Unit 1 Specialist Maths Bound Reference

Modulus Function
Modulus Function

The modulus (absolute value) of a real number x is denoted by ∣x∣ and is given by ∣x∣ = x if x ≥ 0 or ∣x∣ = −x if
x ≤ 0.
It can also be given by ∣x∣ = x2 .

eg. Evaluate ∣−3 × 2∣.

∣−3 × 2∣ = ∣−6∣ = 6
Properties of Modulus Function
a ∣a∣
∣ab∣ = ∣a∣ ⋅ ∣b∣ and ∣ b
∣= ∣b∣

∣a + b∣ ≤ ∣a∣ + ∣b∣
If a and b are both positive or both negative, then ∣a + b∣ = ∣a∣ + ∣b∣
If a ≥ 0, then ∣x∣ ≤ a is equivalent to −a ≤ x ≤ a
If a ≥ 0, then ∣x−k∣ ≤ a is equivalent to k−a ≤ x ≤ k + a
Modulus Graphs

The graph of y = ∣x∣ is shown f(|x|) mirrors the graph across the y-axis, |f(x)| flips all the negative y-values
here across the x-axis

Variation
Direct Variation

The variable y varies directly as/is proportional to x if y = kx, for some positive constant k.
We can also say that y is proportional to x, and we can write y ∝ x.
y y2
If y ∝ x, then x11 = x2
= k for any two non-zero values x1  and x2  and the corresponding values y1  and y2 .
If y ∝ x , then y = kxn , where k is a constant, and the graph of y against xn  is a straight line passing through the
n

origin.

eg. In an electrical wire, the resistance (R ohms) varies directly as the length (L m) of the
wire.
a) If a 6m wire has a resistance of 5 ohms, what is the resistance of a 4.5m wire?
R = kL
5 = 6k
k = 56
R = 5⋅4.5
6
= 3.75
A wire of length 4.5m has a resistance of 3.75 ohms.

Unit 1 Specialist Maths Bound Reference 1

 b) How long is a wire for which the resistance is 3.8 ohms?
3.8 = 5L
6
L = 4.56
A wire of resistance 3.8 ohms has a length of 4.56m.

Inverse Variation

The variable y varies inversely as x if y = xk , for some positive constant k.

1 1
If y varies inversely as x, then y varies directly as  x  and so we can write y ∝ x .
If y ∝ x1 , then x1 ⋅ y1 = x2 ⋅ y2 = k for any two non-zero values x1  and x2  and the corresponding values y1  and y2 .

eg. For a cylinder of fixed volume, the height (h cm) is inversely proportional to the square of
the radius (r  cm).
If a cylinder of height 15cm has a base radius of 4.2cm, how high would a cylinder of
equivalent volume if its radius were 3.5cm?
h = rk2
k
15 = (4.2) 2

k = 15(4.2)2 = 264.6
264.6
h = (4.2) 2 = 21.6

A cylinder of radius 3.5cm has a height of 21.6cm.

Partial Fractions
A rational function may be expressed as a sum of simpler functions (partial fractions).

Determining Forms

For every linear factor ax + b in the denominator, there will be a partial fraction of the form  ax+b
A
.

For every repeated linear factor (cx + d)2 in the denominator, there will be partial fractions of the form  cx+d
B
 and 
C
.
(cx+d)2

For every irreducible quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c in the denominator, there will be a partial fraction of the form 
Dx+E
ax2 +bx+c
.

Steps for Solving

1. Write a statement of identity between the original fraction and a sum of the appropriate number of partial fractions.

2. Express the sum of the partial fractions as a single fraction, and note that the numerators of both sides are
equivalent.

3. Find the values of the introduced constants (A, B, C ,…) by substituting appropriate values for x or by equating
coefficients.

