So det(A) = 11, det(A1 (b)) = 55, det(A2 (b)) = 77.

55 77 5
Therefore x1 = 11 = 5 and x2 = 11 = 7, and x = .
7
Proof of Cramer’s Rule
We have

A · Ii (x) = Ae1 Ae2 . . . Aei−1 Ax Aei+1 . . . Aen

= a1 a2 . . . ai−1 b ai+1 . . . an
= Ai (b)
We have


= a1 a2 . . . ai−1 b ai+1 . . . an
= Ai (b)
So we have det(A) det(Ii (x)) = det(Ai (b)).
We have


= a1 a2 . . . ai−1 b ai+1 . . . an
= Ai (b)
det(Ai (b))
Since A is invertible, we may write det(Ii (x)) = det(A) .
We have


= a1 a2 . . . ai−1 b ai+1 . . . an
= Ai (b)
det(Ai (b))
Since A is invertible, we may write det(Ii (x)) = det(A) .
The theorem follows from that fact that det(Ii (x)) = xi .
An inverse formula
Suppose that A is an n × n matrix. We define the n × n adjoint of A

as  
C11 C21 . . . Cn1
C12 C22 . . . Cn2 
Adj(A) = ...


C1n C2n . . . Cnn
where Cij = (−1)i+j det(Aij ).
An inverse formula

as  
C11 C21 . . . Cn1
C12 C22 . . . Cn2 
Adj(A) = ...


C1n C2n . . . Cnn
Theorem: Suppose that A is an invertible n × n matrix. Then
1
A−1 = Adj(A)
det(A)
An inverse formula

as  
C11 C21 . . . Cn1
C12 C22 . . . Cn2 
Adj(A) = ...


C1n C2n . . . Cnn
Theorem: Suppose that A is an invertible n × n matrix. Then
1
A−1 = Adj(A)
det(A)
 
1 0 0
Ex. Compute A−1 if A = 2 3 0.
3 2 1
Areas and Volumes as determinants
Theorem:
Theorem:
1 if A is a 2 × 2 matrix, then the area of the parallelogram determined by
its column vectors is | det(A)|.
Theorem:
2 if A is a 3 × 3 matrix, then the volume of the parallelepiped determined
by its column vectors is | det(A)|.
Theorem:
Ex: Calculate the area of the parallelogram determined by the points

(0, 0), (2, 5), (6, 1) and (8, 6).
Theorem:

(0, 0), (2, 5), (6, 1) and (8, 6).
Soln: Note that (8, 6) = (2, 5) + (6, 1). So the parallelogram is determined
by vectors (2, 5) and (6, 1).
Theorem:

(0, 0), (2, 5), (6, 1) and (8, 6).
Soln: Note that (8, 6) = (2, 5) + (6, 1). So the parallelogram is determined
by vectors (2, 5) and (6, 1).
2 6
So the area is = | − 28| = 28.
5 1
Area of triangles
Theorem: suppose that points P = (x1 , y1 ), Q = (x2 , y2 ) and
R = (x3 , y3 ) form a triangle. The area of the triangle PQR is
1 x1 y1
1
1 x2 y2
2
1 x3 y3
Area of triangles
1 x1 y1
1
1 x2 y2
2
1 x3 y3
Pf: we could form two vectors PQ = (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 ) and
PR = (x3 − x1 , y3 − y1 ).
Area of triangles
1 x1 y1
1
1 x2 y2
2
1 x3 y3
PR = (x3 − x1 , y3 − y1 ).
The area of the parallelogram determined by the two vectors PQ and
x − x1 x3 − x1
PR is 2
y2 − y1 y3 − y1
Area of triangles
1 x1 y1
1
1 x2 y2
2
1 x3 y3
PR = (x3 − x1 , y3 − y1 ).
x − x1 x3 − x1
PR is 2
y2 − y1 y3 − y1
The above determinant is the same as the determinant of the
1 x1 y1
1 x2 y2
1 x3 y3
Area of triangles
1 x1 y1
1
1 x2 y2
2
1 x3 y3
PR = (x3 − x1 , y3 − y1 ).
x − x1 x3 − x1
PR is 2
y2 − y1 y3 − y1
The above determinant is the same as the determinant of the
1 x1 y1
1 x2 y2
1 x3 y3
The area of the triangle is half of the area of the parallelogram.
Linear Transformations
Theorem 10:
Theorem 10:
1 Let T : R2 → R2 be a linear transformation with 2 × 2 matrix A. If S
is a parallelogram in R2 , then Area(T (S)) = | det(A)| · Area(S).
Theorem 10:
2 Let T : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation and S is a parallelepiped,
then Vol(T (S)) = | det(A)| · Vol(S).
Theorem 10:
Ex: Suppose that a and b be positive integers. Find the area bounded by
x2 x2
the ellipse a12 + b22 = 1.
Theorem 10:
x2 x2
Soln: We claim that the ellipse E is the image of the unit disk
D under
the
a 0
linear transformation T determined by the matrix A = .
0 b
Theorem 10:
x2 x2
Soln: We claim that the ellipse E is the image of the unit disk D under
the
a 0
0 b

