German

During the late 19th century, Austria-Hungary and the Balkan nations were influenced by the
German model, leading their universities to balance modernization with connections to Germany.
This period also saw the impact of underdeveloped rural areas on academic institutions.
Consequently, academic professions were more commonly sought in state administration, the
Church, and legal and health spheres rather than in sciences or the arts. This era left behind
numerous technical colleges and witnessed conflicts among various nationalities and religions
within the university environment.
The Austro-Hungarian universities shifted towards teaching in local languages, leading to nationalist
movements and a focus on law studies. The Treaty of Trianon negatively impacted Hungarian
minorities, resulting in anti-Semitic policies like the “numerus clausus”. This led to a decline in
Hungarian student numbers and a shift towards scientific and medical studies.
Belgium and the Netherlands initially welcomed foreign students but later faced language struggles,
with Belgian universities serving as a cultural interface influenced by French and German
professors. Dutch universities adopted elements from the German model but had their own
governance structure.
In Scandinavia, the Prussian model influenced the establishment and modernization of universities,
with growing German influence in academic work and research. German language was prevalent in
academic writing and teaching materials until the early 20th century.
From 1860 to 1910, Russian university enrollment grew from 5,000 to 37,000 despite restrictions.
The surge was driven by the societal value placed on university education as a path to prestigious
government service. Middle and lower classes, as well as women, sought education abroad due to
restrictions. The 1905 Revolution highlighted dissatisfaction with the Tsarist university system's
lack of adaptation. The 1917 Revolution transformed higher education, expanding student numbers
and prioritizing technical education for the working class under Soviet rule.
Switzerland seamlessly adapted the German university model during this period, maintaining
independence among cantonal authorities while incorporating political influences. Close proximity
among university towns encouraged healthy competition, akin to Germany. Switzerland's
recruitment of foreign students and early inclusion of women fostered a diverse academic
environment. Notably, the University of Geneva led innovations, establishing various faculties and
integrating foreign professors. This period also saw significant German influence on Swiss
academia, with a notable influx of professors from Germany. The government's role in appointing
professors underscored the emphasis on research, evident in the modernization of university
facilities. Overall, Switzerland effectively combined the German model with its own initiatives,
ensuring academic excellence and adaptability.