CAS Solving
Expand (menu→3→3)

Common denominator (menu→3→9→4)

Examples

3x+5
eg. Resolve  into partial fractions.
(x−1)(x+3)
3x+5
(x−1)(x+3)
= x−1
A
+ x+3
B
for all x R\{1,−3} ∈
3x+5 A(x+3)+B(x−1)
(x−1)(x+3)
= (x−1)(x+3)
3x + 5 = A(x + 3) + B(x − 1)
3x + 5 = (A + B)x + (3A − B)
A + B = 3 3A − B = 5

Unit 1 Specialist Maths Bound Reference 2

 4A = 8 ∴ A = 2 ∴ B = 1
3x+5 2 1
∴ (x−1)(x+3) = x−1 + x+3
2x+10
eg. Resolve  into partial fractions.
(x+1)(x−1)2
2x+10
(x+1)(x−1)2
A
= x+1 + x−1B C
+ (x−1) 2 for all x ∈R\{-1,1}
2
2x+10 A(x−1) +B(x+1)(x−1)+C(x+1)
(x+1)(x−1)2
= (x+1)(x−1)2
2
2x + 10 = A(x − 1) + B(x + 1)(x − 1) + C(x + 1)
Let x = 1, 2C = 12 ∴ C = 6
Let x = −1, 4A = 8 ∴ A = 2
Substitute A and C into equation 2x + 10 = 2(x − 1)2 + B(x + 1)(x − 1) + 6(x +
1) = (2 + B)x2 + 2x + 8 − B
2 + B = 0 8 − B = 10
∴ B = −2
2x+10 2 2 6
∴ (x+1)(x−1) 2 = x+1 − x−1 + (x−1) 2

x2 +6x+5
eg. Resolve  into partial fractions.
(x−2)(x2 +x+1)
2
x +6x+5
(x−2)(x2 +x+1)
= x−2A
+ xBx+C
2 +x+1

x2 +6x+5 A(x2 +x+1)+(Bx+C)(x−2)

(x−2)(x2 +x+1)
= (x−2)(x2 +x+1)
2 2
x + 6x + 5 = A(x + x + 1) + (Bx + C)(x − 2)
Let x = 2, 7A = 21 ∴ A = 3
Substitute A into equation x2 + 6x + 5 = 3(x2 + x + 1) + (Bx + C)(x − 2) = (3 +
B)x2 + (3 − 2B + C)x + 3 − 2c
3 + B = 1 3 − 2C = 5
∴ B = −2 ∴ C = −1
x2 +6x+5 3 2x+1
∴ (x−2)(x 2 +x+1) = x−2 − x2 +x+1

Counting Methods (Sequences/Series)

Arithmetic Sequences
Arithmetic sequence: a sequence in which each successive term is found by adding a fixed amount to the previous term

The nth term of an arithmetic sequence is given by tn = a + (n − 1)d where a is the first term and d is the common
difference between successive terms, (d = tk −tk−1 , for all k >1).
The nth term can also be given by tn = tn−1 + d, where d is a constant (the common difference).

eg. What is the 10th term of the arithmetic sequence −4,−1,2,5,…?

a = -4, d = 3
t10 = −4 + 9 ⋅ 3
t10 = −4 + 27
t10 = 23
Arithmetic Series

Arithmetic series: sum of the terms in an arithmetic sequence

n
The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence is given by Sn = 2 (2a + (n−1)d) where a is the first term
and d is the common difference between successive terms, (d = tk −tk−1 , for all k >1).

The sum of the first n terms can also be given by Sn = n2 (a + tn ), where a is the first term and tn is the last term.

Unit 1 Specialist Maths Bound Reference 3

 eg. For the arithmetic sequence 2,5,8,11,… calculate the sum of the first 14 terms.
a = 2, d = 3, n=14
S14 = 14 2
(2 ⋅ 2 + 13 ⋅ 3) = 301
Geometric Sequences

Geometric sequence: a sequence in whicheach successive term is found by multiplying the previous term by a fixed
amount
The nth term of a geometric sequence is given by tn = a ⋅ r n−1 where a is the first term and r  is the common ratio of
tk
successive terms (r = tk−1
, for all k >1.