u1 x1 /a
To see this, if u = , then x = Au = . So u12 + u22 = 1,
u2 x2 /b
which means u is on the unit circle.
Theorem 10:
x2 x2
Soln: We claim that the ellipse E is the image of the unit disk D under
the
a 0
0 b

u1 x1 /a
To see this, if u = , then x = Au = . So u12 + u22 = 1,
u2 x2 /b
which means u is on the unit circle.
Therefore, Area(E ) = | det(A)| · Area(D) = ab · π(1)2 = πab.

Cramer's Rule

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Section 3.

3 Cramer’s Rule, Volume, and Linear

Determinants can be used to find the solution of matrix equation

Determinants can be used to find the solution of matrix equation

Determinants can be used to find the solution of matrix equation

Theorem (Cramer’s Rule) Suppose that A is an n × n invertible

So det(A) = 11, det(A1 (b)) = 55, det(A2 (b)) = 77.

So det(A) = 11, det(A1 (b)) = 55, det(A2 (b)) = 77.

So we have det(A) det(Ii (x)) = det(Ai (b)).

So we have det(A) det(Ii (x)) = det(Ai (b)).

So we have det(A) det(Ii (x)) = det(Ai (b)).

The theorem follows from that fact that det(Ii (x)) = xi .

Suppose that A is an n × n matrix. We define the n × n adjoint of A

Suppose that A is an n × n matrix. We define the n × n adjoint of A

Suppose that A is an n × n matrix. We define the n × n adjoint of A

Ex: Calculate the area of the parallelogram determined by the points

Ex: Calculate the area of the parallelogram determined by the points

Ex: Calculate the area of the parallelogram determined by the points

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Cramer&#39;s Rule

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Section 3.

3 Cramer’s Rule, Volume, and Linear

Determinants can be used to find the solution of matrix equation

Determinants can be used to find the solution of matrix equation

Determinants can be used to find the solution of matrix equation

Theorem (Cramer’s Rule) Suppose that A is an n × n invertible

So det(A) = 11, det(A1 (b)) = 55, det(A2 (b)) = 77.

So det(A) = 11, det(A1 (b)) = 55, det(A2 (b)) = 77.

So we have det(A) det(Ii (x)) = det(Ai (b)).

So we have det(A) det(Ii (x)) = det(Ai (b)).

So we have det(A) det(Ii (x)) = det(Ai (b)).

The theorem follows from that fact that det(Ii (x)) = xi .

Suppose that A is an n × n matrix. We define the n × n adjoint of A

Suppose that A is an n × n matrix. We define the n × n adjoint of A

Suppose that A is an n × n matrix. We define the n × n adjoint of A

Ex: Calculate the area of the parallelogram determined by the points

Ex: Calculate the area of the parallelogram determined by the points

Ex: Calculate the area of the parallelogram determined by the points

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Cramer's Rule

Cramer's Rule