The nth term can also be given by tn = r ⋅ tn−1 , where r is a constant (the common ratio).

eg. Find the 10th term of the sequence 2,6,18,….

a = 2, r = 3
t10 = 2 ⋅ 310−1 = 39366
Geometric mean:  ab
If positive numbers a,c,b are consecutive terms of a geometric sequence, then a
c
= b
c
∴c= ab.
Geometric Series
Geometric series: sum of the terms in a geometric series
a(rn −1) a(1−rn )
The sum of the first n terms of a geometric series is given by Sn = r−1 or Sn = 1−r
where a is the first term
t
and r  is the common ratio of successive terms (r = t k , for all k >1.
k−1

eg. Find the sum of the first nine terms of the sequence 13,19,127,181,….
a = 13 , r = 13 , n=9
1 1 9
3 (1−( 3 ) )
S9 = 1− 13
= 12 (1−( 13 )9 ) ≈ 0.499975

Infinite Series

An infinite series t1 + t2 + t3 +⋅⋅⋅ is said to be convergent if the sum of the first n terms, Sn , approaches a limiting
value as n → ∞ (this limit is called the sum to infinity of the series)

If −1 < r < 1, then the infinite geometric series a + ar + ar 2 +⋅⋅⋅ is convergent and the sum to infinity is given by
S∞ = a
1−r

eg. Find the sum to infinity of the series 12 + 1

4
+ 18 +⋅⋅⋅
a = 12 , r = 1
2
1 1

S∞ = 2
= 2
=1
1− 12 1
2

Sequences and Series on CAS

t(n):=a+d⋅(n-1)
seq(equation,variable,first n value,last n value) menu→6→4→5

eg. seq(2n, n, 1, 5) = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

eg. seq(4 ⋅ 3n−1 , n, 1, 3) = {4, 12, 36}

even:={output from above}

seqGen(equation,independent variable,dependent variable,{min value,max value},{term 1,term 2})

eg. seqGen(t(n − 1) + 2, n, t, {1, 5}, {1, 3}) = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

Unit 1 Specialist Maths Bound Reference 4

 sum({list of values generated above}) menu→6→3→5

eg. sum(2, 4, 6, 8, 10) = 30

Principles of Counting (Permutations/Combinations)

Addition, Multiplication and Inclusion/Exclusion Principles

Multiplication Principle
If there are m ways of performing one task and then there are n ways of performing another task, then there are m ⋅ n
 ways of performing both tasks.

Addition Principle

Suppose there are m ways of performing one task and n ways of performing another task. If we cannot perform both
tasks, there are m + n ways to perform one of the tasks.

Inclusion/Exclusion Principle
|A∪B| = |A|+|B|−|A∩B|
|A∪B∪C| = |A|+|B|+|C|−|A∩B|−|A∩C|−|B∩C|+|A∩B∩C|

Factorials and Permutations

n! = n ⋅ (n−1) ⋅ (n−2) ⋅ ... ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1

Permutation: an ordered arrangement of objects

The number of permutations of n objects is n!.

The number of permutations of n objects taken r  at a time is denoted by n Pr and is given by the formula n Pr = n!
(n−r)!
.

Permutations with Restrictions

To count permutations that are subject to restrictions, we draw a series of boxes. In each box, we write the number of
choices we have for that position. We always consider the restrictions first.

When items are to be grouped together, we initially treat each group as a single object. We find the number of
arrangements of the groups, and then multiply by the numbers of arrangements within each group.

eg. How many ways can two chemistry, four physics and five biology books be arranged on a
shelf if the books of each subject are kept together?
3!⋅2!⋅4!⋅5! = 34560
The three groups can be arranged in 3! ways. 2 chemistry books can be arranged among
themselves in 2! ways, 4 physics books in 4! ways and 5 biology books in 5! ways.

Permutations of Like Objects

The number of permutations of n objects of which n1  are alike, n2  are alike, … and nr  are alike is given by
n!
(n1!⋅n2!⋅⋯⋅nr!)

eg. How many ways can the letters in Woolloomooloo be arranged?

1x W, 1x M, 3x L, 8x O
13!
P= (3!⋅8!)

Combinations

Combination: a selection made regardless of order

The number of combinations of n objects taken r  at a time is denoted by n Cr and given by the formula n Cr = n!
r!⋅(n−r)!
.
n
Cr =n Cn−r
Combinations with Restrictions

Unit 1 Specialist Maths Bound Reference 5

 eg. Grace belongs to a group of eight workers. How many ways can a team of four workers
be selected if Grace must be on the team?
7
C3 = 35
There are 7 other people left and 3 more must be chosen.

eg. From seven women and four men in a workplace, how many groups of five can be
chosen with 2 men and 3 women?
7
C3 ⋅4 C2 = 210
There are 7 C3 ways of selecting three women from seven and there are 4 C2  ways of
selecting two men from four.

eg. A president, vice-president, secretary and treasurer are to be chosen from a group
containing seven women and six men. How many ways can this be done if exactly two
women are chosen?
7
C2 ⋅6 C2 ⋅ 4! = 7560
There are 7 C2 ways of selecting 2 of 7 women and 6 C2 ways of selecting 2 of 6 men. The 4
people chosen can be arranged in 4! ways.

Pascal’s Triangle

n
Cr =n−1 Cr−1 +n−1 Cr where 1 ≤ r < n
A set of size n has 2n subsets, meaning the sum of n C0 +n C1 + ... +n Cn = 2n .
Pigeonhole Principle

If at least mn + 1 objects are placed into n holes, then some hole contains at least m + 1 objects.

eg. Sixteen natural numbers are written on a whiteboard. Prove that at least four numbers
will leave the same remainder when divided by 5.
There are 5 possible remainders on division by 5 (0,1,2,3,4), and 16 original numbers.
Since 16 = 3⋅5+1, there is some remainder with at least four original numbers.

eg. Seven people sit at a round table with 10 chairs. Show that there are three consecutive
chairs that are occupied. There are 10 groups of three consecutive chairs: {1,2,3}; {2,3,4};
{3,4,5}; {4,5,6}; {5,6,7}; {6,7,8}; {7,8,9}; {8,9,1}0; {9,10,1}; {10,1,2}. Each of the seven people
will belong to three of these groups, so 21 people have to be allocated to 10 groups.
Since 21 = 2⋅10+1, some group must contain three people.

Permutations and Combinations on CAS

number! menu→5→1

nPr(number, how many taken) menu→5→2

eg. nP r(7, 3) = 210

nCr(number, how many taken) menu→5→3

Unit 1 Specialist Maths Bound Reference 6

 eg. nCr(7, 3) = 35

Boolean Algebra
Symbols Guide Definitions

1 - true statement: sentence that can be either true or false

0 - false logical connectives: connect 2 statements (and, or, not)
∧ - and logically equivalent: have the same truth values

∨ - or tautology: statement that is always true

~ - not contradiction: statement that is always false
¬ - not vacuously true: when a hypothesis is false, the

‘ - not statement cannot be said to be true or false, so it is

vacuosly true
⇒ - implies
converse: implication statement with the variables
⇔ - if and only if switching places
≡ - equivalent inverse: implication statement with the variables
t- tautology negated (the converse of the contrapositive)

c- contradiction predicate: sentence that can become a statement

x ∈ R∣P (x)- truth set of predicate P(x) for domain of depending on the variables substituted (within domain)
real sufficient: from one conclusion, it is acceptable to get a
∀- for all second conclusion (eg. being a square it is sufficient to
conclude it is a rectangle)
∃- there exists
necessary: from one conclusion, it is necessay to have
a second conclusion (like sufficients but with
contrapositive)

Negation, Conjunction and Disjunction

Negation

x ¬x
1 0

0 1

Conjunction (and) Disjunction (or)

x y x∧y x y x∨y
1 1 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 0 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 0

Tautology and Contradiction

Tautology Contradiction

t x t∨x c x c∧x
1 1 1 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 0 0

Implication and Equivalence

Implication Equivalence

x y x⇒y x y x⇒y y⇒x

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Unit 1 Specialist Maths Bound Reference 7

 x y x⇒y x y x⇒y y⇒x
1 0 0 1 0 0 1

0 1 1 0 1 1 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 1

Universal and Existential Quantifiers

Universal Quantifiers (statement) Existential Quantifiers (predicate)

eg. every dog is a mammal (x = all animals eg. some person in the world is the oldest (
D = dogs P (x) = it is a mammal) x ∈ W = people in world, P (x) = x is
oldest)
∀x ∈ D, P (x)
Negating a Universal
∃x∈W, P(x)
¬(∀x ∈ D, P (x)) ≡ ∃x ∈ D, ¬(P (x)) Negating an Existential
¬(∃x ∈ D, P (x)) ≡ ∀x ∈ D, ¬(P (x))
eg. negate ∀x ∈ Z+, x > 3
eg. negate ∃x ∈ Z+, x > 3
∃x ∈ Z+, x ≤ 3
∀x ∈ Z+, x ≤ 3

Multiple Quantifiers

eg. every integer has a larger integer

∀x ∈ Z, ∃y ∈ Z, y > x

eg. negate ∀x ∈ Z, ∃y ∈ Z, y > x

∃x ∈ Z, ∀y ∈ Z, y ≤ x
Sufficient and Necessary Conditions
A(x) is sufficient if we want
⇓
B(x), however
⇓

C(x) is necessary

eg. Having a square is sufficient enough to say we have a rectangle, but it is necessary to
have a quadrilateral in order to have a rectangle.

Karnaugh Maps

Make groups with 1, 2, 4 or 8 1s

eg. (x ∧ y
∧ z) ∨ (x ∧ y ∧ ¬z) ∨
Groups must be in a rectangle or square shape
(¬x ∧ y ∧ ¬z) ∨ (¬x ∧ ¬y ∧ ¬z)
Groups may be horizontal or vertical, but not
diagonal yz ↓ x → 0 1
Every group must contain no 0s 00 1 0

Every 1 must be in a group 01 0 0

11 0 1
Groups may overlap or wrap around
10 1 1
Use as few groups as possible

Groups should be as large as possible

Unit 1 Specialist Maths Bound Reference 8

 When writing variable headings for 3+ variables, use (x ∧ y ∧ z) ∨ (x ∧ y ∧ ¬z) ∨ (¬x ∧
all zeros for the first, and change only one variable at
a time (eg. 00,01,11,10 or 00,10,11,01)
y ∧ ¬z) ∨ (¬x ∧ ¬y ∧ ¬z) ≡ (¬x ∧
¬z) ∨ (x ∧ y)

Drawing Circuits

Other Properties

x ∨ y ≡ y ∨ x and x ∧ y ≡ y ∧ x (commutative)

x y x∨y y∨x x∧y y∧x

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 0 0

0 1 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

¬(¬x) ≡ x (double negative)

x ¬x ¬(¬x)
1 0 1

0 1 0

¬(x ∨ y) ≡ ¬x ∧ ¬y and ¬(x ∧ y) ≡ ¬x ∨ ¬y (DeMorgan’s Law)

x y ¬x ¬y x∨y ¬(x ∨ y) ¬x ∧ ¬y
1 1 0 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 1 0 1 1

x y ¬x ¬y x∧y ¬(x ∧ y) ¬x ∨ ¬y
1 1 0 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 0 1 1

0 0 1 1 0 1 1

(x ∨ y) ∨ z ≡ x ∨ (y ∨ z) and (x ∧ y) ∧ z ≡ x ∧ (y ∧ z) (associative)

x y z x∨y y∨z (x ∨ y) ∨ z x ∨ (y ∨ z)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 1

0 1 1 1 1 1 1

0 1 0 1 1 1 1

0 0 1 0 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

x y z x∧y y∧z (x ∧ y) ∧ z x ∧ (y ∧ z)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Unit 1 Specialist Maths Bound Reference 9

 x y z x∧y y∧z (x ∧ y) ∧ z x ∧ (y ∧ z)
1 1 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

x ∨ (y ∧ z) ≡ (x ∨ y) ∧ (x ∨ z) and x ∧ (y ∨ z) ≡ (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z) (distributive)

x y z y∧z x∨y x∨z x ∨ (y ∧ z)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 0 0 1 1 1

1 0 1 0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0 1 1 1

0 1 1 1 1 1 1

0 1 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

x y z y∨z x∧y x∧z x ∧ (y ∨ z)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 0 1

1 0 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

x ∨ (x ∧ y) ≡ x and x ∧ (x ∨ y) ≡ x (absorption)

x y x∧y x ∨ (x ∧ y)
1 1 1 1

1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0

x y x∨y x ∧ (x ∨ y)
1 1 1 1

1 0 1 1

0 1 1 0

0 0 0 0

x ∨ 0 ≡ x and x ∧ 1 ≡ x (tautology/contradiction)

x 0 x∨0 x 1 x∧1
1 0 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 1 0

x ∨ ¬x ≡ 1 and x ∧ ¬x ≡ 0 (complementative)

Unit 1 Specialist Maths Bound Reference 10

 x ¬x x ∨ ¬x x ¬x x ∧ ¬x
1 0 1 1 0 0

0 1 1 0 1 0

x ⇒ y ≡ ¬x ∨ y (conditional)

x y x⇒y ¬x ¬x ∨ y
1 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 1 1

0 0 1 1 1

x ⇒ y ≡ ¬y ⇒ ¬x (contrapositive)

x y ¬x ¬y x⇒y ¬y ⇒ ¬x
1 1 0 0 1 1

1 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 1 0 1 1

0 0 1 1 1 1

x ⇔ y ≡ (x ⇒ y) ∧ (y ⇒ x) ≡ (x ∧ y) ∨ (¬x ∧ ¬y) (equivalence)

x ⇒ y∧y ⇒
x y ¬x ¬y x⇒y y⇒x
x
1 1 0 0 1 1 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 1 1 1 1

x∧y ¬x ∧ ¬y (x ∧ y) ∨ (¬x ∧ ¬y) x ⇔ y

1 0 1 1

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 1 1 1

Proof
Ways of Writing Statements
n is odd: n = 2k + 1 where k ∈ Z
n is even: n = 2k where k ∈ Z

n is divisible by 3: n = 3k where k ∈ Z
p
n is rational: n = q
where p, q ∈ Z, and p and q do not share any common factors
Direct Proof
To give a direct proof of a conditional statement P ⇒ Q, we assume that P  is true and show that Q follows.

eg. Prove if a is odd and b is even, then a + b is odd.

a + b = (2m + 1) + 2n = 2m + 2n + 1 = 2(m + n) + 1 = 2k + 1
where m, n, k ∈ Z
Q.E.D.

Sometimes it helps to break a problem up into different cases.

eg. Every person on an island is either a knight or a knave. Knights always tell the truth, and
knaves always lie. Alice and Bob are residents on the island. Alice says: ‘We are both

Unit 1 Specialist Maths Bound Reference 11

 knaves.’ What are Alice and Bob?
Suppose Alice is a knight ⇒ Alice is telling the truth ⇒ Alice and Bob are both knaves ⇒
Alice is a knave and a knight (impossible)
Suppose Alice is a knave ⇒ Alice is lying ⇒ Alice and Bob are not both knaves ⇒ Bob is a
knight
Alice is a knave and Bob is a knight

Proof by Contrapositive

To give a proof by contrapositive of a conditional statement P ⇒ Q, we instead perform a direct proof of ¬Q ⇒ ¬P

eg. Prove the contrapositive of if n2  is even, then n is even.

= 2m + 1 where m ∈ Z).
Assume that n is odd (n
n = (2m + 1) = 4m2 + 4m + 1 = 2(2m2 + 2m) + 1 = 2k + 1
2 2

where k ∈ Z
Q.E.D.

Proof by Contradiction

To give a proof by contradiction of a conditional statement, we assume that the statement is false and show how this
assumption leads to mathematical nonsense, thereby proving the original statement to be true.

eg. Prove 2 is irrational

p
Assume that 2 is rational ( 2 = q where p, q ∈ Z, and p and q share no common
factors)
p
2= q
p2
2 = q2
p2 = 2q 2
∴ p = 2m where m ∈ Z
(2m)2 = 2q 2
q 2 = 2m2
∴ q = 2n where n ∈ Z
p and q are both divisible by 2, meaning they share a factor, so this is wrong. Therefore 2
must be irrational.
Q.E.D.

Equivalent Statements

To prove two statements are equivalent (P ⇔ Q) we must prove both P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P (switch the hypothesis
and conclusion)

∈ Z. Prove that n is even and n + 1 is odd are equivalent statements

eg. Let n
1. Assume that n is even. n = 2m (where m ∈ Z) ∴
n + 1 = 2m + 1, so n + 1 is odd.
2. Assume that n + 1 is odd. n + 1 = 2m + 1 (where m ∈ Z) ∴
n = 2m, so n is even.
Q.E.D

Disproving Statements
To disprove a universal statement of the form P ⇒ Q, we simply need to give one counterexample (where P is true
and Q is false)

To disprove an existential statement, we must prove its negation is true

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 eg. Let f (n) = n2 −n + 11. Disprove this statement that for all natural numbers, f (n) is
prime
Let n = 11, f (11) = 112−11 + 11 = 112 ∴ f (11) is not prime
Q.E.D.

Mathematical Inductions
For P(k), prove that P(a) is true, and then assume P(k) is true and prove P(k+1) is true for (k≥a) using that info

eg. Prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2n−1) = n2 for all n ∈ N.

P (1) (1 = 12 ) is true.
Assume P (k) (1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2k−1) = k 2 ) is true.
P (k + 1) can be written as 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2k−1) + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2 , which
becomes k 2 + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2 and then (k + 1)2 = (k + 1)2 .
Q.E.D.

Ratios and Similarity

Ratios
A ratio is a comparison of two numbers or quantities measured in the same unit

To create a ratio, divide the whole number into different whole number parts

eg. Of 7 marbles, 2 are blue, 4 are red and 1 is green. Express the ratio of green to blue to
red marbles.
1:2:4

eg. A number of balls are divided between Melissa and Spencer in a ratio of 5:3. If Spencer
has 18 balls, how many does Melissa have.
5:3 = (5⋅6):(3⋅6) = 30:18
Melissa has 30 of the 48 balls.

Similarity

AAA: If two/three angles of one triangle are respectively equal to two/three angles of another triangle, then the two
triangles are similar

SAS: If the ratios of two pairs of matching sides are equal and the included angles are equal, then the two triangles are
similar
SSS: If the ratios of all three sets of matching sides are equal, then the two triangles are similar

RHS: If the ratio of the hypotenuses of two right-angled triangles equals the ratio of another pair of sides, then the two
triangles are similar

Area, Volume and Similarity

If two shapes are similar and the similarity factor is k , the area of the similar shape is k 2 × area of original shape

If two solids are similar and the similarity factor is k , the volume of similar solid is k 3 × volume of original solid

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 Circle Geometry
Angle Properties

Theorem 1: The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the circumference subtended by the same arc

Theorem 2: Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal

Theorem 3: The angle subtended by a diameter at the circumference is equal to a right angle

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 Theorem 4: The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary (sum to 180°)

Tangents

Theorem 5: A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn from the point of contact

Theorem 6: The two tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are the same length

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 Theorem 7: The angle between a tangent and a chord drawn from the point of contact is equal to any angle in the
alternate segment

Lengths

Theorem 8: If AB and CD  are two chords of a circle that cut at a point P  (which may be inside or outside the
circle), then P A ⋅ PB = PC ⋅ P D

Theorem 9: If P  is a point outside a circle and T , A, B are points on the circle such that PT  is a tangent and PQR
 is a secant, then P T 2 = PQ ⋅ PR

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